Revista semestral da Direção Regional das Comunidades | N.º2 junho 2012

Governo dos Açores Presidência do Governo Secretário Regional da Presidência Direção Regional das Comunidades C munidades C munidades FICHA TÉCNICA

COMUNIDADES www.azores.gov.pt PROPRIEDADE E EDIÇÃO: Governo dos Açores Presidência do Governo Presidência do Secretário Regional da Presidência Governo Regional dos Açores Direção Regional das Comunidades Secretário Regional da Presidência Direção Regional das Comunidades DIRETORA: Maria da Graça Borges Castanho COORDENAÇÃO: CONTATOS DA DRC: Paulo Teves FAIAL Sónia Duque Rua Cônsul Dabney TRADUÇÃO: Colónia Alemã - Apartado 96 Maria João Pimentel 9900-014 HORTA Gabinete de Tradução e Telef.: (351) 292 208 100 Consultoria Linguística Fax: (351) 292 391 854 DLLM / Universidade dos Açores TERCEIRA CONCEPÇÃO GRÁFICA: Rua do Palácio, S/N Rui Melo 9700-143 ANGRA DO HEROÍSMO Telef.: (351) 295 403 630 PAGINAÇÃO: Fax: (351) 295 214 867 Vitor Melo IMPRESSÃO: SÃO MIGUEL Nova Gráfica Edifício Boavista, R/C Dt.º, 6B, Grotinha PERIODICIDADE: 9500-782 PONTA DELGADA Semestral Telef.: (351) 296 204 811 Edição de junho de 2012 Fax: (351) 296 284 380

ISSN 2182-245X (Impresso) E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 2182-2468 (Em linha)

Dep. Legal: 335789/11 ÍNDICE

4 EDITORIAL

8 ATIVIDADES DRC

18 CARLOS MANUEL MARTINS DO VALE CÉSAR

29 ANDRÉ JORGE DIONÍSIO BRADFORD

39 ANDRÉS ROZENTAL

46 AYUMI TAKENAKA

49 DEMETRIOS PAPADEMETRIOU

52 DWAINE PLAZA

56 ELAINE LEVINE

60 GILBERTA PAVÃO NUNES ROCHA

64 HOWARD DUNCAN

68 JOSÉ CARLOS TEIXEIRA

74 MARIA LUCINDA FONSECA

80 RAINER BAUBOCK

84 RAINER MUENZ

89 WEI LI

92 WILLIAM LACY SWING

100 ZHANG XIAOMIN EDITORIAL

16ª Conferência Internacional Metropolis as tendências migratórias alteraram-se nos Açores: as ilhas na centralidade da radicalmente, com a entrada de milhares discussão de imigrantes. Estudos recentes apontam, porém, para um retorno ao passado com o Atualmente, falar de migrações significa aumento da emigração portuguesa face à compreender o fenómeno da mobilidade imigração. humana de cerca de 3,1% da população O arquipélago dos Açores, desde o seu mundial, segundo dados da Organização descobrimento, tem vivido diferentes épocas, Internacional das Migrações. O impacto dos caracterizadas por fenómenos singulares, que fluxos migratórios vai, contudo, mais longe se traduzem no seu povoamento irregular do que os próprios números. As migrações pelas nove ilhas, nas significativas oscilações ocupam grande parte da agenda pública e económicas, bem como na emigração política do discurso mundial, uma vez que acentuada ao longo dos anos. este é um fenómeno interdisciplinar que Brasil, Estados Unidos da América, exige a criação e adaptação constantes de Bermudas, Havai e Canadá foram os políticas sociais adequadas aos desafios e principais destinos dos emigrantes açorianos. necessidades das populações. Oficialmente, sabe-se que, entre 1960 e Qualquer sociedade que trilhe os 2009, saíram dos Açores cerca de 182 mil caminhos da modernidade ou em direção ilhéus para os Estados Unidos da América, a ela não poderá descurar a complexidade Canadá e Bermudas, não esquecendo outros inerente às movimentações dos seres locais como alguns países da Europa, América humanos no planeta, devendo criar Latina e Austrália. condições, a todos os níveis, para uma boa Gradualmente, a emigração açoriana aplicabilidade de normas (políticas, sociais, decresceu. A título exemplificativo, em económicas, entre outras) que permitam, 1969 saíram 13.125 habitantes, contra 130 acima de tudo, o respeito pelo ser humano, açorianos, na sua maioria, com destino às independentemente da sua condição e Bermudas em 2009. estatuto. Seguindo a tendência nacional, o A criação de uma cultura de paz fenómeno imigratório nos Açores destacou-se e justiça numa sociedade passa, numa a partir de 1998, ano em que ocorreu o sismo primeira instância, pela forma como são na ilha do Faial. A reconstrução dos estragos administradas as políticas dirigidas, de feitos pelo sismo, o crescente aumento da forma igualitária, aos seus residentes quer construção de novas unidades hoteleiras e tenham nascido no país onde vivem quer desenvolvimento de respetivas atividades ao mesmo tenham chegado em resultado turísticas, o aumento da qualidade de vida do abandono da terra natal. Aliás, são estes ou mesmo o espírito de “aventura”, foram residentes, independentemente da sua raça, causas para que os Açores passassem de uma etnia, cultura ou género, que promovem o Região de emigração para uma de atracão. desenvolvimento e a inovação da sociedade Aqui, no meio do Atlântico, de onde em que estão inseridos. partiram aos milhares em busca de uma Historicamente, Portugal foi um nova oportunidade na vida, hoje vive-se uma país de emigrantes. Nas últimas décadas, convergência multicultural, baseada em novas

C munidades 4 redes sociais, profissionais e culturais. Os Açores investigadores de cerca de 70 países dos cinco estão a ganhar uma pluralidade cultural sem continentes, debruçaram-se sobre o fenómeno precedentes, o que contribui para o crescimento das migrações, em diversas perspetivas. Temas das ilhas no seu todo. Este é, sem dúvida, como: Globalization and migration in the um processo retroativo cujos dividendos nos South; International Mobility in Integrated enriquecem diariamente sobremaneira. Economic Spaces; Migration in the context of Foram, sem dúvida, as idiossincrasias das islands; The effects of large-scale emigration migrações dos Açores que suscitaram, no meio on homelands; Maintaining relations within académico, político e social, a curiosidade pelas the Diasporas; The fostering of transnational nossas especificidades, com consciência de que identities through Internet and social estas são transversais a outras tantas ilhas que, networking website; Ageing and migration pela sua condição geográfica, comungam dos e Living in Multicultural Cities: interethnic mesmos fenómenos e de semelhantes desafios. relations and daily life foram alvo de uma Do conjunto de similitudes, recordamos que profunda discussão. as migrações insulares determinam, pelo Numa organização internacional, liderada mundo fora, a configuração populacional de pelo Governo dos Açores, em parceria com outros locais, nomeadamente dos espaços as Universidades dos Açores e de Lisboa, continentais. E o nosso arquipélago é um com o Alto Comissariado para a Imigração exemplo bem visível das repercussões que as e Diálogo Intercultural, com a Fundação migrações dos Açores e para os Açores tiveram. Luso-Americana para o Desenvolvimento, Foi neste sentido que a Região Autónoma bem como com instituições internacionais dos Açores se apresentou ao mundo como do Canadá e da Holanda, esta conferência um local de dualidade migratória, sendo um serviu de ponto de partida para a procura espaço propício a uma reflexão profunda de respostas concretas que possam, de dos maiores desafios migratórios da alguma forma, orientar os líderes mundiais contemporaneidade. na compreensão dos impactos do fenómeno De 12 a 16 de Setembro de 2011, a migratório nas sociedades atuais. cidade de Ponta Delgada foi palco de uma Fruto da relevância dos trabalhos das maiores conferências do mundo: a apresentados na 16ª Conferência 16ª conferência internacional Metropolis, Internacional Metropolis, este número subordinada ao tema “Migration Futures: da revista Comunidades, organizada pela perspectives on global changes”. Direção Regional das Comunidades do O projeto internacional Metropolis Governo dos Açores, dá voz às comunicações consiste num conjunto de atividades de um grupo de prestigiados conferencistas coordenadas, levadas a cabo por um grupo cujos ensinamentos e intervenção, na arena de instituições de investigação, organizações internacional, importa partilhar e divulgar. políticas e organizações não-governamentais, que partilham uma visão de fortalecimento da política migratória através da investigação académica aplicada. Graça Castanho Durante uma semana, mais de Diretora Regional das Comunidades sete centenas de políticos, académicos, Governo dos Açores

5 EDITORIAL

The 16th International Metropolis immigrants in the last decades, migratory Conference in the Azores: Islands in the trends have been radically altered. Yet, Center of the Debate recent studies indicate that the past is being revisited, with increased Portuguese Currently, speaking about migrations emigration vis-à-vis immigration. means understanding the phenomenon Since its discovery, the Azores Archipelago of human mobility, which according to has lived through different periods, defined data from the International Organization by unique phenomena, which translated for Migration, affects 3.1% of the world’s into irregular settlement of the nine islands, population. Yet, the impact of migratory significant economic variations, and growing flows extends beyond the numbers emigration over the years. themselves. In world discourse, migrations Brazil, the United States of America, occupy a great portion of the public and Bermuda, Hawaii, and Canada were the political agenda, since this interdisciplinary main destinations of Azorean emigrants. phenomenon demands constant development Officially, it is known that between 1960 and revision of social policies, to rise to and 2009 182,000 islanders left the Azores the challenges faced by the migrating for the United States of America, Canada, populations as well as to meet their needs. Bermuda and, let us not forget, other Any society coursing through the locations, such as some European and Latin pathways of modernity, or towards it, American countries, as well as Australia. cannot overlook the complexity inherent Gradually, Azorean emigration to human mobility on the planet, and decreased. As an example, in 1969 13,125 should develop conditions on all levels to inhabitants left the Azores, in stark contrast allow for an adequate application of norms with the 130 Azoreans, who departed in (political, social, and economic, among 2009, heading for Bermuda mainly. others), which will allow respect for the Following the national trend, the human being above all, independently of immigration phenomenon in the Azores his/her condition and position. stands out after 1998, the year of the Establishing a culture of peace and earthquake in Faial. The reconstruction justice in a society depends, first of all, on after the damage resulting from the quake, the implementation of policies geared, in a progressive increase in construction of an equalitarian manner, to its members, new hotels and in the development of whether they were born in the country related touristic activities, enhanced quality where they are living or having arrived of life – or even the spirit of “adventure” there as a result of emigration processes. – all caused the Azores to move from its It is important to remind that these position as a Region of emigration and to members, regardless of their race, ethnic become a place of attraction. origin, culture or gender, are the ones who Here, in the middle of the Atlantic, promote the development and renewal of where thousands left in search of new the society in which they live. life opportunities, today we live in an Historically, Portugal was a country of environment of multicultural convergence, emigrants. With the arrival of thousands of based on new social, professional and

C munidades 6 cultural networks. The Azores are gaining continents, addressed the phenomenon of unprecedented cultural pluralism, which migration from diverse perspectives. Topics contributes to the growth of the islands as such as: Globalization and Migration a whole. This, no doubt, is a retroactive in the South, International Mobility in process, whose dividends are exceptionally Integrated Economic Spaces; Migration enriching to us daily. in the Context of Islands; The Effects of Doubtlessly, the idiosyncrasies of Large-scale Emigration on Homelands; migrations in the Azores evoked curiosity Maintaining Relations within the Diasporas; about our specificities in scholarly, political The Fostering of Transnational Identities and social circles, with awareness that they through Internet and Social Networking are transversal to several other islands, which Website; Ageing and Migration eLiving in share the same phenomena and similar Multicultural Cities: Interethnic Relations challenges as a result of their geography. The and Daily Life were discussed in-depth. collection of similarities reminds us that In an international organization led island migrations determine, worldwide, by the Government of the Azores, in the population composition of other partnership with the Universities of the locations, namely, of continental areas. Our Azores and Lisbon, the High Commission archipelago is an outstanding example of the for Immigration and Intercultural Dialogue, repercussions that resulted from migrations the Portuguese-American Foundation for from and to the Azores. Development, as well as with international It was in this sense that, to the world, organizations from Canada and the the Autonomous Region of the Azores Netherlands, this conference served as a appeared to be a place of migratory duality, point of departure to the search for concrete a propitious space for profound reflection directions, which could, somehow, guide world about the greatest migratory challenges of leaders in understanding the impacts of the contemporaneity. phenomenon of migration in current societies. From 12 to 16 September 2011, the As a result of the relevance of the city of Ponta Delgada was the stage for one papers presented at the 16th International of the largest conferences in the world: The Metropolis Conference, this issue of the 16th International Metropolis Conference, magazine Comunidades, organized by the under the theme “Migration Futures: Regional Department for the Communities, Perspectives on Global Changes.” gives voice to the presentations of a group The International Metropolis Project of outstanding speakers, whose thoughts, comprises a set of coordinated activities knowledge and actions, in the international conducted by a group of research centers, arena, need to be shared and disseminated. political organizations and non-governmental organizations, with a shared vision of strengthening migratory policies through applied academic research. Graça Castanho For one week, more than seven hundred Director of the Regional Department for the politicians, scholars, and researchers from Communities about 70 countries, representing the five Government of the Azores

7 ACTIVIDADES DRC

A Direção Regional das Comunidades Universidades dos Açores e Lisboa. Sob o (DRC) tem vindo a desenvolver e tema “O Futuro das Migrações: Perspectivas a promover, quer nos Açores quer em mudanças globais”, este fórum reuniu, em território nacional, um leque de entre workshops e sessões plenárias, a atividades e iniciativas junto das participação de mais de 700 especialistas, comunidades emigrantes, imigrantes e oriundos de cerca de 70 países para debater regressadas que visam a integração, a e unir pesquisas, políticas e práticas sobre educação e cidadania, a preservação do as migrações e a diversidade. Estiveram património cultural, a aproximação dos presentes, entre muitos palestrantes, o açor descendentes às ilhas de origem, Diretor Geral da Organização Internacional bem como a promoção dos Açores. das Migrações, William Lacy Swing, a Nesta edição da revista Comunidades Diretora da Divisão de População das Nações daremos conta das iniciativas Unidas, Hania Zlotnik e o Primeiro-ministro desenvolvidas a partir de Agosto de 2011. de Cabo Verde, José Maria das Neves. A ação da DRC tem vindo a crescer Realizou-se de 31 de Agosto a 4 de na área da intervenção social. A DRC Setembro, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, organizou, de 29 de setembro a 5 de outubro, a XIV Assembleia Geral do Conselho em parceria com a Azores Express, nos Mundial das Casas dos Açores, onde se EUA e com a Sata Express, no Canadá, a juntaram os representantes das Casas dos XIX Edição do Programa Saudades dos Açores do Norte, Lisboa e Algarve (Portugal); Açores, destinado a cidadãos nascidos nos Winipeg, Ontario e Quebec (Canadá); Açores e que se encontram emigrados no Hilmar, California e Nova Inglaterra Brasil, Canadá e EUA e que não dispunham (Estados Unidos); e Rio Grande do Sul; de meios que lhes permitissem realizar esta Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina e São Paulo viagem. Em 2011 o programa contou com a (Brasil). Pela primeira vez participou nas presença de 18 participantes, nascidos nas reuniões a Associação Los Azorenos, a qual, ilhas Graciosa, Terceira, Faial e São Miguel. perante candidatura aceite por unanimidade, O sucesso deste projeto deve-se em muito passou a integrar o Conselho Mundial na à Rede Internacional de Organizações de qualidade de Casa dos Açores do Uruguai Serviço Social que, na diáspora, realiza as - Los Azorenos. De acordo com a tradição inscrições dos candidatos. deste Conselho, foi distinguido um produto No âmbito das Comemorações dos 500 regional, tendo sido atribuído à Associação anos de Dighton Rock, a Direção Regional de Artesãos de S. Miguel o Selo de Qualidade das Comunidades, organizou, no mês de ao Bordado micaelense, a matiz em dois tons setembro, a Celebração da Presença de azul. Açoriana na América do Norte que juntou Durante uma semana (12 a 16 de centenas de açorianos, açordescendentes Setembro), os Açores estiveram no centro e comunidade americana, como escolas mundial da reflexão e debate acerca do futuro e Universidades, senadores e órgãos de das migrações, com a realização da 16ª comunicação social. Com um programa Conferência Internacional Metropolis, repleto de atividades, ficou a certeza de que organização da DRC em parceria com as a realização deste evento contribuiu para

C munidades 8 a visibilidade da comunidade açoriana nos novembro, em Cambridge, Massachusetts, Estados Unidos da América. com o apoio de outras organizações nas No âmbito do ensino da língua comunidades, o Simpósio Internacional portuguesa às comunidades de origem sobre Direitos Humanos e Qualidade açoriana na diáspora, a DRC lançou nos de Vida nas Comunidades Falantes EUA e Canadá o projeto Ao Colo da de Português nos Estados Unidos da Língua Portuguesa, que tem como objetivo América e Canadá. O evento contou com incentivar as famílias açorianas à prática do a presença do orador principal convidado idioma luso junto dos mais novos, através Craig Mello, vencedor do prémio Nobel de da leitura, interiorização e da aprendizagem Fisiologia ou Medicina em 2006, e com a do vocabulário e das estruturas gramaticais participação de mais de 100 especialistas básicas da língua e cultura lusa. Desde então, e estudiosos para discutir temáticas como a DRC já enviou centenas de conjuntos a saúde, deportação, educação, apoio de livros infanto-juvenis e material de comunitário e liderança. Durante o evento divulgação dos Açores a famílias com crianças celebrou-se um protocolo com associações até cinco anos de idade e a instituições dos EUA, Canadá e Açores que trabalham detentoras de berçários/creches, infantários com as comunidades, em sede de uma e jardins educativos para as comunidades Rede Internacional de Organizações de açorianas radicadas pelo mundo. Serviço Social. Procedeu-se ainda à entrega Para celebrar o Dia de Ação de Graças, de certificados de reconhecimento da a DRC, em parceria com o Gabinete do Presidência do Governo dos Açores às Xerife de Bristol County, a Associação organizações que desenvolvem o seu trabalho ARRISCA e a Instituição Novo Dia, em prol dos mais carenciados. realizou no dia 20 de novembro o almoço Ainda durante o mês de novembro, de Thanksgiving nos Açores, na EBI foram celebrados dois protocolos: 1) com a Roberto Ivens, em Ponta Delgada. Este Universidade de George Washington, em convívio juntou emigrantes regressados DC, cujo propósito visa apoiar o ensino do e família mais próxima, instituições de Português, constituindo-se como conteúdos S. Miguel, entidades governamentais e obrigatórios das aulas e cursos os Açores, representantes dos Estados Unidos da a açorianidade, a diáspora açoriana, a sua América e Canadá, de forma a proporcionar posição estratégica entre a Europa e o a vivência de tradições experienciadas nas Continente Americano e o papel das ilhas comunidades que os receberam. Durante na história mundial e no mundo lusófono o almoço, a Diretora Regional procedeu à e 2) com o Centro de Estudos Sociais da entrega de certificados de reconhecimento Universidade dos Açores, que irá estudar o da Presidência do Governo dos Açores, em fenómeno da deportação dos EUA, Canadá homenagem às pessoas que regressaram e e Bermuda para as ilhas nas seguintes que contribuíram para o desenvolvimento vertentes: políticas de imigração dos dos Açores e que se evidenciaram como países hospedeiros; perfis dos deportados; bons modelos de integração nas ilhas de representações sociais da deportação e dos origem. deportados; e políticas de intervenção e A DRC realizou, nos dias 10 e 11 de integração.

9 Num ambiente de muita alegria, o Dia Azorean Spirit com o título Gente Notável Internacional dos Migrantes foi festejado a - O Céu é o Limite para o Povo Açoriano e, no 18 de Dezembro, na Madalena do Pico, com jornal O Emigrante/Mundo Português, o objectivo de promover a interculturalidade com a página intitulada Comunidades e sensibilizar a sociedade para os direitos, Açorianas no Mundo. liberdades e garantias dos migrantes. Este convívio de vivências e partilha de De forma a possibilitar que as gerações experiências juntou 400 pessoas, incluindo mais novas dos açorianos e lusodescendentes, imigrantes de diversas nacionalidades e residentes nas comunidades e nos Açores, emigrantes que, após residirem em diferentes tenham o direito à formação e à educação, destinos, optaram por regressar e/ou viver a DRC lançou dois programas: a II Edição nos Açores. da Bolsa de Estudo Dias de Melo, a decorrer durante o ano letivo de 2012/2013, A Direção Regional das Comunidades destinada a estudantes universitários começou o ano de 2012 investindo em áreas açorianos ou de ascendência açoriana, com relevantes para as populações que serve. residência nos EUA e Canadá; e o concurso “Açores: Passado e Presente”, destinado A Diretora Regional das Comunidades, a estudantes do secundário e do ensino Graça Castanho, iniciou o mês de Janeiro, profissional dos Açores e das Comunidades com uma visita de trabalho aos EUA, Açorianas, com o objetivo de incentivá-los encontrando-se com vários organismos para um conhecimento mais aprofundado ligados às comunidades açorianas, a fim sobre a temática das migrações no contexto de as sensibilizar para a necessidade de insular. se naturalizarem e de o fazerem através das associações que integram a Rede No âmbito do Prémio de Jornalismo Internacional de Serviço Social. Foi Comunidades, lançado no ano de 2011, distribuído o material de divulgação do foram apurados os três vencedores: Programa LEGAL (Legalization Effort of the Waldson Menezes (Brasil), na categoria Government of the Azores and Logistics), que “Comunidades Açorianas”, com o trabalho pretende alertar os emigrantes açorianos, Das Ilhas Açorianas ao Espírito Santo: 199 radicados nos Estados Unidos e Canadá, anos de Colonização; Begona Sáez (Espanha), para o problema da deportação. À Rede na categoria “Açores Imigrante”, com o Alargada de voluntariado, caberá fazer a título Apaixonados pelos Açores; e por último divulgação do citado Programa nos espaços Alexandre Soares (Portugal), na categoria de convergência e convívio de açorianos, quer “Açores Emigrante”, com o trabalho Na pista nos EUA quer no Canadá. dos baleeiros açorianos de Moby Dick. Esta foi uma iniciativa que suscitou grande interesse Na tentativa de levar as comunidades junto de jornalistas regionais, nacionais e açorianas a outros destinos do mundo e de internacionais, daí a Direção Regional das dar a conhecer as ações que desenvolvemos, Comunidades ter lançado mais uma edição a DRC deu início a duas novas colaborações: do Prémio para o corrente ano. a presença na revista de bordo da SATA

C munidades 10 Foi assinado em Massachusetts um de Chicago, EUA, local onde se encontra a protocolo, com vista à criação de material residir para concluir o Doutoramento em online para o ensino do Português, no Music Performance e Music Technology na âmbito do Programa Universal Design Northwestern University. for Learning and the Teaching of the Iniciativa de grande relevância foi a Portuguese Language Worldwide, o Conferência Internacional sobre a Herança qual conta com a adesão de diversos Judaica nos Açores, que se realizou de 5 a parceiros como o Center for Applied Special 6 de março na ilha de São Miguel, com o Technology (CAST), o Portuguese Language objetivo de resgatar a herança cultural das Institute da Lesley University, a Universidade comunidades judaicas sefarditas que partiram dos Açores, e outros estabelecimentos de destas ilhas para outros destinos do mundo. ensino estrangeiros e dos Açores. Durante a conferência foi apresentado publicamente o Roteiro Comunidades- Os Açores fizeram-se representar no Herança Judaica nos Açores, elaborado desfile carnavalesco em Florianópolis, Ilha pela Professora Fátima Sequeira Dias, de Santa Catarina, através do Grémio a ser distribuído por diversos espaços, Recreativo da Escola de Samba Consulado nomeadamente turísticos e autarquias. Brasil, sob o tema “Atlantis: Açoriano é ser A conferência contou com a presença dos do mar” em homenagem ao povoamento de seguintes oradores: Joseph Levi, Professor Santa Catarina bem como para a divulgação na George Washington University; Miguel da arte e cultura das gentes das ilhas. No do Espírito Santo, Presidente do Instituto cortejo desfilaram cerca de 4000 figurantes Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do que se apresentaram com vestes açorianas, Sul; António Pita, Presidente da Rede de retratando a história do arquipélago dos Judiarias Portuguesas; e Carolino Tapadejo, Açores, a emigração açoriana, a colonização representante de várias organizações judaicas açoriana e as referências culturais que em Portugal. marcaram o Estado de Santa Catarina, a partir do séc. XVIII. A Direção Regional das Comunidades organizou, em parceria com a Casa Com o objetivo de conhecer novos dos Açores de São Paulo, a exposição destinos de acolhimento onde se encontram denominada Açores Divino Açores, de radicados os açorianos/as e açordescendentes, 11 a 22 de abril, num dos maiores centros pelo mundo fora, nos nossos dias, a Direção comerciais de São Paulo - Shopping Anália Regional das Comunidades lançou, de 3 a Franco. 30 de março, em parceria com a Acorespro, Neste centro comercial, que recebe um passatempo no facebook, “Açorianos diariamente entre 45 a 50 mil pessoas, esteve no Mundo: Onde Estamos?/Azoreans in montado um palco por onde passaram vários the World: Where are we?”, destinado aos grupos musicais das diversas comunidades emigrantes açorianos e açor-descendentes açorianas do Brasil, bem como dos Açores, residentes fora do território português. para além de um espaço dedicado ao turismo, Rodolfo Vieira foi o vencedor deste artesanato e divulgação de potencialidades de passatempo, com uma foto tirada na cidade investimento nos Açores.

