Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: an Analysis of Compositional Trends from 1795-1822
Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: An Analysis of Compositional Trends from 1795-1822
Chelsea Bloomberg Spring 2007 Dr. Gerald Berthiaume, Advisor School of Music College of Liberal Arts
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Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) is widely recognized as one of the most important composers in music history and his thirty-two piano sonatas are arguably the most significant pieces in their genre. There is an audible distinction between the first and last sonatas, and curiosity about the cause of this disparity, and a love for the music itself, inspired the conception of this study.
Research for this project was focused on analysis of the written music, looking at six specific sonatas chosen from each of the three periods into which Beethoven's music is commonly divided. This is a standard method of finding out what events motivate a musical work. However, even using a typical approach, the results reached by an analyst may differ significantly from those of other researchers, due to the subjectivity inherent in music. In music, chords (three or more notes sounding simultaneously) frequently govern the forward motion of the piece and the order of chords affects this motion; this was the first aspect examined. Treatment of melody is another important part of music which was studied in detai1. The order in which specific themes appear, referred to as
"form," also figures promjnently in music and was another emphasis of the study.
Harmonic analysis proved difficult in some sections of works where there are few explicit chord progressions. In these instances, the main motivator was determined to be the relationship between individual, concurrent melodic lines.
Upon completion of research, it was determined that there are several differences between the works of each period, as well as specific techniques that remain constant throughout all of his sonatas. Initially, the harmonies employed are largely traditional but over time they become more adventurous. Beethoven's treatment of melody also changes over Lime. In the first sonatas, the melodies tend to be lengthy, but by the last sonata the melodic ideas are reduced to only a few notes. From the early sonatas Lo the later sonatas therc is a noticeable shift in volume and thickness of sound. When Beethoven began writing, the piano was a delicate instrument, not nearly as powerful as the modern piano and his first sonatas reflect this. As he continued writing, however, he demanded more volume than the instruments could provide, inspiring changes in the instrument that eventually resulted in today's piano. Throughout all Lhirty-two sonatas, however,
Beethoven retains a highly logical ordering of themes.
Every composer after Beethoven was somehow affected by his works. Some, like
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) considered Beethoven the greatest master and sought to continue in a similar style. Others, such as Frederic Chopin (] 810-1849) and Franz Liszt
(1811-1886), felt that the classicism expressed in the music of Beethoven had reached its ultimate conclusion and thus broke from this style, creating a radical new ideal in their own music. Without Beethoven's adjustments to harmony, melody, and texture, neither of these responses could have occurred and the music of today would be markedly different. The potential methods for expanding this study are numerous. Ideas include performing a full analysis of all of the piano sonatas, analyzing other works of Beethoven
(the symphonies, Lhe quartets, etc.), and studying the works of earlier and later composers to acquire an understanding of precisely how composers approached writing before and after Beethoven. Table of Contents
List of figures 6
Illlroduction 7
Methodology 8
Analytical Considerations 9
The Early Period (1795-1802) 10
Op. 2, No.2 11
Op. 13 "Grande Sonate Patherique" 14
The Middle Period (1802-1812) 18
Op. 53 "Waldstein" 18
Op. 57 "Appassionata" 23
The Late Period (1812-1827) 29
Op. 106 "FiirdasHammerklavier" 30
Op. 110 37
Conclusion 39
Glossary 41
Bibliography 44 List of Figures Figure 1. Op. 2, No.2, III: m. 1-3 13
Figure 2. Op. 13, I: m. 6 15
Figure 3. Op. 13,1: m. J31-J33 16
Figure 4. Op. 13,1: m. 59-61; III: m. 1-2 17
Figure 5. Op.53 I: m. 1-4 19
Figu re 6. Op. 57, I: m. 1 23
Figure 7. Op. 57, I: m. 10 23
Figure 8. Op. 57, III: m. 1-7 28
Figure 9. Op. 57, III: m. 20-22 28
Figure 10. Op. 106, 1: m. 1-2 30
Figure 11. Op. 106, 1: m. 385-387 31
Figure J2. Op. 106, l: m. 4-8 32
Figure 13. Op. 106, IV: m.17-21 35
6 Introduction. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) completed thirty-two piano sonatas between
1795 and 1822. When he published the first opus, a set of three (Op. 2), few could have imagined the extent to which his writing would evolve by the time he published the last sonata, Op. Ill, twenty-seven years later in 1822.
When Beethoven started out as a fresh, young talent from Bonn, Gennany, the world was enamored of classicism, the foci of which are clean lines, clear textures, and, above all, balance. The art, music, and literature of the time looked back to the architecture and sculpture of ancient Greece to find inspiration. Musical classicism reached its pinnacle in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756- I791). Beethoven adored the genius' music, and found in his works inspiration and a model to emulate as well as a shadow from which he must escape. In October of 1790, the young composer copied out a musical excerpt in his sketchbook, writing, "This entire passage has been stolen from the Mozart Symphony in C, where the Andante in six-eight from the ...
[writing breaks off].'" Further down the page, he rewrote the passage, signing it
"Beethoven himself.,,2 This desire to break from the earlier master's style was never fully effected in practice, however, and the influence of Mozart shows even in Beethoven's latest sonatas.
Despite remaining evidence of Mozartean ideals of balance, by the end of
Beethoven's life, he had strayed from the classical ideal fulfilled in Mozart's music. Even the most casual listener can easily discern the difference between Op. 2, No.1 (1795) and
Op. I II (1822). However, hearing the difference is a matter far removed from knowing
I Lewis Lockwood. Bee/hoven: The Music and /he Life (New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005) 57. 2 Lockwood. 57.
7 what precise changes occurred over time to create two works of such disparate character
and construction. The purpose of this research is to discover and describe the changes in
composition style and technique made throughout the twenty-seven years during which
Beethoven composed the thirty-two piano sonatas.
Methodology.
In order to answer the research question, I chose six of the thirty-two piano
sonatas to analyze. These sonatas represent the three standardized divisions of
Beethoven's compositions, including two works from each period. The early period consists of music written between 1792 and 1802, and includes sonatas Op. 2 through
Op. 49. The middle period lasted from 1802 to 1812 and includes sonatas Op. 53 through
Op. 90. The late period lasted from 1812 to Beethoven's death in 1827 and includes the
last fi ve sonatas, Op. 101 through Op. Ill. The sonatas chosen for this study are as follows:
Early period:
Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 2, No.2 (1795)
Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 "Pathetique,,3 (1798/99)
Middle period:
Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 "Waldstein" (1803/04)
Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57 "Appassionata" (1805/05)
Late Period:
Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 "Fur das Hammerklavier" (1817/18)
Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (1821)
} The tilles of Beethoven's sonatas were generally added by the publisher, not by the composer. An exception is Sonata Op. 81 a "Das Lehewohl" ("The Farewell"), which the publisher altered by translating it into French ("Les Adieux").
8 Analysis of these six sonatas included a study of harmonic structure, formal structure,
motivic and melodic elements, phrase style, texture, and relationships between
movements. While studying these pieces, 1 compared findings with the analyses of
Donald Francis Tovey and Charles Rosen, both of whom are weJl-respected for their
studies of Beethoven.
In addition to the study of these works specifically, I also compiled generalized
information on all thirty-two sonatas; this information includes key relationships between
movements, particular points of interest, general formal structures, number of
movements, and use of repeats.
Analytical Considerations.
There are several things to consider when approaching the works of Beethoven
from an historical and analytical perspective. First, we must be careful not to rashly label
a once-used technique as a rule that must be found in subsequent works; Beethoven
sometimes experimented with an idea for one work and never used it again. For example,
after an analysis of Op. 106, it would be an error to declare that all late works of
Beethoven are constructed using third relationships as the basis for harmony and melody.
