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CHRONICLE MINERAL RESOURCES IAS ACADEMY A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

A naturally occurring substance that has a igneous processes, (2) metamorphic processes, definite chemical composition is a mineral. (3) sedimentary processes, and (4) weathering Minerals are not evenly distributed over space. and groundwater processes. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations. Minerals are formed in different 1. Igneous processes: types of geological environments, under varying Many mineral resources are formed by conditions. They are created by natural processes magmatic processes. Prime examples are the without any human interference. exotic ultramafic volcanic rocks that host Mineral resources range from the soils that diamonds. Diamond crystals were probably support agriculture to metals such as silicon, ripped from diamond-bearing wall rocks by which is used in high-technology applications magma rising through the deep. Laboratory such as computers. Though technically not experiments show that diamond is stable at minerals, oil, natural gas, coal, and some other depths of at least 150 to 200 km. At low pressure, sources of energy are also included as mineral the stable form of carbon is the soft mineral resources because they are extracted from Earth. graphite, but the reaction of diamond to form Mining worldwide produces about $500 billion graphite proceeds very slowly at the low worth of metallic ore each year; another $700 temperatures found at Earth’s surface. Besides billion of energy minerals are produced. its use as a gem, diamonds have found industrial Types of Minerals uses as abrasives and as strong coatings. Diamond deposits are limited to regions There are over three thousand different underlain by Precambrian crust. The richest minerals. On the basis of composition, minerals deposits are found in South Africa and Australia. are classified mainly as metallic andONICLE non-metallic ONICLEONICLEONICLEConcentrations of other ores result, when minerals. minerals forming in magma have different Metallic Minerals: The metallic minerals temperatures of crystallization and density. contain metal in raw form. Metals are hard CADEMYSome ores are formed when molten rock cools substances that conduct heat and electricity and CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY to form igneous rock. This process forms building have a characteristic luster or shine. Iron ore, stone such as granite, a variety of gemstones, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples. sulfur ore, and metallic ores, which involve dense Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous.A AAA chromium or platinum minerals that sink to the Ferrous Minerals: Ferrous minerals like iron bottom of liquid magma. ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. A Further during fractional crystallization, non ferrousCHRCHRCHR mineral does not contain iron but CHR water and elements that do not enter the minerals may contain some other metal such as gold, separated from the magma by crystallization will silver, copper or lead. end up as the last residue of the original magma. Non-Metallic Minerals: The non-metallic This residue is rich in silica and water along with minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica elements like the Rare Earth Elements (many of and gypsum are examples of such minerals. The which are important for making phosphors in mineral fuels like coal and petroleum are also color television picture tubes), Lithium, non-metallicIAS IASIASminerals. Tantalum, Niobium, Boron, Beryllium, Gold, and Uranium. This residue is often injected into Processes that form mineral deposits fractures surrounding the igneous intrusion and The origin of most ore deposits is related to crystallizes as a rock called a pegmatite that fundamental geologic processes. These are: (1) characteristically consists of large crystals.

Chronicle IAS Academy [1] 2. Metamorphic processes: • Placer Ore Deposits- substances are concentrated by flowing surface waters Metamorphism occurs deep in the earth either in streams or along coastlines. under very high temperature and pressure and produces several building stones, including The velocity of flowing water determines marble and slate, as well as some nonmetallic whether minerals are carried in suspension or ore, including asbestos, talc, and graphite. deposited. When the velocity of the water slows, Metamorphism changes the texture and large minerals or minerals with a higher density mineralogy of rocks and in the process can form are deposited. Heavy minerals like gold, important new mineral resources. diamond, and magnetite of the same size as a low density mineral like quartz will be deposited Further Hot hydrothermal fluids circulating at a higher velocity than the quartz, thus the through the oceanic crust cause seafloor heavy minerals will be concentrated in areas metamorphism. These fluids leach metals (such where water current velocity is low. Mineral as manganese, iron, copper, zinc, lead) and deposits formed in this way are called placer sulfur from the crust and transport these deposits. They occur in any area where current elements to hot spring vents on the ocean floor. velocity is low, such as in point bar deposits, Minerals precipitate when the hydrothermal between ripple marks, behind submerged bars, fluids mix with seawater and cool. Mounds of or in holes on the bottom of a stream. sulfide ores collect on the seafloor where the hot waters are released 4. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

3. Sedimentary Processes: Hydrothermal is the most common ore- forming process. It involves hot, salty water that Sedimentary processes occur in rivers that dissolves metallic elements from a large area and concentrate sand and gravel (used in then precipitates ore minerals in a smaller area, construction), as well as dense gold particles and commonly along rock fractures and faults. diamonds that weathered away from bedrock. Molten rock commonly provides the heat and These gold and diamond ore bodies are called the water is from groundwater, the ocean, or placer deposits. Other sedimentary ore deposits the magma itself. The ore minerals usually include the deep ocean floor, which contains contain sulfide (S2-) bonded to metals such as manganese and cobalt ore deposits and ONICLEONICLEONICLEcopper, lead, zinc, mercury, and silver. Actively evaporated lakes or seawater, which produce forming hydrothermal ore deposits occur at halite and a variety of other salts. undersea mountain ranges, called oceanic ridges, Examples: CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYwhere new ocean crust is produced. Here, • Evaporite Deposits-Evaporation of lake mineral-rich waters up to 350°C sometimes water or sea water results in the loss of discharge from cracks in the crust and precipitate water and thus concentrates dissolved a variety of metallic sulfide minerals that make AAAthe water appear black; they are called black substances in the remaining water. AWhen the water becomes saturated in such smokers dissolved substance they precipitate from Hydrothermal deposits are produced when theCHR water. Deposits of halite (table salt), CHRCHRCHR groundwater circulates to depth and heats up gypsum (used in plaster and wall board), either by coming near a hot igneous body at borax (used in soap), and sylvite (potassium depth or by circulating to great depth along the chloride, from which potassium is extracted geothermal gradient. Such hot water can dissolve to use in fertilizers) result from this process. valuable substances throughout a large volume • Iron Formations- These deposits are of iron of rock. As the hot water moves into cooler areas rich chert and a number of other iron of the crust, the dissolved substances are bearing mineralsIASIASIAS that were deposited in precipitated from the hot water solution. If the basins within continental crust during the cooling takes place rapidly, such as might occur Proterozoic (2 billion years or older). They in open fractures or upon reaching a body of appear to be evaporite type deposits, but if cool surface water, then precipitation will take so, the composition of sea water must have place over a limited area, resulting in a been drastically different than it is today. concentration of the substance attaining a higher

[2] Chronicle IAS Academy value than was originally present in the rocks areas with ore deposits. The iron content is through which the water passed. anything between 35 and 50 per cent. 5. Residual Ore Deposits In Andhra Pradesh, the Chityal, Dasturabad, Kalleda, Rabanpalli and During chemical weathering and original Amberpeta deposits and those south of the body of rock is greatly reduced in volume by the coalfields at Singreni have an iron content process of leaching, which removes ions from ranging from 35 to 45 per cent. Only 20 to 28 the original rock. Elements that are not leached per cent of iron is found in the Gopalpur, Utla, form the rock thus occur in higher concentration Tatrariyepalli, Kottagudem and Cheruvapuram in the residual rock. The most important ore of deposits. Aluminum, bauxite, forms in tropical climates where high temperatures and high water In Kerala, magnetite ore reserves are mostly throughput during chemical weathering in the Kozhikode district and in Cherupa, produces highly leached lateritic soils rich in both Eliyettimala, Nauminda, Naduvallur and iron and aluminum. Most bauxite deposits are Allampara. relatively young because they form near the Haemetite with about 65 per cent iron is surface of the Earth and are easily removed by hard, bumpy, compact and reddish in colour. It erosion acting over long periods of time. occurs in sedimentary rocks in crystalline or Mineral Survey powdery forms. The Lake Superior areas in USA, Qebec in Canada, Brazil, Russia, Liberia, China The important minerals of the world and and Spain have the ore. their major producers along with 's position are surveyed here. Haemetite ores contribute to more than three- fourths of India's total production of iron ores. IRON ORE : They are found in the Cuddapah and Dharwar One of the most widely distributed elements systems of the peninsular Deccan. They mostly of the earth's crust, iron rarely occurs in free state. occur as laminated hematite, micaceous haematite, hematite breecia and haematite The finest ore is magnetite with nearly 70 per quartz schist. cent iron content. These ore deposits are in igneous or metamorphic rocks. The banded type In and Orissa, the two important is considered to be the most importantONICLEONICLEONICLE due to belts are the Gurumahisani - Badampahar belt extensive occurrence, easy amenability to and the Barajamda group. In the former the iron benefication by crushing and magnetic ore occurs in metamorphosed banded iron separation and agglomeration. Its colour ranges CADEMYCADEMYformations in Mayurbhanj district in which the from dark brown to black. Sweden, Russia and CADEMYCADEMY iron content is low, i.e., 58 to 60 per cent, and of Liberia have magnetite deposits. In India, siliceous nature. The latter covers parts of deposits occur in Dharwar and Cuddapah Singhbhum district in Jharkhand and the systems in the peninsula, in KarnatakaAAA adjoining districts of Keonjhar and Sundergarh (Kudremukh), Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu in Orissa. This group contains the largest ore and Kerala. reserves in the country. The massive ores where TheCHRCHRCHR important iron ore deposits in Karnataka the iron content ranges from 66 to 70 per cent include the Kudremukh deposits where the occur on top of hill ranges. The shaly ore may be percentage of iron ore varies from 30 to 40. Other rich or as low as 50 per cent or less in iron. Blue deposits in the state are Hariyur, Kunigal, dust ore which is an extremely friable and Siddarhali, Shankaraguddu, Ubrani, Maddur- micaceous haematite powder containing about Malvalli, and Sargur in the Archi, Gangamula 68 per cent of iron is formed by leaching process. and Gangrikal hill ranges. There also occurs lateritic ore. The important mining centres of Orissa and Jharkhand are The importantIASIASIAS deposits in Tamil Nadu are Barbil, Gua, Bonai, Joda, Kiriburu, Suleipat, at Chettari, Belukkurrichi, Namagiri, Pan- Gorumahisani, Noamundi, Barajamda, etc. chalais, Sittinglinge, Kanjamalai, Tirthamalai, and Mahadev hills in the Salem district, Kelur, In Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh, the Malnad and Devala and Nilgiri district are also areas where iron ores are common include the