11 A II Edição do Programa “De mãos O V Congresso Internacional sobre dadas com os Açores” aconteceu de 16 a 23 as Festas do Divino Espírito Santo, que de maio, na ilha de São Miguel, no âmbito se realizou na ilha Terceira , de 31 de maio dos projetos de estreitamento dos laços a 3 de junho de 2012 , tem como objetivos existentes entre os Açores e a comunidade reflectir e aprofundar conhecimentos sobre o açoriana na Diáspora. Culto do Divino Espírito Santo nos Açores Este projeto, cujo público-alvo são os e unir em torno da maior manifestação cidadãos de origem açoriana, portadores religiosa dos Açores o povo açoriano de deficiência, que se encontram radicados espalhado pelo mundo. nos EUA e Canadá, tem o objetivo de Foi recentemente lançado o Programa de proporcionar aos seus participantes uma Sensibilização de Leis de Imigração para visita aos Açores, possibilitando-lhes o viajantes com destino aos Estados Unidos conhecimento da realidade açoriana atual e o da América e Canadá, com o objetivo de reencontro com familiares e amigos. informar os viajantes sobre as regras e critérios O programa reuniu dez participantes e a cumprir de acordo com as leis de imigração seus familiares, com proveniência dos EUA daqueles países, antes da partida e durante e Canadá que, no decorrer da sua estada nos permanência dos mesmos. O Programa Açores, participaram num programa de caráter conta com a parceria de várias entidades, lúdico e cultural que incluiu a visita a vários nomeadamente o Consulado dos Estados concelhos. Num gesto solidário e em jeito de Unidos da América em Ponta Delgada, confraternização, foram recebidos igualmente Embaixada do Canadá em Lisboa, SATA e as por algumas instituições de solidariedade social. diversas agências de viagem na Região.

C munidades 12 DRC ACTIVITIES

The Regional Directorate for the Metropolis Conference, organized by the Communities (DRC) has been developing Regional Directorate for the Communities, and promoting, in the Azores and in partnership with the Universities of Portugal as a whole, a range of activities the Azores and Lisbon. With the theme, and initiatives in the communities of “Migration Futures: Perspectives on emigrants, immigrants and returned Global Changes” the conference brought emigrants, with the goals of advancing together over 700 specialists from 70 integration, education and citizenship, countries, who participated in workshops preserving their cultural heritage, and plenary sessions, to debate and fostering rapprochement between consolidate research, policies and practices Azorean descendants and the islands of on migration and diversity. International their ancestors, as well as promoting the Organization for Migration (IOM) Azores. president William Lacy Swing, United In this edition of Communities, an Nations Population Division Director account of the initiatives that were Hania Zlotnik and Cape Verdean Prime developed starting in August 2011 will be Minister José Maria das Neves were among given. the numerous speakers. The Regional Directorate has been From 31 August to 4 September, Rio de increasing its activities in the area of social Janeiro was the site of the 14th General intervention. In partnership with Azores Assembly of the Casas dos Açores Express in the USA and SATA Express in World Council, gathering representatives Canada, the Directorate organized the from Portugal: North, Lisbon and Algarve 19th Edition of the Saudades dos Açores Casas dos Açores; Canada: Winipeg, Program, which took place 29 September Ontario and Quebec Casas dos Açores; to 5 October, for Azorean-born citizens the United States: Hilmar, California, who emigrated to Brazil, Canada and the and New England Casas dos Açores; and USA and did not have the financial means Brazil: Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro, to make this trip. In 2011 the program was Santa Catarina and São Paulo Casas dos graced with the presence of 18 participants Açores. The Los Azorenos Association, whose born in Graciosa, Terceira, Faial and São candidacy was unanimously accepted, Miguel islands. Much of the success of the became part of the World Council as the project is due to the Rede Internacional de Uruguai Casa dos Açores – Los Azorenos Organizações de Serviço Social (International and participated in the meetings for the Network of Social Services Organizations) first time. In accordance with the Council which enrolls program candidates in the tradition, an Azorean regional product Diaspora. received recognition. The Seal of Quality In September, within the purview of the was awarded to the Associação de Artesãos de celebrations of the 500 Years of Dighton São Miguel for the Micaelense hue embroidery Rock, the Regional Directorate organized in two shades of blue. a Celebration of Azorean Presence in North America that brought together For a week (12-16 September), hundreds of Azoreans, Azorean descendants the Azores were in the center of world and the American community: schools reflection and debate about the future of and universities, senators and the media. A migrations, hosting the 16th International program filled with activities, assured that

13 this event contributed to the visibility of the origin. Azorean Community in the United States of With the support of other organizations America. in the communities, the Directorate The Directorate launched the project held the International Symposium on Ao Colo da Língua Portuguesa in the Human Rights and Quality of Life in USA and Canada, an integral part of its Portuguese-Speaking Communities goal of teaching the Portuguese language in the United States of America and to the communities of Azorean origin Canada, on November 10 and 11, in in the Diaspora, with the objective of Cambridge, Massachusetts. The event motivating Azorean families to practice counted with the presence of main speaker, using Portuguese with their young, to Craig Mello, winner of the 2006 Nobel enable reading, internalization and learning Prize in Physiology or Medicine and the the vocabulary and basic grammatical participation of over 100 specialists and structures of the Portuguese language scholars, who discussed topics such as and culture. The Directorate has since health, deportation, education, community sent hundreds of sets of children’s books support and leadership. During the event, and promotional materials about the a protocol was signed with organizations Azores to families with children up to five in the USA, Canada and the Azores that years of age, as well as to organizations work with the communities in the context that run nurseries, daycare centers of the International Network of Social and kindergartens serving the Azorean Services Organizations. Certificates of communities throughout the world. acknowledgement from the Presidency To celebrate Thanksgiving Day, in of the Government of the Azores were collaboration with the Bristol County also distributed to the organizations that Sheriff’s Office and the ARRISCA and developed their work on behalf of the Novo Dia associations, the Directorate neediest individuals. held a Thanksgiving in the Azores Still in the month of November, two lunch on November 20, at Roberto Ivens protocols were signed: 1) with George Middle School in Ponta Delgada. This Washington University in DC, for the social event brought together returned purpose of supporting the inclusion of emigrants and their closest relatives, Portuguese courses in the curriculum, and São Miguel organizations, government requiring class and course content on the entities and representatives of the Azores: azorianity, the Azorean Diaspora, United States of America and Canada, the strategic location of the Azores affording the emigrants an opportunity between Europe and North America, as to live the traditions that were part of well as the role of the islands in world their experience in the communities that history and in the Portuguese-speaking received them. During the lunch, the world, and 2) with the University of the Regional Director distributed certificates Azores Center for Social Studies, to of acknowledgement from the Presidency investigate the phenomenon of deportation of the Government of the Azores, from the USA, Canada and Bermuda to honoring the emigrants who returned and the islands, covering the following aspects: contributed to the development of the immigration policies in the receiving Azores, distinguishing themselves as good countries, profiles of the deportees, social models of integration in their islands of representations of deportation and the

C munidades 14 deportees and policies of intervention and throughout the world and make known integration. the activities that were developed, the In a climate of much joy, on 18 Directorate started two new collaborative December, International Migrants Day ventures: a section in the SATA magazine was celebrated in the town of Madalena, Pico Azorean Spirit, entitled “Remarkable People Island, with the goal of promoting thinking – The Sky is the Limit for the Azorean at the intercultural level and raising societal People” and a page in the newspaper O awareness of migrant rights, freedoms and Emigrante/Mundo Português, which is guarantees. This event, which enabled entitled “Azorean Communities in the interaction around practical knowledge and World.” sharing experiences, brought together 400 people, including emigrants who resided in In order to enable younger generations various locations but opted to return to and/ of Azoreans and Portuguese descendants or live in the Azores. residing in the communities and in the Azores to have the right of access to training The Regional Directorate for the and education, the Directorate launched Communities began 2012 investing in two programs: the 2nd Edition of the Dias areas of relevance to the populations it de Melo Scholarship, to take place during serves. the 2012/2013 school year, is earmarked for Azorean college students who reside in the The Regional Director for the USA and Canada and the contest “Azores: Communities, Graça Castanho, started the Past and Present,” earmarked for students month of January with a business visit to in secondary education and technical/ the USA, meeting with various organizations vocational schools in the Azores and the connected with the Azorean communities, Azorean Communities, has the goal of in order to raise their awareness of the motivating them to deepen their knowledge need to become naturalized American or of migration topics in the context of the Canadian citizens, and to do so through islands. the associations that are part of the International Network of Social Service In the scope of the Prémio de Organizations. Informational material on Jornalismo Comunidades, launched the LEGAL Program (Legalization Effort of in 2011, three winners were selected: the Government of the Azores and Logistics) Waldson Menezes (Brazil), in the category was distributed, seeking to make Azorean “Azorean Communities,” with the report immigrants in the United States and Canada Das Ilhas Açorianas ao Espírito Santo: 199 aware of the problem of deportation. The anos de Colonização, Begona Sáez (Spain), Rede Alargada de voluntariado (Extended in the category “Azorean Immigrant,” Volunteer Network) is responsible for with Apaixonados pelos Açores and, lastly, divulging information about the program Alexandre Soares (Portugal), in the category in the spaces of Azorean convergence and “Azorean Emigrant,” with the report Na togetherness, both in the USA and in pista dos baleeiros açorianos de Moby Dick. This Canada. initiative provoked a great deal of interest from Azorean, Portuguese and international In an attempt to take the Azorean journalists; therefore, another edition of the communities to other destinations prize was launched in 2012.

15 A protocol was signed in Massachusetts, Performance and Music Technology at with the goal of creating materials to teach Northwestern University. Portuguese online, within the scope of the program Universal Design for Learning The International Conference on the and the Teaching of the Portuguese Jewish Heritage in the Azores, an initiative Language Worldwide, which counts of great relevance, was held March 5-6 on the membership of several partner in São Miguel Island, with the objective organizations, such as the Center for o reclaiming the cultural heritage of the Applied Special Technology (CAST), Lesley Sephardic Jewish communities that left the University’s Portuguese Language Institute, Azores for other destinations. During the the University of the Azores and other conference, the Roteiro Comunidades- teaching organizations in the Azores and Herança Judaica nos Açores, prepared abroad. by Professor Fátima Sequeira Dias to be distributed to diverse touristic and The Azores were represented in the government spaces, was presented Florianopolis Carnival Parade in Santa publicly. The conference counted with the Catarina Island, through the Grémio presence of the following speakers: George Recreativo da Escola de Samba Consulado Washington University Professor Joseph Brasil, with the theme “Atlantis: Açoriano Levi, Instituto Histórico e Geográfico é ser do mar,” honoring the settlement of do Rio Grande do Sul President Miguel Santa Catarina as well as promoting the do Espírito Santo, Rede de Judiarias culture and art of the populations of the Portuguesas President António Pita and islands. Nearly 4,000 people participated Carolino Tapadejo, representing various in the parade, dressed in traditional Jewish organizations in Portugal. Azorean costumes, portraying the history of the Archipelago of the Azores, Azorean In partnership with the São Paulo emigration, Azorean colonization and the Casa dos Açores, the Regional Directorate distinctive cultural references that were organized an exhibit entitled Açores typical of the State of Santa Catarina, Divino Açores, from 11-12 April, in one beginning in the 18th century. of the largest shopping centers in São Paulo – Shopping Anália Franco – which In order to promote better knowledge accommodates 45 to 50 thousand people of the new destinations around the world on a daily basis. A stage was set up in the where Azoreans and Azorean descendants shopping center, for performances by various are establishing themselves nowadays, musical groups from the diverse Azorean from March 3 to March 30, the Regional communities of Brazil and the Azores. In Directorate, in partnership with Acorespro, another space organized for tourism and launched a hobby on Facebook: “Açorianos crafts, potential investment opportunities in no Mundo: Onde Estamos?/Azoreans in the Azores were promoted. the World: Where are we?” for Azorean emigrants and Azorean descendants living The 2nd Edition of the “De mãos outside Portuguese territory. Rodolfo Vieira dadas com os Açores” Program was held was the winner, with a photo taken in May 16-23 in São Miguel Island, within Chicago, USA, where he currently lives and the purview of projects for the purpose is working towards a doctorate in Music of strengthening the already existing ties

C munidades 16 between the Azores and the community knowledge of the worship of the Holy Spirit in of Azoreans in the Diaspora. This project, the Azores and unite the Azorean people around whose target audience is the disabled the world in a common experience of the citizens of Azorean origin living in the greatest of the Azorean religious manifestations. USA and Canada, provides participants with a trip to the Azores, allowing them to The Programa de Sensibilização de become acquainted with the Azorean reality Leis de Imigração para viajantes com and to be reunited with their families and destino aos Estados Unidos da América friends. The program brought together ten e Canadá, was recently launched, for the participants and their relatives, from the purpose of educating travelers about the United States and Canada. During their rules and criteria that must be met, in stay in the Azores, the group participated in accordance with the immigration laws of the an entertaining cultural program, including two countries, before departure and while a visit to several districts. staying in those countries. The program was developed in partnership with several The objectives of the V Congresso organizations, namely the US Consulate in Internacional sobre as Festas do Divino Ponta Delgada, the Canadian Embassy in Espírito Santo, held in Terceira Island May Lisbon, SATA and the various travel agencies 31 to June 3, 2012, are to reflect and deepen in the Azores Region.

17 CARLOS MANUEL MARTINS DO VALE CÉSAR

Biografia de Lisboa, tendo sido eleito para a Direção da Associação de Estudantes e para os órgãos de gestão daquela instituição universitária. Até 1980 foi também coordenador nacional da JS para o ensino superior. Ao longo de todos esses anos, foi sempre dirigente nacional da JS, membro da sua Comissão Nacional, e, mais tarde, do seu Secretariado Nacional Executivo. Foi adjunto do Secretário de Estado da Administração Pública do II Governo Constitucional. De regresso aos Açores, ingressa, como deputado, na Assembleia Regional, em janeiro de 1981. De 1983 a 1985, foi líder do PS nos Açores. Entre dezembro de 1988 e dezembro de 1989, é deputado na Assembleia da República, para que fora eleito em julho de 1987. A 30 de outubro de 1994 é eleito Carlos Manuel Martins do Vale César presidente do PS/Açores, com 92% dos nasceu a 30 de outubro de 1956, em Ponta votos expressos em escrutínio secreto, no Delgada, nos Açores. Congresso Regional. A sua inclinação para a atividade política Nas eleições regionais de 13 de outubro de radica numa tradição familiar. 1996, como candidato dos socialistas açorianos Ainda muito jovem foi membro da à Presidência do Governo Regional, anula uma Cooperativa Cultural “SEXTANTE”, da ilha diferença de mais de 20% que separava o PS do de São Miguel, que se destacou em ações PSD, vencendo com 46% dos votos expressos. cívicas de oposição ao regime ditatorial de A 9 de novembro de 1996, tomou posse como Salazar e Marcelo Caetano. Presidente do VII Governo Regional dos Açores. A 26 de abril de 1974, um dia depois Nas eleições legislativas regionais de 15 da “Revolução dos Cravos”, que restituiu de outubro de 2000 volta a vencer - desta vez a liberdade ao povo português, fundou a com 49,2% dos votos expressos, elegendo 30 Associação de Estudantes do Liceu Antero de dos 52 deputados que compõem o parlamento Quental, e, um mês mais tarde, a Juventude - tendo tomado posse a 15 de novembro para Socialista nos Açores. um novo mandato de quatro anos. Foi membro do primeiro Secretariado A 17 de outubro de 2004, voltou a eleito da Secção de Ponta Delgada do Partido liderar o PS numa vitória eleitoral para a Socialista e da delegação dos Açores ao I Assembleia Legislativa Regional dos Açores, Congresso Nacional do PS na legalidade e ao I reforçando a maioria absoluta do PS. Congresso Nacional da Juventude Socialista. Nas eleições de 19 de outubro de Em 1975 ingressou na Faculdade de Direito 2008 obteve nova maioria de mandatos no

C munidades 18 Parlamento, conquistando 30 dos 57 lugares Discurso em disputa. Assumiu a presidência rotativa da PRESIDENTE DO GOVERNO NA Conferência dos Presidentes das Regiões SESSÃO DE ABERTURA DA XVI Ultraperiféricas da União Europeia em CONFERÊNCIA INTERNACIONAL 2004/2005 e 2011/2012. METROPOLIS É membro do Bureau Político da Assembleia das Regiões da Europa, organismo no qual “My first words are naturally to salute preside, desde 2007, ao Programa Eurodisseia, all of you, and in particular those who have bem como, desde 2010, ao Observatório da travelled the longest, and to welcome you Mobilidade Profissional, e é membro titular to the Azores, which are – if I may dare permanente do Comité das Regiões da União to say so – the right place and the natural Europeia e do Congresso dos Poderes Regionais scenery to host the sixteenth International e Locais do Conselho da Europa. Metropolis Conference. Em maio de 2010, foi eleito, por It is for me a great pleasure and unanimidade, Presidente da Comissão das Ilhas a sincere honor, as President of the da Conferência das Regiões Periféricas Marítimas Azorean Government, to host such a da União Europeia, cargo para que foi reeleito, distinct and impressive group of policy também por unanimidade, em maio de 2011, e makers, researchers, members of different que exerceu até setembro do mesmo ano. international organizations and governments, Foi, entre 2004 e 2011, membro do Bureau from so many different countries, especially Político da Conferência das Regiões Periféricas this being the first time that this conference Marítimas da Europa e é membro titular da is held in an Archipelago – thus making the Conferência dos Presidentes das Regiões com Azores a part of Metropolis’ history and the Poderes Legislativos da União Europeia. main stage for the debates about human É membro do Conselho Superior de mobility that will follow in the next couple of Defesa Nacional de Portugal. days. É um dos 19 Conselheiros de Estado de Como muitos de entre vós saberão, Portugal. a escolha dos Açores como palco para a É membro do Conselho Superior de organização desta Conferência, apesar de Segurança Interna. não ter sido isenta de risco, não foi também É membro do Conselho Superior de casual. Proteção Civil. A História dos Açores é, desde a sua É Presidente do Governo da Região origem, marcada por fluxos migratórios Autónoma dos Açores desde outubro de cíclicos e significativos, associados à sua 1996, reeleito sucessivamente em sufrágio condição insular e à posição geográfica popular direto. peculiar simultaneamente de isolamento e de Carlos César destacou-se sempre pela ponto de cruzamento natural entre a Europa defesa da vocação marítima e atlântica e a América. portuguesa, e da relação bilateral privilegiada Mas se é verdade que, do povoamento com o continente americano e em particular quatrocentista aos dias de hoje, estas com os Estados Unidos da América. ilhas constituíram-se, em fases diferentes,

19 ora como lugar de partida, ora como de homem e da mulher. acolhimento, ligando as duas margens do O Brasil foi o primeiro destino a receber Atlântico, esse processo foi sempre mais uma movimentação de caráter emigratório intenso e impressivo do que a pequenez reconhecida oficialmente como tal, quando, territorial do nosso arquipélago poderia fazer em 1748, lá se fixaram cerca de seis mil supor, rasgando, através do elo humano, o açorianos. A essa movimentação juntaram-se isolamento a que a geografia nos parecia ter outras, já de maior dimensão, em finais do destinado. século XIX, e início e metade do século XX, As nossas comunidades no exterior, tal para os Estados de São Paulo e do Rio de como, mais recentemente, os imigrantes Janeiro. A minha avó, por exemplo, nasceu que acolhemos e que se tornaram parte, no Brasil, para onde os seus pais tinham por vontade própria, da construção da emigrado. nossa sociedade, constituem um capital Prova de que os açorianos sempre imprescindível na definição e afirmação dos olharam mais para os destinos emigratórios Açores que fomos e que somos. a ocidente do que a oriente é o facto de A realização desta Conferência na nossa os Estados Unidos da América surgirem Região representa, também, para o meu cronologicamente como segundo destino Governo – tal como para todos os açorianos efetivo e preferencial em meados do século – motivo de orgulho pelo reconhecimento XIX. A baleação na Costa Este dos EUA que pressupõe das boas práticas que temos serviu de âncora para o movimento de promovido, ao longo de mais de três famílias inteiras, constituindo aquele que décadas de Autonomia, no que se refere a ainda hoje é o mais importante destino da políticas públicas na área das migrações, emigração açoriana e que, conjuntamente mantendo uma forte ligação afetiva, com o Canadá, acolhe cerca de um milhão institucional e política com a nossa diáspora, de açorianos e de descendentes de açorianos, espalhada maioritariamente pelas Américas, isto é, quatro vezes a nossa população fomentando o relacionamento das nossas residente. Quase todos nós, que vivemos comunidades emigradas com as suas raízes nestas ilhas, temos familiares e amigos e, nos tempos mais recentes, envolvendo e próximos nas Américas. integrando os imigrantes que aqui vivem. Em alguns casos, os açorianos A origem da emigração açoriana remonta foram também ajudar a povoar outros quase aos primórdios do povoamento, de arquipélagos, como aconteceu com o Havai, acordo com o que apontam os investigadores, ou, aproveitando o apelo financeiro e a mas o seu caráter sistemático reporta-se proximidade geográfica com os destinos ao século XVII – as ilhas eram um lugar mais tradicionais, residir e trabalhar nas inóspito, desprotegido, ameaçadas pelas Bermudas. Neste caso concreto, 1849 marca dificuldades da terra e do clima, pela o início da emigração dos Açores para este aspereza das condições de vida e o sonho arquipélago do Atlântico Norte, que é ainda era, naturalmente, o da legítima procura um ponto de atração para trabalhadores de melhores condições de desenvolvimento sazonais oriundos da nossa Região. familiar e pessoal, como acontece hoje por Em 1953, acontece um grande período toda a parte e como faz parte da natureza do de saída de naturais dos Açores para o

C munidades 20 Canadá, graças à assinatura de acordos verdade, como tenho dito quando visito bilaterais entre Portugal e aquele estado da essas comunidades, ser-se bom açoriano não América do Norte que facilitaram os fluxos é ser-se menos americano, menos canadiano migratórios para um país que é, na sua ou menos brasileiro nos Estados Unidos, atualidade, uma nação resultado de uma no Canadá ou no Brasil; pelo contrário, a bem-sucedida incorporação de emigrantes. defesa da herança cultural e da afirmação Estas diversas vagas migratórias das comunidades tem mais valor e aceitação afastaram, no decurso dos últimos 60 anos, quando exercitadas por comunidades cerca de 200 mil açorianos da sua terra conscientes dos seus deveres cívicos nos natal, fruto de atrasos estruturais do nosso países de acolhimento e adoção. arquipélago e da falta de perspetivas de um São inúmeros os projetos, referenciados futuro melhor para o seu povo – ou seja, na temática da emigração, que temos quase tantas pessoas quantas as que vivem desenvolvido ao longo dos anos, da hoje nas nossas nove ilhas ao longo de iniciativa ou com o apoio do departamento seiscentos quilómetros no oceano. Os Açores governamental criado para o efeito. São – que já careciam de condições mínimas projetos que executamos em parceria com para o seu processo de desenvolvimento, as autoridades dos países e regiões de que viviam sob um regime centralizado em acolhimento, com organizações várias de Lisboa e sem autonomia de decisão –, viam índole social e associativa e com os cidadãos assim também reduzido o necessário capital destinatários. humano para alavancar o seu progresso e Assume grande relevo a rede mundial conferir escala e dimensão à sua economia. de Casas dos Açores, que se estende às Felizmente, essa realidade mudou e os duas costas dos Estados Unidos, Canadá, tempos atuais são diferentes. Brasil, ao continente português e em breve Os Açores de agora são um espaço de ao Uruguai, onde já existe uma associação afirmação da periferia e da fronteira da promotora. As Casas dos Açores são, na Europa, de projeção estratégica para as sua origem, instituições de agregação e de duas margens do Atlântico, e têm feito propagação da herança cultural às gerações um percurso, particularmente nos últimos mais jovens de açor-descendentes, mas anos, de convergência para os indicadores assumem hoje, e cada vez mais, também, económicos e sociais médios da União uma vertente fundamental de projeção dos Europeia que integra. Açores junto dos países de acolhimento e de Para nós, as comunidades emigrantes promoção dos nossos interesses estratégicos açorianas não são apenas consequência da e comerciais, reforçando a componente nossa História e vestígios do ADN açoriano. institucional da sua ação. Ao capital afetivo Elas são parte da nossa História e extensões junta-se, assim, o capital estratégico que da nossa condição contemporânea. constitui mais de um milhão de açorianos Também por isso, as nossas comunidades residentes no exterior. espalhadas pelo mundo mantêm fortes laços Apesar de uma forte tradição emigratória, comunicacionais e culturais com os Açores, os Açores conheceram, na última década, sem descurar os seus deveres e direitos a inversão dessa tendência, passando a ser enquanto cidadãos de outros países. Na também uma região de imigração.