Second, we must take care not to throw out early ideas as possibilities for his later works; something that was laid aside for several years could suddenly be resurrected to achieve a
desired effect; Lhis principle applies to the clean textures of Op. I 10. When examining
Beethoven's works in terms of three main periods, it is vital to remember that the reality
of any man's work is that it is a continuous flow. Charles Rosen warns against using the
period di visions as a hard rule, saying that there is no distinct break beLween the first two
9 periods and that the second and third periods contain many similar elements. He does not discard the idea entirely, however:
"Whl:n the division into three periotls is retained, it should be clear that it is a fiction for the purposes of
analysis, a l:onvenience for understanding, and nOI a biographical reality. The steady development
tliscernibJc in Beelhoven's career is as important as its discontinuities even if these are easier to describe.
11 is only in comparing works several years apart that the discontinuities assume a demonstrable and
persuasive. sense. "~
This caution should be kept in mind whenever considering the progression of composition technique in Beethoven's works.
The Early Period (1795-1802).
Even though the early works of Beethoven are somewhat imitative of Mozart, he was already disinclined to follow on the heels of convention. Beginning with the first set of sonatas, published in 1795 as Op. 2, he shocked his audiences-and would continue to do so until his death thirty-two years later. Prior to these works, a group of sonatas published together would begin in a major key; the first of the three sonatas from Op. 2 is in F Minor. Also, the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn generally have three movements.
Each of the opus 2 sonatas has four movements. Of course, Beethoven did not add an extra movement for no reason; rather he drew from symphonic literature, the works of which tended to have four movements in the following pattern:
I. Fast, probably in sonata form.
II. Slow, often in simple ternary, but could be in any form.
III. Stylized dance, usually a minuet form.s
·1 Charles Rosen, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart. and Beethoven. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, (972) 1R9. 5 In Beethoven's works, the label of this movement is often scherzo. However, these scherzi are usually in the same three-phrase form as the minuel.
10 IV. Fast, often a rondo or sonata form.
Each of the three opus 2 sonatas follows this format, showing Beethoven's early inclination to expand the scope of piano literature.
Opt 2, No.2.
In the first movement of Op. 2, No.2, the second thematic group (beginning measure 58) wanders into surprising tonalities that would not have been seen in Mozart, and the sound of which our twenty-first century ears simply cannot understand as revolutionary in the way that Beethoven's contemporary audience would have. The chord changes, beginning in E minor and tonicizing G major, B-flat major, D major, and F- sharp minor,6 are dictated by a rising bass line that is used to increase intensity; the ascending bass used in this fashion is an innovation that began with Beethoven and that he used extensively through all three periods.7 At the time, it was the norm to maintain a fairly simple harmonic structure in the exposition of a sonata form movement and this progression so near the beginning of the exposition confounded the expectations of
Beethoven's audience. In the larger harmonic and formal framework, however, the work is fairly conventional; it modulates to the major dominant by the end of the exposition, spends time in closely related keys during the development section, and returns to the material of the exposition without any thematic changes while maintaining the tonic-key framework. 8
6 The chord actually progresses to an F-sharp diminished triad in root position, which is diatonic to the kcy or E minor, ralher than resolving on a chromatically altered chord. 7 Exampks include the first movement or Op. HIa (m. 21-28) and the first movt:rnent of Op. 57 (m.1 09 123). 8 It stays in tonic with the exception of the necessary visitation of the tonic minor (a minor) that parallds the dominant minor section in the exposition. This modulation to the dominant minor hefore, or instead of, the dominant major is common in Beethoven's expositions. Reference Op. 10 No.3, second movement (m. 17-29), Op. 27, No.2, third movement (21-64), and Op. 31, No.2, tirst movement (m. 41-74).
11 The whole of the first movement is mainly constructed from ideas found in the first twenty measures of the work. Though this main idea is long, the treatment of it in the development is more motivic in nature, predicting how Beethoven would treat thematic materiaJ in future works. The development of smaller motives derived from the first group is paI1icularly noticeable in measures 181 and foJlowing, where the two elements from measures 8 and 9 are laid out in Slretto. For the most part, however, Beethoven quotes larger sections of thematic material, as in measures J22-157.
The texture of the first movement is thin, not often using more than three vertical pitches9 on a given beat, and more frequentJy using only two. The marked articulations generaJly indicate lightness; much of the work is marked staccato or is simply unmarked, implying a detached sound. Where slurs are marked, they are lIsually written near a section with a detached sound, which suggests that they are there to enhance dramatic contrast. For example, the first thematic group (m. I-57) contains much staccato, whereas the second thematic group (beginning m. 58) contains no staccato at all; the melody line is instead heaviJy slurred.
In the second movement, Largo appassionato, we again see the transference of symphonic tradition to the piano. The bass part of the main theme is marked staccato sempre, and in performance sounds much like pizzicato on a ceJlo or bass; it accompanies a stateJy, hymn-Jike meJody. As in the first movement, there are few unexpected harmonies, though the sudden explosion of the theme in 0 minor (parallel to 0 major, the main key of the movement) is made by dynamics, marked fortissimo.
Contrasting the grandeur of the sJow movement, the third movement is a bright
9 "Verlical pitchcs" refers 10 pitches that sound simultaneously.
12 scherzo and trio. lo The brief movement is essentially classicist, with a light, clear touch and the two-note slurs typical of the works of Mozart and Haydn.
Its form is the standard three-phrase minuet that was so often used by the earlier masters. The first section is in A major, and the second starts in the dominant key (E major). Aside from a brief interruption in this second section, outlining a new melody in the mediant key of G-sharp minor (utterly remote from the tonic, A major), the harmony is unremarkable.
The fourth movement is labeled Rondo Grazioso. Like the third movement, this delicate rondo ll employs the classical two-note slur extensively, as in measures 2, 8, and
10; these are only a few examples from the 187-measure movement. Another decidedly classicist element is the nearly constant presence of Alberti bass, 12 which was widely used by Beethoven's precursors and contemporaries:
espreJl.
3 i
Fig. I. Op. 2, No.2, IV: m. I-l.
It runs through most of the rondo theme (m. 1-16) and through the entire first episode
(m. 26-40) and the subsequent repetitions of these sections. The only feature that may have caused serious L:Oncern on the part of the contemporary audience is the bombastic
10 These are landed Scherzo and Minore in Ihe score. II II may arguably be in sonala-ronuo form, though in analysis it is important 10 remember thai the form came after Ihe work; allempting to fit a musical work into a specific box can lead 10 useless and often counlerproduciive argumcnlS. 12 Alberli bass is a style of accompanimelll cnaraeleri7.ed ny a nroken chord with ilS members in Ihe pallern 1-5-3-5.
13 middle section, in A minor (parallel of the original key). It initially bursts forth in ful1 chords in the left hand played against highly chromatic right hand triplets. The patterns formed by the chromatic right hand are, despite the shocking contrast against the elegant outer sections, fairly simple, strictly organized figurations.
Op. 13 "Grande Sonate Pathetique."