Chronicle IAS Academy [3] Bailadilla, Raughat and Aridongri group in Limonite (bog iron) is a brown ore occurring Bastar district; Dalli-Rajhara group in the Durg in sedimentary formations. Its iron content is less district; and the deposits in Jabalpur district. than 50 per cent and it has many impurities. In Maharashtra the ore deposits are found It occurs in Alabama, USA. Siderite is a in the Chandrapura district. Here the important carbonate of iron and is found near coal fields. deposits are located in Lohara, Pipalgaon, Asola, It is also a residual ore and has an iron content Dewalgaon and Surajgarh. The Chandrapura of 20 to 30 per cent. Deposits of the Jurassic Age deposits have iron content between 55 to 60 per are found in Lincolnshire, England, in France cent. Even in Bailadilla and Durg districts, the and Luxembourg. iron content ranges from 60 to 65 per cent. These ores are found in India in Garhwal Babubudan hills in Chikmaglur district, (Uttaranchal) and Mirzapur district (Uttar Sandur, Bellary and Hospet districts as well as Pradesh) and the Kangra Valley (Himachal Shimoga and Chitradurg districts in Karnataka Pradesh). are important producers of iron ores. The canoe- shaped Sandur ranges of the Bellary Hospet area The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in contain large reserves of iron ore. The important India are about 10,052 million tonnes of deposits of this area are NEB range, Ramandurg, haematite and 3,408 million tonnes of magnetite. Abbalaguni, Rajpura, Donamalai, Devadri, The resources of very high grade ore are limited Kumaraswamy, Kammadheruvid and Belgal. and are restricted in Bailadila sector of The iron content of the ores in the area is around Chhattisgarh and to a lesser extent in Bellary- 64 per cent. Hospet area of Karnata and Barajamda sector in Jharkhand and Orissa. Indian ore has low In Goa, the deposits are mostly blue dust sulphur content which never goes above 0.6 per with 60 per cent of iron. These ores are easily cent. amenable to pelletization, and include both lumpy and fine varieties. In Goa the richer and MANGANESE ORE larger deposits are confined to north Goa (between Adualpale and Usgaon). The In terms of composition of the important deposits which contain more than 10 manganiferrous ores with regard to the million tonnes of reserves are Bicholim-SirigaoONICLEONICLEONICLEproportion of manganese to iron, It is customary deposits, Gudnem-Dignem-Surle deposits, to use the term manganese ore for those Velgnem-Pale deposits and Arwalem deposits. containing over 40 per cent of manganese. The In Ratnagiri district, the areas where iron ores most common minerals are braunite, pyrolusite, are mostly prevalent include Vengurla, Guldure CADEMY CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYpsilomelane and manganite. The ore contains and Aroes areas. The percentage of iron content impurities like silica, lime, alumina, magnesia varies from 55 to 58. AAAand phosphorus. In Andhra Pradesh the iron ore producingA Manganese is used as a ferro alloy; it removes areas are scattered through Anantpur, gases and acts as a cleanser in the manufacture Khamman, Krishna, Kurnool, Cuddapah and of steel. Manganese is also used as a decoloriser NelloreCHRCHRCHR districts where the main producing in glass, and in the manufacture of bleaching centres are Jaggayapeta, Ramallakota, Veldurti, powder and electric batteries. Nayudupetta and Bayyaram. The iron content varies from 55 to 66 per cent. Georgia has huge deposits of maganese ore. In Bhilwara district of Rajasthan, the ore India is the third largest producer of deposits are in Moriza and in the Udaipur manganese ore in the world. The country's most district, in Nathrakipal. The iron content varies important ore deposits occur in the form of from 55 to 62IAS IASIASper cent. sedimentary stratified metamorphic deposits in the Dharwar system. The other areas where minor deposits of iron ore are prevalent include Assam, , In India, extensive and rich manganese the Himalayan region, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya deposits occur in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Pradesh, Punjab, and Jammu and Kashmir. Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and

[4] Chronicle IAS Academy Karnataka. Indian manganese deposits display manganese ore is mined in Ramdongri, some distinct geological formations, which are: Kodergaon, Gumgaon, Satak, Kandia, Mansar, (a) deposits associated with the khondalite Lohardongri, Morgaon, Manigaon, Gondadob, rocks (garnet, sillimanite, gneisses) found Parsoda, Baldongri, Bhandarkhori. In Bhandara in the Srikakulam district of Andhra district, the main mining areas are Kusumbah, Pradesh and in the Kalahandi and Koraput Pachala-Chilka, Bujrum, Asolpem, Sangi Kargi districts in Orissa; and Sitasaongi. This ore occur in the South Ratnagiri district also. (b) deposits associated with the iron ore bearing rocks (schists) found in Karnataka state in The deposits are associated with khondalite the Sandur hills, as the Bisgold-Yellapur rocks in Srikakulam district where Kodur deposits in North Kanara, and in the Devada, Sonpuram, Maudipilli, Batuva, Chitradurg and Shimoga belt, and the Garividi, Sivrem and Garbhan are chief centres. Supa-Dandeli area of North Kanara; Small deposits also occur at Sankarapolem and (c) deposits associated with limestone and Kothavalasa in Visakapatnam. Mineral content dolomite which occur in the Sausar- is about 25 to 30 per cent. Phosphorus is high Manganese-Marble province of Madhya and iron content is also fairly high. Pradesh, Jharkhand and Gangpur (Orissa), Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, and Panch In Jharkhand and Orissa, the deposits are Mahal and Vadodara districts of Gujarat, associated with Precambrian iron ore and also The deposits of the group are generally with quartzites, garnets and schists. The mineral small and often have high phosphorus as content varies from 40 to 55 per cent. In in the case of ores from Srikakulam districts. Jharkhand, the important producing areas are Manganiferous shales and banded in Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, , Gaya and manganiferous rocks with friable layers of Monghyr districts. The important areas in quartz are found associated with iron ore Singhbhum district are Birmitrapur, Kalenda group of rocks in Karnataka and Goa - and near Chaibasa, Mirgitnaur, Basadera and Ratnagiri. In Jharkhand and Orissa the ore Pahadpur and other localities where ore of low is low in phosphorous and high in iron. grade is mined. In Orissa, the important The important areas in Madhya Pradesh are producers are Bhutura, patmuda, Naktipalli and Balaghat, Chindwara, Jabalpur,ONICLE and Jhabhua Jamunkria in Sundergarh district, Nishikhal in ONICLEONICLEONICLEKalahandi district, Baijolla and Kutinga in districts. The deposits occurONICLE in a westerly direction for about 200 km for a width of 25 km. Koraput district, Jamda, Koira, Bambari, Braunite, pyrolusite and psilomelane are the Bhadrasabi and Dhubna in Keonjhar district. important minerals. The ore is hard, lumpy and CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYDeposits are also found in Dhenkanal, Ganjam, compact in nature. The manganese content is Cuttack and Mayurbhanj districts. about 46 per cent. There is high silica content but very low amount of phosphorus. This belt is In Gujarat, the mineral content is around 45 the major producer of ferro-manganeseAAA grade per cent. Inferior quality of deposits also occur ore in India. In Balaghat, the principal mining at many places in important producers are in areas are Katgaria, Langur, Varwali, Netra, the district of Panchmahal near Jatvad, Tirodi,CHRCHRCHR Batjari, Salwa, Jani, Sukali, Mirangpur, Shivrajpur, Dohad, Bhat and Bamankua and in Ukwa, Kochawahi and Chikpara. In Vadodara district near Pani and between Chindwara district, the areas are in Godawari Khandi and Unadharia. and Wardha river valleys at Butkum, Goti, Sitapur, Kachidhana and Machiwana. In In Karnataka manganese is raised in Sandur, Jhabua, deposits occur in Thandala tehsil at North Kanara, Tumkur and Shimoga district Rampura, Mandhi, Tumdia-Bandiwar and which are associated with the Dharwar rocks. Amlaimal. Small deposits occur in Jabalpur, The phosphorus and silica content is low, but Dewas, SehoreIASIASIAS and Nimar districts. iron is high (5 to 19 per cent) and the mineral content varies from 30 to 50 per cent. In Maharashtra, the manganese ore is of low grade and is mainly mined in Nagpur district Other areas where minor deposits are and Bhandara district. In Nagpur district, the prevalent include Goa and Rajasthan.

Chronicle IAS Academy [5] CHROMITE: located in the Sukinda ultrabasic belt of Cuttack, Dhenkanal district and in the Keonjhar district Chromite is the only ore mineral of chromium of the state. The belt extends over a distance of and is an important alloying element in the about 20 km and the width of the belt is about 2 manufacture of steel. The world's leading km. The ore bodies are venticular in shape and producer is South Africa Zimbabwe, Russia and occur as lenses and patches within the laterised Kazakhstan are other producers. ultrabasic rocks. The types of ores found to occur In India the chromite deposits occur as the are massive ores, banded ores, disseminated ores, following Precambrian formations of peninsular ferruginous lateritic ores, powdery or friable ores, India. conglomeratic ores and placer ores. (a) Deposits associated with the Dharwar In Jharkhand chromite is found is metamorphic rocks in Karnataka and Singhbhum district in the hills of Rorburu, Maharashtra. Kiriburu, Kittaburu and Chittangburu around (b) Deposits associated with the Jojohatu area. The mineral content is 53 per cent on an average. metamorphic rocks of iron ore in Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa. In Tamil Nadu, chromite occurs in 1. Fracture lineament emplacements in gneissic Sittampundi in Salem district. Bands of chromite terrain in Tamil Nadu. represent a lineament intrustion in the genetic genesis. The mineral content is low it about 21 (d) Younger deposits of the Himalayan- per cent. Arakan belt. TUNGSTEN: (e) Deposits of Andhra and those at Bembat and Tashgaon (Ladakh), near Tungsten is a heavy metal used in steel alloys, Moreah (Manipur), near Kokapu and its chief alloys, is chief ore is wolfram. It is found Vartha in Sabarkanta district (Gujarat) in large amounts in China. USA, Russia, Portugal and at Chakargaon (Andamans). Australia and South Africa also have the metal. In Karnataka, good grade of chromite occurs NICKEL: in Hassan district in an area of 89 sq km. The The main ore is pentlaudite, a complex main chromite bearing belt is the Nuggchalli belt mixture of nickel, iron and sulphur. Nickel is also which extends over a distance ONICLEofONICLEONICLE 125 km and ONICLEoften found in association with copper. It is used carries the important deposits of Byrapur, for plating purposes as it does not rust. It is also Chikonhalli, Pensamudra, Bhaktarahalli, less magnetic than iron, so it can be used in metal Jambur and Tagadur. In the Byrapur area, CADEMYparts located near compasses. Canada produces chrome is traced up to 180 m length with a width CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY the largest amount of the world's nickel. Russia of 9 m. In Mysore district minor bodies of and Australia have large resources. chromite occur in Kadkola, Talur, Gorur, Dodkanya, Sindhuvalli and Dodkattur areas.AAA In COBALT: Sindhuvalli area, the mineral content ranges A hard blue metal with properties similar to from 48 to 56 pe cent. Chitradurg, Shimoga and iron, cobalt is used in making cobalt steel and in KadurCHR CHRCHRalso contain few deposits of chromite. radio-therapy. More than half of the world Low gradeCHR chromite is also found near Tarikere production comes from Zaire. Zambia, Morocco, in Chikmaglur district is also found near Tarikere Canada and Finland also produce cobalt. in Chikmaglur district and near Krishnarajpat VANADIUM: and Kabbal in Mandhya district. The ores are carnotite, desdoisite, rescoelite In Maharashtra chromite occurs around and patronite. It helps to remove non-metallic Kankauli and Wagda areas in Ratnagiri district. impurities form steel; it is used in paints and dyes. The mineral content is 31 to 38 per cent. In Major producers are South Africa, Russia and Bhandara district,IASIASIAS it is found around Taka, USA. Balgatta and Pauni with a mineral content of 31 to 38 per cent. MOLYBDENUM: Orissa is considered as the largest chromite Molybdenite and wulfenite are the main ores deposit in the country. The deposits are mainly occurring in quartz veins in granitic rocks. It is