21 É certo que essa alteração de fluxo está nacional, dando provas concretas da sua relacionada com diversos fatores exógenos, operacionalidade. de onde se contam fenómenos naturais e No entanto, temos consciência de que o incremento generalizado das migrações tal situação só é possível se existir uma internacionais no início do século XXI. estreita proximidade entre os intervenientes Porém, não deixa de ser positivamente no processo de integração, nomeadamente estimulante que o nosso desenvolvimento imigrantes, governos, instituições e seja hoje foco de atração para outros, facto comunidades locais. É nesta convergência que nos coloca face aos desafios inerentes à de diferentes atores, identificados pelas suas condição de local de acolhimento. competências e responsabilidades, que nos A integração dos imigrantes nas empenhamos e realizamos a solidariedade e sociedades de acolhimento é sempre um a coesão social. processo complexo e multifacetado. A Como julgo ter deixado evidente, este é, integração na sociedade açoriana é, contudo, pois, o momento e um local adequado para para nós, fator determinante para o bem- discutirmos o futuro das migrações face às estar de cada imigrante e de cada cidadão mudanças globais. que resida nas nossas ilhas, pelo que tem A constante mobilidade associada à sido preocupação do Governo dos Açores reestruturação em curso das estruturas fazer com que aqueles que escolheram este económicas, as novas centralidades políticas arquipélago para trabalhar, residir e ou fixar a e sociais e as instabilidades locais e regionais sua família, tenham, dentro do quadro legal, em determinados pontos do globo, bem instituído uma integração plena, natural e como os fenómenos extremos derivados harmoniosa. das alterações climáticas irão obrigar os A nossa experiência emigratória, aliada decisores políticos a prestarem cada vez ao facto de os açorianos que aqui vivem maior atenção à problemática das migrações, perceberem que habitamos num espaço buscando soluções adaptadas aos novos de partidas e chegadas, é, sem dúvida, desafios. uma mais-valia para, de forma quase Nesta conferência, considerando os intuitiva, sabermos receber e saudar novos painéis temáticos e os seus conferencistas, concidadãos. Trabalhar o conhecimento das bem como os cerca de 75 workshops expectativas das comunidades emigradas para previstos, verifica-se claramente a prestar mais e melhor apoio aos imigrados importância das migrações não só na esfera nos Açores constituiu um desafio às nossas do debate político, como a montante e a responsabilidades de região de acolhimento jusante na reflexão científica e na projeção que, estou convencido, temos sabido superar. mediática. Reunir numa mesma entidade operativa Faço, por tudo isso, votos para quem tem a sensibilidade da integração e da que a história deste arquipélago e as identidade cultural dos emigrantes açorianos particularidades da vivência nestas ilhas, além-mar e o sentido da necessidade de para além de vos proporcionarem momentos inserir, sem ruturas sociais, os estrangeiros marcantes, inspirem o ambiente de que escolheram os Açores para viver, foi, ponderação e de partilha que deve envolver sem dúvida, uma aposta inovadora a nível um evento deste género e grandeza.

C munidades 22 CARLOS MANUEL MARTINS DO VALE CÉSAR

Biography Delegation for the 1st National Congress of PS and the National Congress of the Socialist Youth. In 1975, he began his studies at the Faculty of Law of the University of Lisbon, having been elected for the Board of the Students’ Association and for the management bodies of that university institute. He was also the national coordinator of the JS for higher education until 1980. Throughout these years, he was always the national leader of JS, member of its National Commission and, later on, of its National Executive Secretariat. He was Deputy Secretary of State for Public Administration of the II Constitutional Government. On his return to the Azores, he became member of the Regional Assembly in January 1981. Carlos Manuel Martins do Vale César From 1983 to 1985, he was the leader of was born in Ponta Delgada, in the Azores on the Socialist Party (PS) in the Azores. October 30, 1956. Between December 1988 and December His inclination towards politics comes 1989, he was a member of the Assembly of from a family tradition. the Republic, for which he had been elected At a very early age he was a member of in 1987. the Cultural Cooperative “SEXTANTE,” On October 30, 1994 he was elected located on the island of São Miguel, which chairman of the Azorean Socialist Party (PS/ was famous for its active civil opposition Açores) at the National Congress with 92% to the dictatorship of Salazar and Marcelo of the votes cast by secret ballot. Caetano. In the regional elections of October On April 26 1974, a day after the 13, 1996 while being candidate of the “Carnation Revolution,” which restored Azorean socialists for the Presidency of the freedom to the Portuguese people, he Government, he eliminated a difference founded the Students’ Association of the of over 20% which separated PS from Antero de Quental Secondary School and the PSD (Social Democrat Party), winning the Socialist Youth (JS) in the Azores a month election with 46% of the votes. He was later. sworn in as President of the VII Regional He was a member of the first elected Government of the Azores on November 9, Secretariat of the Ponta Delgada section 1996. of the Socialist Party and of the Azores He won again the regional legislative

23 election of October 15, 2000 by 49.5% of Regions Conference in May 2010, position the votes, electing 30 of the 52 parliament for which he was reelected, also by members. He was sworn in on November 15 unanimity, in May 2011. for a new four-year term. He is a member of the Political Bureau On October 17, 2004 he won again of the Conference of Peripheral Maritime the elections for the Regional Legislative Regions of Europe and a permanent member Assembly of the Azores by absolute majority. of the Regional Committee of the European He won the majority of the parliament Union, the Congress of Regional and Local mandates, electing 30 of the 57 seats in the Authorities and of the Assembly of European elections of October 19, 2008. Regions, among other international entities. He is a member of the State Council, He has been awarded with the following the National Defence Council, the Internal distinctions, among many others: Personality Security Council and of the Civil Protection of the Decade” of 90 by the newspaper Council. Expresso das Nove; “Politician of the Year” From October 2003 to September 2004, in 2001 by the magazine Saber Açores; he was the president of the Conference of Medal of Merit of Rio Grande awarded by Presidents of the Outermost Regions of the the Government of the State of Rio Grande European Union. do Sul in Brazil; Francisco Dias Velho Merit From 2008 to 2010, he was vice- Medal awarded by the Municipal Prefecture president of the Bureau of the Committee of Florianópolis in the State of Santa of the Regions on behalf of the Portuguese Catarina in Brazil and the “Açorianidade Delegation. 2003” trophy awarded by the Centre of Azorean Studies of the Federal University Carlos César was unanimously elected of Santa Catarina in Brazil and received the President of the Islands Committee of Medal of Merit from the World Council of the European Union Peripheral Maritime Azorean Houses (September 2010).

C munidades 24 Speech and the main stage for the debates about human mobility that will follow in the next couple of days. As many of you are already aware, the fact that the Azores was chosen to be the stage for the organization of this Conference was not only casual but also risk free. The History of the Azores is from its inception marked with meaningful cyclical migratory fluxes given its insular condition and peculiar geographical location as well as of being simultaneously isolated but the natural cross road between Europe and America. But if it is true that from the first settlements, which took place during the fifteenth century, to the present day, these islands were constituted in different phases, either as a point of departure or a point of arrival, thus linking both sides of the Atlantic THE PRESIDENT OF THE Ocean. This process has always been more GOVERNMENT IN THE OPENING intensive and impressive than the size of SESSION OF THE SIXTEENTH the territory of our Archipelago as human INTERNATIONAL METROPOLIS bondage broke the isolation that seems to CONFERENCE have been imposed on us by geography. In a similar fashion to those immigrants “My first words are naturally to salute who in the latter years chose to live in the all of you, and in particular those who have Azores and partook in the construction travelled the farthest, and to welcome you of our society, our Azorean communities to the Azores, which is – if I may dare say so living abroad are also very important for the – the right place and the natural scenery to definition and affirmation of the Azores of host the sixteenth International Metropolis the past and the Azores of today. Conference. The fact that this Conference is It is for me a great pleasure and held in our Region also represents to my a sincere honour, as President of the Government – as it does to the Azorean Government of the Azores, to host such population – a matter of pride for the a distinct and impressive group of policy recognition of the presumption of the good makers, researchers, members of different practices that we have been promoting, international organizations and governments, throughout the three decades of our from so many different countries, especially Autonomy, regarding public policies in this being the first time that this conference the area of migration, keeping a strong is held in an Archipelago – thus making the emotional, institutional and political bond Azores a part of the history of Metropolis with our diaspora, mainly spread throughout

25 the Americas, fomenting the relationship islands, have relatives and close friends in the between our emigrants and their roots and, Americas. more recently, by involving and integrating In some cases, the Azoreans also left the the immigrants who live here. islands to populate other archipelagos. This In accordance with the researchers, was the case with Hawaii. They also followed the origin of the emigration of the Azores the financial appeal and the geographical goes as far back as the early settlements. closeness of more traditional destinations, However, it only became systematic during meaning that they went to work and live the seventeenth century – the islands were in the Bermudas. The emigration of the an inhospitable, unprotected space filled Azoreans to this Archipelago in the North with difficulties on land and a harsh climate, Atlantic started in 1849, and it still attracts without proper living conditions. And there seasonal workers from our Region. was the desire to look for a better personal In 1953, many Azoreans left the islands and family life as it also happens today and went to Canada because of the signing everywhere in accordance with human of the bilateral agreements between Portugal nature. and that North American country, which Brazil was the first destination that had facilitated the emigration fluxes to a country to deal with an emigration movement, as it that is a nation that successfully accepted was officially recognised in 1748, when six emigrants from other parts of the world. thousand Azoreans left the islands to live in During the last 60 years, approximately that country. At the end of the nineteenth two hundred thousand Azoreans left their century, and at the beginning and middle homeland in these various migration of the twentieth century, larger migration movements, given the delay in the movements took place to the States of construction of infrastructures in the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. My own archipelago and the lack of perspectives for a grandmother was born in Brazil because her better future – meaning the same number of parents had emigrated to that country. people as those who presently live in the nine The proof that the Azoreans have always islands that are spread out over six hundred looked more for emigration destinations kilometers of the ocean. The Azores – that in the West than in the East is the fact lacked minimum facilities to develop, that that the United States of America was lived under a regime centralized in Lisbon, chronologically the second most effective and and without autonomy or power of decision preferential destination during the middle of – also witnessed the reduction of its human the nineteenth century. Whale hunting on capital, which was essential to leverage the East Coast of the U.SA. was the calling its progress and to give dimension to its that moved entire families, thus it is to this economy. day the most important destination together Fortunately, time has changed this reality. with Canada of the Azorean diaspora, where Presently the Azores is the space that approximately one million Azoreans and defines the periphery and the border of descendants of Azoreans live, meaning four Europe, of strategical projection for the two times the number of those who live in the sides of the Atlantic Ocean, and, especially Azores. Almost all of us, who live in these during the last few years, it has followed

C munidades 26 a path of convergence for the average to the younger generations of Azorean economical and social indicators of the descendants. However, presently they are European Union, of which it is a member. also fundamental for the projection of the In our opinion, the Azorean emigrant Azores in the host countries and promote communities are not only a consequence of our commercial and strategic interests, thus our History and the vestiges of the Azorean reinforcing the institutional component of DNA, but also part of our History and the their activities. Thus the strategic capital is extension of our contemporary condition. joined with the affective capital that adds up For these reasons, our communities living to more than one million of Azoreans living abroad and spread out over the world, keep abroad. strong communication and cultural ties with Although the Azores has always had a the Azores, without losing their rights and strong emigration tradition, during the last duties whilst they are also citizens of other decade this situation has been reversed as it countries. In fact, as I have previously said is now also a region of immigration. when I visit our communities: “to be a good In fact, the alteration in the flux Azorean does not mean that one is less of is related to various exogenous factors, an American, Canadian or Brazilian, in the which include natural phenomena and United States, Canada or Brazil”. Actually, the generalised increase in international the defense of one’s cultural heritage and emigration in the beginning of the twenty the affirmation of the communities are first century. Nonetheless, it is also positively better accepted when they are carried out stimulating that our development is now the by communities that are aware of their civil focus of attention of other communities. This duties in their adopted countries. is the fact that makes us face the inherent During the last few years, we have challenges of a host destination. developed many projects with the theme of The integration of the immigrants into emigration, either by the initiative or with the hosting societies is always a complex the support of the government department and multifaceted process. In our opinion, that has been created for this purpose. the integration into the Azorean society is These projects are carried out in partnership a determinant factor for the welfare of each with the authorities of the hosting regions immigrant and each citizen residing in our or countries, with various types of social islands. In this context, the Government of organizations or associations and with the the Azores has been concerned with those citizens that are targeted by these projects. that have chosen this Archipelago to work, One must highlight the importance of reside or live with their families, within the the network of Casas dos Açores that spread instituted legal proceedings, to achieve a full, out from the Eastern and the Western natural and harmonious integration. Coasts of the United States of America, Our experience in emigration and Canada, Brazil, Mainland Portugal and the fact that the Azoreans who live here soon in Uruguay, where there already is a understand that we live within a space promoting association. Originally, the Casas of arrivals and departures, is, without a dos Açores were institutions for aggregation doubt, an added asset, by which, in an and spreading of the cultural heritage almost intuitive manner, we receive and

27 greet new citizens. A challenge to our I think that I have made it clear that responsibilities as an hosting region is to this is the moment and the place to discuss work on the knowledge of the expectations the future of emigration given the global of the emigrating communities in order to changes. give more support to those who come to the Constant mobility linked to the current Azores and I am sure that we have been able re-structuring of the economic system, the to do so. new political and social centralisation and To bring together into one single local and regional instability across the operative entity those who are sensitive to globe, as well as the extreme phenomena integration and the cultural identity of the of the changes in the weather will make Azorean emigrants overseas and the sense the politicians pay more attention to the of the need to insert, without any social problems of emigration, looking for solutions ruptures, the foreigners that chose the Azores to adapt to the new challenges. to live, undoubtedly was an innovating At this conference, given the theme decision at national level, proving that it can boards, speakers and the projected 75 be successful. workshops, it clarifies the importance of However, we are also aware that this emigration not only in public debate but situation is only possible if there is a focused also for both scientific reflection and media proximity between the intervenients in the projection. integration process, namely immigrants, Therefore, I wish that the history of this governments, institutions and local archipelago and the particular way of life communities. We focus in the convergence of of the local population besides leaving an the different players, identified by their skills impression on you, will also inspire reflection and responsibilities to achieve solidarity and and sharing that characterizes this type of social cohesion. major event.

C munidades 28 ANDRÉ JORGE DIONÍSIO BRADFORD

Biografia MANUTENÇÃO DAS RELAÇÕES COM AS DIÁSPORAS

A minha participação na Conferência Metrópolis e no painel Manutenção das Relações com as Diásporas, conjuntamente com peritos de reconhecida carreira e valia, não é qualquer mérito individual específico mas unicamente porque represento, do ponto de vista institucional, uma Região que se define também como território de migrações praticamente desde o início da sua existência, e que, como tal, sempre teve de lidar emocional e politicamente com os impactos das chegadas e das partidas, assim André Jorge Dionísio Bradford nasceu como com o facto de existir para além das em Ponta Delgada, a 30 de novembro de 1970. suas exíguas fronteiras geográficas, através de Licenciado em Comunicação Social uma diáspora que se conta hoje em milhões e Cultural pela Faculdade de Ciências de açor-descendentes espalhados por muitas Humanas do Instituto de Estudos Políticos e diferentes paragens. da Universidade Católica, frequentou o Proponho-vos, por isso, uma reflexão Mestrado em Teoria e Ciência Política e que, sendo necessariamente breve, está o 2º ano do curso de Direito na mesma estruturada do particular para o geral, do universidade. afetivo para o institucional, dos casos para Integra o Gabinete do Presidente do os princípios. Decidi fazê-lo desta forma, Governo desde 2001, primeiro como assessor muito provavelmente ao arrepio dos cânones para a Cooperação Externa, depois na qualidade mais tradicionais, porque julgo essencial, de assessor para os Assuntos Políticos. para a compreensão do caso açoriano, que se A sua atividade no Executivo iniciou-se em perceba desde logo que há um alicerce afetivo 2000, na função de assessor de imprensa do determinante na forma como os Açores se secretário do Ambiente, destacando-se, na sua relacionam com as questões migratórias, carreira de jornalista, o exercício de funções no decisivo para a proeminência política que a Diário de Notícias (Lisboa) e no Açoriano Oriental Região sempre concedeu à ligação com a sua (Ponta Delgada), onde desempenhou o cargo diáspora desde que, a partir de 1976, com de adjunto do diretor editorial da Açormedia. a consagração constitucional da Autonomia Colaborou, também, na condição de colunista Político-Administrativa, passou a dispor de e comentador político, com vários órgãos de órgãos próprios de Governo. Comunicação Social. Neste contexto, e sem querer abusar Exerce, desde 2006, o cargo de coordenador da vossa benevolência, permitam-me que da Comissão Permanente do PS/Açores e foi continue afastado do registo científico e de eleito deputado ao Parlamento Regional em rigor que é exigido em parte a quem participa 2004 e 2008. neste fórum, para vos falar da minha família,

29 uma família que resulta do cruzamento de - o povo açoriano tem bem presente o um imigrante de origem escocesa (supõe- esforço dos que partiram e o sentimento da se), que se fixou no Novo Mundo, com uma distância, experienciado também por aqueles filha de açorianos de S. Jorge, nascida na que ficam. Califórnia, que cultivava pomares de citrinos Estima-se que só nos últimos 60 anos e que regressou aos Açores na década de 30 tenham emigrado mais de 200 mil açorianos, do século passado, para me dificultar a vida, principalmente para o Canadá e para os de cada vez que tenho de soletrar o meu Estados Unidos da América, fixando-se, sobrenome ou explicar por que razão é que respetivamente nas províncias do Ontário, um português açoriano com sotaque de S. Quebeque, British Columbia, Manitoba e Miguel tem um sobrenome inglês. Alberta, e nos estados de Massachusetts, Posso também, socorrendo-me da obra Rhode Island, Connecticut, Havai e Land, As Far As the Eye Can See – Portuguese Califórnia. in the Old West, de Donald Warrin, falar-vos de Manuel Brazil, açoriano que ajudou o xerife Pat Garret a capturar Billy The Kid, ou de David José Martins, conhecido como David Canabarro, neto de terceirenses que se fixaram em Porto Alegre, no Brasil, que foi um dos heróis da Revolução Farroupilha, contemporâneo de Garibaldi, ou ainda de Peter Francisco, também ele herói revolucionário, nascido no Porto Judeu, na Terceira, que lutou ao lado de Washington e que tem ainda hoje honras de feriado nos Estados Unidos. Se contarmos as segunda e terceira E podia ainda dar-vos exemplos mais gerações, o número de açorianos ou açor- recentes, da música pop ao cinema, da descendentes a viver fora do arquipélago ciência ao desporto, de nomes que nos ultrapassa facilmente o milhão - o que habituamos a reconhecer como canadianos demonstra claramente a grandeza deste ou americanos, mas que são adaptações do fenómeno proporcionalmente aos cerca português dos Açores e que trazem consigo de 245 mil que constituem a população uma história migrante ligada à nossa Região. residente atual. Dos primeiros açorianos no Faroeste com Nos diversos locais em que se fixaram, a exploração de ouro, o comércio de peles os açorianos constituíram negócios, ou a exploração mineira, aos açorianos na empenharam-se na defesa das suas baleação na costa Leste; no Brasil, com a comunidades, criaram instituições de apoio formação das primeiras cidades piscatórias social e de preservação das memórias e nos Estados de Santa Catarina e Rio Grande costumes e contribuíram para a vida pública, do Sul, chegando até ao Uruguai para fundar através da participação cívica e política. Isso a cidade de San Carlos, ou alcançando o é detetável quer nas histórias dos primeiros Pacífico, para ajudarem a povoar o Havai emigrantes, quer na caracterização atual das

C munidades 30 nossas comunidades no exterior. nas suas múltiplas áreas de atuação É por isso que não podemos falar dos e intervenção, têm sido os principais Açores sem falar da sua diáspora. O seu interlocutores e os veículos primordiais do papel e a sua estreita ligação à terra-mãe Governo Regional na implementação desta expandem as fronteiras do arquipélago a um lógica de atuação política. universo geográfico, social e político muito Estas organizações, que atuam em maior do que as ilhas e o mar entre elas – áreas tão importantes e necessárias à plena acrescentando dimensão e peso a Portugal integração como o apoio social, o ensino, a como um todo, particularmente no seu papel cultura, a economia ou a investigação, são na geopolítica do Atlântico. fundamentais para assegurar a transmissão E é exatamente porque reconhece esse de valores, contribuindo para uma facto como parte e essência dos Açores de sistemática e persistente preservação da sempre e do sentir de todos açorianos que nossa identidade cultural longe do nosso o Governo dos Açores tem, nas últimas espaço insular, mas podem ser também (e três décadas, procurado corresponder começam a sê-lo) agentes de outro tipo de às responsabilidades que uma região esforço de projeção dos interesses da Região, de origem deve ter para com os seus como veremos mais adiante. concidadãos a residirem no exterior, no Presentemente, só no continente que é simultaneamente um imperativo de americano – e para vos dar o exemplo mais afetividade e uma obrigação política. A evidente -, existem mais de mil associações nossa diáspora é, pois, como se fosse a nossa açorianas de diversas áreas, espalhadas pelo décima ilha, por sinal e por larga margem, a território dos Estados Unidos e do Canadá. maior, a mais populosa, a mais vasta e a mais A criação destas organizações reforça longínqua. a nossa autonomia e a nossa identidade, Esse relacionamento faz-se bem como a nossa presença no mundo. prioritariamente através de um departamento É por isso que o Governo dos Açores se específico, na dependência direta da tem empenhado em criar sinergias que Presidência do Governo, para a emigração e intensifiquem, para além da conservação da comunidades açorianas - a Direção Regional cultura, dos costumes e da língua materna das Comunidades –, que desempenha - vocação original da grande maioria das um papel fulcral no estudo, coordenação, instituições de imigrantes - a vertente de apoio técnico e execução das políticas promoção dos Açores de hoje e das suas públicas relacionadas com as comunidades potencialidades, acoplando ao tradicional de emigrantes de origem açoriana, elo afetivo um mais moderno elemento de correspondendo, assim, a uma aspiração representação de interesses. generalizada de proximidades e a um sentido Neste âmbito, as Casas dos Açores no de missão por parte do Governo dos Açores Brasil, Estados Unidos, Canadá e Portugal em definir medidas e políticas programáticas Continental, mais de uma dezena no total, especificamente vocacionadas para o constituem-se como pilares fundamentais acompanhamento e a valorização do papel da quer da relação do Governo dos Açores nossa diáspora. com as comunidades, quer da defesa dos As instituições da diáspora açoriana, interesses da região junto dos países de