Three years after Op. 2, Beethoven published Sonata Op. 13 in C minor. It begins with an entirely different character than his previous works, which included the three opus 2 sonatas and six other sonatas. 13 According to Donald Francis Tovey, the publisher bestowed the title Patherique, declaring that the tone of the work "utterly eclipsed,,14 the keyboard style of al1 earlier masters, including Mozart. However, Tovey points out that, despite its external grandeur, its actual core ideas are not as profound as those of
Mozart's works in the same key. IS
The first movement begins with an introduction, marked Grave, in the tempo of a
French overture l6 and much of its material is expressed in the French style's characteristic dotted rhythms. The harmony in this section is somewhat unstable, though it primarily uses tonic and dominant in C minor. Several measures briefly tonicize the mediant (E-flat major), the subtonic (B-flat major), and the dominant (G major) by use of secondary dominants. However, these borrowed dominant chords do not always resolve, instead progressing to the next chord in stepwise motion and with shared tones:
13 These eighl works include lwo thaI were published laler in his career, Op. 49, Nos. I and 2. 14 Donald Francis Tovcy, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas (Complete Analyses) (New York: AMS Press, 1931) 68. I~ Tovey, 68. 16 This is a style that began in the 1650s with Jean Baptiste Lully (J 632-1687), the distinguishing features of which include a slow tempo, dolled rhythms, and suspensions.
14 ,,~,I I • -'.... ~ ~
Fig.2. Op. 13, I: m. 6.
A major motivator of this introduction is the contrast betweenj(me and piano. The first chord is marked jjJ, indicating that the notes following the j(nte chord should be much softer; this indication also occurs on the downbeats of measures 3 and 9. Other measures
in the introduction have crescendos followed by piano, implying suhito piano.
The exposition is marked Allegro di molto e con brio and begins softly. The opening phrase is a standard eight-bar phrase with a symmetrical rising and falling contour (four bars ascending, four bars descending). To modulate to the second thematic group, Beethoven uses a secondary dominant of the subtonic in the home key of C minor
(an A diminished chord resolving to a B-flat major chord, beginning in m. 42). In turn, the subtonic becomes the dominant of the new key, E-flat minor (m. 51). As in many of his sonata expositions, Beethoven here tonicizcs the parallel of the final exposition key area, the relative major 17 (E-flat major), in the first section of the second group, saving
the strength of the destination key for greater effect at the end of the exposition.
Rosen calls the beginning of the development "novel" IR in that it brings back a segment of the Grave introduction, this time in G minor, coming from E-flat major by
way of a 0 dominant seventh chord; at the first ending of the exposition this chord
progressed to V7NI in E-flat major (a G dominant seventh chord), leading back to the
17 The final key area of the exposition eould also be the dominanl in either major or minor key works. 18 Charles Rosen, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002) 142.
15 original key. At the second ending, instead of proceeding elsewhere, it simply repeats an octave lower to prepare for the restatement of the introduction:
h~. 11. " l 4 . 'fl~mp~ __:0 G ~3 b~f ~ 1":\ r.'\ -- " -
fI r~ tf~ !! U- = J~; (J ~o;; 0" ~;; Fig. 3. Op. 13,1: rn. 131-133.
Later in the development, there are passages that lack thematic development, using arpeggios, broken octaves, and tremolos to heighten tension and drive toward the next segment of thematic development (e.g., m. 160-171). The recapitulation is orthodox, moving briefly to the subdominant (F minor) in the second group before reaching the home tonic. Unlike the first movement of Op. 2, No.2, this sonata-form movement has a small coda (m. 295-310) that begins with a brief restatement of the introduction, a device that Rosen suggests was borrowed from Mozart's viola quintet in D major. 19
The second movement, a slow rondo in A-flat major, provides a contrast to the minor-key drama of the first movement. The form is simple, consisting of the rondo theme three times with two episodes and a coda. As is often the case in this form, the last occurrence of the rondo theme is varied, in this instance changing the steady sixteenth accompaniment in the middle voice to sixteenth-note triplets. The keys to which the movement modulates include the relative minor (F minor) in the first episode (m. 16/17
28) and the parallel minor in the second episode (m. 36/37-50); neither key would be considered unusual by Beethoven's contemporaries. The movement ends with an eight- bar coda (m. 66-73).
1\1 Rosen, Companion 143.
16 The third movement rondo theme is based on a direct quote from the beginning of
the second thematic group in the first movement:
First movement m 59-61. TIurd movement,m. ~ -2~, ~'1'~¥-zrt .'- sf p
'0" I'''' ,. ;l ...
Fig. 4. Op. 13, [ and III.
Though set in the melancholy key of C minor, this movement tends toward a lighter and
sometimes even humorous or sprightly tone. This is due to the quantity of material
written in the major mode. The first episode (m. 25-50) is in E-f1at major (III), the second
episode (m. 78-120) is in A-flat major (VI), and the return of thc first episode (m 134
170) is in C major (I, parallel to the original tonic). The coda (m. 182-210) of this rondo
is nearly twice as long as the rondo theme. Unlike the codas in the previous two
movements, instead of simply confimling the tonic by repeating dominant and tonic (or just tonic) this section uses the Neapolitan harmony (m. 198) and tonicizes VI (A-flat
major) in measures 199-207 in a major-mode rendition of the head of the rondo theme;
these instances of major mode so close to the end prevent the work from being wholly
serious, despite the fiery C minor ending (m. 206/207-210).
Even more than the relatively simple harmony and form of the movements, the
use of articulation and phrasing allies the opus 13 sonata with the earlier sonatas. Apart
from the dramatic introduction, the prevailing texture in the first movement is light, filled
with staccato and two-note slurs. Additionally, in the second theme group, Beethoven
used Baroque-style ornamentation on the first notc of each two-note slur (m. 57, 77, 8 1
17 88). [n the third movement rondo theme, the phrasing is decidedly classical, contrasting slurs with staccato in the melody. The first episode contains a portato-touch chorale
theme (m. 43/44-51). All of these connect the sonata to the early period.
The Middle Period (1802-1812).
The works of the middle period are, in part, a fulfillment of the promises sown in the first sonatas. Many of the elements that Beethoven introduced in the first period are
now brought to a greater fullness in the six sonatas of 1802-1810. Significantly,
Beethoven wrote a total of twenty sonatas in the precedi ng period. It is possible that the reduced number of sonatas during the middle period is due to Beethoven focusing on other genres, including chamber music and symphonies (six of the nine symphonies were composed in this period). Additionally, the sonatas of the early nineteenth century are, in general, much larger than most of the early works. Performance length is not significantly
increased, but in the middle period less material is encased in repeat signs. Also, the overall scope greatly increased after 1802, as will be discussed in analyses of the works.
Opt 53 HWaldstein."
This work is what most analysts consider the first sonata in the middle period.
The opening is drastically different from the openings of previous sonatas. One
interesting detail is that the right hand starts lower than in any of the previous sonatas by a major third,2o beginning on C3 and E3?1 More important, however, is the course of the first 13 measures. Texturally, it is unlike the light, clean sound of the opus 2 sonatas, despite the presence of many scalar motions. The left hand is rhythmically locked with
the right hand in steady, quick eighths, giving it a rhythmic drive never seen before, even
20 The second lowest slarling point was the opening of Op. 27, No.2, the so-called "Moonlighl" sonata. 21 Reckoning A440 as A4.
