Female Slum Community Leaders and Media Activity: Beyond the Internet Dirigentas De Campamento Y Actividad Mediática: Más Allá De Internet DR
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AWAD, I. DOMÍNGUEZ, M. y BULNES, A. Female slum community leaders and media activity CUADERNOS.INFO VOLº 33 ISSN 0719-3661 Versión electrónica: ISSN 0719-367x http://www.cuadernos.info DOI: 10.7764/cdi.33.534 Received: 09-06-2013 / Accepted: 11-19-2013 Female slum community leaders and media activity: Beyond the Internet Dirigentas de campamento y actividad mediática: más allá de Internet DR. ISABEL AWAD, Universidad Erasmus de Rotterdam, Holanda ([email protected]) MARÍA DOMÍNGUEZ, Universidad Erasmus de Rotterdam, Holanda ([email protected]) ANGÉLICA BULNES, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Chile ([email protected]) ABSTRACT RESUMEN Discussions about the active character of contem- El debate en torno al carácter activo de las audiencias porary audiences tend to be centered on new com- contemporáneas tiende a centrarse en las nuevas munication technologies and on the possibilities tecnologías de comunicación y en las posibilidades of content production offered by these technolo- de producción de contenido que ellas ofrecen. Este gies. This article, in contrast, proposes that we pay artículo propone, en cambio, atender al carácter attention to the political character of certain media político de ciertas actividades mediáticas y a factores activities and to non-technological factors that influ- no-tecnológicos. Específicamente, identificamos ence the changing relation between audiences and la llamada cultura promocional como un impulso media. Specifically, we focus on promotional cul- importante para influir —y no directamente ture as an important drive for activities aimed at producir— los contenidos en los medios. Ilustramos influencing—and not directly producing— media este enfoque a través de un caso de estudio sobre content. This approach is illustrated through a case la relación entre dirigentas de campamentos y los study about the relationship between female slum medios de comunicación en Chile. Estas mujeres community leaders and the media in Chile. These interactúan con los medios tradicionales, no digitales, women interact largely with traditional rather than motivadas por la necesidad de reivindicar su imagen digital media, motivated by the need to challenge y promocionar sus demandas. Argumentamos que el the image of them proposed by those media, and estudio de las actividades de las audiencias en una promote their demands. We argue that the study of sociedad neoliberal como la chilena debe considerar audience participation in a neoliberal society like que las estrategias promocionales no son el privilegio Chile must recognize promotional strategies as not de ciertos grupos sociales, sino que están presentes de exclusive of certain social groups, but as increas- un modo cada vez más generalizado en la sociedad. ingly widespread throughout society. Keywords: Active audiences; participation; promotion- Palabras clave: audiencias activas, participación, promo- alism; poverty; neoliberalism, news, Chile. cionalismo, pobreza, neoliberalismo, noticias, Chile. •How to cite this article: Awad,CUADERNOS.INFO I. Domínguez, VOLº M. y33 Bulnes, / DECEMBER A. (2013). 2013 Dirigentas / ISSN 0719-3661 de campamento / E-VERSIÓN: y actividad WWW.CUADERNOS.INFO mediática: más / ISSNallá de0719-367X internet. Cuadernos.info, 33, 29-42. DOI: 10.7764/cdi.33.534 29 AWAD, I. DOMÍNGUEZ, M. y BULNES, A. Female slum community leaders and media activity INTRODUCTION Discussions about audiences’ active character ence audiences’ levels and types of media activities. have (re)acquired a central role in communication The case study presented in the second part of studies. Much of the contemporary literature on this the paper illustrates our theoretical discussion and subject acknowledges that there has been at least demonstrates its importance for understanding the some degree of audience activity throughout his- relationship between citizens and the media now- tory. With few exceptions, however, this literature adays. We examined the relationship between a describes new technologies –particularly Web 2.0– group of slum community leaders and the media as the key to understand the unprecedented increase in Chile. By focusing on the media activities of seg- in audiences’ participation in recent years. The call ments of the population that are particularly poor to this special issue of Cuadernos.info reflects this –not only economically, but also in terms of access view. It argues that Web 2.0 has generated a radi- to new technologies–, we observe motivations and cal change in audiences, “from passive to active.” ways to interact with the media different from those Activity, in this context, refers to practices that defy commonly discussed