31 acolhimento, numa função de proto-consulados estadual com os estados norte-americanos destas ilhas. onde residem as maiores comunidades de (Permitam-me um parêntesis muito breve emigrantes açorianos, como acontece nos para explicar o porquê do prefixo “proto”. casos da Califórnia, de Massachusetts e de Constitucionalmente, os Açores, enquanto Rhode Island, com quem estabelecemos Região Autónoma de um Estado que se acordos de parceria e cooperação, em setores define como unitário, têm a sua ação externa de interesse comum. limitada às grandes orientações da República Do mesmo modo, e porque tentamos e não têm, como se pode perceber facilmente, corresponder à diversidade da diáspora prerrogativas de representação externa açoriana no mundo, mantemos uma política própria. Contudo, a dimensão, o dinamismo ativa de apoio público às suas iniciativas. e a credibilidade das nossas comunidades no Assim: âmbito da diáspora portuguesa na América • Temos diversos protocolos assinados do Norte são de tal ordem de evidência que com mais de cem instituições do Brasil, não será abusivo considerar-se que há uma Bermuda, Canadá, Estados Unidos da tendência de facto para se reconhecer aos América e Uruguai, nas áreas da cultura, Açores e às instituições com eles relacionadas economia, educação e apoio social. um estatuto de relevância própria.) • Criamos uma linha regulamentada Tendo surgido inicialmente de forma de apoios anuais destinada a ajudar quase aleatória e com objetivos variáveis a financiar projetos relevantes, de caso para caso, mas genericamente particularmente nos campos da circunscritos à comunidade local e à preservação da língua e da cultura - só celebração da memória da terra de origem, nestes últimos anos, apoiámos mais de as Casas dos Açores são hoje mais atuantes, dois mil projetos de âmbito cultural, mais qualificadas, e mais conscientes do seu dinamizados não só por instituições e papel de instâncias de representação. indivíduos das comunidades açorianas, É também por isso que temos, mais mas também por aqueles oriundos dos recentemente, insistido na definição Açores, que vão ao encontro dessas de uma Agenda Comum das Casas dos comunidades. Açores no mundo, que harmonize a • Conscientes de que a formação é um atuação destas organizações e estabeleça instrumento fundamental na transmissão uma atuação conjunta na formação de da identidade cultural açoriana, vontade e disponibilidade junto dos países bem como na promoção dos Açores, de acolhimento em relação às matérias formamos mais de dois mil dirigentes relacionadas com os Açores, em particular associativos, em cursos próprios nos no que diz respeito às trocas comerciais e Açores, para que possam desenvolver ao incremento do investimento externo na qualificadamente as suas funções de Região. transmissores da realidade açoriana. Paralelamente, temos vindo a • E, porque sabemos que o processo desenvolver, de forma gradual, um processo de emigração nem sempre é sinónimo de institucionalização das relações políticas de sucesso, temos tido também, e desde entre a Região e os órgãos de governo sempre, uma ponderação redobrada

C munidades 32 no que se refere ao apoio social, em comunidades e os Açores contemporâneos, parceira com instituições comunitárias e quer por via dos programas de intercâmbio internacionais. e de estágios que o Governo dos Açores Este modelo de relacionamento com a disponibiliza, quer através de incentivos diáspora açoriana, que tem tido inegáveis específicos para determinadas áreas de virtudes, apresenta hoje também alguns atividade mais diretamente relacionadas desafios a que temos de responder com com as apetências dos jovens, há também determinação. que, em cooperação estreita com as Além de ser imperativo prosseguirmos instituições da diáspora, encontrar com a gradual reorganização da lógica de mecanismos efetivos de envolver as novas atuação das Casas dos Açores, no sentido gerações na vida diária das organizações, da sua adaptação aos Açores do presente, valorizando os seus contributos, coloca-se hoje, de forma muito evidente, demonstrando abertura para acolher as suas também uma questão geracional que exige sugestões e aceitando que se faça diferente, uma atenção especial. que se quebrem certas tradições em nome Não se trata apenas de ser preciso da continuação do sucesso deste modelo de continuar a alimentar o interesse, o gosto relacionamento. e a disposição das gerações mais jovens de Ser-se açoriano no exterior não açor-descendentes em relação às instituições significará, como não tem significado ao e atividades das comunidades açorianas. longo dos tempos, sempre a mesma coisa, Trata-se, sobretudo, de encontrar a linguagem mas implicará sempre o mesmo sentido adequada para o fazer eficientemente, já essencial. Não é uma questão de língua, que estamos agora a falar de jovens nascidos de gastronomia, de hábitos de consumo, e criados nos países de acolhimento, sem ou uma operação de soma nula entre a memória dos Açores e, naturalmente, sem memória e a vivência atual. É uma questão nenhuma razão para se aterem aos modos de alma e a alma responde a impulsos, não tradicionais de celebração da sua herança precisa de razões. O nosso compromisso é cultural. o de sermos o alento da alma daqueles que, Ainda que procuremos fomentar uma independentemente do sítio onde vivam, maior proximidade entre os jovens das querem ser açorianos!

33 ANDRÉ JORGE DIONÍSIO BRADFORD

Biography MAINTAINING RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE DIASPORAS

My participation in the Metropolis Conference and the panel Maintaining Relationships with the Diasporas, together with experts who have well known careers, is not any kind of specific individual merit but only because I represent, from an institutional point of view, a Region that is also defined as a migration territory basically from its inception and, as such, has always had to deal with the emotional and political impact of arrivals and departures, as well André Jorge Dionísio Bradford was born as beyond its small geographical frontiers, in Ponta Delgada on 30 November 1970. via a diaspora that today includes millions He graduated in Social and Cultural Com- of Azorean descendants spread throughout munication from the College of Human Sci- many different countries and cultures. ences of the Political Studies Institute from the Therefore, I propose a reflection that Catholic University. He attended the Masters although it needs to be brief, is structured in Political Theory and Science and the 2nd from the particular to the general, from year of the Law degree at the same university. affection to institutional, of the cases to the He integrates the Office of the President principles. I decided to do it in this manner, of the Government since 2001, first as adviser probably against the more traditional for External Cooperation, then as adviser for canons, because I believe that it is essential Political Affairs and currently as the Regional for the understanding of the case of the Secretary of the Presidency. Azores, that one understands right from His activity in the Executive began in the beginning that there is an affectionate 2000, as adviser for the press of the secretary basis that determines the way by which the for the Environment. In his journalist’s career, Azores relates to migration issues, which is he stood out in Diário de Notícias newspaper decisive for the political prominence that the (Lisbon) and in Açoriano Oriental newspaper Region has always given to its connection (Ponta Delgada), where he fulfilled the office with diaspora, given the fact that from of assistant of the publishing director of Açor- 1976, with the constitutional consecration media. He also contributed to the condition of the Political-Administrative Autonomy, of columnist and political commentator with the Azores have their own Governmental several organs of the Press. institutions. He practices, since 2006, the office of Within this context, and without abusing coordinator of the Permanent Commission of your benevolence, allow me to stay away the Socialist Party /Azores and he was elected from the scientific data and the rigor that is member to the Regional Parliament in 2004 partly demanded from those who participate and 2008. in this forum, and let me tell you about

C munidades 34 my own family, which came about from the villages in the States of Santa Catarina crossing of a Scottish immigrant (we think and Rio Grande do Sul to Uruguay to start so), moved to the New World with the the settlement of the city of San Carlos or daughter of an Azorean from the island of reaching the Pacific Ocean to help populate São Jorge. She had been born in California Hawaii – the Azorean people remember well and had worked in a citrus orchard. She the efforts made by those who have departed returned to the Azores during the decade of and the feeling of longing that was also felt the thirties of the past century, only to make by those who stayed behind my life difficult whenever I need to spell my It is believed that only in the last 60 surname or when I have to explain the reason years approximately two hundred thousand why an Azorean Portuguese, who speaks with Azoreans left for Canada and the United the accent of the island of Sao Miguel, has States of America. They settled, respectively, an English surname. in the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, British I can also quote the work Land, As Far As Columbia, Manitoba and Alberta, and also in the Eye Can See – Portuguese in the Old West, the States of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, by Donald Warrin, and talk to you about Connecticut, Hawaii and California. Manuel Brazil, the Azorean who helped If one takes into account the second and sheriff Pat Garret to capture Billy The Kid, third generations, the number of Azoreans or about David José Martins, known as or Azorean-descendants living abroad will David Canabarro, the grandchild of people easily reach the figure of over one million – from the island of Terceira who had moved thus clearly reflecting the greatness of this to Porto Alegre, Brazil, and became one of phenomenon in direct proportion to the the heroes of the Farroupilha Revolution. approximately 245 thousand who presently He was a contemporary of Garibaldi, or live in the Azores. even still about Peter Francisco, who was At the various locations that they also a revolutionary hero. He was born at settled, the Azoreans created businesses, Porto Judeu, on the island of Terceira, and fought in defense of their communities, he fought with Washington. In the United created institutions for social support and States there is a public holiday celebrated in the preservation of their memories and his honour. customs, thus contributing towards public I could also talk about more recent life via their civil and political participation. events, of pop music and cinema, science and This is easily seen not only in the stories of sports, of names that we can easily recognize the first emigrants but also in the present as Canadian or American, but that are characterization of our communities living adaptations of the Azorean Portuguese and abroad. that include a migration story linked to our These are the reasons why one cannot Region. speak about the Azores without mentioning From the first Azoreans who went to its diaspora. Its role and straight link to the the Far West looking for gold, skin trading motherland expanded the frontiers of the or mining, the Azoreans who participated archipelago to a geographical, social and in whale hunting in the East Coast and in political universe that is much bigger than Brazil with the first establishment of fishing the islands and the sea that lies in between

35 them – thus adding dimension and weight culture, economy and research, are basic to Portugal as a whole, particularly in the to guarantee the transmission of values, role that it plays in the geo-politics of the thus contributing towards the systematic Atlantic Ocean. and persistent preservation of our cultural And it is because the Regional identity away from the insular space. They Government of the Azores recognizes this can also be (and have started to be) the fact as a part and essence of the Azores and agents of another type of projection effort the feelings of the whole Azorean population, for the interests of the Region, as we shall see during the last three decades it has tried later on. to correspond to the responsibilities that a region of origin should have towards its citizens who reside abroad, in what is simultaneously an imperative of affection and a political obligation. Therefore, our diaspora is like having a tenth island, which is in fact the biggest island, the most populated, the vastest and the farthest. This relationship is primarily carried out by a specific department, directly dependent to the Presidency of the Government, for Emigration and the Azorean Communities – the Regional Office of the Communities – which plays a very important role in the study, coordination, technical support and the execution of the public policies that are Presently, and only in the American related to the communities of emigrants Continent – in order to give you the most of Azorean origin – thus answering the evident example – there are more than one generalised aspiration of proximity and a thousand Azorean associations in various sense of mission by the Government of the areas, spread throughout the United States Azores in defining measures and practical and Canada. policies that are specifically aimed to a follow The creation of these organizations up and the enrichment of the role of our reinforces our autonomy and our identity as diaspora. well as our presence in the world. This is the The institutions of the Azorean diaspora, reason why the Government of the Azores in their multiple areas of action and has worked towards the creation of synergies intervention, have been the main speakers to intensify not only the preservation of our and the prime vehicles of the Regional culture, customs and mother tongue - the Government to implement the actions for original vocation of most of the institutions this political logic. for emigrants – but also the aspect that These organizations, which act in very promotes the Azores of today and its important and necessary areas for full potential together with an affectionate link, integration with social support, learning, which is a more modern element for the

C munidades 36 representation of interests. investments in the Region. Within this scope, the Casas dos Açores At the same time, we have also in Brazil, United States, Canada and been gradually developing a process to Mainland Portugal, more than a dozen in institutionalize the political relations total, are the basic pillars for the relationship between the Region and the state of the Government of the Azores with its governments of the Northern American communities and for the defence of the States where the largest Azorean interests of the region next to the hosting communities have settled, such as California, countries, functioning as a proto-consular of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, with these islands. (Allow me a brief parenthesis whom we have established partnerships and to explain the reason why I used the prefix cooperation agreements, in sectors that serve “proto”. Constitutionally the Azores, as an both our interests. Autonomous Region of a State that defines In a similar fashion, and because we try itself as unitarian, has its external sphere of to respond to the diversity of the Azorean action limited to the bigger orientations of diaspora in the world, we keep an active the Republic and it does not have, as can public support policy to its initiatives, easily be understood, any prerogatives for namely: external self-representation. Nonetheless, the • We have signed various protocols dimension, dynamism and the credibility of with over one hundred institutions in our communities within the context of the Brazil, Bermuda, Canada, United States Portuguese diaspora in North America are of America and Uruguay, in the areas of so evident that it cannot be taken as abusive culture, economy, education and social to consider that there is a real tendency to support. recognise the Azores and its institutions a • We have created an annual, regulated, statute of self-relevance). support line to financially aid relevant Initially the Casas dos Azores appeared projects particularly in the area of almost at random and with different preservation of the language and culture objectives as per each specific case, albeit – during the last few years, we have generically circumscribed to the local supported more than two thousand community and to the celebration of the cultural projects, which have been memories of the homeland. Presently, they motivated not only by institutions and develop more actions, are more qualified individuals of the Azorean communities and more aware of the role they play as but also by local residents who assist representatives of the Region. those communities. This is also why, more recently, we have • As we are aware that furthering insisted on the definition of a Common one’s education is fundamental in the Agenda for the Casas dos Açores all over the transmission of the Azorean cultural world, which can balance these organizations identity and the promotion of the and establishes actions to create will and Azores, we have trained more than two availability in the hosting countries regarding thousand association managers, who issues related to the Azores, particularly attended proper courses in the Azores, in in trade and for the increase of external order to skilfully develop their tasks as

37 the voices of the Azorean reality. cultural inheritance. • And, because we know that the Although we try to get the teenagers emigration process is not always of the communities closer to present day synonymous with success, we have, as Azores with student exchange programmes we always have done, deeply pondered or training courses promoted by the about social support in partnership with Government of the Azores via specific international institutions and those of incentives for certain areas of activity that the communities. are directly related to the desires of the This model of the relationship with the teenagers, one must also maintain a close Azorean diaspora, which has had undeniable cooperation with the institutions of the virtues, presently also reveals some diaspora, find effective mechanisms to challenges to which we must respond with involve the younger generations in the daily determination. Besides having to continue life of the organizations, motivating their with the gradual reorganization of the logic contribution, keeping an open mind to their of the actions of the Casas dos Açores, in suggestions and accepting a different manner order to adapt them to the Azores of today, of doing things, that some traditions are left it is also obviously a generational issue that behind in order to maintain the success of requires special attention. this relationship model. This is not only about the continuation To be Azorean abroad does not mean, of feeding the interest, the pleasure and as it never did throughout time, to always the disposition of the younger generations be the same thing, but it always implies of Azorean-descendants regarding the the same essential sense. It is not a matter institutions and the activities of the Azorean of language, gastronomy, habits or a zero communities. It is mainly about finding addition between memory and present life the proper language to do so efficiently, style. It is a matter of soul, and the soul because now we are talking about teenagers responds to impulses, it does not require who were born and raised in their host reason. Our commitment is to be the comfort countries, without a memory of the Azores, of the souls of those who, independently and naturally without a reason to follow from the location where they live, want to be the traditions and the celebrations of their Azoreans!

C munidades 38 ANDRÉS ROZENTAL

Biography

relating to global governance, migration policy, climate change, Latin American politics and democracy promotion. He is currently a Senior Nonresident Fellow at the Brookings Institution, a Senior Advisor to Chatham House in London, a Board member of the Woodrow Wilson Center’s Mexico Institute and a Trustee of the Migration Policy Institute in Washington, D.C. He serves as a Governor of Canada’s International Research Development Centre (IDRC) since 2008 and has been a member of CIGI’s International Advisory Board since 2002, and of its Operating Board since late 2010. He was the Founding President of the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations, established in 2001. Ambassador Rozental obtained his professional degree in international Andrés Rozental was Mexico’s relations from the Universidad de las Ambassador to the United Kingdom from Américas in México and his Master’s 1995 to 1997. He was a career diplomat in International Economics from the for more than 35 years, having served his University of Pennsylvania. He is the country as Deputy Foreign Minister (1988- author of four books on Mexican foreign 1994), Ambassador to Sweden (1983-88), policy and of numerous articles on Permanent Representative of Mexico to the international affairs. He has been a foreign United Nations in Geneva (1982-83), as policy advisor to Presidents Vicente Fox well as in various responsibilities within the and Felipe Calderón of Mexico. Mexican Foreign Ministry and abroad. Since 1994, he holds the lifetime rank of Eminent Andres Rozental chaired the panel Ambassador of México. entitled “International mobility in integrated Currently, Ambassador Rozental holds economic spaces”. Since the ideas presented non-executive Board positions in several are well expressed in an article written by important multinational corporations Elizabeth Collett at the Migration Policy in Brazil, the United States, France, Institute in Washington, Rozental, after the United Kingdom and México, as getting the author’s permission, suggested us well as being active in a number of non- to include the text in Comunidades magazine. governmental organizations and projects We thank both for their contribution.

39 FALTERING MOVEMENT: European support to help manage the inflow, EXPLAINING EUROPE’S SCHENGEN specifically through financial and technical STRUGGLE support and the relocation of refugees to other EU Member States. By Elizabeth Collett North-West European states were largely Migration Policy Institute unsympathetic for a variety of reasons: November 2, 2011 Some, including Germany and Sweden, which deal with more asylum applications Six months ago, a chain reaction of than Italy annually, felt the numbers were external events and internal politics led not high enough to catalyze an EU response. to the brief, but significant, suspension of Others felt that Italy was not justified in Schengen cooperation between France and asking for support because the country had Italy. Images of guards searching trains at so closely collaborated with former Libyan the small station of Ventimiglia reminded ruler Muammar Gaddafi to prevent migrant European citizens of an EU achievement inflows from the Southern Mediterranean. they rarely notice, yet value deeply: the Still more reacted on principle: While ability to move across Europe without financial and technical support largely via undergoing passport checks and vehicle Frontex may be reasonable, the relocation searches. of refugees, and particularly asylum seekers, The four-hour, high-speed train service within Europe remains a contentious issue. from Paris to Cologne — unfettered by After several pleas and a number of border guards — symbolizes the distance hyperbolic statements from (primarily) Europe has travelled in its 60-year history. Lega Nord representatives of the Italian Politicians are proud of the unique government, Italian Prime Minister Silvio multilateral cooperation that Schengen Berlusconi took matters into his own hands represents, yet it seemed for a short while and offered the Tunisian migrants residence as if they might be willing to let the system permits — papers allowing them to move collapse over 22,000 residence permits freely throughout Europe. Alarmed by this offered by the Italian government to unilateral action, and recognizing that many unauthorized Tunisian migrants fleeing Tunisians have familial and social ties in unrest during the Arab Spring. France, the French government moved to close its Southern borders with Italy and Looking Out for Number One: Pressure reinstated checks on trains. on Schengen While some, including the European Many considered the revolutions in Commission, focused on the legal legitimacy North Africa exceptional enough to offer of each Member State’s actions — including sufficient explanation for the current the legality of the actual residence permits situation in itself. Chronologically, the – the political fallout was unavoidable. events had a domino effect. The arrival of Seeking reconciliation, both heads of state the migrants to Italian shores (mainly to met and drafted a joint letter to European the small island of Lampedusa) sparked a Commission President José Manuel Barroso. call from the Italian government for pan- Most of the requests contained therein were

C munidades 40 mild, and many had already been proposed surrounding Schengen cooperation, and the and discussed within the EU institutions. European Commission should expect further However, one clause requested that Schengen challenges in the future. rules be adjusted to allow states to close borders in “exceptional circumstances.” The A Brief History of Schengen European Commission agreed in principle, It is interesting to note that, while the though emphasized that they themselves European Commission is now the central would be the only ones capable of overseeing bastion of Schengen cooperation, the first such adjustments. meetings to discuss developing freedom of Member States have since confirmed movement were done outside of the bounds their unanimous support for Schengen, not of the EU framework. Five countries came least at the June 2011 European Summit together in 1985 to negotiate and sign the where EU heads of state reiterated their founding agreement in the small town of commitment to Schengen as “one of the Schengen, Luxembourg, close to the tri- most tangible and successful achievements border with France and Germany. of European integration.” However, they also It took a further ten years for this outlined the development of a “mechanism” cooperation to become operational, and to respond to exceptional pressures — a an additional two years before it was series of measures of support that could brought within the fold of the European ultimately lead to the reintroduction of Union through the Amsterdam Treaty. In internal border controls. A proposal for such the meantime, additional countries joined a mechanism has since been published by the the initiative, including the European European Commission and is currently under Economic Area (EEA) states of Switzerland, discussion. Norway, and Lichtenstein. Thus, the fact Crisis averted? During the French- that Member States are battling with the Italian spat, the Danish government re- European Commission on the terms of established customs checks along its German the treaty is in itself a departure from the and Swedish borders, ostensibly to address original government-led spirit of Schengen. transborder crime. The stand has been short- lived. Amidst doubts as to the legality of the What is Schengen cooperation? move and strong criticism from neighboring Schengen cooperation has resulted in states, particularly Germany, the new Danish the removal of internal border controls government (a center-left government has between 25 EU/EEA Member States. been formed since the elections in October At the current moment, all EU Member 2011) has announced it will remove border States participate with the exception of controls once more. This second unilateral the UK and Ireland (who have opted out), move highlights that whilst, overall, and Romania, Bulgaria, and Cyprus (who Schengen principles are holding in place, have yet to join). In addition, EEA states they are still under pressure. Norway, Lichtenstein, and Switzerland A number of underlying factors suggest also participate. The removal of internal that the events of the past several months borders has also sparked a raft of policies to are a symptom rather than cause of tension strengthen the common external borders of

41 the Schengen area, known as “compensating or political events were feared to spark measures.” unrest. Indeed, on more than one occasion, Schengen cooperation should not be border controls have been reintroduced over confused with the right of free movement, concerns related to immigration and asylum. through which EU citizens have the right Thus, the key element of the French-Italian to live and work in other Member States request is not to introduce a new concept (with the exception of those still restricted into the Schengen agreement per se, but by ‘transitional measures’ allowing limits on expand – and possibly blur – the terms free movement for citizens of new accession through which controls may be reintroduced. countries, currently Romania and Bulgaria). However, the ability to live and reside Continuing Challenges for Schengen in other EU countries is greatly facilitated Cooperation by Schengen cooperation (allowing citizens A confluence of trends — some long- to live in one country commute to work in standing, others newly emergent — can be another), while tourists from outside of the identified with respect to the continued European Union can take advantage of a pressure on the Schengen system. single visa that allows travel to all countries External Border Pressures and Uneven within the Schengen space. Schengen Burdens cooperation has never been a smooth ride, The Schengen space is ultimately as concerns over fellow countries’ abilities dependent upon the existence of a strong to manage external borders and ports of external border and a shared responsibility entry have led to halts and postponements. for that border among all Member States. Take Germany’s concern about the quality Borders are only as strong as their weakest of Austrian border controls in 1995, for link, as amply demonstrated by the situation example, or the 8-month delay of expansion on the Greek-Turkish border in 2010 when to Central European states in 2007 due record numbers of unauthorized migrants to delays in implementing new common from the Middle East and North Africa information systems. Most recently, the crossed into the Schengen space. accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the A great deal of trust between countries Schengen area has been postponed — is required and has slowly been built up, perhaps indefinitely — over worries about reliant upon the idea that countries with high levels of corruption and transnational external borders will hold up to the challenge crime. Separately, the planned upgrade of of securing them and those without will the common Schengen Information System offer support when required. This trust has to include additional biometric data is both come under pressure during moments of over budget and overdue. enlargement and crisis, but has ultimately And reintroduction of internal border been maintained. controls is not without precedent. Member While the need for high levels of States may close internal borders for up to trust for external border cooperation had 30 days when there is a serious threat to been foreseen from the beginning, the public policy or national security, and this disproportionate pressure placed on some tack has been used when large sporting countries regarding border management –