[6] Chronicle IAS Academy used in making alloy steel and in valves, electric In Andhra Pradesh the Ramgiri field of lamps, and permanent magnets, among other Anantapur district is the main source of gold. things. Major producers are USA, Canada, Other areas are Chittoor, East Godavari, Kurnool Russia and Chile. and Warangal districts. In Ramgiri field, the GOLD: mineralisation extends for 19 km from north to south from Kankapuram to Jibutil. Gold may occur in alluvial or in placer SILVER: deposits, as in California and Alaska. Or it may occur as reefs or lodes underground, as in South The ore minerals are stephanite, agentite, Africa. The greatest producer is South Africa, proustite and pyrargyrite. Silver is found in the with major mines in the Witwatersrand, galena ores that may have up to one per cent of Odendaalrus and Lydenburg. Canada, Japan, this metallic mineral. Mexico is the chief the USA, Zimbabwe and Ghana also produce producer of silver; other producers are Russia, gold. Canada, peru and Australia. In India, the vein gold deposits are found in In India, the lead-zinc ores of Zawar in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan yield silver. Silver is derived as a by- Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu while alluvial product in the Karnataka gold fields. The lead gold is mainly found in Bihar, Assam, Uttar ores in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Cuddapah, Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Punjab and Kurnool districts), Jharkhand (Santhal Parganas, Meghalaya. Singhbhum), Bihar (Bhagalpur), Gujarat The Kolar gold field has been the principal (Vadodara district), Karnataka (the district of source of gold production in India since 1871 Bellary), Uttaranchal (Almora district), when mining first started. It has four productive Karnataka (the district of Bellary), Uttaranchal mines—Nandydroog, Champion Reef, Mysore (Almora district) and Jammu and Kashmir and Ooregaum. The Champion Reef mine is the (Baramula district) are also expected to yield deepest mine in the world. The Dharwar schists some silver. on which the Kolar gold fields are situated run PLATINUM: in a north-south direction for 80 km. However, the quartz veins bearing gold are confined to only Platinum is a rare metal, which is always a 6-7 km section near Marikuppan. The found with other rare metals allied to the mineralising solutions responsibleONICLEONICLEONICLE for the platinum group such as osmium (the heaviest development of the auriferous veins of South metal), palladium (of great medical importance), India were probably derived from the magma iridium (used in fountain pen nibs) and rhodium which gave rise to champion genesses. The Kolar (used for plating silver to avoid tarnishing). field mined by the Bharat Gold Mines Limited CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYCanada and South Africa lead in the production has always had the highest output in India, but of platinum and its allied metals, followed by it now faces closure. Russia. In the Raichur district, the auriferousAAA veins COPPER: occur within the schistose rocks of Dharwarian age. There are six auriferous quartz reefs of Copper is the most important non-ferrous which the Oakley reef is the main producer. It is metal and was the earliest metal used by man. CHR In nature, copper occurs in pure form but mostly workedCHRCHRCHR by Hutti gold Mines Company of Karnataka state. According to the Geological as sulphides, oxides and carbonates. To be Survey of India, the reserves in both these fields economically exploitable, copper ores should are estimated at about 4.5 million tonnes with a contain at least 2.5 per cent of copper. The total gold content of about 45,000 kg. In addition world's largest producers are the USA, Russia, ore reserves of about 60,000 tonnes with 8.5 gm Chile, Zambia, Canada and Zaire. per tonne have been indicated in Budini area. India is deficient in copper ores and thus New fieldsIASIASIAS have been found at Kempinkote depends to a large extent on imports. In India, (Hassan district), Honnali (Shimoga district), copper ores occur as sulphides. They occur both Siddarahalli (Chikmaglur district), Bellara in ancient crystalline and younger rock (Chitradurg district) and Munglur (Gulbarga formations including the Cuddapahs, Bijawars district). and Aravallis.

Chronicle IAS Academy [7] Copper is mined at the Khetri complex in and metamorphic rocks. Nearly 80 per cent of Rajasthan, in which state important deposits are the world's supplies come from alluvial deposits. found in Kho-Dhariba area. Jharkhand Malaysia is the world's leading producer and (Singhbhum) and Andhra Pradesh exporter of tin. Other producers are China, (Agnigundala) have some deposits. Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Zaire, Bolivia and Australia. In Andhra Pradesh, the important copper belt lies in Agnigundala in the Guntur district. LEAD AND ZINC: The mineral here is associated with quartzites and dolomites interbanded with phyllites and The two metals, lead and zinc, rarely occur shales. The principal deposits are around in native state. They generally occur in Bondalamottu, Nallankonda and Dhukonda. combination with other elements. Galena is the Copper ore also occurs in Ganikalava, chief ore of lead while sphalerite or zinc blende Gumankonda and Somalapilli areas (Kurnool is the chief ore of zinc. These sulphide ore district), Garimanipenta (Nellore district) and minerals of lead and zinc are formed due to Zangamraju Varikunta-Chelima areas. contact metasomatism, replacement by hydrothermal solutions. Galena is found in veins In Jharkhand, in the Singhbhum district, a in limestones, calcareous slates and sandstones copper-bearing belt of about 140 km occurs. Here and occasionally in metamorphic rocks or in the copper ore occurs as veins in the country rock association with volcanic rocks, while zinc consisting of micaschists, quartz schists, chlorite blende or sphalerite is found in veins in schists, biotite schists, granite and granite associaiton with galena, chalcopyrites, iron gneisses. The veins are best developed along a pyrites and other sulphide ores. The chief rock zone of overthrust where they form well-defined types associated with the sulphide ores of lead lodes as seen at Rakha mines, Mosabani and and zinc are pyrite, slate, dolomite and quartz. Dhobani. Individual lodes normally consist of one or more veins one inch to two feet thick, the Major producers of lead are the USA, Russia, average being 5 to 7 inches. Australia, Canada, Peru and Bulgaria. Leading producers of zinc are Canada, Russia, Peru, In Rajasthan, the Khetri copper deposit is Australia and the USA. one of the important copper deposits in the country. This belt has richly mineralised sections. The most important of the lead-zinc deposits Important deposits are in the Khi-DharibaONICLEONICLEONICLE area of economic value in India is the Zawar deposit (Alwar district), and the Khetri-Singhana of Udaipur district of Rajasthan. In the Zawar (Jhujhunu district)--specifically at Kolihan and area, the Mochia Magra, Baroi Magra and Mandhan, Berkhara mines and Akhwali mines. Zawar-Mala hills contain most extensive The copper ore bodies occur in phyllites, states CADEMY CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYdeposits. The Zawar mine is located in Mochia and schists of the Ajabgarh series (Delhi system) Magra hills Lead and zinc occur at these places. as irregular stringers, fillings of schistose planes Mineralisations of lead and zinc occur at these and fractures and disseminations in theAAA host places. Mineralisations of lead and thin and rock. The mineralisation in Rajasthan copper belt parallel tabular masses. Galena is generally is epigenetic and seems to have occurred under concentrated in some particular portions of the belt is epigenetic and seems to have occurred deposits but the sphalerite is more or less evenly under CHRCHRmesothermalCHR conditions from post-Delhi CHR distributed. Lead-copper ore deposits occur in (erinpura) granite magma. Agnigundala area of Guntur district of Andhra Other important copper deposits of the Pradesh. There is a lead-zinc-copper belt in country are in Himachal Pradesh—Kangra-Kulu Ambamata Devi area of Gujarat and Rajasthan. valley; Mysore—Chittaldrug, Hassan, Bellary The Sargipalli area in the district of Sundergarh districts; West Bengal—Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri (Orissa) has deposits of these metals. districts; Sikkim—Rangpo and Dickchu deposits BAUXITE: which are foundIASIASIAS to occur in association with metamorphic rocks. The only ore from which aluminium is extracted is called 'bauxite', which is not a TIN: mineral but and aggregate chiefly of gibbsite, The main ore of tin is cassiterite or tinstore boehmite and a little of kaolinite. The largest with about 75 per cent of tin. It occurs in igneous quantities of bauxite are found in the tropical

[8] Chronicle IAS Academy and sub-tropical latitudes. Australia, Jamaica eastern portion of the Nilgiri hills; plateau region and Guinea are the major suppliers. India is fifth of the Palni and Kodaikanal hills in he Madurai in world bauxite resources. district; Shevaroy hills near Yarcand in the Salem district; and in parts of the Kollaimalai hill. Bauxite is associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively as blankets or cappings In Karnataka the principal deposits occur in either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular the Belgaum district near Sidhpahar, Jamboti and India or in certain low level laterites in the inland Betul and in the Magalgad plateau, near area or in coastal tracts of the country. It is a Kasarsoda range of hills, Kalanandigarh area result of the residual weathering process which and the Boknur-Navge ridge. leads to leaching of the silica. In Orissa, bauxite deposits occur in In Jharkhand, extensive deposits occur in Panchpatmalli hills in Koraput. Other deposits Khuria highlands in Ranchi and Palamau are Bahlimali Parbat, Kalkahal, Kutrumali, etc. districts. The important deposits are located at Large deposits are also found in the Eastern Ghat Bagrupahar, Seradang, Pabhrapat Jardapahar, tract in Koraput district. Bauxite reserves have Maidanpat and Manduapat. In the Palamau also been discovered in Gandhamardhan plateau district, the Netrahat plateau is important. Here of Sambalpur and Bolangir districts. the important deposits are located at Jamiropat, Andhra Pradesh, Ranchonghat, Orsapat and Joradumar. In bauxite has been discovered in the Anantgiri plateau. There are In Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh, there 12 such blocks in the area. The Gallikonda area are three important areas: (a) the Amarkantak in Visakhapatnam district has also shown a plateau region comprising Sarguja, Raigarh and reserve. Bilaspur districts; (b) the Maikal range of hills in Jammu and the Bilaspur, Shahdol, Durg Mandla and Other areas of occurrences are in Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. Balaghat districts; (c) the Katni area of Jabalput district. URANIUM:

In Bilaspur district bauxite deposits are The main ores are uranite and pitchblende. located on Phutka Pahar, Laddhi Pahar, A Geiger counter, which measures radioactivity, Mahadeo Pahar and several other hilltops. In is used to locate deposits. Occurrences of Shahdol and Mandla districts bauxite is found uranium ores are rare and localised. in Umergaon, Jamuna Dadar,ONICLE Dadar, Rukti ONICLEONICLEONICLEConcentrations are generally low, so that Dadar and Nanku Dadar areas. Bauxite deposits extraction is both difficult and costly. segregated in the laterite cappings are located in Jashpur in Khuria highlands north of Kurki, Canada, the USA and South Africa are CADEMYCADEMYmajor producers. Kesmanda, Chandra and Rahbon Danwahi. CADEMYCADEMY In Gujarat, important deposits occur in In India, uranium occurs at Pichli near laterite cappings in plateau basalts,AAA lying Abrakipahar in Gaya district (Bihar), near A Sunrgai and Dalbhum area of Singhbhum between the Deccan Traps and the Gaj beds for about 48 km between Gulf of Kutch and the district (Jharkhand). Jaduguda is the only mine Arabian Sea through Bhavnagar, Junagarh worked at present. In Rajasthan, it is found in districtsCHRCHRCHR and around Bhatla, Nandana, Rann, Bisundi area of Ajmer district and Umra near Mewasa, Habardi, Kenedi, Lamba and Virpur. Udaipur. In Andhra Pradesh it occurs in Nellore Occurrences have also been reported in Mandvi, district in Sankara mine. In Karnataka it is found Lakhpat, Nakharana and Bhujr, and Anjar at Yedyur near Bangalore. Uranium has also talukas of Kutch district. been found at Domiasat. In Maharashtra, some of the deposits are MICA: found in plateaus such as Udgiri, Dhangarvadi, The term 'mica' covers a large group of rock- Radhanagri andIASIASIAS Iderganj in Kolahpur district. IAS forming minerals. Natural mica forms hexagonal In Tamil Nadu, bauxite deposits are found crystals of varying size. Owing to its excellent in four areas, namely, Kotagiri and Curzon dielectric strength, low loss power factor and valley areas and near Ootacamund in the insulating properties, mica is one of the

