Behind the Greens: Understanding Golf Course Landscapes in Canada, 1873-1945 by Elizabeth Liane Jewett A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Elizabeth Liane Jewett, 2015 Abstract Behind the Greens: Understanding Golf Course Landscapes in Canada, 1873-1945 Elizabeth Liane Jewett Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto 2015 Between 1873 and 1945, the golf course emerged as a distinct landscape category in Canada. During this transformative period of golf development, the course, as a landscape, revealed particular human and human/non-human interactions. To explore these associations, the term ‘golfscape’ signals the course’s literal and ideological construction as simultaneously a playing field and manifestation of nature. Gendered sport identities existed within these golfscapes and reinforced class-based and racialized relationships as well as Anglo-Canadian and Canadian/American connections. Traditional British golfing canon collided with the cultural and environmental realities of Canada to create a unique social and physical space. An examination of private, public, and resort course locations across the country illustrates how clubs positioned and promoted their playing fields within an urbanizing and diversifying country. For example, golfscape game and aesthetic features prompted private and public interests to integrate golf into nature tourism within Canada’s national parks during this time. Clubs, however, were held to certain appearance and playability standards, whether in the wilderness of the Rocky Mountains or in the rural-urban fringe that fueled product experimentation and creation. Trends towards professionalism and expertise as well as recognition of the diversity of the country’s climates and geographies created room for golf architects and ii agricultural scientists to position themselves as authorities with the power to experiment and disseminate knowledge and practices to the wider culture. Consequently, a North American-focused golf industry touted their products as scientifically tested and catered to local needs. An analysis of golfscape development, therefore, not only promotes a deeper understanding of the connections among culture, environments, and technology but also contributes a different vantage point from which to study the intersecting forces that shaped life in Canada during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. iii Acknowledgements This project has given me the chance to travel widely to archives and to share my findings in stimulating academic settings. Ontario Graduate Scholarships, Jeanne Armour Scholarships, the Network in Canadian History and Environment (NiCHE), the School of Graduate Studies, and the Department of History at the University of Toronto have all aided me financially in these endeavors, and I am greatly appreciative. This project has also been an expedition to find my own academic personality, and I wish to offer my sincerest thanks to my committee, Laurel MacDowell, Steve Penfold, and Elspeth Brown, for their support and guidance throughout this process. I have learned so much about research and writing through our conversations and many draft discussions. They have also opened my eyes to the responsibilities and joys that come from a life in academia. Thank you. I would also like to thank Colin Coates, Ruth Sandwell, and Paula Hastings for their valuable questions, suggestions, and words of encouragement as I completed the defence. Thanks also to other faculty and staff at the Department of History at the University of Toronto for helping me at various junctures in this process. I must also thank the dedicated archivists and staff at Libraries and Archives Canada, the BC Provincial Archives, the City of Vancouver Archives, the Glenbow Museum, the Prince Edward Island Provincial Archives, the Canadian Pacific Railway Archives, the University of Guelph Archives (especially Darlene Wiltsie), the University of Waterloo Archives, and the Museum of English Rural Life at the University of Reading for their expertise and help in locating vital documents for this project. I must also thank those devoted archivists, staff, and golf enthusiasts at Golf Canada (including Karen Hewson, Meggan Gardner, James Fraser), the United States Golf Association (especially Nancy Stulack and Jim Snow), the Stanley Thompson Society Archives (John Smith, Grant Forrest, Kristen Brown), the Toronto Golf Club (Glen Smale, Bob Borthwick, John Gravett), Joan Elliott at Ladies Golf Club of Toronto, Barrie McWha at the BC Golf Museum, the Victoria Golf Club, the Uplands Golf Club, and Jennifer Morton and the staff at the British Golf Museum at the Royal and Ancient in St. Andrews, Scotland. iv I am fortunate