C munidades 42 real in the case of countries such as Malta the Schengen space in an effort to reduce the and Cyprus, less dramatic (but still felt) in concerns of larger Northern states regarding the case of Italy –was less anticipated. the border management capacity of their The political perception that these Southern partners. countries have been “burdened” by external In the long term, however, any border management, and that Northern mechanism for reintroducing border controls countries have avoided taking their fair share will have to be accompanied by a substantive of responsibility, is enduring and has yet to set of burden-sharing measures capable of be sustainably resolved. Northern states, satisfying both Southern and Northern such as France, Germany, the Netherlands, states. But beyond financial and technical and the UK, note that they deal with support and a stronger role for the European more spontaneous asylum applications Union’s border management agency, Frontex, than their Southern partners and believe states have struggled to collectively articulate offering financial and technical support is what this might mean. Broad solutions such sufficient. Southern states, however, would as the fully harmonized completion of the like to establish deeper cooperation that Common European Asylum System, for would include a system for the relocation of example, have become ever more elusive refugees and possibly asylum seekers across in the absence of high levels of trust, yet the European Union. shorter-term, patchwork responses fail to This lack of unity is eroding essential restore that trust. trust between Member States and highlights National Politics on the EU Stage how equity is necessary for the Schengen Arguably, much of the debate over the system to keep working effectively. In the past six months has not been a challenge to absence of an equitable and sustainable EU cooperation, but rather a reflection of compromise, this trust will continue to erode increasingly tense national political debates until one external-border country is unable on immigration across Europe. Italy and to live up to its obligations to police borders France were in no small part reacting to further. The Italian action can, in some ways, national political pressure (Lega Nord in be read as a warning shot to EU partners. Italy, the National Front in France) to be But what solutions exist? The proposal tough on immigration from third countries, from the European Commission concerning while Denmark was responding to calls Schengen rules includes the possibility to from the People’s Party to be tougher at the reintroduce internal border controls should border. one Member State exhibit a “persistent In the particular area of immigration, deficiency to manage a section of the EU’s asylum, and the movement of people, external border,” though only after all other the level of solidarity necessary for EU avenues of action have been exhausted. cooperation requires a certain amount of Clearly aimed at Greece amid concerns as national interest to be set aside. Populist to the lack of infrastructure that exists to pressure, marginal but in many cases critical, manage that country’s external borders, means that EU Member States are finding this proposal essentially provides for the it harder and harder to collaborate on temporary expulsion of a Member State from these issues. In reality, immigration policy

43 in Europe never strays too far from the French government, as they believed many constraints of domestic politics. However, of those offered legal status would then drawing the line between legitimate national travel to France. Real or imagined, this policy concerns and playing electoral politics concern sparked a debate on regularization with EU policy is also becoming harder, at the EU level. The result was a “mutual polarizing the EU debate. information mechanism” whereby But tinkering with Schengen may not be governments were asked to inform fellow a vote-winning policy for national politicians. states of impending amnesties, and later a During the October national elections in political statement in the European Pact on Denmark, the popularity of the People’s Immigration and Asylum of 2008. Party declined significantly, and the new While the Spanish-French dispute did socialist government has announced that not escalate into Schengen brinkmanship, the policy of re-establishing internal border the resulting debate highlighted how trust controls will be abandoned. Similarly, when between Member States is predicated on an the Italian government decided to renew the unspoken set of parameters — the common six-month visa for Tunisians still residing in belief that the group of states all hold Italy in October, neither the Italian or French roughly the same philosophies and priorities politicians made any noise about it. This — within which governments will make may, in small part, suggest that any political national choices. The aforementioned EU advantage to looking tough with respect to immigration pact, which was promulgated Schengen is short-lived and, if carried too far, under the French EU Presidency in 2008, may ultimately be self-defeating. was an effort to articulate these priorities. Clash Between Free Movement and Thus, action outside of these boundaries Immigration Rules will spark political debate and potentially Over the past couple of years, there counteraction within the European Union. have been several indications that, in the Unfortunately, a resolution to absence of completely harmonized third this tension — either by harmonizing country immigration policies (i.e., policies immigration and asylum laws completely towards non-European immigrants), conflicts or dismantling Schengen entirely — is between internal systems of free movement unlikely. Instead, the European Commission and national policy are gradually eroding will have to continue to make compromise trust between EU Member States. decisions and find ways to circumvent and The French-Italian dispute highlighted manage these conflicts. However, any new one essential fact: Immigration policy mechanism will need to make clearer that decisions adopted by a single Member State national immigration policy decisions in a may have unwanted spill-over effects for other single Member State should not be capable (particularly neighboring) Member States. of triggering the reintroduction of borders, This is not the first occasion where such regardless of how unconventional their unilateral policy decisions have affected actions might seem to their neighbors. EU cooperation on immigration. The 2006 Spanish decision to regularize around What Next for Schengen? 600,000 unauthorized migrants upset the The current political high tide has subsided,

C munidades 44 yet the watermarks are still visible. Few believe Sources that the proposed adjustment of Schengen European Commission. 2011. Schengen rules will resolve the tensions in the long term. Governance — strengthening the area without Rather, any modifications made will likely paper internal border control. Brussels: European over the cracks of the current crisis. Commission. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ Continued Schengen cooperation is LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0 predicated on three separate factors: trust, 561:FIN:EN:PDF. equity, and low political salience, all of which European Commission. 2011. are at a premium in the current EU political Communication on Migration. Brussels: climate. It is important to remember that, European Commission. http://eur-lex. at the European Summit in June, ministers europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. publicly and unanimously reaffirmed their do?uri=CELEX:52011DC0248:EN:NOT. support for the Schengen space. While they European Council. 2011. Council Conclusions. may have concerns, no politician wishes to Brussels: European Council, 24 June. be at the helm of such a significant backslide European Council. 2008. European Pact on from free to fettered movement. Irresponsible Immigration and Asylum. Brussels: European public statements and a demonstrated lack Council. http://register.consilium.europa.eu/ of leadership are not just damaging to the pdf/en/08/st13/st13440.en08.pdf. Schengen system itself, but also to relationships Tanaka, Hiroyuki. 2007. Europe’s between Member States and future Disappearing Internal Borders. Washington, collaboration in related policy fields. DC: Migration Policy Institute. www. However, continued cooperation will be migrationpolicy.org/pubs/FS20_ more and more difficult to maintain in the SchengenDisappearingBorders_121807.pdf. absence of common consensus on Europe’s future immigration dynamic, particularly as Member States are likely to continue to refer to domestic politics when negotiating at the EU level. In this context, a common immigration policy will be pursued on a prophylactic basis, preventing what are perceived to be the worst excesses of nonconforming Member States, This article is available at from border management to policies addressing www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/ regularization, and perhaps even citizenship and display.cfm?ID=859 family reunification laws. It may be that the European Union is Copyright @ 2011 Migration Policy Insti- entering a new era of more fragile and less tute. All rights reserved. certain cooperation in the area of immigration, MPI · 1400 16th St. NW, Suite 300 · Wash- and that “saving” Schengen might come at the ington, DC 20036 expense of some of the more ambitious plans ph: (001) 202-266-1940 · fax: (001) 202- held by those seeking a more comprehensive 266-1900 common immigration policy. [email protected]

45 AYUMI TAKENAKA

Biography JAPAN’S AGEING AND IMMIGRATION “PROBLEMS”* Ayumi Takenaka is an associate professor of sociology at Bryn Mawr College Japan is struggling to cope with ageing and (USA) and at the Center for the Study immigration problems. With one of the lowest of Social Stratification and Inequality, birth rates and the highest life expectancy in Tohoku University (Japan). She is primarily the world, Japan is ageing faster than any other interested in investigating the relationship nation. Its population is declining on a scale between immigration, social mobility, and unprecedented in the developed world and may identities. Her current projects include: (1) further shrink by 30% to 90 million by 2050 the global mobility of skill and the role of (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare 2011). policies and businesses; (2) social mobility The country has the world’s highest proportion of immigrants in Japan in comparative of over-65s and the lowest ratio of children perspective; and (3) the re-migration of under 15. In 2001, the United Nations warned immigrants from Japan and Western Europe that to sustain the current proportion of the to the U.S. working-age population, Japan would need to bring in over 500 million immigrants in the next 50 years (UN 2001). This presents an immigration problem. For a country that regards, and likes to regard, itself as ethnically and culturally homogeneous, accepting large- scale immigration is a big challenge. While many industrial countries resort to immigration to solve their demographic woes, either willingly or unwillingly, Japan is cautious, if not outright reluctant, to do so. Although the volume of immigration to Japan has grown over the past decades, at 2 million or just 1.7% of the population (including 400,000 multi-generational Korean residents), the level of immigration remains exceptionally low among industrial countries. The dilemma Japan faces, thus, is the gravity of the demographic problem combined with reluctance to resort to immigration (or the demographic problem may be grave because of lack of significant immigration). How does Japan cope with the dilemma? And how are we to deal with the dilemma in general? Is

* Ayumi Takenaka, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Bryn Mawr College USA and Faculty of Arts and Letters, Tohoku University, Japan.

C munidades 46 immigration a viable solution to population education in Japan. To entice them and ageing at all? As a forerunner in population encourage them to stay in the country, Japan ageing, Japan and the choices it makes are has resolved on a highly selective immigration likely to provide a lesson for the rest of the policy, moving toward a skilled-based point ageing world in tackling the same challenges. system similar to one adopted in many other The demographic “crisis” has fueled industrial countries. Moreover, to increase debates over immigration around the world the number of foreign students and encourage and certainly so in Japan. In this context, the them to stay, various programs have been country has taken two actions. One is the implemented, such as “the 300,000 Foreign introduction of a foreign trainee program in Student Plan,” “Global 30,” and “the Asia elderly care, an area with acute labor shortages Gateway Initiative.” All these measures, in an ageing society. In 2008, Japan began to once again, are not meant to make up for the invite nurses and caregivers from Indonesia country’s declining population. “Replacement and later from the Philippines as part of migration” is not considered an option; even the Economic Partnership Agreement made though the current immigration debate in respectively with these countries. The aim Japan is inexorably linked to its demographic of the program is not to fill labor shortages, problem, immigration is treated only as a according to the Ministry of Health, Labor means to revitalize its ageing society. and Welfare in charge of the program; it is, The above measures reflect Japan’s in principle, a “training program” justified firm stance that while it encourages skilled in the context of economic expansion and migrants, it accepts only skilled migrants. integration between the countries. Under this The reality, however, is quite different. Highly program, 793 Indonesians and 438 Filipinos skilled migrants, at least the kind of migrants have entered Japan on 3 to 4-year contracts. the country wishes to attract, are not entering At the end of their contracts trainees must Japan in significant numbers. The number pass Japan’s notoriously difficult national of newly admitted skilled migrants declined examination to stay in the country. So far, from over 120,000 in 2005 to less than only 19 (out of 817 exam takers) passed the 60,000 in 2009 (Ministry of Justice 2011). exam (due mostly to linguistic barriers), and A majority of these “skilled” migrants are so- most returned to their countries after 3 years. called “entertainers,” many of whom work The other measure Japan has taken is to in bars and hostesses. Nor are many skilled encourage highly skilled immigrants. The migrants staying long in Japan. In particular, Ministry of Justice (2009), an authority on the highly talented with extraordinary abilities immigration policy, states: “Amid the serious and globally compatible skills are less likely to decline in the population…, it is necessary stay and tend to see Japan as a mere stepping- to actively promote acceptance of highly- stone to move on elsewhere, according to qualified human resources in order … to interviews I have conducted with immigrants achieve a sustainable economic growth” (P. in Japan since 2008. Among foreign students, 69). The resources Japan tries to bring in doctoral students are also less likely than include foreign workers with expertise and masters and undergraduate students to capabilities in sciences and technologies, as stay upon completing their studies in Japan well as international students pursuing higher (JASSO 2011). Consequently, the kinds

47 of foreigners who come and stay in Japan world in coping with similar demographic in growing numbers are mostly unskilled challenges. The way Japan has handled the workers who are allowed to enter through matter so far may not provide an answer familial and ethnic ties. In 2009, only as to how immigration may help alleviate 17% of foreign migrant workers in Japan population ageing. Yet, it may offer a lesson engaged in professional and skilled jobs on how to deal with population ageing (Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare without resorting to large-scale immigration. 2010). It is indeed remarkable how Japan has kept Given the very low level of immigration, its immigration level so low and sustained one wonders how serious Japan really is about itself, thus far, demographically and “actively encouraging skilled migrants” in economically. the context of population ageing and decline. Perhaps the government’s intent is to alleviate the demographic problem by bringing in References Cited “temporary” migrants—e.g., bring in foreign nurses and caregivers, but only to make sure BBC. 2011. “Japan may pick robots over that they will go home after a number of years. immigrants” (May 17, 2011) Likewise, skilled migrants are encouraged, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8687196.stm perhaps because they are unlikely to come or Accessed Nov. 1, 2011 stay in Japan for long, as one policy maker JASSO 2011. Statistics on Foreign Students in interviewed put it. Another official explicitly Japan. told me during an interview that “Japan should http://www.jasso.go.jp/ Accessed Nov. 2, accept immigration only on a temporary 2011 and rotating basis so as to keep the nation New York Times. 2011. “Japan keeps a high culturally homogeneous and socially stable.” wall for foreign labor” (January 3, 2011) As the BBC (May 17, 2011) put it, Japan may http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/03/world/ indeed “pick robots over immigrants” and asia/03japan.html?pagewanted=all Accessed certainly “…keeps a high wall for foreign labor” Nov. 1, 2011 (New York Times January 4, 2011). Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare. Regardless of its intent, Japan clearly is 2010. Statistics on Foreign Migrant Workers. faced with a series of contradictions. The Tokyo: Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare. government rigorously tries to restrict and Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare. control immigration in areas that need 2011. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/ Accessed immigrants most. This, in turn, reinforces October 31, 2011 the notion that immigrants are unwelcome, Ministry of Justice 2009. Immigration Control. discouraging “desirable” immigrants to come Tokyo: Ministry of Justice. and stay in Japan. As a result, immigration Ministry of Justice 2011. Statistics on contributes little to solving the country’s Foreigners Registered in Japan. http://www.immi- demographic problem or to revitalizing the moj.go.jp/ Accessed October 30, 2011 economy of the ageing society. United Nations. 2001. Replacement As the most rapidly ageing society, Japan Migration: is it a solution to declining and ageing aspires to serve as a model for the rest of the populations? New York: United Nations

C munidades 48 DEMETRIOS PAPADEMETRIOU

Biography INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY IN INTEGRATED ECONOMIC SPACES: UNREALISTIC EXPECTATIONS ABOUT NAFTS’S IMPACT ON IMMIGRATION.

Introduction In 1994, the United States, Canada and Mexico ratified the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA.) Despite calls by many analysts and some constituencies in the U.S. and, of course, most constituencies in Mexico, the Agreement did not include provisions to liberalize migration primarily out of fears within the U.S. Administration Demetrios G. Papademetriou is the that the U.S. Congress might block its President and Co-Founder of the Migration ratification if it included any openings to Policy Institute (MPI). He is also the convener migration. In turn, Mexico pulled access to of the Transatlantic Council on Migration and the most relevant segments of its petroleum its predecessor, the Transatlantic Task Force sector off the negotiating table, thus allowing on Immigration and Integration (co-convened each country to “protect” an area of intense with the Bertelsmann Stiftung). The Council domestic political interest. is composed of senior public figures, business NAFTA’s only foray into “migration” leaders, and public intellectuals from (really, “mobility”) is Chapter 15, which Europe, the United States, and Canada. Dr. institutionalizes the rules of entry for Papademetriou is also the Co-Founder and businesspersons, investors and five dozen or International Chair Emeritus of Metropolis: so narrowly defined classes of professionals An International Forum for Research and Policy in the three countries. The number of on Migration and Cities. He also serves as professions can be changed if the technical Chair of the World Economic Forum’s working groups that have been meeting Global Agenda Council on Migration. regularly since the agreement’s ratification Dr. Papademetriou has been Chair of the agree to recommend to do so—but no such Migration Committee of the Organization agreements has been reached since NAFTA for Economic Cooperation and Development came into effect, and there appears to be (OECD); Director for Immigration Policy little appetite for creating further openings. and Research at the US Department of Looking at NAFTA through the lens of Labor and Chair of the Secretary of Labor’s migration is thus fundamentally misdirected. Immigration Policy Task Force; and Executive NAFTA is first and foremost a trade and Editor of the International Migration Review. investment pact. The Agreement came on Dr. Papademetriou has published more than the heels of, and was largely modeled on, the 250 books, articles, monographs, and research 1988 free trade agreement (FTA) between reports on migration topics and advises senior Canada and the U.S. that liberalized government and political party officials in cross-border trade and investment. The more than 20 countries (including numerous U.S. objectives regarding the NAFTA were European Union Member States while they identical to those of the Canada/US FTA: hold the rotating EU presidency). creating a safe, stable and predictable

49 investment environment and, over time, and ten Canadians to one Mexican. removing barriers on the movement of goods Additional factors contribute to the and services among the three countries. large disparity between the number of With regard to the Agreement’s limited Canadian and Mexican TN visa holders mobility provisions, NAFTA codified entering the United States. Mexican the long-standing disparate treatment of applicants must fulfill more requirements Canadians and Mexicans seeking to enter compared to Canadians in order to obtain the United States. Canada and the U.S. a U.S. TN visa, including providing more have offered each other’s citizens entry to paperwork and undergoing a full vetting each other’s territory since the 1850’s, a process (not required for Mexicans seeking reflection of the two countries’ common to enter Canada until very recently). As a ethnic and cultural origins, similar levels of result, many U.S. immigration attorneys economic development, and deep economic advise Mexican TN visa applicants and their interdependence. Mexico, on the other hand, prospective employers to make the extra has had different roots, has been always effort (and pay the additional fees required) much less developed than the U.S., and has to obtain the H-1B visa, which virtually had a deeply entrenched history of mostly guarantees one a six-year residence. illegal immigration by poorly- skilled—if Other reasons for the large difference hard working and “essential—workers in in the number of Canadian and Mexican the United States. These differences are TN entries into the U.S. are that Mexican reflected in visa refusal rates of Mexicans professional networks in the U.S. are seeking to enter the U.S. that have typically much smaller and less-well developed than exceeded 30 percent of applications. (Denials those of Canadians; that the labor market are almost entirely due to concerns that integration between Canada and Mexico, on the applicant would likely fail to return the one hand, and the United States, on the to Mexico when required—the so-called other, has occurred largely in different labor “intending immigrant” test). market segments (the top half in the case of Canadians, and the bottom half in the case Unequal Treatment of Mexicans); and, finally, that there is no The TN (Treaty NAFTA) visa was evidence that the Mexican government has created by NAFTA for the temporary widely publicized the availability of the TN employment of professionals under a one- visa or has engaged the issue of removing year-at-a-time framework. The visa is some or all of the Agreement’s unequal renewable for an unlimited number of years provisions at the highest political levels. This as long as the applicant can demonstrate relative “passivity” reflects concerns that that (s)he does not intend to “become an the TN visa would accelerate the already immigrant” in the U.S., a requirement that substantial emigration of talented Mexican becomes more and more difficult to meet professionals to the United States. after a few renewals. The total number of TN visas available to Mexicans was capped NAFTA’s Effect on Immigration at 5,500 in any single year until 2004, when The impact NAFTA has had on migration/ the ten year transitional period for most mobility flows between the countries is NAFTA provisions expired. Post 2004, the difficult to disentangle from other factors typical ratio of TN visa holders entering the that affect the movement of people between U.S. every year has been between and seven the signatory countries, such as the health

C munidades 50 of one’s and the world economy, social and since 1994, which now hovers around cultural ties, and each country’s bilateral eleven million, about 60 percent (or about economic relationship with the other. That seven million) of whom are Mexicans. said, the impact has been modest. These charges, however, ignore the goals In the case of Canada-U.S. migration/ that NAFTA has achieved: bilateral trade mobility, for example, the most important that grew from about $60 billion in 1993 factor has been the enormous economic to about $360 billion in 2010; an increase interdependence between two countries that in U.S. net foreign direct investment (FDI) share very similar values, political systems, in Mexico from about $17 billion to nearly and living standards. That interdependence, $100 billion since NAFTA went into effect; aided by such agreements as the Auto a strongly expanding middle class; and Pact of the 1960s, the Canada/U.S. FTA, Mexico seeking its place among “emerging” the NAFTA, and many other formal and economies. informal arrangements has grown into one of the most robust economic relationships Conclusion between two advanced industrial The fairest conclusion one can draw from democracies in the world. Accordingly, the NAFTA experience is that migration migration/mobility between the two nations, between Mexico and the U.S. is affected whether permanent or temporary, has been by much larger trends and forces in the viewed largely as mutually beneficial. regional and world economies than could be Few of these factors apply in the explained or shaped definitively by NAFTA migration relationship between Mexico alone. Trade agreements can neither cause and the U.S. The difficult nature of that nor neutralize the forces that propel people relationship was reflected in the fact that to migrate—at least not in the near-to- both U.S. and Mexican government officials mid-term and not in the near absence of echoed each other in promoting and seeking sustained efforts to change the economic and ratification of the NAFTA in their claims that, social realities that fuel migration. by promoting economic growth in Mexico To borrow loosely from Winston through increased trade and investment, the Churchill’s ruminations about the promise Agreement would help create jobs in Mexico of a united Europe, greater “integration” and thus reduce the pressure for unauthorized among neighbors is a “living thing” that immigration across the U.S.’ southern border. grows and constantly adapts. Regional This has not been the case for reasons that trade agreements can make important implicate both the United States and Mexico contributions to greater integration by but go beyond the focus of this brief essay. setting the stage for further cooperation In some circles, NAFTA’s inability to on migration and other deeply divisive change the economic circumstances of most issues. Such cooperation will be central to Mexicans sufficiently, and the economic what will ultimately distinguish policies displacement of many Mexican subsistance that stand a chance to succeed from those farmers since the agreement went into destined to repeat past failures. effect (due to the Agreement’s agricultural provisions), are cited as evidence of its (Content builds on Demetrios “failure.” And some even single out these Papademetriou, “NAFTA’s Exaggerated factors as reasons for the soaring number Promise for Immigration,”Americas Quarterly, of unauthorized immigrants to the U.S. 2 (3): 40-47, 2008.)