in the literature. Furthermore, a traditionally hierarchical model of media produc- given the neoliberal character of Chilean society tion, in which messages flow unidirectionally –from (Harvey, 2005; Posner, 2008; Taylor, 2006) and top to down, from media to audiences. Audiences the close relationship between neoliberalism and have become more active in the sense that “they not promotional culture (Aronczyk & Powers, 2010; only receive information, but at the same time pro- Davis, 2013), Chile provides an ideal context for duce it and, in some cases, constitute themselves understanding the influence of promotionalism in as a communication medium,” stated the call for audiences’ media activities. this special issue. This paper responds to this call and questions whether new technologies are necessary and suffi- THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: AUDIENCES, cient to understand the new relationships between PARTICIPATION, AND POWER audiences and the media. We argue that analyzing The emergence of the so-called Web 2.0 is com- media audiences’ activities exclusively in relation- monly seen as the fundamental factor in the trans- ship to Web 2.0 is not wrong, but it is an incom- formation of audiences’ behavior (e.g. Bruns, 2007; plete effort. It ignores other important socio-cultural Deuze, 2006a; Uricchio, 2004). New technologies are factors, which also contribute to the multiplicity of arguably restructuring our socio-cultural paradigms, relationships that currently exist between citizens from education and political participation (Bruns, and the media. Specifically, our analysis considers 2007) to the dynamics of production and consump- how the activities of contemporary audiences are tion (Deuze, 2006a; Jenkins Deuze, 2008; Organi- being affected by promotionalism or promotional sation for Economic Co-operation and Development culture (Aronczyk & Powers, 2010; Corner, 2007; [OECD], 2006). The interactive potential of 2.0 plat- Davis, 2013; Wernick, 1991). We argue that the forms is seen as key to this phenomenon (O’Reilly, need for individuals to control their (personal or 2005; Harrison & Barthel, 2009). By eliminating, or group) image in order to promote their interests at least attenuating, the distinction between produc- stimulates an increasing variety and intensity of ers and consumers, interactivity arguably leads to a media activities. hybrid type of user: The prosumer or produser (Bruns, The first part of the paper reviews the litera- 2007). This is a subject who is particularly active in ture on the intensification of audiences’ activities. relation to the media (Bruns, 2007), who is not satis- It explains that the literature on this topic focuses fied with simply receiving content, but seeks to meet almost exclusively on the content generation pos- his or her own needs to inform, entertain, and create sibilities provided by new technologies. Thus, our (Bowman & Willis, 2003). discussion also makes reference to other research With respect to journalism, this argument is asso- areas –specifically related to the media use of protest ciated with increasingly flexible media structures and social movements– to explore alternative ways that can accommodate users’ contributions (Bow- of media interaction and other factors that may influ- man & Willis, 2003; Bruns, 2007; Deuze, Bruns & CUADERNOS.INFO VOLº 33 / DECEMBER 2013 / ISSN 0719-3661 / E-VERSIÓN: WWW.CUADERNOS.INFO / ISSN 0719-367X 30 AWAD, I. DOMÍNGUEZ, M. y BULNES, A. Female slum community leaders and media activity Neuberger, 2007; OECD, 2007). Progressive changes (Cover, 2006; Griffen-Foley, 2004; Rakow, 1999). in design allow the media to receive, publish and, in We must also consider the influence of personal many cases, edit articles, reviews, links and content characteristics and social position, something well produced by audience members (Bowman & Willis, documented in the literature (Fish, 1980; Radway, 2003; 2005; Deuze et al., 2007; Domingo et al., 2008; 1991; Steiner, 1988), as well as the socio-political Sambrook, 2005). Additionally, new technologies context in which the interactions between citizens offer users much greater potential to generate alter- and the media occur. native information platforms (Atton, 2002; Bowman Apart from the ubiquity of digital technologies, Willis, 2003; Deuze, 2006b). This means that audi- there are other factors that define the current con- ences’ activities in relation to the news translate into text. Particularly relevant for our discussion is pro- the creation of original content published in profes- motionalism (Cottle, 2003), which is associated with sional or alternative media platforms. the commodification of the public sphere (Fenton, In our view, this narrative about the transforma- 2008). This phenomenon refers to the progressive tion of audiences in the era of digital technologies