18 in Beethoven's more adventurous early works. This left hand bass descends chromatically by half-step,22 moving to the root position dominant seventh chord in measure 9. The first phrase (m. 1-4) is composed of three motives, the third of which is closely related to the second:
(a) '\1I."rr~I 1'1' Fig. 5. Op. 53, I: m. 1-4. These four bars contain much of the material from which the 302-measurc movement develops, a feat which Beethoven had not previously accomplished, though this motivic construction was foreshadowed in early works.23 The ways in which Beethoven modifies these motives to transform the complete theme, and to create new themes, show how 24 much his composition skiJJs grew in the few years between Op. l3 and Op. 53. Thc full first statement of the theme (m. 1- 13) is based almost completely on the (c) motive. In the counterstatement of the theme (beginning m. 14), Beethoven again imitates the orchestra by creating an orchestral tremolo using the same pitches as in the first phrase; this tremolo is used in later passages as connective material between major divisions (m. 68). The transitional passage in measures 20-30 is an extension of the (c) motive which recurs in other sections throughout the movement. As in the first episode of the third movement of Op. 13, Op. 53 uses a chorale-style melody in the second theme group (m. 35-87). In Op. 13, the chorale melody (m. 153/154-170) is separated from the surrounding material 22 Roscn points out that this is much smoother voice leading than in previous works. (Rosen, Companion IRO.) 23 Reference the /irst movement of Op. 2. No.2 (m. 181-203). 24 In Op. 13, the motivie tlevelopmcnt was significantly more limited, mostly existing as a cyclic element. Reference the second theme of the first movement (rn. 51) and the rondo theme of the final movement (m. I). 19 in Beethoven's more adventurous early works. This left hand bass descends chromatically by half-step,22 moving to the root position dominant seventh chord in measure 9. The first phrase (m. 1-4) is composed of three motives, the third of which is closely related to the second: (c) (a) .\lIrlfrolroo .rlo J: 118 -.,t • 11 ~ Fig. 5. Op. 53, I: ITI. 1-4. These four bars contain much of the material from which the 302-measure movement develops, a feat which Beethoven had not previously accomplished, though this motivic 23 construction was foreshadowed in early works. The ways in which Beethoven modifies these motives to transform the complete theme, and to create new themes, show how 24 much his composition skills grew in the few years between Op. 13 and Op. 53. The full first statement of the theme (m. 1-13) is based almost completely on the (c) motive. In the counterstatement of the theme (beginning m. 14), Beethoven again imitates the orchestra by creating an orchestral tremolo using the same pitches as in the first phrase; this tremolo is used in later passages as connective material between major divisions (m. 68). The transitional passage in measures 20-30 is an extension of the (c) motive which recurs in other sections throughout the movement. As in the first episode of the third movement of Op. 13, Op. 53 uses a chorale-style melody in the second theme group (m. 35-87). In Op. 13, the chorale melody (m. 153/154-170) is separated from the surrounding material 22 Rosen points out thaI lhis is much smoolher voice leading than in previous works. (Rosen, Companion IRO.) 23 Reference the firsl movement of Op. 2, No.2 (m. 181-2m). 2,1 In Op. 13, the motivic devdopmcnt was significantly more limited, moslly existing as a cyclic clement. Relerence the second theme of the first movement (m. 51) and the rondo theme of the final movement (m. I). 19 by pauses on either end. In Op. 53, Beethoven creates greater unity within the work by overlapping materials. Beginning in bar 42, the chorale melody repeats one octave higher and with new accompaniment in triplets. When a new melody enters in bar 50, this accompaniment figure is retained, easing the transition. This technique of overlapping ideas is also used in the coda (m. 261-266), where the original theme occurs in the bass while the right hand performs a new melody in descending, syncopated octaves. The development makes economic use of materials from the exposition. Bars 93-111 develop (b) and (c), the last bar of which adds triplet accompaniment before moving to a development of the second thematic group in bar I 12. This sparing use of materials continues to be refined in Beethoven's later works. Harmonically, Op. 53 is also the most tightly constructed of the first 21 sonatas. Most of the progressions involve an exchange between a triad and a dominant seventh and most involve stepwise motion; the first several chords in the exposition are C major, o dominant seventh in third inversion, G major in first inversion, B-flat major, D dominant seventh in third inversion, F major in first inversion, and G dominant seventh. None of these chords are approached by leap and this stepwise motion is found throughout the extensive first movement. The brief second movement is as classically balanced and structured as any of Beethoven's early works. The form is simple ternary which Rosen further defines as an arioso with an orchestral prelude and postlude?5 However, within this simple framework, the harmonies and phrases are quite free. The norm for classical phrases is an even number of measures in each phrase, usually four or eight; the first phrase of the lntroduzione Adagio malta is nine bars long. As in the first movement, the harmony 25 Rosen, Companion_ISS. 20 progresses linearly, descending by half-step from tonic (F) to dominant (C) before making any leaps.26 As the bass steps down, Beethoven harmonizes it with surprising chords; in the second measure, he moves to an E major chord27 by using an Italian augmented-sixth chord borrowed from A major; the augmented-sixth chord has an F in the bass and is therefore effective for making a smooth transition to a chord with an E in the bass. In the following measure, the key changes to the parallel of E major (E minor), from which Beethoven creates a leading-tone chord that tonicizes B major in first inversion (D-sharp in the bass). The unrelated chords continue, ruled by the bass line, until it comes full circle to the augmented-sixth chord native to F major, leading back to the horne dominant for four bars of cadence that end the prelude section. It is important to notice that though the harmony is decidedly non-classical, Beethoven does not fail to properly resolve each foreign dominant-functioning chord, showing that he was not simply rejecting tonal harmony, but drawing it out to its fullest potential. Following this phrase, the arioso begins, starting with the motive from measure 1. It is highly chromatic, but the downbeat of every bar is either tonic or dominant. It ends with the same cadence found in measure 8 and on the downbeat of measure 9. The postlude is nearly identical to the prelude, but with added broken-chord figurations where there are rests or longer note values in the first rendition. Beginning in measure 22, the postlude breaks down into repetitions of the main motive with a chromatically descending bass line, which stops when it reaches G (m. 25). Above the G is the original tonic, F. Together, these pitches 26 There is, however, a leap between the first two pitch classes - low F octave to the next-higher E octave, which was the lowest possible E on his piano. Presumably Beethoven preferred the deeper sound of the h lowest F's on the 19" century piano, but there were not enough keys to make the full descent [0 dominant at that level. 27 NOle thaI E rnajor is as dislanl a key from F major as possible. The only chord beginning on an E in either F major or minor is a diminished lriad. However, it filS the descending chromatic bass and is therefore necessary. 21 frame the dominant seventh chord of the next movement. However, this chord is not retained for the entirety of the last four measures of the second movement. 1n bar 26, Beethoven chromatically raises the bass to form the fully-diminished leading-tone seventh chord of A minor, which is the mediant of F major (home tonic), and the submediant of the new key. This resolves as expected and progresses to 0 minor (subdominant of A minor, submediant of F major, and supertonic of C major, to which key it modulates). The final chord is G major, with a fermata marked over the last eighth note, G5. The second movement ends with the indication Attacca subito ii Rondo. The material used in the third movement is simpler than that found in the first movement and is Jess serious in nature, as is the tendency in most rondos. Yet, it is the largest of the three movements and the most elaborate.28 The form of the piece is simpler than the Op. 2, No.2 rondo discussed earlier: A-B-A-C-A'-B'-Coda (A"). A cursory glance through the pages shows that this rondo has a completely differenl character from the earlier work, revealed through its articulation. While there are staccato passages, there are no longer phrases with a mix of staccato and legato, nor is there a high volume of two-note slurs as in the first period sonatas already discussed. Technical difficulties not seen before also figure prominently in this movement, including octave glissandi, long trills (nearly forty measures), double trills, and trills below melody notes in one hand.29 The power demonstrated in both this movement and the first movement is continued and increased in later sonatas of the period. 2M Rosen, Companion 187. 29 Rosen, Cumpanion 188. 