51 DWAINE PLAZA

Biography FACEBOOK SERVING AS A TRANSNATIONAL BRIDGE FOR CONNECTING THE TRINIDADIAN DIASPORA COMMUNITY Dwaine Plaza

“I love Facebook! It keeps me contacted to my “old” life and friends in Trinidad. It helps me feel connected and less isolated from my old life. I keep in touch with friends and relive our memories of high school and just share our stories being transplants or how much we miss living home. Facebook also creates a buffer so that when I do visit Trinidad I have ties that I can count on to take me around. Additionally, we share issues and news Dwaine Plaza is Professor of Sociology stories and open thread discussions and at Oregon State University in the School of share nuances of being Trinidadians Public Policy. He completed a doctorate at - it creates solidarity and helps us York University in Canada in 1996. He went maintain it”. (Angela, a sixty-six year on to do a Post-Doctoral Fellowship at Oxford old, Trinidadian-Canadian, living in Brookes University in England in 1997. Toronto). Since 1997 he has lived in Corvallis, Oregon but continues to do research on immigration, In 2000, there was an estimated 451 acculturation, and policy issues particularly million Internet users worldwide, which for the Caribbean immigrant population in represented 7.4% of the world’s population. Canada. His most recent publications include: By 2011 the number of Internet users (2009) “Transnational Identity Maintenance had jumped to an estimated two billion via the Internet A Content Analysis of the or approximately 25% of the world’s Websites Constructed by Second Generation population. The growth in Internet use from Caribbean-Origin Students in Post– 2000-2011 has been especially dramatic in Secondary Institutions”; (2009) “Queerness certain parts of the world. In Latin America in the Transnational Caribbean-Canadian and the Caribbean there has been an Diaspora”; and (2008) “Transnational enormous increase in the number of Internet Return Migration to the English Speaking users to 1037% since 2000. Facebook was Caribbean”; His contact information is: initially built for college students at Harvard The Department of Sociology, Room 302 in 2004 since then it has been opened up to Fairbanks Hall, Oregon State University, the general public. Facebook has become a Corvallis, Oregon, 97330, United States. global social media website whose members Email: [email protected]. are from the United States, Europe, South

C munidades 52 America, the Caribbean, Asia, Africa and “diaspora” developed in some major cities many other nations. Facebook has grown to in the Eastern United States (New York, more than 500 million users in 170 countries Boston, Baltimore) in the United Kingdom over the world. In 2011, Facebook reported (London, Manchester, Birmingham) and in that approximately 70 percent of its users are Canada (Toronto, Montreal and Winnipeg) located outside of the United States. emerged. The formation of large Caribbean- origin migrant communities in these cities and the resources that such immigrant communities provided to new migrants strengthened and transformed the Caribbean culture of migration. Caribbean migrants began to see themselves as both “here” and “there” in the Caribbean although they were living abroad. “Home” began to be viewed not just as the place where one was born or just where one lived, but more generally anywhere friends, relatives and members of the cultural community were to be found. In effect, what began as a Caribbean culture of migration expanded over time to become a Caribbean transnational cultural Diasporic community. Thus, the culture of migration was retained as one key element in this geographically spread out transnational community. Despite being separated by great distances the transnational Caribbean community has continued to stay in regular communication with family, fictive kin and friends spread out throughout the world. Caribbeans have continued to utilize the latest technologies to stay in touch. This Caribbean people have a long history of has evolved from letter writing, to telephone surviving economic adversity by moving to calls, emails and most recently social media neighboring countries where jobs are more platforms (like Facebook, Twitter, or Skype) abundant. The contemporary Caribbean all via the Internet. diaspora living in Britain, Canada and the This study explored how Facebook is United States is a product of a “culture being used as a tool by the Caribbean-origin of migration” that developed as a survival Diaspora to maintain transnational linkages strategy in the context of a long secular with family, fictive kin and friends. Based on decline in sugar production and plantation the results of an online survey of (n=100) agriculture starting in the early 1800s. Trinidadian-origin Diaspora participants, Since the 1960’s a Caribbean international focus groups (n=3) and interviews with

53 (N=20) Trinidadian-origin Facebook users. produced in Trinidad and they were more This paper explores how Facebook is acting likely to listen to live stream radio through as a transnational bridge for the Trinidadian the internet. These trends suggest that Diaspora in 2011. By facilitating this real Trinidadian origin women and men are both time and inexpensive connection Facebook deeply involved in transnational activity and acts as a tool to facilitate reminisces about Facebook is clearly one social media platform the nostalgic past and as a mechanism to used to participate in that activity. maintain and solidify linkages of obligation The research showed that the length and caring to family, kin and fictive kin of time living away from Trinidad tends in the international Diaspora. Facebook to increase the desire for a nostalgic allows Trinidadians living abroad who are reconnections to back “home”. There is experiencing cultural mourning or alienation evidence that the length of time away also to rekindle a sense of mattering and influences the degree of cultural mourning belonging and thus improve their self-esteem. or alienation that Trinidadian’s living in Based on the results of the 2011 online the international Diaspora experience. survey we found that almost half of the Those Trinidadians who have been away respondents created their Facebook page for more than 11 years seem to read online in 2008 or 2010. Most of the respondents newspapers, listen to live stream radio from accessed Facebook from their home or work. Trinidad, or more closely follow Carnival Most felt that Facebook was a unique social cultural events than groups who are more media web site because it allowed them the recent migrants (less than 10 years). This possibility of keeping track of old friends older migrant group also tends to send and and acquaintances; keeping track of the receive text messages from family, kin and developments within one’s own family and friends in Trinidad on a more regular basis. kin network; or giving the respondent the By maintaining a connection with those ability to connect with anyone from their family and kin in the international diaspora nostalgic past. this older cohort of migrants seems to be Women in our study were far more attempting to rekindle a sense of mattering engaged in online transnational activity and belonging and thus improve their self- compared to men. Women were more likely esteem living in the international Diaspora. than men to report reading daily newspapers Experiencing racism in the international produced in Trinidad. Facebook allowed Diaspora caused many of the respondents individuals to follow events leading up to the to reminisce and reach back to memories, annual carnival and other cultural events. It images and people from their place of birth also allowed individuals to follow activities as a coping mechanism. It is interesting to going on at previously attended high schools. note from the data that emailing, gossiping The social media platform also facilitated the or being in contact with Trinidadian friends cultural practice of gossiping and emailing seems to be working as a tool for improving friends from Trinidad. Trinidadian men on self-esteem in the Diaspora community. the other hand were significantly more like Listening to live stream radio and being in to report that they were using Facebook touch with annual carnival cultural events to help them know the latest music being may also be seen as activities which help

C munidades 54 respondents who are experiencing feelings of connections to family, fictive kin and friends. cultural mourning or alienation. As a consequence this acts as a therapeutic, For many Caribbean men and women social and psychological means for Caribbean living in the international Diaspora their people to be able to alleviate their sense of ethnicity and cultural identity seems to loneliness, and rekindle a sense of mattering be fluid, situational and volitional. It is and belonging. based on a dynamic process in which Facebook and social media in general boundaries, identities and cultures are are here to stay. As a communication negotiated, defined and produced though platform Facebook has the potential to social interactions inside and outside the change the way the Caribbean diaspora dominant community. Facebook has come to stays in touch with friends, family and fit directly into the transnational orientation kin. It provides a bridge to keep disbursed for Caribbeans in the Diaspora because it individuals in the loop about things provides them with a voice to express who happening in their family, in the region they are, where they have come from and and worldwide. Facebook is working as what their cultural values are. a tool for all Caribbean people in the Facebook and other social media Diaspora to help alleviate feelings of platforms also have given Trinidadians a alienation and marginality in host cultures. feeling of “agency” that helps them to avoid Facebook is being used to solidify linkages feelings of “object loss” and alienation in of obligation and provides immediate host cultures. This acquisition of agency transnational caring to family and kin. It is particularly important for Caribbean also helps to encourage a sense of mattering immigrants who have been traditionally and belonging to those participating in powerless to have a voice in the global public an online virtual “family.” Government sphere. Undoubtedly, the cyber space world policy makers both in the Western host of the Internet and the use of social media countries and regional Caribbean need to platforms have given Caribbean origin embrace social media platforms as effective immigrants a secure and safe place where inexpensive tools to help organize and the in-group discourse can include issues harness the Diaspora’s energy and resources that might not be uttered in other public which will ultimately benefit those spaces. Facebook seems to provide real time individuals still living in the Caribbean.

55 ELAINE LEVINE

Biography THE EFFECTS OF LARGE-SCALE EMIGRATION ON MEXICO Elaine Levine is a native of Atlanta, By Elaine Levine Georgia who has lived and worked in Mexico City since the late 1960s. She is a researcher/ For everyone alive in Mexico today professor at the National Autonomous there has always been a North of the Border. University of Mexico’s Center for Research Migration between México and the US on North America (CISAN). She holds a began over 160 years ago when Mexico lost B.A. in Economics from Goucher College and approximately half of its territory to the US. However the flow of migrants has increased a Ph. D. in Economics from the UNAM. She significantly over the past three decades. Mexico teaches regularly in the UNAM’s graduate is a country where a huge metropolis (Mexico program in Political and Social Sciences and City) and the colonial splendor of several cities was a visiting professor at the University of coexist with widespread rural misery and urban Salamanca in Spain in 2009. Her research squalor. Thirty seven percent of the population centers on Mexico-US migration and the lives in localities of less than 15,000 inhabitants socioeconomic status of Mexicans and while approximately 20 million inhabitants, other Latinos in the US. She has published 18% of the entire population of 112 million, are extensively on these topics and related issues. concentrated in and around Mexico City. According to the World Bank, migration from Mexico to the United States constitutes the world’s top migration corridor. Mexico has the largest number of out migrants in the world today and over 95% of Mexico’s emigrants go to the US. Mexico is the world’s third remittance receiving country. However in contrast to India, China and the Philippines, the vast majority of Mexico’s emigrants are low skilled workers with limited earning capacity. Surprisingly though, in absolute terms Mexico is an important provider of skilled labor to the US. In 2006 Mexico ranked 2nd in the number of skilled immigrants working in the US (462 thousand). Nevertheless that figure constitutes less than 5% of the total number of Mexicans in the US. Furthermore, it is not easy to determine the exact number of Mexicans currently living in the US. Undercounting may be considerable and there is still a significant amount of circular migration, in spite of stricter border controls since 9/11/2001 which have led many migrants to remain in the US for longer periods of time or even indefinitely. Pew Hispanic Center calculations based on US Census Bureau data placed the number at

C munidades 56 about 12.4 million in 2010. jobs because of the economic crisis, so that Approximately 11% of Mexico’s population they could stay there for a while longer to look now resides in the US and if we were to count for other employment. all of the almost 32 (31.8) million persons of In many cases remittances may constitute Mexican ancestry living in the US that figure an important component of family or is equivalent to 28.3% of Mexico’s current household income, as much as 30, 40 or population. All states and almost all of the even 50% or more. For some households the municipalities in each state have at least some emigration. Over 70% of those leaving Mexico money sent home by an absent son or husband in any given year are between 15 and 39 may be all the monetary income they have. years old. Approximately 9% of the physicians Approximately 80% of the remittances received trained in Mexico have emigrated which is also are spent on food and housing. Remittances the case for over 15% of the college educated may make the difference between going to bed population. Recently many entrepreneurs hungry or not, having a cement floor instead of and local politicians in the northern states a dirt floor, and sleeping on a cot instead of on have moved their families to the US to escape the floor. Sometimes remittances are spent on from the increasing violence related to drug religious festivals or for a daughter’s fifteenth trafficking and organized crime in Mexico. birthday celebration. Money sent home may Nevertheless the overwhelming majority mean children will have video games to play of Mexico’s emigrants are poor and poorly with but will not see their father for months at educated, having completed at most 9 years a time or even years in some cases. of schooling. All they need to get to the Children left behind tend to experience US is enough physical stamina to make the sensations of abandonment and may become trip. For most the reasons for migrating may estranged from absent parents. When a parent vary from earning money to buy a stove or or parents are absent for considerable periods washing machine for their wife or mother, to having some money set aside in order to get of time their paternal authority tends to erode married or earning enough to build a house or in spite of the fact that they may regularly establish a small business in their hometown. send money for their children’s upkeep. Female Other motivations may be to pay off debts, migration has increased significantly over the unexpected family emergencies or special past decade or so. Many women go to join their occasions. For some young men the immediate husbands in the US. However more and more goal may be simply to buy an expensive truck single women and single mothers are going to the or a van as a symbol of status and success. US on their own to find a means of supporting Remittances from migrants, which reached themselves and their children and often to escape a peak of 26 billion dollars in 2007, fluctuate from abusive family situations in Mexico. between 2 and 3% of Mexico’s GDP and Many migrants who have been away longer represent the country’s second source of and have relocated their families to the US will foreign exchange after oil exports. The percent often construct houses in their hometowns with of households receiving remittances may be as the expectation of retiring there one day or for high as 10% in some states and as low as 2% in when the family might come to Mexico for others. As remittances declined significantly in vacation. These houses usually stand out from, 2008, some families actually sent money back the rest of the dwellings in the area and also are to their relatives in the US who had lost their generally unoccupied for long periods of time.

57 Such houses are often referred to in the villages Eating habits have also changed significantly as “casas solas” or solitary houses. For those in some places. Tastes acquired in the US for who are permanent residents of the US, and can more processed foods and especially junk foods therefore travel back and forth freely, the patron often have a negative impact on health. In saint’s day in their hometown is a time when general women’s and children’s psychological many make return visits and occupy their houses and emotional health has been greatly affected for a few weeks. by family members’ migration. One issue Male absence is not necessarily empowering that has been widely commented on is the and liberating for the women left behind. Some propagation of AIDS among women in rural women do gain autonomy and are empowered areas. Another issue not so widely discussed is by managing household affairs on their own the fact that many women suffer from ailments but most are dominated by traditional social commonly related to stress and anxiety because structures and surveillance by in laws. Younger of the constant worries related to having their women in particular often reside with their husbands far away, wondering if they will reach husband’s parents in his absence and remittances their destination safely, if they will find work, if are often sent to the migrant’s mother rather and when they will send money home, whether than his wife. When both spouses migrate men or not they might establish a permanent are usually more willing to help out with certain relationship with someone in the US, and if and household and child care responsibilities in the when they will have earned enough money to US but usually revert to typically macho behavior return to Mexico, which usually ends up taking and dominance upon returning to Mexico. longer than originally expected. Some men Women and children often assume the eventually send for their wives and children to agricultural labors previously performed by join them in the US while others may form new now absent men. Sometimes if no one is able relationships and new families. to work the land, agricultural plots are either In spite of all the dangers involved in sold or abandoned. Small scale agriculture crossing the US-Mexico border without proper is no longer viable for most and educational documents people are still willing to risk their and employment opportunities are scarce lives for the mirage of the American Dream. In throughout most of Mexico’s small villages and many villages and towns, from very early on, towns. In many places there are no schools children don’t daydream about doing, being or beyond 6th grade. Gangs and criminal activity becoming something in Mexico. They imagine are becoming more widespread for lack of other themselves going to el norte to make their alternatives. Adolescents whose parents have dreams come true. When a farther or mother sent them back to Mexico to keep them away migrates it does not mean that their children from the influence of Latino gangs in the US will not have to do the same when they grow often establish or connect with already existing up. In all likelihood they will go too; it just gangs in their home communities. makes it a little easier for them to do so. When In some remote areas people may be quickly older brothers go younger ones usually follow. incorporated into the digital age as a means For Mexico emigration is not a planned and of communicating with loved ones far away. articulated development strategy; it is simply The way younger people dress may change. an individual and family survival strategy that Means of transportation may change for some. perpetuates itself.

C munidades 58 59 GILBERTA PAVÃO NUNES ROCHA

Biography MOBILITY AND DEMOGRAPHIC CONCENTRATION IN THE AZORES

Depending on their intensity and configuration, outward migrations can contribute to population depletion and aging; the latter has acquired particular significance in recent years. In the case of the Azores, outward migrations explain, at least in part, certain structural imbalances that nowadays are found in some of the islands (Rocha, 1991, 2008; Rocha and Ferreira, 2008). On the other hand, in the majority of cases, inward migrations tend to contribute to the opposite circumstances; that is, to demographic growth and rejuvenation, compensating for some territorial inequalities; this has not always occurred in the Azorean Archipelago. Starting with an overview of Azorean mobility, we notice that fluctuations in the number of emigrants occurred in 4 quite distinct periods, framed in their own economic, social and political contexts: Gilberta Pavão Nunes Rocha, Professor In the past century, a first high emigration in the University of Azores, holds a doctorate period lasted until the mid 1920s; despite in Social Sciences. She has published works annual oscillations, we find noticeably large in areas such as Demographic Dynamics, numbers of emigrants throughout this period: Migrations and the Ageing of the Population, between 2,000 and 8,000 individuals. It should both in the country and abroad. She also be emphasized that in some of the years, the has studies about Family and Gender. She is intensity of outward migration was significantly the Director of the Centre for Social Studies higher. This was especially true in the first of the University of Azores (CES-UA), two decades of the 20th century, when Gross Coordinator of Master’s Degree on Social Emigration Rates grew from 12% to 20%. Sciences and member of the General Council, A second period of low emigration lasted all in the University. She is a member of until the mid 1950s, when the numbers rarely several scientific associations. From 2002 to exceeded 400 individuals, with the Gross 2010, she was on the Governing bodies of Emigration Rates falling below 2% during the the Portuguese Association of Sociology and 1930s and 1940s. today she is on the Consultative Council of A third period of high emigration the Association. Since 2001, she has been occurred between 1950 and 1981, reaching the President of the Scientific Council of the particularly significant levels between 1965 Portuguese Association of Demography. and 1975, when the number of emigrants was

C munidades 60 greater than 10,000 individuals per year and Yet, outgoing migratory flows to Gross Emigration Rates exceeded 20%, rising other countries do not encompass all the to nearly 30% during the 1970s. outward mobility that took place in the A fourth period of decline began after the archipelago, either to mainland Portugal or 1970s and, since the 1990s, has registered to other areas of the Portuguese territory, very low numbers, around 300 to 400 such as the Madeira Archipelago and, in emigrants per year, with Gross Emigration earlier periods, to the Portuguese colonies. Rates between 1% and 2%. Although, these are difficult to quantify, given If emigration is an old phenomenon of a Regional perspective in which inter-island Azorean society, earlier than the beginning migrations were overlooked, we know of of the current census period, the inward their preponderance during some periods of migration of foreign nationals is a much the 20th century (Rocha 1991; Rocha and more recent fact, a reality not specific to the Ferreira, 2010). archipelago alone but noticeable in the entire According to the information from the country. Undeniably, the foreign population 1981, 1991 and 2001 census, in recent residing in the Azores during the Era of years we find that, as a rule, outgoing flows Autonomy, beginning in 1976, increased exceeded incoming ones, a position that during the early 1980s – when the number seems to have been reversed between 1999 of foreign residents rose from under 1,000 to and 2001, though the numbers were quite around 4,000 individuals. Only in the current small (around 300 individuals), approaching century did a new, gradual increase result those already noted for emigration. However, in numbers in excess of 4,000. However, total mobility in the last intercensus period, these stock numbers represent somewhat 2001 to 2011, was negative, although not different circumstances, and it can be said significantly so, amounting to 444 individuals. that only after 2000 did the Azores begin From a long-term perspective, we can say to be an immigration territory, to attract a that until recently outgoing flows staunched foreign population that intended to settle only by adverse international contexts were in the Region, in search of better living and characteristic of the Azorean territory; this working conditions, motivated by economic, changed just at the end of the last century professional and leisure related factors (Rocha and beginning of the current one, when the et al., 2009). incoming flow of foreign nationals prevailed, Taking into account a recent study about although more recent total mobility numbers the return of Azorean emigrants (Rocha et al., are negative once again. 2011) – which we believe encompasses the Regarding the population, we identified 4 significant majority of those who returned great periods as well: the first is from 1864 to and were in the Azores during 2007 and 1920, when a relative stability is noticeable, 2008, when the study was conducted – one despite intercensus variations and mainly finds that this phenomenon was particularly decline between 1900 and 1920. A second significant in the 1980s and during the first period of strong population growth occurred half of the 1990s, given that nearly 80% of between 1920 and 1960, while a third period the Azorean emigrants who currently reside in of noticeable decline elapsed between 1920 the Azores had arrived as of 1999. and 1970. Relative stability occurred again

61 during a fourth period, between 1981 and Maria islands is greater than that between the 2011. In any case, despite the slight increase islands of Flores and Corvo. recorded in the last two decades, in 2011 the In terms of the changes in the population demographic volume registered in the Azores of each of these islands during this long was still below the value noted for the last two period, those in São Miguel and Terceira, decades of the 19th century. whose periodicities somewhat resembled Thus, in a long-term perspective, we find global trends, are particularly noticeable, an almost reverse trend between the changes though in the first the global stability that in the population and those in emigration, had been in place as of 1981 was replaced while the periods of demographic growth by growth. Indeed, during the entire period basically correspond, in the first case during between 1864 and 2011, population growth the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, to a drastic was observed only in those two islands: reduction in emigration, to which, in more around 31% in the first, and 22.5% in the recent years, is also added immigration and second. If we were to rule out Santa Maria, the return of emigrants. where the decline was around 5%, the The inequality between islands reflects remaining islands would lose nearly half of the differentiation that results from territorial their population, a trend especially noticeable dimensions: São Miguel is distinguished from in Flores, where the population decreased other islands by its larger surface area, which around 64%. A direct connection between is more than 30% of the entire territory, territory size and population variation is not followed by Pico and Terceira, with values always present, however. Although this is a of 19% and 17%, respectively. In São Jorge, fact in São Miguel and Terceira, the same with a value of just 10%, a larger difference cannot be said of Santa Maria; given the small is apparent, while for the remaining islands surface area and low demographic density significantly smaller values are recorded, as is of this island, here the trend differs from the case especially in Corvo, with only 0.7%, what is observed in the larger, more densely and in Graciosa with 2.6%. populated ones. The pattern of change in Yet, territory size is not the only the various intercensus periods indicates that geographical aspect to consider. The greater after the population increase of the 1930s and or lesser centrality of the islands vis-à-vis 1940s, which generalized to all the islands, the outside world during historical periods, confirming what we had already observed their proximity to one another, and their about the archipelago as a whole, not all respective terrains are prominent, among islands regained the population volume of other characteristics. In effect, the archipelago previous periods, specifically, the levels they has a greater concentration of islands in the had attained during the 19th century. central group, where Faial and Pico are quite Contrary to what was observed for close to each other and not too far from the population as a whole, which in the São Jorge, which is equally close to Terceira past century showed decline in most of and Graciosa. Very different circumstances the islands during the 1990s (São Miguel, are found in the western and eastern island Terceira, and Corvo were exceptions), the groups, especially in the latter, where the adult population increased in all the islands. distance between São Miguel and Santa The rhythms were distinct, higher in the

C munidades 62 islands previously referred; to which, however, with demographic phenomena. Although we cannot stop associating the type of in some islands they mitigate the existence mobility that was typical of this last period: of unbalanced population structures, in declining emigration, return of emigrants and others they emphasize them, but these immigration. repercussions have not substantially Despite the attractiveness of the larger altered the strong tendency for population islands, the impact of immigration on the total concentration on the more densely population is important in the smaller islands. populated islands with larger surface areas, Its contribution to the demographic and also which simultaneously have the younger to the economic and social structure depends populations. The interference of mobility not only on the continuity or renovation of is not recent; it has been going on at least the immigration flows, but also on immigrant throughout the past 150 years, being decisive characteristics, not so much at the level of for the existence of periods of growth, as well age and by gender, as in educational and as for the decline of the population. professional terms (Rocha et al., 2009). If, in regards to emigrants, no information is available per island, the same BIBLIOGRAFIA is not true about returned emigrants (Rocha ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes (1991), et al., 2011), as the great majority of the Dinâmica Populacional dos Açores no século XX – respondents is located in São Miguel and Unidade. Permanência. Diversidade, Ponta Delgada, Universidade dos Açores. Terceira islands, 24% in each, an amount ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes (2008), that is significantly beneath the relative “Crescimento da população e os novos destinos importance that these islands have in the da emigração”, in Matos, Artur T., Meneses, Avelino de F. de e Leite, J. G. Reis (Dirs.), regional context, a fact of special relevance História dos Açores, Vol. II, Angra do Heroísmo, in the case of São Miguel. In this context Instituto Açoriano de Cultura: 265-305. the importance of Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes e FERREIRA, Eduardo (2008), “População e circulação de and Flores islands should be highlighted; pessoas”, in Matos, Artur T., Meneses, Avelino de their population is older and they attract an F. de e Leite, J. G. Reis (Dirs.), História dos Açores, Vol. II, Angra do Heroísmo, Instituto Açoriano de older population, mainly of individuals over Cultura: 581-610. 55. ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes, MEDEIROS, Territories with distinct surface areas Octávio, FERREIRA, Eduardo (2009), Perfis e Trajectórias dos Imigrantes nos Açores, Ponta and population densities, differentiated in Delgada, Centro de Estudos Sociais da geographical dispersion and proximity, the Universidade dos Açores/ Governo dos Açores, Azores Islands, with some individuality, fit Direcção Regional das Comunidades. ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes e FERREIRA, into economic relationships and national Eduardo (2010), “Territórios e dinâmicas and international policies; they are shaped, migratórias nos Açores” in Cidades, Comunidades e therefore, by a history – local as well Territórios, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos Territoriais (CET)/ISCTE-IUL: 97-110. as national and international – which ROCHA, Gilberta Pavão Nunes, FERREIRA, determines or influences the inward or Eduardo, MENDES, Derrick (2011) Entre dois mundos - emigração e regresso aos Açores, Ponta outward migrations of their populations. Delgada, Governo dos Açores - Direcção Regional The repercussions of mobility go beyond the das Comunidades/ Centro de Estudos Sociais da short or medium term, as is always the case Universidade dos Açores.