Chronicle IAS Academy [9] indispensable minerals used in electrical and Other places where mica is found are in electronics industries. The main mica minerals Madhya Pradesh, Mimachal Pradesh, Assam are muscovite, biotite, phlogopite. Mica minerals and West Bengal. occur in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic DIAMOND: rocks formed under different geological conditions. While muscovite occurs in Diamond is not a metal, but a precious stone. pegmatites of acidic nature, phlogopite mica is Diamonds occur as scattered crystals in an restricted to basic pegmatite. Commercial biotite igneous rock called kimberlite which forms is found to occur mostly in biotite schists. India pipes, dykes or volcanic plugs deep is the most important mica producing country underground. Diamonds also come from alluvial in the world and it supplies 80 per cent of the sources, e.g. in Brazil or Zaire. Zaire is the leading world requirements of block mica. The producer (by quantity) but mostly produces bort. occurrence of muscovite mica is associated with Botswana and South Africa are leading the rocks of the Archaean age. It occurs in the gemstone producers. The world's greatest Koderma mica belt in Jharkhand, the Nellore diamond cutting centres are Antwerp, mica belt in Andhra Pradesh, and the Rajastan Amsterdam and The Hague. mica belt. In India, the main diamond bearing areas are The Koderma mica belt stretches from the Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh, Raipur in Gaya district through Hazaribagh and Monghyr Chhattisgarh, Munimadugu-Banganapalle to the Bhagalpur district. In this mica belt, the conglomerate in Kurnool district, Wajrakarur deposits of mica are associated with the kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and the pegmatite veins which traverse through the gravels of Krishna river basic in Andhra Pradesh. schistose and gneissose country rocks. The blocks of muscovite which occur within the Bihar mica Reserves have been estimated only in Panna belt are generally reddish in colour and are belt and Krishna gravels. therefore known as 'Ruby mica'. ASBESTOS:

The Nellore mica belt stretches between Its main ore is chryoslite. France and Russia Gudur and Sangam. The country rocks are are major producers. Archaean mica schist and hornblende schist which are intruded by pegmatiteONICLEONICLEONICLE veins. Here SULPHUR: muscovites are light green in colour. Gases emitted from volcanoes are highly Nearly 20 per cent of the Indian production sulphuruous and sulphur is thus deposited in comes from the Rajasthan belt. Here the mica- CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYvolcanic regions. It is also obtained from iron bearing pegmatites are intrusive mainly into pyrites (iron sulphide). Sulphur comes mainly rocks of the gneissic complex and the Aravalli from Poland, the USA and Mexico. schists. AAASALT: In Karnataka the deposits occur mainly in Halite or sodium chloride is common salt. It Mysore and Hassan districts, at Tagdur, occurs as a sedimentary rock as a result of Vadesamudra, Undavadi and Mundoor. The CHRCHRCHR evaporation of sea-water or lakes in the past. qualityCHR of the mica is poor. Major producers of rock salt are USA and China. In Tamil Nadu few occurrences that have In India three-fourths of salt production been re-corded are in Tirunelveli district near comes from the sea. Mithapur, Chharvada, Kovilpatti in Coimbatore district (in Jamnagar, Dharsana, Bulsar and other areas in Vairemanlam, Munampalli, Sevattampalaiyam), the Gujarat region produce more than half of in Tiruchirappalli district (in Kurumbapatti, the country's total salt every year. The salt- Pallipati Kadavur and Mungilmalai) and also in producing centres in Maharashtra include Uran, Madurai and IASIASKanyakumariIAS districts. Bhayandar and Bhandup. Salt is also obtained Kerala too accounts for mica occurrences in from coastal tracts in Goa; Kerala; Karnataka; Alleppey district at Maulhupa and Kulanda and Cuddalore, Adrampatnam, Madras and in Quilion district around Ranni. The important Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, which produces about producers are Punalur and Nayyur. 16 per cent of the country's total annual

[10] Chronicle IAS Academy production; Pennuguduru and Nanpadu in complex process of coal formation involves Andhra; and Kolkata. physical and bacteriological agencies. Favourable climatic conditions for coal formation are mild In the north-western region, Rajasthan is the temperature to sub-tropical climate with well- main salt-producing state. The Sambhar lake distributed moderate to heavy rainfall. (Jaipur district) is the largest and the most important salt-producing area in India. Areas Peat is the first stage of coal formation and in the district of Jodhpur (Didwana, Pachbhadra varies considerably in extent and thickness. It and Phalodi) and Bikaner district (Lonkarasar) has a high percentage of moisture and volatile also yield salt. matter. Carbon makes up only about one-third of its bulk. Fenno - Scandinavia is the site of the Drang, Guma and other parts of Mandi world's main deposits of peat. (Himachal Pradesh) are centres where rock salt is mined. Lignite is considered to be the second stage of coal formation after peat. Its moisture content POTASH: is high (over 35 per cent), as a result of which it Main sources of potash are Canada, gives out much smoke but little heat. It breaks Germany, USA. up easily when exposed to air. About 15 per cent of the world's coal output is from lignite. PHOSPHATES: Bituminous coal is hard, black and compact. Phosphates occur as rocks in sedimentary It makes up most of the world's total coal output. sequences or as phosphatic nodules. Another It varies in composition, in carbon content (from source is bird droppings or guano. Main sources 40 per cent to 80 per cent), and in moisture and of phosphate rock is the USA and the main volatile content (from 15 per cent to 40 per cent). source of guano is the coast of Peru. Generally, steam coal with a fixed carbon content KAOLIN: of more than 80 per cent, is the best of bituminous group. The widest domestic use is of Kaolin or china clay is a fine clay formed by coal with a fixed carbon content varying from the alteration of granite by metamorphism. 50 to 80 per cent. Coking coal is high-grade Kaolin is produced for local use in many parts bituminous coal with a special value because of the world. USA leads in production. when it is heated in coke ovens it fuses into coke, an important ingredient in iron and steel COAL: ONICLEONICLEONICLE smelting in blast furnaces. Gas coal with a high A principal mineral fuel, coal is a content of gaseous and volatile matter is best combustible, solid stratified rock of organic and suited for the production of coal-gas and other mineral matter. The organic matter constitutes CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYchemical products. carbon (60 to 90 per cent), hydrogen (one to 12 The most extensive deposits of bituminous per cent) and also small amounts of phosphorus coal occur in the Appalachians and the central and sulphur. Coal occurs as a sedimentary rock AAA continental areas of the USA, the Donbas and in association with carbonaceous shale, Kuzbas regions of the Ukraine and Russia, the sandstone and even fireclay in a regular Shanxi-Shaanxi and Sichuan coalfields of China. succession and in repetitions. Gondwana coal is foundCHRCHR CHRas drifted deposits and tertiary coal occurs Anthracite, the hardest variety, ranks as in situ deposits. highest amongst the coals. It has a carbon content of almost 95 per cent with practically Coal originates from the accumulation of no volatile matter. Only about 5 per cent of the vegetable matter in swampy areas on broad world's coal is anthracite and 50 per cent of this delta, coastal plains and basin lowlands. The comes from the Pennsylvanian fields of the USA. vegetable matter is subjected to geological Russia, Ukraine, Kirghizia, Kazakhstan account processes that effect physical and chemical for another 25 per cent. changes. TheIASIASIAS changes can be seen in the darkening of colour, increase in compactness, In India, coal belongs to two principal hardness and carbon content, and decrease in geological periods, i.e., the lower Gondwana volatility and moisture. The growth in situ and coals of Permian age and Tertiary coals of Eocene drift theories explain the origin of coal. The to Miocene age. The greatest period of coal

Chronicle IAS Academy [11] formation in India is the Permian. The important The or Karharbari coalfield lies to the coal bearing formations are collectively known south-west of Giridih in . Its as Damudas and belong to the lower Gondwana area is 28.5 sq km and there are three main seams system. The series of coal formations are Peat- of varying thickness—lower Karharbari, upper lignite-bituminous Anthracite. The lower Karharbari and the Badhua seams. The lower Gondwana coals account for more then 90 per Karharbari provides the finest coking coal. cent of the annual production of coal which is generally of bituminous rank. In Tertiary Karanpura coalfield is separated into north coalfields lignite predominates. and south Karanpura. The coal seams occur in both the Barakar and Raniganj measures, the The Gondwana coals are largely confined to seams being about 22 m thick. the river valleys like those of the Damodar, , Godavari, etc. Tertiary coals The Ramgarh coalfield lies about 9 km of the principally occur in Assam, in the Himalayan Bokaro field covering an area of about 98 sq km foothills of Kashmir and in Rajasthan (Palna in mostly with Barakar measures. There are 22 Bikaner) in Eocene strata. Besides these, lignite seams of which four major seams have an deposits are found to occur in the South Arcot average thickness of 8 m each. The coal is dull in district of Tamil Nadu, in Kutch of Gujarat and appearance and high in ash content—30.7 to also in the state of Kerala. The Neyveli lignite 31.8 per cent. field of Tamil Nadu (which is of the Miocene Auranga, Hutar and Daltonganj coalfields Age) is the largest lignite deposit in South India. are of minor importance in Palamau district. Coalfields engaged in mining Gondwana Auranga extends over 240 sq km with a seam of coal are to be found in the following states. 13 m thickness. The coal analysis shows moisture, 10.35 per cent; volatile matter, 26.81 In West Bengal, the Burdwan, Bankura, per cent; fixed carbon, 26.43 per cent; and ash, Purulia, Birbhum, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri 35.81 per cent. Hutar covers an area of 200 sq districts account for large coal deposits. The state km with five seams. Daltonganj field contains accounts for one-fourth of the country's Talchir seams. production and an equal proportion of its reserves. The chief and the largest coalfield in In Sambalpur and Sundargarh districts of India is the . Orissa lies the 1B river coalfield where coal occurs ONICLEONICLEONICLEin middle and lower Barakar seams of which In Jharkhand, there are several promising Rampur, Lajkuria and Gamhaera are important. coalfields in Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Palamau The extends from Talchir to and Santhal Pargana districts. Of these, Jharia, Rairkhol in Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts. East and West Bokaro, Giridih, North and South CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY Karanpura, Ramgarh, Auranga, Hutar and In Madhya Pradesh, coal is generally found Daltonganj are the most important. Jharia associated with Barakar measures. The coalfield in the has coals AAofA low important fields are Tatapani-Ramkola with five volatile coking quality. That is why it has been main seams of inferior quality coal; Jhimilli with recognised as the “store house of best five main seams of moderate coking type coal; metallurgical coals in India.” An average analysis Pench valley with four main seams of high of JhariaCHRCHRCHR coal shows moisture content to be 1.38 volatile non-coking coal; Karhan valley with a per cent, volatile matter, 21.5 per cent, fixed seam of high volatile coking coal. The Korba field carbon, 60.4 per cent and ash, 14.95 per cent. with several seams is in Chhattisgarh. The Bokara coalfield lies within 32 km of the Important coal deposits in Maharashtra are western end of the . It comprises in Nagpur district at Kamptee; Chandrapur two parts separated by the Bokarao River—East district in Wardha valley, Warora and Ghugus; Bokaro and the West Bokaro field. The east and at Ballarpur in Yavatmal district. The Bokaro coalfieldIASIASIAS coves abut 207 sq km and has Wardha coalfield alone contains a little over 2000 29 seams, while the covers million tonnes. about 167 sq km and has 23 major seams. The average sample of coal analysis shows moisture, Warangal Khammamet, East Godavari and 0-82 per cent; volatile matter, 25.56 per cent; ash, West Godavari districts are the main coal-bearing 19.38 per cent; and fixed carbon, 54.24 per cent. areas in Andhra Pradesh.

