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Remote Sensing to Characterise Vegetation Fuel Moisture Content in the Uk Uplands

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Remote Sensing to Characterise Vegetation Fuel Moisture Content in the Uk Uplands REMOTE SENSING TO CHARACTERISE VEGETATION FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT IN THE UK UPLANDS ABDULBASET HAMED A. BADI Ecosystems and Environment Research Centre School of Science, Engineering & Environment University of Salford Salford, M5 4WT, UK Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, April 2019 Contents Contents .................................................................................................................................. i List of tables .......................................................................................................................... v List of figures ....................................................................................................................... vi Dedication ............................................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. x Declaration............................................................................................................................ xi List of Acronyms ................................................................................................................. xii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research aims and objectives ...................................................................................... 3 1.3 Original contribution of the research ........................................................................... 9 1.4 Structure of research .................................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................ 13 2.1 Introduction. ............................................................................................................... 13 2.2 UK upland vegetation and wildfires .......................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Importance of uplands ......................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Plant communities in upland areas ...................................................................... 16 2.2.3 Wildland fires in context ..................................................................................... 17 2.2.4 Fire risk modelling approaches ........................................................................... 20 2.3 Vegetation fuel properties .......................................................................................... 25 2.3.1 Wildland vegetation fuel properties .................................................................... 25 2.3.2 Importance of fuel moisture content ................................................................... 27 2.3.3 Vegetation water content ..................................................................................... 29 2.3.4 Measured fuel moisture content .......................................................................... 30 2.4 Characterising vegetation with remote sensing ......................................................... 31 2.4.1 Electromagnetic radiation ................................................................................... 32 2.4.2 Atmospheric interactions..................................................................................... 33 2.5 Remote sensing and vegetation biophysical properties ............................................. 35 2.5.1 Spectral properties of leaf and canopy ................................................................ 35 2.5.1.1 Leaf reflectance ............................................................................................ 35 2.5.1.2 Canopy reflectance ....................................................................................... 38 i 2.5.1.3 Soil reflectance ............................................................................................. 41 2.5.2 Vegetation Indices ............................................................................................... 42 2.5.2.1 Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) .............................................. 44 2.5.2.2 Moisture Stress Index (MSI) ........................................................................ 44 2.5.3 Remote sensing of vegetation moisture content .................................................. 45 2.6 Radiative Transfer Models ......................................................................................... 47 2.6.1 Scattering by arbitrary inclined leaves (SAIL) model ........................................ 49 2.6.2 Model of leaf optical properties spectra (PROSPECT) ...................................... 49 2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 50 CHAPTER 3: LABORATORY EXPERIMENT AND RADIATIVE TRANSFER MODELLING .................................................................................................................... 52 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 52 3.2 Laboratory experiments ............................................................................................. 53 3.2.1 Preparation of vegetation samples....................................................................... 53 3.2.2 ASD measurement protocol ................................................................................ 54 3.2.3 Experiment 1: Spectral reflectance with FMC variation ..................................... 56 3.2.3.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 57 3.2.4 Experiment 2: Effects of soil background ........................................................... 60 3.2.4.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 61 3.2.5 Experiment 3: Different ‘solar’ zenith angles ..................................................... 64 3.2.5.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 64 3.3 Radiative Transfer Modelling .................................................................................... 66 3.3.1 Simulating the relationship between FMC and VI .............................................. 68 3.3.1.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 69 3.3.2 Simulating the effects of different soil backgrounds .......................................... 71 3.3.2.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 71 3.3.3 Simulating the effects of different solar zenith angles ........................................ 73 3.3.3.1 Results .......................................................................................................... 73 3.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 75 CHAPTER 4: STUDY AREA, FIELD WORK AND IMAGE DATA ANALYSIS .... 76 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 76 4.2 Study area .................................................................................................................. 76 4.3 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 79 4.4 Vegetation .................................................................................................................. 81 ii 4.5 Wildfires in the Peak District ..................................................................................... 84 4.6 Fieldwork study area .................................................................................................. 88 4.6.1 Sampling design .................................................................................................. 89 4.6.2 Vegetation and soil sampling .............................................................................. 93 4.7 Laboratory work ........................................................................................................ 94 4.7.1 FMC and soil moisture measurements ................................................................ 94 4.8 Remote sensing data sets ........................................................................................... 94 4.8.1 Atmospheric correction ....................................................................................... 95 4.8.1.1 Sen2Cor ........................................................................................................ 96 4.8.1.2 LEDAPS ....................................................................................................... 96 4.8.2 Spectral measurements ........................................................................................ 96 4.8.3 Surface reflectance
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