to have been on this journey with such kind and generous colleagues willing to read and comment on the many drafts of this project. Many thanks to the Toronto Environmental History Network members, my reading group, and to all my friends who read, listened, discussed, encouraged and constantly reminded me what is important in life—in particular (and in alphabetical order): Ben Bradley, Bret Edwards, Daniel Laxer, Sarah Loose, Jonathan McQuarrie, Peter Mersereau, Julia Rady-Shaw, Laura Smith, and Mike Wilcox. I cannot thank you enough for your constant support and encouragement, not to mention all the teas, walks, talks, movies, hockey, road trips, smiles, dancing, and singing. Thanks to Tom Agar, Jennifer Dickson, Joe Dunlop, Adam Hooper, Sarah McNally, Doug Richmond, and Ruben Vroegop for their support and for keeping me tethered to a world outside my dissertation. A special thanks goes to Sarah Loose for being a brilliant source for all thing academe, for her help and kindness, for sharing in my ‘geeky’ pursuits, and for being a kindred spirit. I also must thank the TA gods for throwing Julia Rady-Shaw and me together in our first (and second) year of teaching when we bonded over our interests in food and ridiculously wonderful TV. Julia has since remained a constant source of positivity, caring, kindness, and humour. I cannot thank her enough. She is my “sister from another mister,” and I am privileged to be part of the life she, Jeremy, Henry, and Hayden have created. Those little dudes bring such joy, and they remind me to take time to find the delight and wonder in every day. A special thanks to Wilbur Lamont and Janet Haslem at the French River Golf Course in Prince Edward Island for their support and all the games of golf (and freedom to take my morning runs) on their beautiful course. Another special thanks to Leslie Stratford (and company) for the St. Bernard oasis and words of wisdom. And another special thanks to Julie and Caroline Walton for spoiling me with friendship, tours about, and a beautiful home away from home. James Walton passed away towards the end of this project. He was a golf enthusiast and he travelled me to faraway courses, like Dornoch, shared with me his hometown course isn Nairn, Scotland, and was always quick to send along golf articles and interesting facts. He played an important role in this project and will be greatly missed. v My heartfelt thanks to Gramps, Nana, Grammy, Granddad, and Emmie and John Paine who always encouraged my dreams and gave love and support. I have the most incredible family. Even with all the words that surround me, I find it hard to find enough of them to express my love and gratitude to my parents, Bill Jewett and Susan Enright, and my sister, Lisa, for their unwavering support, positivity, and love throughout this chapter of my life. Dad, thank you for your quiet strength, common sense, willingness to listen, and to crack a joke at just the right time. Mom you deserve your own degree for all the time, effort, and endless encouragement you gave. Thank you for being the most thorough and patient editor. Thank you for your optimistic spirit, your energy, and reminders of life’s joys. Wee, you are my best friend, a source of inspiration, and my “duo” sister for life. Thank you for always being there to help and listen no matter what. Thank you for being a shoulder to cry on and a person to laugh with over the silliest of inside jokes. You three are my calm centre and help me find santosa. I dedicate this project to you. vi Table of Contents Chapter One–Introduction: Routing the Course………………………….......... 1 Chapter Two–Cosmopolitan Masculinity and Defining a Canadian Golf Culture Introduction…………………………......................................................... 18 Setting the Course for Cosmopolitan Masculinity ………………………. 21 Cosmopolitan Masculinity and Taste …………………………………… 29 Cosmopolitan Masculinity in Body and Mind …………………………… 35 Cosmopolitan Masculinity and Nature …………………………………… 40 Canadian Golf Culture’s Additional Golfing Identities ………………….. 45 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 57 Chapter Three—A (Fair)Way Through Hazards: The Golfscape as Playing Field and Manifestation of Nature Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 59 Charting the Course ……………………………………………………….. 64 Designing the Course …………………………………………………….. 68 The Principles of Design: The Golfscape as a Playing Field …………….. 81 The Principles of Design: The Golfscape as a Manifestation of Nature ….. 85 Dialogues and Implementation of Design Principles ……………………... 90 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………105 Chapter Four—Playing Through: Golfscape Development Across Canada Introduction ……………………………………………………………….