[12] Chronicle IAS Academy Of the Tertiary variety, Makum coalfield in above the reservoir bed. A non-permeable layer Assam is the most profitable and workable must occur above the servoir bed. A favourable region. Workable seams are exposed along the structure must exist. northern flank of the Naga-Patkoi ranges facing Sibsagar (at Nazira) and Lakhimpur district (at Three principal grades of crude oil are Paraffin-Base Oil Jeypore). Other fields are Dolgrung and Nambor. considered important, with a Assam coal has very low ash and high coking high percentage of the lighter hydrocarbons such qualities but the sulphur content is high and as methane gives products, such as petrol, therefore it is unsuitable for metallurgical paraffin and high grade lubricating oils which Asphalt-Base Oil purposes. are commercially more valued. consists mainly of the heavier hydrocarbons with In the closely associated Balyong, Doigring a viscous, asphaltic base. Mixed-Based Oil is an and Waimong fields of Meghalaya, coal seams intermediate group with mixed properties of the are high. In Balphakram-Pendeng area eight lighter and heavier oils. It has use in lubricants seams have been recorded in the Chatmang and and fuel oils. Balphakram hills with a reserve of 32 million tonnes of good quality coal. Over 75 per cent of the world's supply of crude oil comes from three major areas: North The upper Assam belt extends into the America, the West Asian states, Russia and Namchick-Namphuk coalfields of Tirap district Azerbaijan. of Arunachal Pradesh. In this coalfield, coal is generally high in volatility and in sulphur Saudi Arabia has the largest reserves content. The Jhanzi-Disai coal belt and Barjan followed by Iraq and the United Arab Emirates. coalfield of Nagaland and Dilli-Jaipur of upper Saudi Arabia is the leading producer followed Assam also belong to the same belt. by the Commonwealth of Independent States and USA. India at present is the fifth largest producer of coal in the world. Coal is also India's largest India's most important oil-bearing area in mineral resource. the eastern part of the Himalayas is Assam. The oil-bearing belt runs from extreme north-east of PETROLEUM: Assam to the eastern border of the Brahmaputra and Surma valley. The existence of oil in the hills The word 'petroleum' has been derived from of upper Assam was known as early as 1825, the world 'petra', which means rock, and 'oleum' ONICLEONICLEONICLEbut drilling of oil started only in 1866 following which means oil. Thus 'petroleum' means 'rock, the recommendations of the Geological Survey and 'oleum' which means oil. Thus 'petroleum' of India (GSI) in 1865. During 1866-68 several means rock, and 'oleum' which means oil. Thus shallow wells were drilled near Makum by 'petroleum' means 'rock-oil'. It is one of the CADEMYCADEMY CADEMYCADEMYMckellop Stewart and Company. It was the important mineral fuels and is a complex discovery of the Digboi oilfields, however, which mixture of hydrocarbon compounds with minor marks a landmark in the development of India's amounts of impurities like nitrogen, sulphur and AAA sources of oil. oxygen. The liquid petroleum is called crude oil, petroleum gas is called natural gas and the semi- In India, the Digboi oilfield, situated in solid to solid forms of petroleum are known as Lakhimpur district of upper Assam, it is the asphalt,CHRCHRCHR tar, pitch, bitumen, etc. biggest oilfield in India. Digboi area raises about 4 lakh tonnes of crude annually. Tipam For petroleum to accumulate in commercial sandstone of Miopliocene age is the oil bearing quantities in an area, the oil must originate in a formation. source bed. A marine shale, once a black mud rich in organic compound, is thought to be a Naharkatiya oilfield is situated 32 km away common source rock. The oil then migrates to from Digboi. This field was discovered in 1955 permeable reservoir rocks after travelling for long by Assam Oil Company. Its reserve is estimated distances bothIASIASIAS vertically and horizontally. Te to be about 5 million tonnes. Naharkatiya is the source beds tend to lack the permeability second largest oilfield in India. The oil bearing necessary for profitable extraction of the oil. A formation is the Barail series of Oligocene age. non-permeable layer must occur above the Moran, about 40 km south-west of Digboi, reservoir bed. A non-permeable layer must occur Bappapung, Hausanpung, Hugirijang also have

Chronicle IAS Academy [13] oilfields. The search for oil in the Surma valley as also been discovered in Punjab (Ferozepur (Cachar district) dates back to 1910. In 1910 the district), West Bengal (Midnapore district), Badarpur Oil Company was formed to work the Jammu and Kashmir (in parts of Mausar- Badarpur oilfield. In Surma valley, some oil of Maradpur) and Tamil Nadu (Thanjavur and poor quality is found in Badarpur, Masimpur Chinglepet districts). and Patharia. In 1961 oil was discovered at Some Other Minerals of India: Rudrasgar near Nunmati. Dolomite: In Gujarat, the Cambay basin is the site of the main oil bearing sands of Oligocene age. Here Dolomite is a double carbonate of magnesium a majority of the wells are only gas-producing. and calcium found in Bihar and Jharkhand The other oilfields of importance are Kalol (Singhbhum and Shahabad districts); Tamil oilfield, Nawagam and Sanand oilfield. Nadu (Trinelveli, Salem districts and in coastal The Ankaleshwar oilfield is the most areas near Tuticorin); Orissa (Birmatrapur, important oilfield discovered so far in Gujarat. Bildih, Khatepur and Hathibri in Sundargarh The producing sands are of Eocene age. This field district, Sulai and other areas in Sambalpur was discovered in 1961. district and Koraput district); Chhattisgarh Kodwa-Mohbatta in Durg district and Hirri, In Maharashtra, about 184 km off Mumbai Chatane, Dhurarbhatta, Baraduar and Atta in in the Arabian Sea, a huge oil deposit, known as Bilaspupr); some hills in Himachal Pradesh; and Bombay High, was struck (in 1974) in limestone Vadodara and Bhavnagar districts in Gujarat. rocks of Miocene age. Bombay High (Ratnagiri district) is the most productive oilfield and has a Steatite: reserve of 5 crore tonnes of oil. It has an area of 2 thousand sq km. While the output of Steatite (also sandstone or talc), a hydrous conventional oilfields has increased only silicate of magnesium, is found in association marginally over the past 14 years, Bombay High with dolomitic lime-stone and basic igneous rock has accounted for the bulk of the higher material. Rajasthan has the largest steatite production. During 1978-79, the work on the reserves. laying of sub-sect pipeline from Bombay High to Bhilwara, Jaipur and Udaipur districts yield Uran and transfer line from Uran to Trombay ONICLEONICLEONICLEmore than four-fifths of the state's total was completed. Since 1978, oil and gas have production. Other districts living steatite reserves started to flow through these pipelines. are Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Dungarpur. In the south, the Cauvery, the Krishna and CADEMYThe steatite reserves in Andhra Pradesh are the Godavari basins have oil reserves. CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY associated with metamorphosed magnesium A number of potential oil bearing fields have limestone. They are found in the districts of been discovered in the states of Tripura, Punjab,AAAKurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Chittoor. Nagaland, Gujarat, West Bengal, and Jammu In Jharkhand, steatite is found in the districts and Kashmir. of Singhbum, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad and NATURALCHRCHRCHR GAS: Ranchi. Most of the natural gas is found in Other states possessing reserves of steatite association with crude oil. It is obtained as a by- are: Madhya Pradesh (mainly Jabalpur and product from petroleum refineries. The gasfield Jhabua districts); Karnataka Bellary, Shimoga, at Cambay (Gujarat) as the only non-associated Hassan, Bijapur, Tumkur, Mysore and South source of natural gas. The Ankleshwar gasfield, Kanara districts); Orissa (near Tiring, Bombay High—a comparatively new source, and Kendumundi and Kharidamak in Mayurbhanj Morah and NaharkatiyaIASIAS gasfields in Assam are district, Balasore district, and Sundargarh and among the mainIASIAS sources. It is available as Cuttack districts); Tamil Nadu (Saleum, seepages in Nom-Chick, Miao Punga and Combatore, North and South Arcot, and Laptang Pung in Arunachal Pradesh, areas of Tiruchirapalli districts); Gujarat (at Vartha, the Baramura range in Tripura, and Jwalamukhi Bhanta and Thuravas); Maharashtra (parts of and Kangra in Himachal Pradesh. Natural gas Ratnagiri, Bhandara and Chandrapur districts);

[14] Chronicle IAS Academy West Bengal (purulia, Darjeeling and Midnapur The Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, districts). Nowgong and Sibsagar districts in Assam, Shahabad, Palamau, Ranchi, Hazaribagh and Limestone: Singhbhum districts in Bihar, Ahmednagar, Yavatmal, Chandrapur and Nanded districts in The sedimentary despoits of limestone occur Maharastra are other important areas bearing with rocks constituting calcium carbonate or limestone deposits. double carbonate of magnesium and calcium, or both. Phosphorous, sulphur, alumina and silica Magnesite: may also be found. It is an important ore mineral of magnesium. In Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, It is a refractory mineral. About two-thirds of limestone deposits are found in Katni and Jukehi- India's total magnesite reserves are located in Keymore in the district of Jabalpur, Alaktara in Salem district of Tamil Nadu and over a quarter Bilaspur district, and in Raipur, Rajgarh, Bastar, in Almora district of Uttaranchal. Karnataka, Durg, Betul and Sagar districts. Deposits of Bihar and Rajasthan have small reserves. cement and flux grade are found in the district of Rewa. Damoh district has deposits of blast The principal magnesite deposits in Tamil furnace grade. Nadu are found in the chalk hills area in Salem district. The deposits occur in regular veins in In Andhra Pradesh the districts of Guntur, intrusive ultrabasic rocks. In Almora district of Krishna, Cuddapah, Khammam, Kurnool, Uttaranchal good quality magnesite occurs in Nalgonda and Godavari possess some of the narrow bands of variable thickness in massive major deposits. dolomite between Someshwar and Bageshwar near Agar, Chahana, Dewaldhar and Nail. In Tamil Nadu, important reserves of mainly Occurrences of magnesite have also been cement grade limestone are found in reported from Jhiroli, Pagankhol, Ariapani, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai, and Bhurgaon, Changdog, Boragar, Gahar Rithait, Ramnathapuram districts. Salem district has flux Satislang, Phadiari Jakhera, Tachhiri, Tanga grade deposits as well. Lime can be obtained Durai, Salia, Rafalkhet and Chamagaon, all from the limestone reserves in Tirunelveli, South situated in Chamoli district. Arcot and Thanjavur. Kyanite : In Karnataka flux grade limestoneONICLEONICLEONICLE deposits are dispersed in the districts of Shimga, Belgaum It is a member of the aluminium-silicate and Bijapur. Mysore, Gulbarga, Tumkur and group of minerals which includes andalusite, chitradurg districts have also some deposits. CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYsillimanie and kyanite—all refractory minerals. CADEMYThey are all metamorphic minerals. India has In Orissa important deposits of mainly flux the richest deposits of kyanite in the world. grade limestone occur at Hathbari, Birmitrapur, Important deposits of kyanite occur in the Amghat, Pagposh, Purnapani and AAA Singhbhum district of Jharkhand along a belt 80 Katopuryheria in Sundargarh district. Areas of miles in length, stretching east along the western Kalahandi and Sambalpur districts also yield part of Seraikela through parts of northern limestone. CHRCHRCHR Singhbhum and Kharasawan and into CHR Dhalbhum. The Lapsa Buru kyanite deposits, the In Gujarat the districts of Junagarh (near Dari, Veraval, Patan, Grokhundi, Savni and largest kyanite deposits in the world, are situated Sutrapara), Banaskanta (near Pasuval, Khunia in this belt. and Diwania), Sabarkanta (near Posina), and In Maharashtra large deposits occur in Khera (near Balasinar) have high grade Bhandara district in Pipalgaon-Dahegaon-Padri limestone reserves. Much of this limestone can area where the estimated reserves are about 100 be used for manufacturingIASIASIAS cement. million tonnes. In Rajasthan,IAS cement grade limestone occurs In Karnataka it occurs in Hassan, Mysore in Jaipur, Ajmer, Sawai Madhopur, Pali, and Chitradurg districts. TIF important Jodhpur, Jhunjhunu, Sirohi, Bundi and producers are Kudinirkatte, Dodderi, Kamasa- Banswara districts. Mudram, Melkoppa and Kadmane localities, etc.