63 HOWARD DUNCAN

Biography THE 16TH INTERNATIONAL METROPOLIS CONFERENCE

The 16th International Metropolis Conference was a ground-breaking event in the history of Metropolis being the first to be held in a society considered to be an immigrant sending, not a receiving, society. With many presentations reflecting a sending society perspective, this conference, Metropolis’ 16th annual event, brought a new perspective on the discussions and speakers from countries little heard from during past events, particularly from developing Howard Duncan received his Ph.D. in countries. Although it is not realistic to bring Philosophy in 1981 from the University a comprehensive unity to the discussions of Western Ontario where he studied the that spanned eight plenary sessions and history and philosophy of science. He was a over 80 workshops and roundtables, there post-doctoral fellow there and subsequently were some themes that I will describe here taught philosophy at the University of that distinguished this conference from its Ottawa and the University of Western predecessors. Ontario. There are in the international migration In 1987, Dr. Duncan entered the field and integration discussions conflicting forces, of consulting in strategic planning, policy those that suggest increased and more open development and program evaluation. In immigration to the West and those that speak 1989 he joined the Department of Health to greater restrictions than are now in place. and Welfare in Ottawa where he worked in Many at the conference spoke to the wisdom program evaluation, strategic planning, and of resisting the temptations of closing our policy. His final year at Health Canada was societies, of retreating into ourselves in acts of spent managing the department’s extramural self-protection against the economic problems policy-research program. that beset many developed nations, acts of In 1997, Howard joined the Metropolis preserving for our nationals the fewer jobs that Project as its International Project Director, our economies offered during the recession and became its Executive Head in 2002. of 2008-2010 and will offer in the future He has concentrated on increasing the should a rapid repeat of the recession occur. geographic reach of Metropolis, enlarging Protectionism means many things including the range of the issues it confronts, and restricted immigration, tighter integration increasing its benefits to the international regimes, and restricted access to citizenship. migration policy community by creating Governments facing economic decline are opportunities for direct and frank exchanges expected by their publics to protect their between researchers, practitioners, and policy interests first, and this may well take the form makers. of trying to preserve access to jobs and to such

C munidades 64 public goods as the rights of citizenship for These are characteristics of a population and those who are already members of the society. a workforce that, quite simply, we tend not This expectation places enormous pressure on to associate with ageing. Countries in the elected officials to adopt protectionist policies, West may not only face shortages of labour, and it is the brave leader who will set his or her they will also face an innovation deficit, an sights on the long-term interests of the society, entrepreneurial deficit, and an investment particularly if these might appear to fly in the and other risk-taking deficit. One obvious face of short-term public interests. recourse is towards increased migration There are, however, powerful trends from those countries who have many young that would support a more open policy people, indeed will have a surplus of young agenda including with regard to immigration, people relative to their capacity to absorb integration, and citizenship. Chief among them in their domestic labour markets. these are trends that point univocally towards Many of these young people will have higher demographic stagnation in virtually all education and expectations of jobs befitting developed countries and the concomitant their qualifications. Immigration will be to the rapid ageing of most developed societies. mutual advantage of those countries needing Population ageing has been discussed for young talent and those having a surplus of it. many years, mostly with regard to anticipated challenges to maintaining public pensions and managing health care costs. Less often noted, however, are the challenges to domestic labour forces, both with regard to their sizes and their characteristics. Consider only this one fact about the world’s population today: of the world’s total population under the age of 15 years, 90% live in developing countries. These young people represent much of the world’s future workforce; they and their children represent nearly all of the world’s future workforce two generations from now. The implications for the size of the domestic labour forces of the developed countries in the world are obvious. But the situation is in fact worse than simply the numbers of these workers in domestic labour forces in the West represents. Most countries in the West have witnessed a dramatic decline in their manufacturing sectors with this sort of The pressures supporting protectionism in production shifting to the developed world. the West have come at exactly the time that This change in the character of developed the West might be advised to become more economies places a premium on innovation, open to immigration. Further complicating entrepreneurship, risk-taking, and investment. the story are the many aspects of globalization

65 that see a growing cosmopolitanism amongst the ties to the host society that integration immigrants who are increasingly mobile, is to form and citizenship to consolidate. have dual or multiple citizenships, are Transnational enclaves are perhaps the most members of active diasporas and transnational powerful expression of these particular forces communities, and who might therefore appear of globalization, and they have become an not to have good prospects for integration, oft-cited symbol of what are purported to be who might in fact appear to be opportunists, the parallel lives that immigrants can lead, the even threatening social stability or national failure of integration that host societies want. security. Diaspora or transnational relations The challenge to Western governments have been enhanced by communications is to see the importance of the long term technologies, most recently social networking and the potential that current demographic websites through which a large and trends have to reduce their proportion rapidly growing number of immigrants are of the world’s population, GDP, and maintaining ever stronger ties with their geo-political influence. In a word, the homeland communities, friends, and family prosperity and quality of life of Western members and with their homeland cultures. societies are at stake in these demographic Many governments of sending societies are trends, and one of the few viable if partial particularly active in maintaining relations solutions is immigration. Bold leadership with their émigré populations, the government is needed, but leadership grounded in of the Azores being a noteworthy and highly empirical realities of the sort brought to successful case in point. For some in immigrant light at the 16th International Metropolis receiving societies, this can appear to weaken conference.

Howard Duncan Executive Head Metropolis

C munidades 66 67 JOSÉ CARLOS TEIXEIRA

Biography “THERE GOES THE ‘HOOD”: THE ROLE AND IMPACT OF GENTRIFICATION IN TORONTO’S ‘LITTLE PORTUGAL’—THE “10th AZOREAN ISLAND”

Carlos Teixeira, University of British Columbia – Okanagan, Canada

Introduction Toronto, the largest and most multicultural city in Canada, has been Jose Carlos Teixeira is an associate the country’s major “port of entry” for Professor at the University of British Portuguese immigrants in general, and Columbia-Okanagan (Canada). Teixeira’s for those coming from the Azores islands research interests are in housing for in particular, for the last five decades. immigrants and refugees, urban and Portuguese immigration to Toronto began social geography, with an emphasis on in the early 1950s and attained its peak in migration processes, community formation, the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 2001, urban neighborhood change, ethnic according to the Canadian Census, 357,690 entrepreneurship, and the social structure of Portuguese were living in Canada. Of this North American cities. total, the Toronto Census Metropolitan Born in Ribeira Grande, S. Miguel, Area is home to the largest concentration Azores. of Portuguese (171,545) in the country B.A. and M.Sc. at Universite du Quebec (Statistics Canada, 2001). The majority in a Montreal and Ph.D. York University this group are first generation immigrants (Ontario, Canada). (born in Portugal) who live in the city He is the author/co-author of five books: of Toronto, most often in the downtown Carlos Teixeira (1999). Portugueses em core of the community known as “Little Toronto: Uma Comunidade em Mudança. Acores: Portugal.” Residents of the latter have Direção Regional das Comunidades. created an institutionally complete Carlos Teixeira and Victor M. P. da Rosa community that is also one of the most (2000). The Portuguese in Canada: From the Sea to visible ethnic neighbourhoods in Toronto the City. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. that today contains most of the community’s Carlos Teixeira and Victor M. P. da Rosa social, cultural, commercial, and religious (2009). The Portuguese in Canada: Disporic institutions (Teixeira, 2006). Challenges and Adjustment. Toronto: University of Toronto Press (Second Editon). Today, however, Little Portugal is a Armando Oliveira and Carlos Teixeira neighbourhood in transition. This transition (2004). Jovens Portugueses e Luso-Descendentes has resulted from three major changes: no Canada: Trajetórias de Inserção em Espaços (1) The movement of a large number of Multiculturais. Oeiras, Portugal: CELTA. Portuguese to the suburbs;

C munidades 68 (2) An in-movement of immigrants and and thus its potential to displace low-income refugees from the Portuguese diaspora (Brazil households – are found within low-income and Portugal’s former African colonies); inner-city neighbourhoods (often ethnic/ (3) An in-movement of an increasing immigrant neighbourhoods) with a high number of the urban professional class who proportion of older dwellings (Meligrana and see an opportunity to obtain relatively low- Skaburskis, 2005, p. 1571). cost housing with potential for renovation in close proximity to the city’s downtown core. Little Portugal in Transition These characteristics serve to explain All of the Portuguese informants in why Little Portugal has today become an area this study agreed that Little Portugal is a of emerging gentrification. neighbourhood in transition. However, there This study explores issues related was no agreement among respondents on the to neighbourhood change in Toronto’s degree of change and/or on the main “forces” Little Portugal with a particular focus at play in the neighbourhood. As is evident on Portuguese seniors — the aging first from the comments of respondents, the generation immigrant population that built “forces” currently shaping the neighbourhood the community but who are today facing are diverse and complex. The major trends pressures for displacement. It addresses are summarized in the following sections. the following research questions: What are the main positive and negative impacts Seniors on the Move: Why Are First- of gentrification on Little Portugal? Does Generation Portuguese Moving Out? gentrification mean the displacement of With regard to the question “Who lower income households, including the moves out of Little Portugal”?, respondents aging first generation Portuguese, or are there identified three main groups who were viable strategies of resistance? This study leaving the area for both voluntary and draws upon the responses of 33 first- and forced reasons. The first group moving out second-generation participants who have are Portuguese in their 40s or 50s, who are routes in Portugal (20 informal interviews currently homeowners in Little Portugal. This and 13 participants from focus groups). is a group with some assets and financial stability whose members aspire to move to Gentrification the suburbs in order to improve their housing The process of “gentrification” plays a conditions. The second group moving out critical role in the migratory process, as the of Little Portugal is well-off Portuguese Portuguese (and other immigrant groups) are seniors whose mortgages are paid, and who displaced from their older settlement areas are moving in order to join their children in Canadian inner cities. Gentrification has already established in the suburbs. The third been defined as “the loss of affordable older group moving out of Little Portugal is that of inner-city housing through their renovation Portuguese seniors who are retired on fixed and upgrade by middle- and upper-income incomes. This group faces a “constrained” households” (Meligrana and Skaburskis, housing market because its members do not 2005, p. 1571). In the Canadian context, own a dwelling and cannot afford high rents, most of the opportunities for gentrification – or else who own their own home but cannot

69 keep up with the high maintenance costs of central business district is likely an important their dwellings, including increasing property “pull” force on urban professionals’ decisions taxes. For this group, the solution is an to move into Little Portugal as it eliminates involuntary move out of Little Portugal. a long commute to the suburbs. The other Opinions in the Portuguese community major “pull” factor, and probably one of the are quite divided vis-à-vis the pros and cons most important ones, attracting them to the of Portuguese seniors moving away from neighbourhood is the nature of the existing Little Portugal to the suburbs. Some argue housing stock – old Victorian-era/early that the move to the suburbs only leads to twentieth-century housing – much of which isolation for these seniors: is large, with historical value and often well- This old generation spent a lot of years preserved. in Little Portugal and they were used Gentrification was highlighted by the to do almost everything in Portuguese respondents as one of the major causes of the [businesses, services…]. In the suburbs noticeable changes in the neighbourhood’s is different….they will be more isolated. housing market and, in particular, of the Some return back after a few years in the escalating housing prices and high rents suburbs. which are affecting both Portuguese and non- Portuguese residents of Little Portugal. Many Portuguese seniors are wary of the move to the suburbs, and prefer the Seniors Who Stay: Why They Remain security of their traditional home in Little Most of the Portuguese who decided to Portugal. However, steady increases in stay in Little Portugal are first generation, housing property taxes, and the problems born in Portugal, “blue collar” workers with associated with home maintenance, have low levels of education and little knowledge become sources of preoccupation for of the English language. This group is the Portuguese seniors. Those on fixed incomes, least assimilated of all Portuguese, with a and many with their children already living population that is aging fast and with an in the suburbs, find themselves becoming important number already retired. When the increasingly dependent on others. Thus, Portuguese started buying in this community many in this group feel they must move, but in the 1950s and 1960s, housing was not by choice. inexpensive. Only a small down payment was necessary to become a homeowner in The Gentrifiers: Why is Little Portugal Toronto. Today, partly as a result of this, the Attractive? Portuguese have one of the highest levels Portuguese respondents agree that Little of homeownership of all immigrant groups Portugal has, in the last two decades or so, living in Toronto. been “invaded” by different groups of people interested in buying housing in Toronto’s For some of these established downtown. One of the most important homeowners, nothing would make them of these groups are urban professional want to leave their houses; houses they Canadians (“white collar” workers). Little renovated themselves and where their Portugal’s prime location vis-à-vis Toronto’s children were born. In fact, this group seems

C munidades 70 to be resisting gentrification. Key to this gentrification. As one respondent observed: resistance is the proximity of Little Portugal It’s positive… the arrival of gentrifiers to Portuguese services, businesses, cultural, into Little Portugal…it destroys the and religious institutions – which represent a ‘ghetto’ that we had for decades. We are source of security for this particular group of here highly concentrated and Portuguese Portuguese. didn’t need to learn English because their lives were done in Portuguese within The Seniors’ Perspective: Benefits of the Portuguese community…now our Gentrification ‘ghetto’ is diluting/disintegrating and we For almost two-thirds (64.5%) of are integrating ourselves more into the the Portuguese respondents, “increased Canadian society. property values” as well as the “increased social mix” of peoples (58.1%) into Little The Seniors Perspective: The Downside of Portugal represent by far the two most Gentrification positive impacts of gentrification on the For Portuguese respondents, the “loss neighbourhood. of affordable housing” (77.4%) in Little Given that a significant number of Portugal was cited as the most important Portuguese residents of Little Portugal — negative impact of gentrification in the area, particularly the established first generation followed by “displacement through rent/ — are homeowners, it is not surprising price increases” (58.6%) and “unsustainable that many respondents see the “increase speculative property price increases” of property values” in the area as the most (48.4%). positive impact of gentrification upon Little By far, the “loss of affordable housing” Portugal. On this issue, most respondents in Little Portugal was the most important agreed that the Portuguese community in negative impact of gentrification noted general, and homeowners in particular, have by respondents. As a consequence of benefited from gentrification. Respondents this relatively new phenomenon in the also noted that the housing renovations area, two related negative impacts of undertaken by urban professionals had gentrification are already visible in the area: improved the quality of the existing housing high rents and high housing prices, both stock and house prices in Little Portugal. of which are making this area more and However, the increased property values more unaffordable for low income people, in Little Portugal represent a mixed blessing, including both Portuguese seniors retired for with increased property prices also come on fixed incomes and new immigrants increases in property taxes. This aspect of arriving in Toronto. There was agreement the gentrification phenomenon particularly among the Portuguese respondents that affects Portuguese seniors, who are often Little Portugal is still an affordable retired and living on fixed incomes. neighbourhood of Toronto in which to buy The “increased social mix” of peoples housing and/or to rent. The key question coming to Little Portugal in the last few is how much longer this will be the case. years was highly valued by some Portuguese Most respondents were concerned respondents as a positive impact of about the future with regard to this issue.

71 Respondents pointed out that the majority of (e.g., flats, basements) still available in the urban professionals – the potential gentrifiers neighbourhood as well as the “informal” in Little Portugal – are still living mostly on renting that has characterized the Portuguese the “periphery” of Little Portugal. Thus, for homeowners in Little Portugal. most of our respondents, the (re)discovery and “invasion” in mass by urban gentrifiers Accommodating the Housing Needs into Little Portugal is just a question of time. and Preferences of Portuguese Seniors: After the gentrification of “Little Italy” (to Housing Policy Implications the north) and Queen St West (to the south) A major source of preoccupation in Little – both processes almost completed - it seems Portugal today is the aging of the community. Little Portugal (sandwiched between the two There is agreement among our respondents areas) will be next. that more needs to be done in order to According to Portuguese key informants, accommodate the housing needs/preferences Portuguese seniors are the segment of of Portuguese seniors: the Portuguese population perhaps most The solution for an aging population is impacted by gentrification, followed by more incentives for them to take care low income renters. In the past few years, of their own homes…aging in place steadily rising housing property taxes and is a good way to go. Also there is an high housing maintenance costs have been urgent need in our community for more major preoccupations that may “force” some housing for seniors…Some of them seniors to sell their property due to a lack of do not need any type of assistance so financial means. far, neither physically or financially... the only problem they have is that they Portuguese Seniors Resisting cannot take care of their homes anymore Gentrification and the expenses to keep up a house Some respondents (the most optimistic today are very high. What they need is ones) argued that the Portuguese, particularly a place where they can spent the rest of homeowners, are resisting the forces of their lives in peace….feeling at home gentrification in Little Portugal to a certain [‘ambiente Portugues’]…It’s a group of degree, an argument based on the fact that citizens that is growing in a scary kind of most first-generation Portuguese in the area way. own their own homes and many get extra There is a great need for seniors’ housing income from renting part of them. like Terra Nova in here. Lots of people Respondents noted, however, that want to go there… now that they are every time a Portuguese homeowner sells seniors they want to have what they a house in the area, it is not bought by a are used to around them…I find the Portuguese family, but instead by gentrifiers, Portuguese speaking community wants speculators and/or by members of other more buildings like that where there’s high immigrant groups (e.g., Asians). The number concentration – not necessarily all of them, of Portuguese homeowners in the area will but where it’s close to Little Portugal … thus tend to decrease over time and with it because to most of the Portuguese, going some of the existing affordable rental units to the nursing home is the last resort…

C munidades 72 Respondents also noted that much future as Canada’s Baby Boomers and first more needs to be done by the Portuguese generation immigrant populations age, thus community to accommodate the housing transforming, in the process, the country’s needs/preferences of its increasingly aging residential urban and suburban housing population, and that it needs to take a more markets. active role in building (with or without government support) affordable seniors’ Note: housing that caters to the cultural needs This is a shorter, revised version of the and preferences of an aging Portuguese author’s chapter entitled: “Gentrification, population. Displacement, and Resistance: A Case Study of Portuguese Seniors in Toronto’s ‘Little Portugal’” Conclusion published in an edited collection by D. Durst and In general, all of the Portuguese M. MacLean (2010). Diversity and Aging Among respondents in this study agreed that Little Seniors in Canada: Changing Faces and Graying Portugal is a neighbourhood in transition. Temples, Calgary, Alberta: Detselig Enterprises From this perspective, while Portuguese Ltd, pp. 327–340. seniors and Little Portugal itself may survive the forces of gentrification, in time this References: group will be confronted by serious housing Meligrana, J. and A. Skaburskis (2005). challenges and an aging population that may, Extent, Location and Profiles of Continuing in conjunction with gentrification, ultimately Gentrification in Canadian Metropolitan mean the end of Little Portugal as we know it Areas, 1981-2001. Urban Studies, 42: 1569– today. Thus, while the question of the impact 1592. of gentrification upon immigrant groups, Teixeira, C. (2006). Residential Segregation and particularly seniors, has received little and Ethnic Economies in a Multicultural City: attention from scholars and policymakers to The Little Portugal of Toronto. In Landscapes of date, it is clear from this case study that this the Ethnic Economy, ed. D. H. Kaplan and W. Li, issue will demand more detailed attention in 49–65. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

73 MARIA LUCINDA FONSECA

Biography THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERETHNIC RELATIONS IN Lucinda Fonseca is a EUROPEAN CITIES: COMPARATIVE Full Professor in the Institute PERSPECTIVES AND POLICY of Geography and Spatial IMPLICATIONS1 Planning at the University Maria Lucinda Fonseca2 of Lisbon (IGOT-UL) and coordinator of the MIGRARE During the last half a century, - Migration, spaces and societies the immigration to Europe and the research group at the Centre diversification of the regions of immigrants’ for Geographical Studies origins together with the European (CEG) at the same university integration process and the globalization of http://www.ceg.ul.pt/ the economy led to important demographic, migrare. She is a member of economic and social and cultural changes in the Steering Committee of the European nation states. the International Metropolis Counteracting the trend of ethnic and Project. She is presently both cultural homogenization which was the coordinating and participating origin of the conception of the Nation-state, in several international international migration and the growing research projects, such as geographic mobility of the population were GEITONIES - Generating Interethnic Tolerance visible in a soaring diversity of the EU and Neighbourhood Integration in European member states in terms of language, cultural Urban Spaces, funded by the European Union values and religious affiliation of their (FP7) and THEMIS – Theorizing the Evolution inhabitants. Despite the fact that a sustained of European Migration Systems, funded by the trend towards cultural diversification has NORFACE Research Programme on Migration. taken place within natives and migrant Professor Fonseca has published widely groups, along and across the lines of gender, in both Portugal and abroad. Her most recent social class and generations, for many people publications include Saúde e Imigração: Utentes those cultural differences are perceived e Serviços na área de influencia do Centro de as a danger for social cohesion caused by Saúde da Graça, 2010 (co-author); “Housing immigration. Therefore, in recent times conditions and immigrant’s integration in the accommodation of difference has been Portugal: Challenges and policies”, in Vitorino, challenged and models of integration have A. (Coord.) – Migration: Opportunity or threat? - been subjected to scrutiny. Despite concerns Housing and health in the integration of immigrants over parallel lives and signs of a lack of (2009); Cities in movement: Migrants and urban integration there is a lack of empirical data governance, 2008 (Ed.); Defining ‘family’ and to inform these debates. bringing it together: The ins and outs of family This paper is based on findings of a reunification in Portugal” in: Grillo, Ralph survey (including migrants and native (Ed.) - The Family in Question Immigrant and population) conducted in 18 multiethnic Ethnic Minorities in Multicultural Europe (2008), neighbourhoods of six European cities: IMISCOE-AUP (co-author). Lisbon, Bilbao, Thessaloniki Rotterdam,

C munidades 74 Vienna and Warsaw, within the ambit of example, this finding would suggest that, the GEITONIES project. Thus, this text for this, would need to result in the creation includes contributions of all the GEITONIES of friendships and more intimate forms of partners. contact, other than casual street encounters At the more general level, the first to make any kind of impact on diminishing aspect that arose from the various analyses discriminatory attitudes. Other types of of the GEITONIES data concerns the contact appear to be more conducive to (positive) impact of time on the development fostering meaningful relationships, which of interethnic relations. As such, policy then impact on wider aspects of general initiatives on all levels should be mindful of attitudes, important for social cohesion. the importance of time in the development The promotion of meaningful exchange of interethnic exchange, as an aspect of the is not achieved easily and at most doors wider process of immigrant incorporation. can be opened to provide opportunities for As far as policy interventions are concerned, building contacts. Tackling discrimination the proved importance of time leads us to and ‘myth-busting’ are fundamentals suggest two sets of measures: in preparing for actual contact between a. On the one hand, measures promoting individuals and groups from different or facilitating the integration of new ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. migrants within host societies, as Hence, the first step is clearly related to well as measures to guarantee equal increasing knowledge of others from different standards for more established migrants backgrounds and finding commonalities. The and for the second generation. main challenge here is to avoid the cultural b. On the other, measures targeting the essentialism that is often inherent in cross- entire population (immigrants AND cultural programmes. Rather than prescribing natives) in order to make the transition educational programmes we suggest smoother, to reduce potential tensions, bridge building through the joining up of discrimination and competition and to institutions, organisations and associations foster social cohesion and inter-group across space and background groups and knowledge and communication. the promotion of community led cultural initiatives. The results obtained from the Such an approach needs to be tiered to GEITONIES data also highlight important for cater for migrants at different stages in relationships between interethnic contact the process of incorporation or integration and attitudes towards immigrants. We found and for different generations. GEITONIES that in terms of reducing prejudice, that data showed that second generation migrants contact with the ‘other’ matters. However, are also more likely to develop close social crucially, weak forms of exchange were not networks comprising of native contacts than found to reduce negative attitudes towards the first generation. However, over time first immigrants across the six European cities generation migrants engage more. As such studied. The intensity of contact between migrants’ experiences, which may include natives and migrants matters. Thus, to more in-group patterns of socialisation, take social mix housing policies as a recent should not be interpreted as sign of a failure