22 Op. 57 "Appassionala." Sonata Op. 57 in F minor was written approximately a year after Op. 53 and continues the previous sonata's motivic construction, intensity, and power. This is the second of only two piano sonatas that end tragically. As Tovey says, "All his other pathetic finales show either an epilogue in some legendary or later world far away from the tragic scene (the quartets in F minor and A minor) or a temper, fighting, humorous, or resigned, that does not carry with it a sense of tragic doom.,,3o Though the middle movement is peaceful and bright, Tovey caUs it "a dream that must be shattered.,,31 The first movement is based on two motives; one motive (a) is a descending triad, in a long-short-Iong rhythm: (a) Fig. 6. Or. 57, I: m. I The second is what is commonly referred to as the "fate" theme (b),32 a pattern of three notes of equal rhythmic value followed by a note of longer value: "fate" Fig. 7. Op. 57, I: m. 10. As in the Waldstein, much of the sonata is built from these simple motives. The first page of Op. 57 also visually contrasts earlier works. The hands are in rhythmic unison-like 31) Tovey, 177. 11 Tovey, 177. 32 The most well-known use of this motive is in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C Minor, completed in 1807. 23 Op. 53-and are two octaves apart for the first two measures?3 Frequently, there are long rests at the ends of phrases, a feature not often seen in the early period.34 The dynamic landscape in this sonata is more explosive than that of the Waldstein, with sudden changes from pianissimo to fortissimo and back. The details are also more painstaking than in earlier works. For example, the first phrase ends on the downbeat of measure 4 with a quarter note followed by an eighth rest; the time signature is 12/8, so it would be more expedient to write a dolled quarter note. Instead, Beethoven took the time and effort to indicate this rhythm at each recurrence, proving his interest in creating a precise effect. The first phrase (m. 1-4) outlines the tonic triad (F minor) using motive (a), descending and ascending; it leads to a cadence on the dominant. This is followed by a long rest and a restatement in the Neapolitan (m. 4/5-8) key of G-f1at major, this time with a cadence on D-f1at major. After a rest, the cadence is repeated in C major, with the rests filled in with the "fate" theme repeating on D-flat and C. The cadence recurs, leading to a dialogue between the D-f1at and C "fate" motive in the left hand and another version of "fate" in the right hand that outlines the leading-tone triad, marked poco ritardando and ppp. This erupts in aforte descending arpeggiation of the leading-tone triad which moves deceptively to D-flat major in first inversion before the dominant in first inversion. After a fermata on the dominant, the counterstatement of the theme begins, again in F minor. Instead of giving the complete pianissimo theme, Beethoven writes only the first two notes of the original statement before suddenly bursting into fortissimo, ascending treble chords against low, static bass chords on F minor. This occurs on tonic again and twice on the dominant, with the last measure (m. 23) executing :13 These measures reeur throughout the first movement in different keys. .14 Though it is not seen as oflen in early Beethoven. rests interrupting the melodic line are frequent in the music of Haydn. 24 a common-tone modulation to the parallel of the relative key (A-flat minor). Measures 24-34 are dominant preparation for the second thematic group in A-flat majur. Notice that the length of connecti ve material in the middle period is greater than in the early period. In a way similar to connective passages in the Waldstein, this segment overlaps a new emphasis on the dominant of A-flat major (or minor) with the (a) motive from the opening, leading smoothly into the second thematic group, in A-flat major; the theme is based on motive (a), both in rhythm and in triadic contuur. This second theme moves to a non-thematic transition roughly based in A-flat minor and descending in groups of three eighth notes toward the next theme, in A-flat minor. This new theme is tied to the "fate" motive in that its melody notes are in a pattern of 10ng-short-shOit-short-long. The ear does not cunsciously perceive this relationship, but there is a sense of unity between the three themes of the exposition that the ear comprehends. The exposition ends with arpeggiation on an A-flat minor triad in the high treble while the bass slowly traces the triad downward to the lowest A-flat. The development begins with the opening motive on the enharmonic respelling of A-flat minor as G-sharp minor. This chord is then altered for a common-tone modulation to E major (enharmonic to VI of A-flat minor).The first theme is developed until measure 78 before modulating to E minor (distant from F minor), from which the (a) motive continues to develop, passing through C minor (dominant minor) and A-flat major (relative major) spread across five octaves. The section ends with arpeggiated alternation between the leading-tone seventh of the supertonic in A-flat (A diminished seventh) and the dominant ninth of the subdominant (A-flat dominant seventh), though these changes are simply heard as chromatic steps in the bass rather than as functional chords. After two 25 measures of chromatic alternations, the bass lands on A-nat as the dominant seventh of D-flat major. The dominant preparation segment from the exposition is developed, occurring almost exactly as in the exposition, but with a melodic tail that centers on the dominant pedal in the left hand, leading to the second thematic group in D-flat major. This theme proceeds as in the exposition until the beginning of its fourth measure (m. I 13), where it modulates to F major (V7 moving to Ill), a chromatic mediant of the local key; the modulation occurs to accommodate the chromatically rising bass line. This bass line continues rising until measure 123, moving through B-flat minor, G-f1at major, and C major in the process. The final step from m. 122 to m.123 is from C to D-flat, bringing the harmony to a diminished seventh chord with its root on E, the leading tone of the original key. This harmony is arpeggiated for seven bars, ascending and descending, to reach a D-flat in the bass, whereupon the "fate" motive occurs both under and over a rumbling leading-tone triad in first inversion. After two bars, the "fate" motive introduces C as its final pitch, reintroducing the dominant for the entry of the recapitulation. Surprisingly, there is no root position tonic harmony at the beginning of the recapitulation (m. 134). Rather, the repeated dominant pedal beneath the tonic harmony creates a brooding tension, unsettling the listener by forbidding the relaxation brought by a solid return to tonic. This pedal continues throughout the whole of the first group, shifting to D-flat for the Neapolitan repetition of the theme. The theme is varied further in the counterstatement (m. 151-163) by changing the tonic minor to the tonic major, giving the impression that perhaps the tragic tone of the work will change. The theme is repeated twice in the dominant and twice on the leading tone (once as a triad, once as a seventh 26 chord), dispelling the momentary triumph of F major. From here, the recapitulation proceeds as expected, with the second theme in F major and the third theme in F minor. The coda unfolds from an extension of the closing material; the ending arpeggios continue, forming the first theme from the tonic triad, the dominant seventh of the submediant (D-flat major), and the submediant. The second theme appears in the submediant key of D-flat major, again with a chromatically climbing bass moving toward G-fIat major. Seventeen measures of arpeggios bring the harmony back to the original key with the dominant ninth chord. The "fate" motive returns (m. 235) on the dominant ninth harmony, ending adagio and piano with a fermata. The Piu Allegro (m. 239) begins subito fortissimo on the first theme. The final section of the piece is essentially confirmation of the tonic on basic chords of the key (i, iio, and V). The last measures diminish from piano to pianissimo on the tonic triad. The second movement, a set of slow variations in the submediant key CD-flat major), is an extreme contrast to the first movement. This is one of the simplest slow movements ever written by Beethoven. The theme is in two repeated eight-bar phrases, it does not have any secondary tonalities (except at the transition to the finale), and the variations do not alter the form of the theme. The primary feature of the variations is an increase in rhythmic activity. The first variation changes the steady quarter rhythm to eighths with an offset bass. The second uses sixteenths as the accompaniment material and the third uses thirty-seconds. The fourth variation returns to the rhythm of the original theme, with octave displacements. Instead of the tonic cadence found at measure sixteen, however, it moves to the leading-tone seventh chord of the mediant, F minor, 27 pianissimo and with a fermata. The diminished-seventh chord is repeated an octave higher,fortissimo, again with a fermata and the indication altacca ['Allegro. The finale, Allegro ma non troppo, begins with the leading-tone seventh chord as dominant preparation and as part of a nineteen-bar introductory statement. The opening motive traces the leading-tone triad in stepwise motion: L-.J a Fig. 8. Op. 57 III: 1-7 It twice repeats itself an octave lower and then dissolves into a sequence moving toward tonic. The first theme is based on two