Chronicle IAS Academy [15] Some pockets of kyanite also occur in Ajmer, to the Tertiary rock formations in the Jodhpur Bhilwara, Dungarpura and Banswara districts region. Beds of gypsum half-to-two metres thick of Rajasthan, in Darjeeling and Purulia districts occur at several places around the great Indian (West Bengal), Mahasu district (Himachal desert of Rajasthan, particularly in the districts Pradesh), Coimbatore district (Tamil Nadu) and of Bikaner, Jodhpur, Barmar, Churu, Nagaur, Mahendragarh district (Haryana). Pali, Jaisalmer and Shri Ganganagar. Graphite: Important deposits of gypsum are found in Tamil Nadu in Coimbatore near Annuppapatti, Graphite (also black lead or plumbago) is Andiyur, Venkatapuram, Pusaripatti, etc., composed of mainly carbon. It has impurities— where the percentage grade is 88 to 92 per cent. silica and silicates—as well. It occurs along with In Tiruchirapalli district, gypsum occurs as thin metamorphic rocks which abound in garnets and irregular veins in the clays and limestones of the sillimanite. Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar Uttatur and Trichinopoly stages of the have good deposits. Creataceous system. In Andhra Pradesh deposits around In Uttaranchal, gypsum occurs in several Peddanakonda have a fixed carbon content of localities as at Lachmanijhula, around Kharari 40 to 65 per cent. Important areas include east Chatti, Sera Narendranagar and Gughthani in Godavari and west Godavari districts (areas like Garhwal district and near Dhapila, Bhatta, Rampa Chodavaram, Reddi Bodiar and Khalagaon, Sahashradhara, Nainital posits have Haripuram), Krishna district, Khamamet district, been reported near Gonti and Parsua in Jhansi Visakhapatnam, Guntur, Buderu and district of Uttar Pradesh and near Purune in Srikakulam. Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh. In Orissa, graphite deposits of 55-60 per cent In the district of Barmula and Doda of Jammu carbon occur at Babupali, Dengsurgi, Biliangora, and Kashmir, rich deposits occur as lenticular Bughmunda, Komna and other parts of bands in the Precambrian Salakhal schists or Kalahandi district; Titilagarh, Darpagarh, with nummulitic lime stones of Eocene age. Munbahal, Belagaon, Patnagarh and other areas of Bolangir district; near Sargipalli, Padampur In Himachal Pradesh, deposits associated and Rampur in Sambalpur district; Majikelam with known limestone and dolomite and also arugali, Karrigudda and other partsONICLEONICLEONICLE of Koraput; with the Subathu series have been reported from and in Phulbani district. Chamba, Mahasu and Sirmur districts. In Jharkhand, deposits with a carbon content In Gujarat, gypsum occurs in the Saurashtra of about 50 per cent occur around Rajhara and CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYarea especially in Halar and districts of Khandih. Bhavanagar, Gohilwad, Jamnagar, Jungadh and In Tamil Nadu, graphite reserves are located Kutch covering an area of 518sq km. Important in Tirunelveli district, Madurai district,AAAoccurrences are in Jamnagar district at Rana Arumanallur, Todagamalai and Virpur and Bhatis. Kandawawamipuram in Kanyakumari district Thorium: and near Poovandi, Arsanur and Kirnur in Ramanathapuram.CHRCHRCHR CHR Thorium minerals consists of thorianite(38- 8) per cent of thorium), allanite (3 per cent of In Karnataka, deposits occur in Chikbanavur, Arsikere and Holavanballi areas thorium) and monazite (up to 18 per cent of and in the Kolar belt in Bangarpet. thorium). Gypsum: In India thorium minerals are found mostly in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, It is a hydratedIAS calcium sulphate which is Rajasthan, Orissa and Kerala. usually foundIASIASIAS in beds or banks in the India possesses the greatest reserves of sedimentary rocks such as limestones, monazite known in the world. The monazite sandstones and shales. reserves of Kerala have been estimated at 2.5 The most important sources of gypsum are million tonnes from which 1.5 lakh tonnes of located in the state of Rajasthan and are confined thorium are available.

[16] Chronicle IAS Academy Beryllium: Beryllium is obtained from beryl, exportation or sale for export of any which is found in association with felspar and product. This provision covers quotas and mica in pegmatities. It occurs in Rajasthan, other similar measures that establish Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Sikkim and quantitative limitations on imports or Kashmir. Beryllium is very useful as a moderator exports. in atomic reactors. • Article XIII of the GATT states that no Norms Related To Trade in Mineral prohibition or restriction shall be applied by any WTO member on the importation To the extent that mineral resources may be of any product of the territory of any other traded is covered by the obligations contained member or on the exportation of any in the WTO agreements relating to trade in product destined for the territory of any goods. WTO rules generally do not regulate other member, unless the importation of the natural resources before they are extracted or like product of all third countries or the harvested. exportation of the like product to all third countries is similarly prohibited or WTO rules related to Mineral trade: restricted. • Article I of the GATT sets out the most- • In some circumstances, subsidies can favoured-nation principle, one of the exacerbate the over-exploitation of scarce fundamental obligations of the multilateral natural resources. The WTO includes trading system. This provision prohibits a important disciplines on the use of subsidies WTO member from treating the products by WTO members. Subsidies to non- originating in or destined for another agricultural goods are regulated under the member less favourably than the “like” SCM Agreement. The SCM Agreement products originating in or destined for any defines a “subsidy” as a financial other country (including non-WTO contribution by a government or any public members). Thus, WTO member A cannot body within the territory of a member that subject imports of coal from WTO member confers a benefit. A financial contribution B to a higher tariff than imports of coal is deemed to exist where (i) a government from WTO member C. Export taxes and practice involves a direct transfer of funds; other export regulations are also subject to (ii) government revenue that is otherwise the obligations in Article I, even if such due is foregone; (iii) a government provides measures are not prohibitedONICLEONICLEONICLE under Article goods or services other than general XI. This means that WTO member A cannot infrastructure; or (iv) a government entrusts subject its exports to WTO member B to a or directs a private body to carry out one higher export tax than it applies to exports or more of the types of functions listed in to WTO member C. CADEMY CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY(i) to (iii). A WTO member that is affected • Article II of the GATT 1994 prohibits WTO by subsidies granted by another member members from applying “ordinary customs can challenge those subsidies in the WTO duties” on the importation of a productAAA that dispute settlement mechanism. are higher than the rate specified in their Alternatively, the affected member can schedules of commitments. Through apply countervailing duties to the successiveCHR rounds of trade negotiations, the subsidized imports if it shows that they numberCHRCHRCHR of products subject to tariff bindings cause or threaten to cause injury to its has increased and the levels at which tariffs domestic industry. are bound have been progressively brought down. Members are also prohibited from Trade in natural resources can support applying any other duties or charges on economic development, as it enables resource- the importation of a product, unless rich countries to export resources and raise specified in the schedule of commitments. revenues. If done to high environmental and social standards, trade can thereby contribute • Article XIIASIASIAS of the GATT 1994 provides that to sustainable development of poor countries. no prohibitions or restrictions, other than But the current trade system reinforces unequal duties, taxes or other charges, shall be levels of resource consumption by shifting applied by any WTO member on the resources from poorer low consuming countries importation of any product or on the to richer, high consuming countries.

Chronicle IAS Academy [17] Industrialised countries in Europe and North suspect another country of gaining an unfair America, but also in Asia, largely export trade advantage through subsidies. The United manufactured products with a high value added. States Commerce Department has set a Many developing countries, on the other hand, preliminary import duty of nearly 286 percent continue to rely strongly on the export of raw on a circular welded carbon-quality steel pipe materials such as agricultural products, minerals from India to offset government subsidies. India and fossil fuels. Exporting manufactured had "requested consultations" with the United products usually generates higher profits States over U.S. countervailing duties. compared to export of commodities. Furthermore, environmental pressures related to India claimed that Washington had imposed extraction and processing of resources are high the countervailing duty because a portion of the iron ore used to produce the pipes came from One of the major challenges that are crucial India's top iron ore miner NMDC (NMDC.NS), in the context of relatively backward economies a state-run firm that supplies steelmakers such is that the macroeconomic policies of these as Tata (TISC.NS), Jindal (JNSP.NS) and Essar. countries are not always proportionate to utilize But the U.S. argument was that "because NMDC the gains from world trade. International trade is a public sector undertaking and therefore can be beneficial if the gains derived from it can implicitly subsidising a private-sector enterprise. be distributed evenly across the different layers However to counter it, Indian side replied that of the society. Here lies the importance of “trickle- Indian iron ore prices were determined by the down” effect. domestic market so, there is no subsidy. Domestic trade involves exchange of factors Last October the United States sent the WTO of production at the regional level; whereas a list of 50 Indian government measures that it international trade ensures greater mobility of said amounted to unfair subsidies that had not latest technology and goods and services across been notified, as required by the WTO, and the nations. World trade helps the developing threatened to slap duties on them if India did countries to have ready access to the modern not notify them promptly. Included on the list techniques of production. However, the were loans from India's Steel Development Fund challenge here is to use these techniques in an (SDF), with the 2010-2011 annual report of the efficient manner. The industrial setup and social Indian Ministry of Steel cited as evidence. The infrastructure need to be developedONICLEONICLEONICLE as per the ministry's report said the SDF was providing global standard to optimize theONICLE benefits from financial assistance for research and international trade. development and 64 projects had been approved There are instances of African nations, which in 2010, at a cost of 4.42 billion Indian rupees, have failed to utilize the gains from trade due to CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYincluding 2.78 billion rupees from the fund. The inappropriate macroeconomic setups. Before SDF had already paid out 1.39 billion rupees. opening up the economy, the backward nations US files dispute against India on solar panel need to safeguard the interests of the domesticAAA A products entrepreneurs. The liberalization policies need to be taken up gradually so as to help the infant The United States, on February 6, 2013, industries face the challenges of the changing notified the WTO Secretariat of a request for economicCHRCHRCHR scenario. consultations with India on certain measures of So the challenges before international trade India relating to domestic content requirements may arise from different fronts. The countries under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar involved in world trade need to adopt Mission (NSM) for solar cells and solar modules. proportionate policy measures to make use of The United States claims that India requires solar the gains from trade for the overall development power developers to buy and use domestic solar of their economies. cells and solar modules in order to benefit from IASIASIAS participating in the Jawaharlal Nehru NSM Case study: IndiaIAS launches WTO case against programme and to enter into contracts under U.S. steel duties the NSM programme or with the National Power Company. According to the United States, the Countries impose countervailing duties - benefits for solar power developers, contingent punitively high import tariffs - when they on their purchase and use of domestic solar cells