motives, one of which is part of the opening run: Ob) (c) n ~._! (!;l •• Fig. 9. Op. 57 III: rn. 20-22. As in the first movement, the original statement is in tonic and the foHowing statement is in the Neapolitan key. Throughout the movement there is continued emphasis on the Neapolitan. Also, like the first movement, the majority of the movement is related to material found in the first thematic group; there is no development of the second theme group at all. The most interesting formal feature of the movement is the repeat of the development along with the recapitulation just before the coda. This had been done before, but only when the exposition also had a marked repeat. Tovey theorizes that this 28 is because it delays the introduction of a new, completely unrelated theme in the coda, building up the tension to greatest effect; he refers to bars 168-211 of the development as a "crisis" that the audience would find uncomfortable to listen to twice.35 The repeat gives it something of the nature of a rondo, with a theme that returns frequently. This is doubtless why Tovey refers to the new theme in the development (m. 142-157) as an episode. The harmony of the final movement is no more adventurous than that of the first, but with greater emphasis on subdominant harmony36 and its Neapolitan (a tritene from F minor) in the development section. The new theme introduced in the coda is marked presto, beginning with a phrase in tonic and ending with the same phrase in the relative major. This phrase transitions back to the main theme which continues,jorle, confirnling the final, tragic F minor tonic. The Late Period (1812-1827). Beethoven wrote all of the late sonatas after he was fully deaf and could not hear himself play the piano. It is in this time of deafness that Beethoven's works are most experimental. However, this may simply be a coincidence; Beethoven had struggled with deafness beginning in the early 1800s and had never shown difficulty in imagining the sounds of his own compositions. There are only five late sonatas,37 Opp. 101, 106, 109, 110, and Ill. All except Op. 10938 have a movement that is either a fugue or that contains a fugate section. J) Tovey, IR6. 36 Traditionally, the subdominant harmony is more relaxed in nature. 37 Rosen considers Op. 90 as part of the late period, giving us six late sonatas (Rosen, Companion 208). Jti II is arguable whether the fifth variation in the final movement of Op. 109 (01. 113-152) is a fugato. As with most definitions in musical form,fugato is an unclear designation. Regardless, this variation is a four voice contrapuntal work clearly tied 10 fugal traditions. 29 Op. 106 "Fiir das Hammerklavier." This is one of the most experimental of all Beethoven's works, for keyboard or for other instruments. It is in four movements-the first four-movement sonata since Op. 31, NO.3-and takes over forty minutes to perform. Beethoven alters the previous symphonic-movement format by reversing the dance movement and the slow movement for dramatic purposes. The two sonata-form movements (I and III) and the dance movement (11) are all fairly conventional in form; the forms serve to contain Beethoven's nontraditional treatment of material. The first movement is a standard sonata form in B-flat major with the exposition repeated. As in the middle period sonatas, the bulk of the sonata is built from a few small ideas: b -.1 (';\ ... - _...- II &~ 1.... (';\ ( ff I && &41&-.:. I": .& •• ~- ~ , ~J ~I * Fig. 10. Op. 106 I: Ill. 1-2 The whole of the movement is based obsessively on descending third modulations and progressions (often inverted as ascending sixths), rather than on the time-tested circle of fifths. These relationships exist both on the large scale and within the main sections. Another major motivator of the work is the tension between the tonic, B-flat, and B natural; at its most extreme this B-natural is part of the key of B minor, as unrelated to B flat major as is possible. The harmonic framework for the entire movement is as follows: 30 Exposition: First group in B-Oar major, moving to G major for the second group. Development: E-Ilat major for the first part, moving to B major (enharmonic to C-tlat) for the end. Recapitulation: First group in B-Oat major and G-llat major. The transition is in B minor which returns to B-flat major. The climax of a sonata form movement would typically be just before the recapitulation. However, the tension caused by the modulation to B minor overshadows the drama of the development, displacing the sonata's climax. This half-step tension is exploited in the coda as accompaniment to the opening theme, rolling between G-flat and F: t Fig. 11. Op. 106 I: m. 385-387. The use of thirds is ever-present in small scale, within individual phrases or measures. The (c) motive of the opening statement (m. 2) is a descending third. The (d) motive from the second theme of the first group (m. 4/5) spans a third. Many of the melodic leaps in measures 16-26 are thirds. The fugato opening of the development makes extensive use of harmonic thirds, culminating in a four part texture with harmonic thirds in contrary motion between the hands. Tn addition to the extraordinary and constant presence of thirds, there are other elements that set this sonata apart from earlier works (and even from later works). The bass line, though often conforming to a classical, homophonic style, frequently wanders, as in measures 5-16: 31 Fig. J2. Op. J06 I m. 4-8 These rambling accompaniments in the opening contain accidentals that hint at modulations to come; the f-sharps in measures 6, 10, and 15, for example, point toward G major. This is also foreshadowed in the melody of measures 21-26. Additionally, the sprawling accompaniments contain unusual leaps of tritones, augmented thirds, or diminished thirds. The movement also features an expansion of Beethoven's idea of the function of trills begun in the Waldstein sonata. Here, the triJJ is no longer simply a decoration, but has become a device for increasing excitement at the end of the recapitulation (m. 338-343) and in the coda (m. 365-372), where the trilJ is doubled in the inner voices with each hand playing an additional outer voice. This work is more technically demanding and more powerful than previous works, testing the limits of the instrument and the performer. The texture is thick, often involving chords of five notes in both hands, spread across the keyboard for a full sound. Beethoven never considered the comfort of his performers, and there are many reaches of tenths, as in measures 75-84 and 159-161, which is a large stretch even on the narrower keys of the nineteenth century piano. The second movement scherzo is more conventional than most of Beethoven's earlier dance movements, lacking any interruptions of the basic structure. The repeats are written out, with the repeat of the first phrase and the paired second and third phrases an octave higher. The only formally unsettling aspect of the scherzo is its opening phrase, 32 which is a nontraditional seven bars long. Thematically, the main rhythm mimics that of the first movement's opening statement and its fixation on the contrast of B-f1at and B natural. The scherzo is in B-flat major, moving to B-flat minor in the trio. The trio is built on a contrasting rhythm of running triplet accompaniment, with a melody in quarter notes; as in the scherzo, the repeats are written out. After this point, the movement is no longer traditional; at the end of the trio there is a second trio (01. 81- I 11) marked presto and in 2/4 meter (the previous sections were in 3/4 meter). It is in standard three-phrase form, the first phrase of which is composed of unharmonized eighth notes separated by eighth rests. It is also in B-f1at minor and the last phrase cadences on the dominant, F major. This leads to a transitional passage-not traditional in this form--that includes a long cadenza-like, unmeasured scale ascent in F major. After a pause, there is a return to 3/4 with a pedaled tremolo on the dominant ninth. After three quarter rests, the scherzo returns, now marked dolce but with few other changes. The coda (01. 153-175) creates more tension between B-f1at and B-natural, initially using the main motive of the movement, but in measure 159 it changes to double octaves that alternate between B-fJat in a higher register and B-natural an octave lower. After a repetition of B-natural, A sharp follows (enharmonic to the previous B-flats), suggesting B-minor; the main motive traces this harmony and there are five pianissimo iterations of the B-natural octave, which lead to a sudden, violent explosion of the same octave played fifteen times (six in a higher octave), abruptly cut off by a shift to B-f1at. The opening motive played three times finishes the movement in B-flat major. The third movement begins a half-step lower than the second ended. This first measure was added to the movement after the initial sketch, perhaps to create this half 33 step relationship that js so important to the precedjng movements. The opening measure also adds to the ambiguity of the piece, not firmly establishing the tonal center (F-sharp minor) until the second measure. In this movement, the third motion is continued, especially in the development section. As a whole, the movement is highly decorative and chromatic, sounding almost Chopinesque in style, particularly at the recapitulation (beginning in m. 88). Beethoven further demonstrates his ability to transform and vary returning themes at the return of the transition between the first and second groups (m. 113). The first time, the progression is from a dominant-functioning chord to the tonic (m. 27). Upon the return, however, Beethoven took the opportunity to move from the dominant to the submediant in a deceptive progression, creating a new dramatic effect while at the same time achieving a modulation to 0 major. The fourth movement is the most radical, despite employing only traditional devices of Baroque fugal counterpoint. Like the previous transition between movements, the final chord of the third movement (F-sharp major) moves down a half step to F; each F on the keyboard sounds in ascending order beginning on FI, as though testing the keyboard's compass. Rosen calls this introduction to the fugue "The Birth of Counterpoint,',39 and rightly so, for it spends time exploring different styles of counterpoint in an improvisatory fashion, without bar lines (though the time signature indicates common time). The key does not remain constant, and immediately moves from the F established at first, with syncopated chords descending in the ubiquitous thirds. There arc three different approaches to counterpoint in three different tempi, each separated by syncopated chords and a fermata: the first is a three part texture in G-f1at major, Lar!?o; the bass descends on G-f1at, E-f1at, and B, leading to the second W Rosen, Companion 226. 