[18] Chronicle IAS Academy and solar modules, would include subsidies considered the breadbasket of Nigeria because through guaranteed, long-term electricity rates. of its rich ecosystems, a place where people The request for consultations formally initiates cultivated fertile farmlands and benefitted from a dispute in the WTO. Consultations give the abundant fisheries. In the southern part of the parties an opportunity to discuss the matter and delta lies Ogoniland, where half a million Ogoni to find a satisfactory solution without people live. proceeding further with litigation. After 60 days, if consultations have failed to resolve the dispute, Nigeria is the largest oil producer in africa the complainant may request adjudication by a and 11thlargest in the world. In 2004, 17% of all panel. Nigerian oilexports - more than two million tonnes - went to the European Union. Crude oil Issue of overconsumption of resources production in 2004 was 2.5 million barrels per day, of which an average of one million barrels The amount of natural resources extracted per day were produced by shell, making shell for the production of goods and services is steadily increasing. Almost half of global by far the biggest oil company in Nigeria. The resource extraction takes place in Asia, followed country has significant oil reserves and even by North America with almost 20% and Europe greater gas reserves. However, most Nigerians and Latin America with 13% each. However, have not benefited from these resources and large variations exist in natural resources Nigeria is now one of the poorest countries in extraction per capita: on average, an inhabitant the world. of Australia extracts around 10 times more Shell operates in Nigeria through the shell resources than inhabitants of Asia or Africa. petroleum development company, a joint Increasing resource extraction leads to growing venture between shell and the Nigerian environmental and social problems, often worst government. SPDC has more than 90 oil and gas in poor countries in Africa, Latin America and fields spread over some 30,000 square kilometres Asia. In 1980, the world economy extracted of oil mining leases in the Niger delta. It is a almost 40 billion tonnes. Up to 2005, this number massive operation involving a network of more grew to 58 billion tonnes, an increase of almost than 6,000 kilometres of flow lines and pipelines, 50%. seven gas plants, 86 flow stations and other Resource extraction has increased in all major facilities. Shell and other oil companies have categories: biomass, fossil fuels,ONICLE metal ores and transformed the Niger delta into a virtual ONICLEONICLEONICLEwasteland, bearing deep scars from gas flaring industrial and construction minerals. Between 1980 and 2005, the extraction of gas, sand and and oil spills. The population in the Niger delta gravel almost doubled, and nickel ore extraction suffers from multiple health problems and the tripled. For some of the biotic resources, such as CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYland is heavily polluted. Gas flaring has severe fish, the signs of overuse can already be observed health consequences. Many scientific studies – catch rates have been declining over the past have linked breathing particulate matter to a 10 years. A series of significant health problems, including AAA aggravated asthma, increases in respiratory The extraction and processing of natural symptoms like coughing and difficult or painful resources is often very intensive in the use of breathing, chronic bronchitis, decreased lung materials, energy, water and land. These CHR function, and premature death. This is due to activitiesCHRCHRCHR therefore often entail environmental the fact that flaring emits a cocktail of toxic problems, such as the destruction of fertile land, substances (including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen water shortages or toxic pollution. Social dioxides), carcinogenic substances (such as problems are also often linked to extraction benz[a]pyreneand dioxin) and unburned fuel activities, including human rights violations, components (including benzene, toluene, xylene poor working conditions and low wages. and hydrogen sulphide). Case study on oil extraction in Nigeria IASIASIAS One example of the environmental Shell has been operating in Nigeria’s Niger consequences of gas flaring in the Niger delta is delta since the 1930s. Nigeria is now a acid rain. Delta residents have long complained democracy, but has a long and brutal history of that their roofs have been corroded by the military dictatorships. The Niger delta was once composition of the rain that falls as a result of

Chronicle IAS Academy [19] the flaring. The primary causes of acid rain are ignored. The legal requirement under PESAA emissions of sulphur dioxide (sO2) and nitrogen (Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas Act oxides (nOx), which combine with atmospheric 1996) and the Forest Rights Act for consent of moisture to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, the Gram Sabha is blatantly violated. On the respectively. Acid rain acidifies lakes and streams contrary even where the gram Sabha has opposed and damages vegetation. In addition, acid rain a particular project, the land is forcibly acquired accelerates the decay of building materials and as for example in the bauxite rich tribal areas in paints. According to the World Bank, emissions Vishakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh and during flaring are the major source of greenhouse Kalahandi in Orissa. gases in Sub-Saharan Africa. Further the Central Government while In November 2005, the federal high court of granting mining leases has fixed extremely low Nigeria ordered shell to immediately stop flaring royalty rates. The mining companies have made gas, in iwherekan community, delta state. The huge profits. For example the Central court found gas flaring to be a ‘gross violation’ Government has recently fixed the royalty for of the rights to life and dignity. Nevertheless, shell iron ore at just 10 per cent of the value of the continues the flaring. mined iron ore after supposedly discussing with the so-called stakeholders, namely the big mining There have been major human rights abuses companies. Royalty is equally low for other major as well. On June 8 2009, shell was forced to pay minerals. us$15.5 million to settle an embarrassing lawsuit in the US for human rights abuses in Nigeria. In the face of growing resistance by tribal The company is also facing legal action in The communities, the Central Government is Hague concerning repeated oil spills which have proposing an amendment to the Mines and damaged the livelihoods of Nigerian fisher folk Minerals (Development and Regulation Act) and farmers. 2011, to make it mandatory for companies to give funds for tribal development in districts where Issue of denial of property rights to local people they have mining leases. The funds are to be put in a District Mineral Foundation Fund which will Tribals have paid the highest price of be under the control of the administration. Coal national development because their regions are companies are to give 26 per cent of their profits resource rich: 90 percent of all coal and around to the Fund. 50 percent of the remaining mineralsONICLEONICLEONICLE are in their regions. Also the forest, water and other sources The International Labour Organisation ( abound in their habitat. But lakhs of tribals have ILO)- funded report on India's indigenous been displaced from 1990 onwards (due to the CADEMYpopulation also claims that more than half the so-called economic liberalization policies of the CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY country's mineral wealth is obtained by violating Center under pressure from the Westernlenders) the rights of tribals. The report states that without proper rehabilitation. minerals found in adivasi or tribal areas AAAreportedly contribute to more than half of the International conventions adopted by the United Nations as well as the International national mining production. Yet, mining policies Labour Organisation have recognized the rights in India have overlooked the existence of adivasi of tribalCHRCHRCHR communities on land and surface and communities and the constitutional provision for sub-surface resources. Many countries including the protection of their land and resources. Canada, Brazil, South Africa and Australia have “There is no mention of adivasis ' rights or been forced to at least acknowledge in different protection in any of the procedures. Though a ways the rights of indigenous communities on disaggregated data on the number of mines mineral wealth in their respective countries. operating in the country or the number of people But in India, where an overwhelming displaced by such projects does not officially majority of minesIASIASIAS are located in adivasi areas, exist as the information is deemed to be " IAS politically sensitive," the report estimates that an the tribals have not only been denied these rights but have been driven out of their lands through overwhelming majority of mines are located in forcible acquisition or denied access. The spirit the adivasi areas. In 1991, out of the 4,175 mines of the Samatha judgement of the Supreme Court in the country, 3,500 were in tribal areas. to recognize tribal ownership rights has been Another estimate states that between 1950 and

[20] Chronicle IAS Academy 1991 at least 2,600,000 people were displaced a total number of 1306 families. A total of 90 by mining projects of which only 25 per cent families were displaced (homestead oustees), who received any resettlement. Among those were resettled in Madhuban Nagar. Of them 52 displaced 52 per cent belonged to the Scheduled belonged to Scheduled Tribes, 2 to Scheduled Tribes, the report notes. In the case of private Castes and 36 belonged to other castes. lands, proceedings under the Land Acquisition Act 1894 are initiated in order to acquire the On the basis of the empirical study land. The legislation also allows the government conducted on the displaced families of lb Valley to acquire lands upon payment of cash Coal Mines, the following are some of the compensation for any public purpose, including important impacts that have been revealed from mining. The report is also stridently critical of the analysis of data by the researcher: Jharkhand. The new state, instead of enforcing • The general socio-economic condition of the constitutional and protective rights of the oustees has deteriorated significantly. indigenous communities and restoring their • Socio-economic inequalities have widened. alienated lands and resources, has signed over 100 memorandums of understanding with the • The cropping pattern has changed private industry. drastically Further the economic liberalization, • Dependence on trees and livestock has privatization and globalization (LPG) model of reduced substantially. development in India is virtually depriving the • Increase in the proportion of agricultural tribal people and other agriculture dependent labourers. poor people of their traditional means of • Increasing trend towards nuclear family. sustainable livelihood by promoting the unregulated growth of mineral-based industries • Poor dwelling conditions of the oustees. in the tribal regions of India. In the name of • Improper use of compensation money modernization and the country’s economic development, the elites in India are taking over • Rise in the incidence of indebtedness. the life sustaining resources of the poor and • Drastic reduction in the socio-economic pushing them into a further marginalized state condition of women. of living as a result of displacing them from their land and homes. Such developmentONICLEONICLEONICLE serves the Issues relate to development and exploitation interests of these elites while it impoverishesONICLE the of mineral resources: tribal people and poor peasants in these regions who are dependent on the life sustaining Mining, world over, has now become an resources of the ecosystems in which they live. CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYimportant input in the economic development a The mining and other industries that are taking mineral rich country. In addition to the general over the resources of the ecosystems of these tribal value-adding benefits of mining, a quality which people and poor peasants fail to provide them it shares with many other businesses, mining has with an improved and sustainable meansAAA of A some special qualities which enable it to serve as making a living. The very nature of the present a springboard for countries seeking to development paradigm does not provide for the industrialise. Mining is at the beginning of the absorptionCHRCHRCHR of these poor people into the value chain and has a capacity to kick start organized non-farm sector economy. economic development that few other businesses offer. It does not require a sophisticated supply Case Study of Impact of Development Project chain in the country in which it takes place, as on Displaced Tribals in Orissa manufacturing so often does, and it does not require developed local markets. Orissa’s coal deposits are mostly concentrated in two regions - Talcher Belt in Angul District Also, minerals are indispensable when and the lb ValleyIASIASIAS Area in Jharsuguda District producing manufactured goods of all kinds and and in the State and mining is carried out by the in providing most services, even at a basic level. Mahanadi Coal Fields Limited (MCL), a Furthermore, all ‘renewable’ forms of energy subsidiary of Limited (CIL). The lb generation, including solar, wind, bio-energy, Valley Project has affected 19 villages involving and forestry and agricultural production, are

Chronicle IAS Academy [21] ultimately dependent on utilizing minerals and standards, community betterment, and metals in some form. protection and restoration of the environment. Off late two very significant developments In short, the concept of sustainable are occurring in the mining industry and related development requires a complete paradigmatic government resource programs worldwide. One shift in national and international thinking, is positive, the other problematic. Working because making economic and ecological together, these two trends have the potential to concerns work together is its controlling change dramatically the way in which mineral objective. To have sustainability, nations, resource companies, the Governments of industries, companies and individuals can no resource-based economies, and indeed the world longer seek merely to maximize material gains function in the 21st century. but must maximize the nonmaterial quality of life, can no longer rely on technology to make The first trend is the greatly expanding possible infinite development and population international opportunities for mineral resource growth, and can no longer maximize present- development. On the supply side, industrial generation benefits at the expense of future development in general and mining in particular generations' well-being. have been accelerated by a number of factors, including the end of the Cold War, the emergence Issue related to corporate corruption of new market economies in Asia, Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe, the move toward Governments are dependent upon individual privatization of state mining assets, and officials and ministers to negotiate deals. increasing fiscal liberalization in developing and Companies can gain immensely by bribing these emerging economies. individuals. This gives rise to an ‘agency problem’ for LDCs. While widely recognised, to On the demand side, consumption of the date it has been addressed by a variety of ad hoc majority of minerals continues to increase, international initiatives. particularly in developing countries and emerging economies. The second trend, however, One such is the Extractive Industries consists of the growing challenges to mining Transparency Initiative, started in 2003 and now development, production, and products. with over thirty signatories among the Mining, by its very nature, causes significant governments of resource-rich countries, environmental, social, cultural ONICLEONICLEONICLEand economic indicating recognition of concern for the disruption. As it has expanded globally problem. It aims to counter corruption in particularly in the resource based economies of contracts by requiring companies engaged in many developing countries - international resource extraction to report all their payments, CADEMYcountry-by-country, forcing illicit payments into awareness and concern about its negative effects CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY has heightened, and this heightened concern is the open. fueling a significant increase in both national Another initiative has been the pan-OECD and international laws regulating mining.A AAAanti-bribery legislation which has made it a To maintain equilibrium sustainable criminal offence for an OECD-based company development gained wide credibility as the centre to bribe government officials anywhere in the piece ofCHRCHRCHR the 1987 report of the United Nations world in order to win a contract. One World Commission on Environment and consequence of this OECD legislation has been Development the rapid emergence of a two-stage system of negotiations for the rights to resource extraction. For development in general, sustainability In the first stage a company which is either too mandates three things: preservation of options small to face scrutiny, or not OECD-based, for future generations, nurturing of social and negotiates with government. In the second stage, community stability, and maintenance and this company onsells the rights to a major OECD restoration of IASenvironmentalIASIAS quality. For mining company that has the technology and finance in particular, this requires poverty alleviation, to undertake exploitation. meeting of basic human needs, environmental impact assessment, pollution abatement, A third and related international initiative minimization of environmental impact, resource has been to co-ordinate the laws relating to conservation, adequate worker health and safety money laundering.

[22] Chronicle IAS Academy A fourth initiative has been the Kimberley allows them activity on much larger tracts of land Process which has curtailed illegal international than previously. This has adverse implications transactions in diamonds through certification for equity, the environment and growth. of the source of origin. The Government of The Bill also gives legal sanction to the Nigeria has recently proposed that an equivalent arbitrary rights of governments, both at the system of certification be put into place to curtail Centre and the States, to give different types of the large-scale theft of crude oil from the Niger licences and leases from reconnaissance to Delta. The latest initiative is the Lugar-Cardin exploration, prospecting and finally extraction Amendment, now enacted into US law, without any procedure for even consulting, leave whereby all companies listed on the New York alone taking the consent of tribal communities. stock market engaged in resource extraction The only reference to “consultation” (not must report all payments made associated with consent), is for the grant of licences for minor contracts in considerable detail. Potentially, such minerals (but not major) in Fifth and Sixth legislation could so discourage the major Schedule areas where “the gram sabha or the companies from entering into prospecting District council, as the case may be shall be contracts with the governments of LDCs that the consulted.” Thus even the provisions under other only companies left as partners for governments laws such as the Panchayat Extension (to would be cowboy operations. Schedule Areas) Act (PESAA), which mandates consultation with the gram sabhas, are violated But it is not a matter of adopting new by the complete absence of any consultative standards, but simply of enforcing standards process prior to the granting of lease for major which are already incorporated into legal minerals, which are the main sites of tribal systems globally. deprivation. In another provision for notification Issue related to nexus between government and of giving leases in forest areas and wildlife areas, the State government has to “take all necessary private sector: permissions from the owners of the land and In India, ownership of minerals lies with the those having occupation rights.” Thus an State. However, the Central government which unwarranted differentiation is made between has control over all major minerals like iron ore, the rights of tribal communities in Fifth Schedule bauxite, copper, coal and most State non-forest areas and forest areas. However even governments which have controlONICLEONICLEONICLE over minor in the case of forest areas there is no provision ONICLEfor what would happen in case the owner does minerals like sand, stone, granite, etc., have not give permission. promoted privatisation through leasing mines to private companies apart from handing over Issue related to mineral exploitation and captive mines of iron ore and bauxite to steel and CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY women sufferings aluminium corporates like the Tatas and Birlas. According to a recent report compiled for the The displacement of people due to mining industry by Ernst and Young, of the 4.9AAA lakh has only multiplied the exploitation and hectares of land given out in mining leases in 23 degradation of women’s rights with regard to States by the end of 2009, 95 per cent of the leases land and livelihoods. Historically and also in the comprisingCHRCHRCHR 70 per cent of the land were given to existing legal framework, women have no legal privateCHR companies. rights over lands or natural resources. There is an invisible distinction between rural and tribal The MMRDA Bill aims to further deregularise women with regard to control over lands in and liberalise the mining sector and encourage traditional land based situations in mainstream privatisation based on the recommendations of India. Tribal women enjoy a greater social status the Hoda Committee. It introduces the concept with regard to control over resources. This of high technology reconnaissance, prospecting ensures their active participation and decision- and explorationIASIASIAS licences, and easy terms of making with regard to land utilization, conversion toIAS mining leases to encourage the agriculture and powers over cash flow in a tribal entry of FDI and foreign companies. It also gives economy. This is enjoyed to a lesser extent by weightage, in the allocation of leases, to a set of rural women in India. Yet, they have a distinct criteria which favour such companies and also role in the agrarian society with regard to

Chronicle IAS Academy [23] participation in agricultural work, livestock Mining activities can suddenly affect quality management, and access to common properties. of life and the physical, mental, and social well- being of local communities. Improvised mining However, both rural and tribal women are towns and camps often threaten food availability completely alienated from these accesses and and safety, increasing the risk of rights when the mines come. Testimonies of malnourishment. Indirect effects of mining on women from coal mining areas of Orissa public health can include increased incidence of (Talcher) show that displacement and loss of tuberculosis, asthma, chronic bronchitis, and land were the most serious problems affecting gastrointestinal diseases. their lives, as their link to livelihood, economic and social status, health and security all Issues related to Mining and Environment depended on land and forests. Environmental impacts of mining and mineral Whenever villages have been displaced or processing includes: affected, women have been forced out of their land based work and pushed into menial and 1. Surface water pollution marginalised forms of labour as maids and • Soluble contaminants in domestic or servants, as construction labourers or into agricultural use waters from release of mine prostitution, which are highly unorganised and and processing water or leakage from waste socially humiliating. deposits Women displaced by mining, have lost the • Deposition of solids on agricultural land and rights to cultivate their traditional crops, and in shallow sea zones forests being cut down for mining, they are • Withdrawal of water for industrial purposes unable to collect forest produce for consumption (food, fodder, medicines or ceremonial needs) or • Alteration of aquatic flora and fauna, for sale. The cash flow that tribal and rural including\ destruction of fish species and women have access to, by sale of forest produce accumulation of toxic elements in fish and by breeding livestock, has disappeared. They • Sand deposition in river channels and are forced to walk miles away from their villages shallow sea zones leaving behind their children, either to collect ONICLE2. Underground water pollution forest produce or find wage labourONICLEONICLEONICLE and have had to sell away all their cattle. In many situations there is seasonal migration leading to work Soluble contaminants in wells, springs etc. insecurity, breaking up of family relations and CADEMYresulting from leakage from waste heaps and CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYmine water exposing them to various social hazards. Natural water sources drying up as a To curb the social and cultural impact of consequence of water table lowering mining local communities are organizing protestsAAA against the government and companies. 3. Air pollution Frequent public health problems related to • Dust blown on inhabited, agricultural lands miningCHRCHRCHR activities include: CHR • Accumulation in plants of toxic elements • Water: Surface and ground water carried by dust contamination with metals and elements; • Acidification of water bodies and soil microbiological contamination from sewage resulting from SO emissions 2 and wastes in campsites and mine worker residential areas; • Damage to buildings from SO emissions 2

• Air: Exposure to high concentrations of 4. Solid waste sulfur dioxide,IASIASIAS particulate matter, heavy metals, including lead, mercury and • Hazards related to lack of stability of waste cadmium; and deposits • Soil: Deposition of toxic elements from air • Land disturbance emissions. • Withdrawal of agricultural land

[24] Chronicle IAS Academy 5. Excavation process design. The latter would be preferable from the point of view of maximizing pollution • Loss of fauna and flora habitats. reduction in relation to cost, but would provide • Land subsidence due to underground no tax advantage. mining. Case study of Gobi Desert Methods for reducing the environmental • Gobi Desert impact of mining and metallurgical operations have improved considerably over the last couple This resource – thought to be the biggest of decades. At the mining stage, methods for deposit of coking coal on the planet – is chewed rehabilitating mined-out areas to the original or out and transported away to China by a new land uses have been developed and are seemingly endless line of trucks that rumble applied in most new mining projects. Similarly, across the plains in a convoy of dust. Until releases of effluents to surface water bodies or recently, this area of southern Mongolia was one to groundwater are controlled and reduced of the world's last great wildernesses – a cold through judicious planning at the very beginning desert that is home to gazelle, wild ass and of mining projects. herders living a traditional nomadic existence. There are several reasons for the change in Today, however, it is the centre of the planet's attitudes. The most important may be the greatest resource boom. Some are calling it "the pressure of public opinion. Second, last frontier", others "Minegolia". Whatever the conditionalities aimed at ensuring good name, this impoverished but remarkable nation environmental practices are increasingly being in east Asia is on the brink of one of the most dramatic transformations in human history. required by international financial institutions and by commercial banks. Third, environmental The vast opencast pit at Tevan Tolgoi is just control measures in new projects usually do not the start. Its 6bn tonnes of coal are being partly entail major cost increases and may even developed by a local mining firm. Extraction improve production economies. rights will also be auctioned off to overseas bidders, likely to include China's Shenhua, Most governments have made the "Polluter Peabody of the US and a Russian consortium. Pays Principle" (PPP) an integral part of their Whoever does the digging, the ultimate buyer of environmental policies. According to this the fuel is likely to be China, which accounts for principle "the polluter should bearONICLEONICLEONICLE the expenses 85% of Mongolia's exports. The extraction is of carrying out pollution prevention and control expected to triple the national economy by 2020 measures decided by public authorities to ensure and propel the living standards of the small, that the environment is in an acceptable state. CADEMYCADEMYCADEMYimpoverished 2.6 million population into the In other words, the cost of these measures should CADEMY global middle class, but locals fear it will also be reflected in the cost of goods and services devastate an arid environment as the mines suck which cause pollution in production and/or up scarce water resources, damage the consumption". The PPP aims to improveAAA A grasslands and necessitate roads and electricity economic efficiency. grids that disrupt the migration patterns of local There are some examples of economic species. instrumentsCHRCHRCHR not directly aimed at internalizing The damage is already evident in the cross- environmental costs but rather at promoting Gobi traffic, where drivers churn up so much pollution control measures. These include tax dust that some use their headlights in the middle incentives such as accelerated depreciation for of the day to pierce the gloom. pollution control equipment. While these instruments are likely to contribute to reductions Nomad families in the area blame the mines in pollution, they are not very cost-effective from for dried up wells, shrinking watering holes and the government'sIAS point of view. Furthermore, clouds of dust that blacken the lungs and IASIASIAS stomachs of their animals. they may provide an incentive to companies to invest in "end-of-pipe" technology, that is, to treat Two-thirds of the state's Human emissions rather than to prevent pollution from Development Fund – which has come from occurring in the first place through appropriate mining revenues – has been spent on monthly

Chronicle IAS Academy [25] cash payments to the population to secure has made them a competitor with the nomads electoral votes. Environmental worries also loom for scarce resources. But from next year, the mine large, particularly with regard to water usage will extract and treat saline water from a fossil rights. aquifer 45km away. Operators say this is not linked to any lakes or watering holes. The mines are good for Mongolia, but bad for residents of the southern Gobi. "They take Rio Tinto has pledged to set the highest too much water. There is not enough left so the international standards in minimising the impact herders have to move or sell their animals." on the environment. They plan to build an asphalt road to reduce dust, with underpasses The operators of Oyu Tolgoi acknowledge for migrating animals. They have also promised they have taken surface water until now, which to recycle much of their water.



ONICLEONICLEONICLE CADEMYCADEMYCADEMY AAA CHRCHRCHR IASIASIAS

[26] Chronicle IAS Academy