34 contrapuntal entry (Un poco piit vivace) in B major in two voices, consisting of scalar patterns in contrary motion, landing on F-sharp major; the bass descends from B to G- sharp for a G-sharp minor exercise (Allegro) in two voices. This last entry grows in volume and breaks off suddenly with a rest and fermata on the downbeat of measure 8, as though Beethoven chose to harshly reject these Baroque-style examples of counterpoint. The bass descends yet again in thirds, from G-sharp to A. In measure 9, all A's sound in the same way as the opening F's, revealing that the last page has simply been a long-form descending third progression from F to A; these pitch classes will form the head of the fugue subject. This long-range focus is entirely new to Beethoven's sonatas. The introduction finishes by continuing the chain of thirds in the bass; the final descent is a fourth40 from D to A. From the A, an A major chord is built, in a section marked prestissimo, the A major triad is repeated fortissimo and gradually fades to pianissimo. The A descends to F to begin the Allegro riso/uto fugue. Bars 11-]5 anticipate the fugue subject with treble trills and tenth-leaps in the bass. The subject, which enters in bar 16, is within the realm of possibility for a Baroque subject, staying within the interval of a tenth and containing only a few important developmental motives: 0' 0'1 " • (a) . (b) (c) (d) Fig. 13. Op. 106 IV: rn. J7-21 <10 Sketches show that Beethoven initially planned this last descent as a third. The third apparently caused unnecessary prohlerns and was subsequently rejected. 35 The only nonstandard feature of the subject is the prominence of its trill. Typicalty, in Baroque and Classical fonns, the trill is purely decorative. In this fugue, Beethoven uses it as a motivic element, as is apparent throughout. Unlike the first three movements of the sonata, the fourth movement is not in any orthodox form. Rather, it combines the fugue setting with rondo and variation forms. 41 Every recurrence of the complete subject uses a different contrapuntal device, each of which forms a new variation. The episodes are largely formed from fragments of the subject or from one of the two countersubjects. Two "independent episodes," longer than most of the other episodes, and an individually introduced third subject take the aspect of rondo-form digressions. The fonn of this movement can be summa.rized thus: First statements (fugue exposition) (m. 16-40) Episode (m. 4 I-51) Subject with reversed accents in D-f1at major (m. 5\/52-60) Episode (60/61-65) Answer (65-70) in response to entry in m. 5\ Episode (7 1-84) "Independent Episode" in G-f1at major (m. 85-93) Subject in Augmentation in E-flat minor (m.94-129) Return of "Independent Episode" in A-flat major (\30-152) Subject in Retrograde in B minor with new subject (153- I95) Re-entry of original subject in D major (154-207) Subject in Inversion in G major (208-234) Episode with move toward V of D major (235-249) Exposition and Development of short third subject in D major (250-278) First and Third Subjects in B-ftat Major (279-293) Subject in Inversion and StretLo (294-317) Formal Peroration (318-358) Final Entry in Tonic (359-366) Coda, beginning in E-flat major (367-400) The organization of this movement, and the preceding movements, is impeccably logical. However, the third and fourth movements sound conspicuously free and 41 The final movement of Beethoven's Symphony No.9 in D Minor (J 824) is in a similar hybrid form. 36 improvisational. This is a hallmark of the mastery found in Beethoven's final period: the reconciliation of strict organization with improvisation. Op.l10. After Op. 106, Beethoven backed away from extreme experimentalism. Op. 110 is shorter and simpler, but continues the idea of unifying elements between movements, despite the contrast of character from one movement to another. Each movement contains at least one of two formative elements: ascending or descending fourths and ascending or descending sixths filled in with passing tones. The first movement is in A-flat major, marked Moderato cantabile molto espressivo. The opening uses the distinctive parallel fourths motive (m. 5-8). The melody that begins in measure 5 has a completely orthodox homophonic accompaniment that could have been transferred from any of his earlier sonatas. The harmony is simple, not straying far from the tonic as did some earlier works (notably, Op. 53). The transition (m. 12- I9) is non-thematic, simply serving as a graceful transition to the secondary thematic group. The second group begins in the highest register of Beethoven's piano, tracing out a two-bar theme that is repeated with syncopation. Transitioning to the next theme, Beethoven uses descending trills in the bass, a technique that would not have been found in his early works; the trills make it easier to create an effective crescendo and increase tension by the introduction of nonharmonic tones. The development (m. 40-55), starting in the dominant, is quite smalJ-16 bars long-and simple, modulating only to F minor, D-f1at major, and B-f1at minor; all of these are closely related to the original key. As was Beethoven's tendency in middle and late works, he does not simply repeat the exposition material in the recapitulation, but varies it. In measures 56-62 he uses a bass line 37 reminiscent of the transition from the exposition to accompany the opening melody in the tonic key, similar to the overlapping techniques discussed in Op. 53 and Op. 57. There are three bars added to the end of the opening motives to transition to the subdominant key area in the second melody. After beginning in the subdominant, the theme begins a smooth modulation to E major for the transition. The second group is approached from E major by chromaticism that leads back to A-flat (G-sharp to G-natural in the treble, E sharp to E to E-flat in the bass). The movement continues to progress without surprises until it closes gently on the tonic triad. The second movement is a standard three-phrase minuet form in F minor. Its only odd feature is that the metric accent between bars is uncertain and scholars continue to disagree on where the emphasis lies within the first four bars. At the end of the scherzo section, D-flat major is approached by a common-tone modulation from F minor, beginning the trio. The trio is quite sparse, particularly when compared with works such as the second movement of Op. 106 and even some earlier trio movements. Each bar spans a fourth, with passing tones between; this is yet another example of the unity of common motives between movements. The third movement, like the finale in Op. 106, is a fugue. Again, this is not a Bachian fugue, but one that begins with a recitative and arioso introduction in B-flat minor (supertonic of the first movement). A distinguishing feature of the introduction is the use of repeated notes. Most interesting among the repeated notes is the A in measure 5; in this case, the repeated note is a chord seventh. Rarely in Baroque and Classical music does a chord seventh receive such emphasis. As in the opening to the fugue of Op. 106, there arc no bar lines in the recitative. There are few surprises within the fugue; the 38 recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as it eventually leads back to the fugue in inversion (and in G major), whereupon a new fugue exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration of tbe subject in double-diminution and stretto, where the note value is reduced to sixteenths instead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normal form of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, the fugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject. The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before ending in arpeggiation42 on the tonic, A-flat major. Conclusion. From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in each period. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more similar in texture to the works of Mozart or Haydn.43 This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style so often associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listener with the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of light articulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound, often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sordino. The phrase length increases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fullness of texture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones to already thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas. Initially there was either no coda, or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. In the middle 42 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent of the transition from the first movemenl. 43 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works. 39 recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as it eventually leads back to the fugue in inversion (and in G major), whereupon a new fugue exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration of the subject in double-diminution and stretto, where the note value is reduced to sixteenths instead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normal form of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, the fugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject. The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before ending in arpeggiation42 on the tonic, A-flat major. Conclusion. From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in each period. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more similar in texture to the works of Mozart or Haydn.43 This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style so often associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listener with the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of light articulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound, often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sardino. The phrase length increases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fuJI ness of texture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones to already thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas. Initially there was either no coda, or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. In the middle ,12 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent or the transition rrom the first movement. 43 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works. 39 and lale periods, the coda became a device for additional developmental material preceding the final cadence. Another important observable shift is the size of the ideas from which Beethoven built sonata form movements. In the early period, Beethoven's themes tend to be longer, more expansive, and less related to each other. In the middle period, we begin to see Beethoven building lengthy movements from miniscule motives, all of which are related. His great mastery in this area only increased in the later sonatas. The complexity of Beethoven's harmony also increased, reaching a climax in Op. 106, where the classical circle-of-fifths progression is replaced by a reliance on third relations. The forms in which harmony exists, however, did not undergo the same changes that extended to most other aspects of Beethoven's writing. It is only in the context of form that Beethoven's revolutions of texture, harmony, and phrasing can exist and still be truly Classical. 40 Glossary of Terms Arpeggio: a broken triad or seventh chord with notes played in succession. Articulation: refers to different kinds of touch, such as staccato or legato. Attacca: continue without break. Augmentation: increase in note value (e.g. a quarter note to half note). Bachian: in the style of J.S. Bach (1685-1750). Bar: measure. Baroque: the musical period lasting roughly from 1600-1750. Cadenza: traditionally a freely improvised section in a concerto. Chopinesque: in the style of Frederic Chopin (1810-1849). Classical: a blanket term for all art music. The period from approximately 1750-1815. Con sordino: with the damper, or sustain, pedal. Diminution: the opposite of augmentation, where note values are decreased (e.g. quarter note to eighth note). Dominant: the fifth pitch (or chord) in a scale, usual1y progressing to tonic or submediant. Downbeat: the first beat in a measure. Enharmonic: two notes with the same audible pitch, but different spelling (e.g., C and B- sharp). Episode: 1. Section in a rondo between statements of the rondo theme. 2. Non-thematic section in a fugue between statements of the subject. Fermata: a mark indicating that a note should be held longer than the note value. Forte: loud, markedf on sheet music. jp: forte-piano, indicating one note or chord to be played loudly, followed immediately by soft notes. Fugue: a form in which a musical phrase or idea, called the "subject," is introduced alone in one voice. Subsequent voices state the subject while the previous voice(s) continue in counterpoint (often including a second important line cal1ed the "countersubject"). The subject is treated with various devices of counterpoint, possibly including inversion, diminution, augmentation, or stretto. Statements of the subject are periodically interrupted by "episodes" consisting of non-subject material. Glissando: slide finger or thumb up or down the keyboard, playing each note in rapid succession. Grave: gravely. Harmonic interval: two notes played simultaneously. Homophonic: a style of melody in which the melody is distinct and the accompaniment is less important; contrasts with counterpoint, where there are two or more important melodic lines. Inversion: an inversion in fugue is the subject with its intervals reversed, or upside down. Key: the particular set of pitches from which a piece or section is derived. Measure: a small organizing segment, delineated by vertical lines. Melodic Interval: two pitches played in succession, as opposed to simultaneously (see: harmonic interval). 41 Minuet: musical form, usually consisting of two repeated sections of three-phrases each. Originally, the minuet was a dance, but in the classical era it became highly stylized. Mod~: a specific set of ~itches from which a piece is written. In tonal music.(post Renaissance and pre-2011 century), there are two commonly used modes, major and minor. These are made distinct by their patterns of half-steps and whole-steps. Modulate: to shift from one key to another. Motive: a miniscule musical idea, usually only a few notes long. Mozartean: in the style ofW.A. Mozart (1756-1791). Neapolitan: a major triad built on the lowered second scale degree, usually in first inversion. Opus: "Work." The numerical system used to catalogue a composer's works in the order in which they were published. It is not always reflective of composition date. Abbreviated "op." In titles, it is capitalized. Piano: softly, marked p on sheet music. Pizzicato: a style for stringed instruments, wherein the strings are plucked instead of bowed. Poco: a little. Portato: an articulation shown by slurs over staccatos, indicating that the notes should be detached but not short. Relative major: the major key sharing the same key signature as a minor key (e.g. C major and A minor). Retrograde: in fugue, the subject played backward. Ritardando: gradually slowing. Romantic: the period from roughly 1800-1900. Rondo: a musical form with a recurring section, called the rondo theme. The rondo theme (A) is interrupted by contrasting sections called episodes (B, C, D, etc.). And example of rondo pattern is as follows: ABACA' BA". The apostrophe indicates "A prime," an alteration of the theme. Scherzo: literally, "a joke." Music characterized by a jovial character. Sempre: always. Seventh Chord: a chord with four members, with the interval of a seventh between the first and fourth chord members. Slur: a curved line indicating that the notes encompassed should be played without breaks in sound. Sonata rorm: form consisting of an exposition, development, recapitulation, and sometimes a coda. An introduction may precede the exposition. The exposition is the first statement of thematic materials. These materials are explored using various devices in the development. The recapitulation serves to reintroduce the exposition material, similarly to the way it appeared in the exposition, releasing the tension of the development. Staccato: an articulation indicating that notes should be played with distinct breaks in sound. StreUo: one hand or voice begins a melody or figure and another hand or voice interrupts with the same material before the first entry is complete. Subito piano: suddenly soft. Tonic: the first pitch or chord in a key. Tremolo: rapid repetition of pitches. 42 Trill: rapid alternation between two neighboring pitches. Trio: in a sonata, the second part of a minuet and trio movement. Voice: refers to an independent melodic line in instrumental music. 43 Bibliography Beethoven, Ludwig van, Klaviersonaten, Band I. Munchen: G. Henle Verlag, 1952/1980. Beethoven, Ludwig van, Klaviersonaten, Band II. Munchen: G. Henle Verlag, 1980. Beethoven, Ludwig van, Piano Sonatas. El Atril Music Database. Fisher, Steven C, "French Overture." Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 4 February 2007), Fuller, David, "Alberti Bass," Grove Music Online ed. L Macy (Accessed 4 February 2007) Lockwood, Lewis, Beethoven: The Music and the L(fe. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005. Rosen, Charles, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. Rosen, Charles, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1972. Sheppard, Craig, Beethoven: A Journey. The 32 Piano Sonatas Performed Chronologically. Romeo Records compact disc, 2005. Tovey, Donald Francis, Sir, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas (Complete Analyses). New York: AMS Press, 1931. 44