75 or resistance to integrate. Instead, policies partly explain the more pronounced negative as well as political and public discourse perceptions about immigrants in the Greek should be steered toward facilitating the case, but it may also be the case in entirely process by assisting both immigrants and different contexts, e.g. the neighbourhood local communities to come together in more of Afrikaanderwijk in Rotterdam, a working- equitable terms. class area with high unemployment, partly Moreover, based on the results of caused by declining jobs in the port. On GEITONIES we would suggest measures this basis, we should not underestimate the specifically promoting interreligious dialogue. broader social and economic context and the The involvement of religious communities need for interventions not only at the level in local and city wide initiatives to create of social policy (e.g. measures to support opportunities for contact is important. immigrants, the poor, or the unemployed, Religious leaders may be used here to provide etc), but even more at the level of a far- positive information about particular groups sighted developmental policy which will of migrants to increase familiarity and be able to create jobs. In both cases, such promote diversity. measures may be specifically applied locally. Our analysis has also highlighted the Once again, it is important to keep in relationship between the legal status of the mind that exchange between immigrants migrants and the occurrence of interethnic and natives take some time to develop. contact. In short, the safer and more stable Probably, a first step in the process is to the immigrants’ status is, the greater the facilitate a peaceful and positive coexistence frequency of interethnic contact. This seems among different cultural traditions, even to confirm the “contact hypothesis”, one if interaction proves to be limited. As of the conditions of which refers to equal such, Public institutions should focus their status between groups. This highlights the specific efforts, not so much in getting a necessity for states to guarantee equal rights fast (and sometimes totally unbalanced) to migrants who are settled in their territory interaction, but in adopting all necessary and to facilitate the legal status of long-term accommodations in order to facilitate residents, and speed up asylum procedures. different ways of living together without Although not studied in detail, it is quite breaking the core of values and principles of evident in our research findings that fears of the host society. the other, tensions and competition are also a Our analysis stressed a renewed role reflection of the broader economic situation, for city and municipal level authorities. whether nationally or locally. Our survey Indeed, our analysis showed that residents took place during a period of the global who have merely intra-neighbourhood financial meltdown, which partly affected contacts are affected to a greater degree by the debt and deficit crisis particularly in the neighbourhood context which appears Southern Europe. Needless to say, feelings to restrict economic assimilation into of insecurity, especially among deprived mainstream society. These findings would populations, may either foster in-group suggest that targeted municipal or city level solidarity and out-group hostility, or lead interventions should be developed including: to a generalized social meltdown. This can - Neighbourhood based projects that pair

C munidades 76 residents with individuals beyond the Establishing communication between the neighbourhood rather than area based municipality and the local population is not initiatives. always easy. Nevertheless, one measure may - As the analysis revealed those with include the establishment by local policy- poor language skills and low levels of makers of advisory committees or means educational attainment are more likely to of consultation to inform their work. have their social networks concentrated Municipal programmes and in the neighbourhood. Educational campaigns to fight discrimination training and language courses at the city and xenophobia will also have positive level might broaden people’s horizons consequences for individual social and help them to establish bridges and interactions on the local level. A successful contacts outside of their neighbourhood local policy would involve the creation of residence. and establishment of informal contact between members of various groups, The preliminary explorative analysis of reducing stereotypes and prejudice the data showed also, that, to certain extent, between groups, as well as increasing when the composition of the overall social contact among and knowledge about network is in-group it is concentrated to a other groups. In the same vein cultural greater degree in the neighbourhood, which activities remain a key component of supports the idea that the neighbourhood successful interethnic social interactions. is somewhat limiting. Considering the most Experiencing diversity and exchange intimate contacts of migrants we can say that through art and other cultural activities while the share of interethnic contacts met as can get help people to get rid of ethnic and neighbours is slightly less than that of same- racial stereotypes, as well as promoting origin contacts, the neighbourhood appears ethnic and religious heritages, diversity and to be a more important meeting place in internationality. Cities should therefore Southern European cities. This would suggest support a wide variety of such events and that the neighbourhood still retains at least activities. It is also important to point out some importance, but that other places are the key role that sports play in promoting more important, like the work place and and making possible interaction among school. different ethnic groups, including natives. Local policies fostering a constructive Access to sport activities and new initiatives interethnic coexistence should aim to in this field should be promoted from the influence relationships between groups with local authorities. Official intercultural different behaviours due to values, norms, events on the local level are a good way of worldviews, interests and ideas. Such countering ethnic and racial stereotypes and policy measures have to focus on the promoting social cohesion. improvement of attitudes and relations As well as cultural activities or between majority and minority groups recreational facilities, the promotion of and the open and respectful exchange commercial activities and spaces in of views between different individuals and different areas of the city is crucial, where groups. new shops and businesses supported or

77 owned by immigrants could flourish side-by- relations are for the overall social side with other traditional local enterprises. cohesion of the city and of certain Effective policies for ethnically neighbourhoods, against a background of diverse immigrant groups must not only increasing cultural, ethnic and religious take into account the level of individual diversity. interactions but the importance of migrant At the urban neighbourhood level, associations as powerful partners of our analysis stressed the particularities, urban policy. local specificities and circumstances in Cities should officially reflect on the specific neighbourhoods. It is therefore role and importance of interethnic very important to underline that there is social interactions within the strategic no general rule applicable to all cities and context of a local integration and neighbourhoods, and to that ANY kind of social inclusion policy for migrants. intervention should contextualize and take In this context, it will be necessary to into account the specific characteristics of a consider how important interethnic given area.

Endnotes

1 This text is based on the results of the GEITONIES project. GEITONIES - Generating interethnic tolerance and neighbourhood integration in European urban spaces (duration: 1/5/2008 – 30/4/2011). FP7 Socio- economic Sciences and Humanities. See: http:// geitonies.fl.ul.pt/. 2 CEG/IGOT-UL (Centro de Estudos Geográficos, Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal); Email: fonseca- [email protected]

C munidades 78

RAINER BAUBOCK

Biography DEMOCRATIC CONCERNS ABOUT DIASPORA AND EXTERNAL CITIZENSHIP

When comparing contemporary migration to long-distance population movements in earlier eras, the relation between emigrants and their countries of origin is certainly one of the most striking changes. Although about one third of the 19th and early 20th century European migrants to the Americas did not stay for good and returned to their homelands, emigrants were generally regarded as “lost populations” by these countries while they stayed abroad. Today, more and more sending states consider their emigrants abroad as an economic, cultural and political resource. They are expected to support their homelands through remittances, as “cultural ambassadors”, as a foreign policy lobby or through absentee voting in national elections. This change of perspective is made possible by cheap air fares and new communication and information technologies. But the Rainer Bauböck holds a chair in social mobilisation of emigrant populations is and political theory at the Department of not an automatic result of technological Political and Social Sciences of the European development or economic globalization. It University Institute, Florence. He taught depends strongly on political contexts and previously at the Universities of Vienna, actors and differs therefore across countries Innsbruck Central European University, of origin and destination. Yale, Pompeu Fabra, Bristol, Malmö and The politicization of emigration shows in was a fellow in Princeton and Warwick. In the new meaning the concept of “diaspora” November 2006, he was awarded the Latsis has recently acquired. Until about 25 Prize of the European Science Foundation years ago, the word ‘diaspora’ was nearly for his work on immigration and social exclusively used for Jews and Armenians. cohesion. His fields of research are normative The core meaning of ‘diaspora’ referred to political theory and comparative research on an ethnic or religious group that had been citizenship, European integration, migration, forcibly dispersed across many different nationalism and minority rights. He is countries but had retained a strong sense co-director of the EUDO observatory on of shared identity and a desire to return citizenship at: http://eudo-citizenship.eu. to their historic homeland. Today, sending

C munidades 80 states apply the same concept to economic when election candidates carry their migrants who are permanently settled in campaigns abroad, but they can also involve another country. collecting money and recruiting volunteers These new diasporas are not a natural for armed struggle as the Tamil Tigers, the outcome of migration processes. When Irish Republican Army and the Kosovo estimating the size of diasporas, governments Liberation Army have demonstrated. and unfortunately even some academic The most important instrument available scholars count anyone who has one or several to sending states who want to mobilize emigrant ancestors from a specific country. diasporas is extending external citizenship Most of these persons will also be counted to populations of emigrant origin. In a broad as citizens in their country of settlement and sense, we can define external citizenship as will generally self-identify as members of its a legal status, a set of rights and obligations, national community. Diaspora identities are and forms of active political participation rarely singular and exclusive and can overlap of citizens residing outside their state of broadly with other modes of belonging. nationality in relation to that state. Let us But diasporas are also political rather than consider first the legal status. demographic phenomena: they have to Modern citizenship status is attributed at be created and sustained through political birth based on descent from citizen parents mobilization. (ius sanguinis) or on birth in the territory How and by whom are diasporas (ius soli). The basic purpose of citizenship created? There must be, first of all, political laws is to secure the continuity of a people entrepreneurs among a group of emigrant associated with a state across generations. origin who consider that group as a Citizenship is acquired automatically at constituency. Often these are intellectual or birth and for a whole life. Migrants who business elites who feel discriminated and settle in another country do therefore not blocked in their opportunities in the wider automatically change their citizenship. If society or who have political and commercial they want to naturalize, they must apply ambitions in relation to their countries of and if they want to, or have to, renounce origin. They have an interest in promoting their previous citizenship, they must declare diaspora identities in order to gain social so. Citizenship is like a ‘sticky’ substance: it status and political support within that sticks to migrants as they cross international group and can use such support to promote borders. their careers here or there. The second set of Moreover, all countries provide for political actors is based in countries of origin. transmission of citizenship to second They include not only governments who generations born abroad to emigrant parents. promote the economic, political and cultural Some sending states attach conditions to interests of sending states, but also political citizenship status inherited abroad, such office holders and parties who think they can as a need to register the citizenship of a gain financially and politically from emigrant child at a consulate, by forcing parents of populations in their competition with different nationality to choose only one, or political opponents. Such diaspora politics by limiting the child’s external citizenship may be entirely peaceful and democratic through a requirement of return until the

81 age of majority. However, a recent study for so-called ‘overseas citizenship of India’ for the EUDO Citizenship observatory (http:// persons of Indian origin because it cannot eudo-citizenship.eu) found that 18 out of 33 accept multiple nationality since this could European states do not place any limit on ius give rise to potential claims by millions in sanguinis transmission abroad for second or Pakistan. later generations. Unlimited ius sanguinis in combination with toleration of dual citizenship in naturalisations means that the chain of intergenerational transmission is never broken. Such expansion of external citizenship status raises serious democratic concerns. Third or fourth generation descendants of emigrants enjoy then an unconditional entitlement to ‘return’ to their ancestors’ countries of origin. If these countries are members of the European Union, they also have the right to take up residence and employment in any of the other member states. One may welcome such big holes in the walls around ‘Fortress Europe’, but the question is why some immigrants should get privileged access to the EU because of their ethnic ancestry. The other major reason for the steep External citizenship involves also other increase in numbers of external citizens kinds of rights. The most dramatic recent without increase in migration flows is extension of extra-territorial rights concerns that more receiving states have become external voting. According to data collected tolerant of dual citizenship at the same time by Michael Collyer of Sussex University, out when many sending states dropped their of 183 states for which data are available, previous policies of withdrawing citizenship 9 have no elections and 23 others do not upon acquisition of a foreign one through allow their external citizens to vote. 23 naturalisation abroad. If either the receiving require that emigrants must travel home to state or the sending state itself is hesitant to cast their votes, 93 allow them to cast their accept dual citizenship, then the latter may votes from abroad in an electoral district of create a substitute status of external quasi- the homeland, while in 13 they elect special citizenship for non-nationals that entails representatives. The respective numbers for certain privileges, such as the right to return 35 European states are: no electoral rights in to a home country, to inherit property or 5, voting only in the homeland in 3, voting to have access to the social benefits and from abroad in a homeland district in 23, employment. Turkey has created such a and special representation in 4 (among them status to circumvent German opposition to Portugal). dual citizenship, while India has invented a Democratic concerns about external

C munidades 82 voting are somewhat different from those affect many others; it also denies that about external citizenship status. In some individual have claims to be recognized as small sending countries with large and citizens. A second view regards the demos as politically mobilized diasporas there are fears consisting of all those and only those who are that elections may be decided abroad. In the fully subjected to its laws. This theory would USA, Canada and several European states, automatically include all long-term residents there are worries that electoral campaigns in a state territory and automatically by homeland candidates may import ethnic exclude all emigrants who settle abroad. conflicts or generally impede immigrant The third view imagines the demos as an integration. Often there may be greater ethnic nation, the members of which are possibilities for electoral fraud if voting determined by descent rather than residence. abroad cannot be properly monitored or The implication is the opposite one to the substantial costs for securing the integrity second view: immigrants can be legitimately of the electoral process and sufficient excluded from access to citizenship, while opportunities for voting everywhere in the emigrants and their descendants will forever world. remain included in the political community. Behind these debates about external Contemporary democracies are neither citizenship and voting there lurks a more clubs that select their own members as they profound question: how should democracies please, nor merely societies of co-residents, exposed to substantial flows of immigration nor ethnic nations. Instead, they should be or emigration determine the demos? Who has seen as communities of stakeholders whose a claim to be included as a citizen and to lives are connected with each other through be represented in political decisions? Some residence or migration and whose interests in traditional answers to this question have membership are linked to a common good. become difficult to defend. A first one is that In this view, first and second generation sovereign states have a right to national self- emigrants as well as immigrants have claims determination of their citizens. This view to be included as citizens, but at least first ignores not only that in an interconnected generations must also be free to choose their world, and especially in an integrated membership status and the extent of their Europe, citizenship decisions of each state political participation.

83 RAINER MUENZ

Biography

Rainer Münz is Academic Director of Erste the European Commission, the OECD and School of Banking and Finance (Erste Group) the World Bank. He served as an advisor to and Senior Fellow at the Hamburg Institute the Greek (2003), Dutch (2004) and Slovene of International Economics (HWWI). He is (2008) EU presidencies. In 2000-01 he an expert on population change, international was member of the German commission on migration and demographic aging, their economic immigration reform (Süssmuth commission). impact and their implications for retail banking Between 2008 and 2010 he was Member of and social security systems. He studied at Vienna the high level “Reflection Group Horizon University, where he earned his PhD in 1978. In 2020-2030” of the European Union (so- 1979 he joined the Austrian Academy of Sciences. called EU.“Group of the Wise”). Until 1992 he was director of the Institute Rainer Münz is member of several boards of Demography at the Austrian Academy of and advisory boards; among them: Center Science. Between 1992 and 2003 he was head for Migration, Integration and Citizenship of the Department of Demography at Humboldt at Oxford University (COMPAS, Oxford, University, Berlin. He was visiting professor at UK), European Policy Centre (Brussels), the Universities of Bamberg (1986), University European Forum Alpbach, Institute for the of California at Berkeley (1986, 1989, 1997- Danube region and Central Europe (Vienna), 98), Frankfurt (1988), Klagenfurt (1996, 1998), International Metropolis Project (Ottawa – Vienna (2001-02) and Zurich (1992). He also Amsterdam), International Organization for was Senior Research Fellow at the Department Migration (IOM, Geneva), SOT Accountants of Mathematics of Finance, Technical University, (Vienna-Graz-Munich), VBV Pension Vienna (2001-2002). Currently he teaches at the Insurance (Vienna), STUWO AG (Vienna), University of St. Gallen. Vienna City Museum, World Demographic Rainer Münz has worked as consultant for and Aging Forum (WDA, St. Gallen).

C munidades 84 EUROPE’S FUTURE: LIVING LONGER, on average, have a life expectancy at birth of WORKING LONGER, BRINGING IN 75 years for men and of 82 years for woman. MORE MIGRANTS Life expectancy continues to increase at a Rainer Muenz pace of two months per year. Since infant and child mortality already have reached In the coming decades, the Europe will very low levels, this essentially is caused by a be confronted with fundamental changes gain in life expectancy beyond the age of 50. in its population structure that will have As a consequence most parts of Europe important implications for Europe’s social will witness considerable demographic and economic model. This article informs ageing. At the same time Europe enters a about these demographic changes, their stage of demographic stagnation and will likely consequences for the size of Europe’s most likely experience some population future work force and the main strategies decline during the 21st century. As a result for coping with these consequences. It also most EU member states will have to deal discusses what this would mean in terms of with stagnating or declining working age future migration policies. populations and the prospect of shrinking native labour forces. Major trends While turning grey, most European Between the 18th and the early 20th countries are also becoming more diverse century Europe experienced rapid population as a result of international migration. For growth. As a result, Europe’s share of global Europe as a whole, this is a relatively new population had increased to 25%. At the phenomenon. Until the 1970s this continent beginning of the 20th century one of four registered more emigrants than immigrants. citizens on our planet was a European. At Only in the 1980s – for the first time in the same time Europeans populated other modern history – the migration balance world regions: North and South America became positive. As a result, demographic in particular, but also the Northern part of growth continued during the last decades Algeria, parts of Southern Africa, Australia despite the fact that after the end of and New Zealand. Between 1750 and 1960 the Baby Boom fertility had dropped to Europe was the prime source region of world historically unprecedented low levels. Today migration, sending some 70 million of its demographic growth in Europe mainly comes people – the equivalent of almost one quarter from international migration. of European population growth – overseas. Today demographic change in Europe Size and structure of Europe’s future is resulting from two almost universal population trends: declining fertility and increasing life In 2010, the European Union had 501 expectancy. Fertility has dropped by 50% million inhabitants. Some 239 million since the early 1960s. Today, on average, people were part of the EU-labour force: women in Europe give birth to 1.5 children. 216 million economically active and 23 Mortality has also dropped dramatically million unemployed. At constant labour resulting in a life expectancy that reaches its force participation rates this number of highest historical levels. Today EU citizens, economically active (or unemployed) people

85 would decrease to 210 million in 2050 (See eventual decline of native-born work forces Fig. 1). In the absence of any international are the following: migration this decline would be even larger. • A higher retirement age, On the other hand, as a result of • Higher labour force participation rates, increasing life expectancy and the aging of and the baby boomer generation, the age group • A pro-active economic migration policy. 65+ will grow from 87 million today to 150 million in 2050. These strategies are not mutually exclusive. For Europe, this is a shift from a society with quantitatively dominant younger Implications for employment and the cohorts to a society in which the older labour market segment of the work force (45+) and the The strategies discussed above are already retired elderly will form a new based on sheer quantitative assumptions. majority. The future of Europe’s social and economic The shift becomes highly visible when model, however, cannot be secured by just looking at the balance between those actually adding people to the work force. working and the elderly. Today in the EU, there are 36 senior citizens in age group 65+ Higher retirement age. Today on per 100 Europeans actually working and average Europe’s male workers retire at age contributing to the public coffer. Until 2050 61.9 and female workers at age 60.5. As (at constant labour force participation rates) a result, in the age group 55-64 less than this balance would rise to 71 senior citizens one of two Europeans is still economically per 100 people in the work force (See Fig. active. Taking into account the prospect of 1). This would constitute a dramatic old age a continuously increasing life expectancy, burden for those still economically active there is room for an extension of working and a significant burden for future pension lifes and an increase of today’s actual as systems and their financing. In the absence well as statutory pension ages. This option, of net migration and assuming constant however, demands a shift in attitudes both labour force participation rates, the balance at employees’ and employers’ sides, the would even increase to 83 senior citizens per introduction of pension systems that do 100 people in the work force (see Fig. 2). not favour early retirement as well as the emergence of a functioning labour market for Possible strategies for an ageing Europe the generation 50+. In this respect, current Without immigration and without the adult education and training programs, necessary labour market adaptations, the salary schemes, and pension systems must number of economically active EU citizens be reformed in order to make employment of and residents would shrink by almost 64 older workers more attractive. million over the next four decades. This potential drop in the work force calls for Scandinavian labour force policy answers addressing this gap. participation rates of women. In most For Europe, the most obvious strategies European societies it is not only the age coping with demographic ageing and the group 55+, but women in general and

C munidades 86 migrant women in particular who have What migration and integration policies overall employment rates well below those are needed? of native-born men. In EU27, women at In Europe today, only a small number prime working age (15-64 y.) have an average of the newly arriving migrants are selected employment rate of 58% while men have a according to their skills and professional rate of 70.1%. The examples of Scandinavia experience. and the Netherlands clearly show that female The implications for the supply of labour force participation rates of 70% and skills are the following: (a) European policy more are achievable. makers should make the EU and its member states a more attractive destination for Pro-active migration policy. Any qualified and highly motivated immigrants successful pro-active migration policy would and their families. (b) This would have to have to attract migrants with talents and include admission policies that effectively skills. Competitors in this race are not only select migrants according to their skills. (c) the EU member states themselves. The European labour markets need to absorb main competition is between the EU and and allocate migrants according to these traditional countries of immigration such as skills (including the recognition of degrees the US, Canada and Australia, disposing of issued in third countries) as today, many sound historical experiences in setting up immigrants are employed below their skill selective immigration policies and executing levels. (d) On top of that Europe’s migrant them within an administrative framework. receiving countries need educational systems These countries are also characterized by that are able to cope with the task of relatively open societies, integrative cultures language training for newly arriving migrants, and – first and foremost – attractive labour that offer vocational and other training markets. In contrast, few European countries, in order to speed up migrant integration, however, have already developed policy and that are ready to absorb children with instruments and administrative experience migration background. in pro-actively selecting migrants. And at EU level, the initiative to introduce a Union-wide Rainer Muenz is Head of Basic Research admission system for highly skilled migrants of Erste Group, Vienna, and non-resident (“Blue Card”) has – so far – not found the Scholar at the Migration Policy Institute, backing of a majority of member states. Washington DC.

87 Figure 1: European Union: Projected Changes in the Labour Force, 2010, 2025, 2050 (in millions); Europop2010, Medium Variant, At Constant Labour Force Participation Rates.

300 100%

80%

250 239 71% 60% 229

210 49% 40% 200 36%

20%

150 0% 2010 2025 2050

Labour force Age group 65+ / Labour force

Note: Age specific labour force participation rates are held constant at 2010 levels. Demographic projection based on: Eurostat, Europop2010 projection, main variant (convergence scenario) assuming cumulated net immigration of 60 million people to EU27 (2010-2060; of which 50 million until 2050).

Figure 2: European Union: Projected Changes in the Labour Force, 2010, 2025, 2050 (in millions); Europop2010, Variant without Migration, At Constant Labour Force Participation Rates.

300 100%

80% 83%

250 239 52% 60%

217 40% 200 36%

176 20%

150 0% 2010 2025 2050

Labour force Age group 65+ / Labour force

Note: Age specific labour force participation rates are held constant at 2010 levels. Demographic projection based on: Eurostat, Europop2010 projection, zero migration variant (convergence scenario).

C munidades 88 WEI LI

Biography INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION AND MULTIETHNIC SETTLEMENT

Plenary Presentation at the 16th International Metropolis Conference @the Azores, September 15, 2011

Wei Li, Ph.D., Professor of Asian Pacific American Studies & Geography Arizona State University; National Asia Research Associate, the National Bureau of Asian Research and Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, USA (Thanks to Wan YU @ASU for her assistance and collaborational efforts)

Regarding international migration, I am first and foremost one of the 214 million international migrants worldwide; I am also a migrant scholar, and a scholar studying migration. My paper, therefore, reflects all Wei Li received her Ph.D. in geography three perspectives. The central arguments I at the University of Southern California am making in this short piece are: and is currently a Full Professor at the 1. Changing immigrant settlements requires School of Social Transformation (Asian new conceptualization; Pacific American Studies), and School 2. Changing demography requires new of Geographical Sciences and Urban mentality; and Planning in the Arizona State University, 3. Changing settlement reality requires new USA. Her research foci are immigration policies and practices. and integration, and transnational There have been tremendous changes in connections. She is the author or [co-] the nature of immigrant settlements in recent editor of four scholarly books, and 70 decades (see table). New immigrant settlement other academic publications. She is the forms emerge as a result of new migration Chair of the US Census Bureau’s Asian flows. Traditional models of immigrant Advisory Committee, the North American concentration, such as ethnic enclave, can no Director for the International Society of longer adequately and fully portray such new Studying Chinese Overseas, and one of settlements and address the issues faced by its the inaugural class of the National Asia residents of various backgrounds. Our research Research Associates (the National Bureau needs to reflect the changing reality as the of Asian Research and Woodrow Wilson terminology we use relates to and reflects upon International Center for Schola. both mentality and policy analysis.

89 Comparison Table “Heterolocal” Ethnoburb Ethnic Enclave Communities (open system) (= Multiethnic suburb) (“exotic”; inward looking) (daily contact among groups; open system)

Small minority ‘majority minority’ Immigrant majority

Dispersed; can be large in Relatively concentrated Highly concentrated; scale Likely large in scale likely small in scale Likely homogeneous Heterogeneous ethnically and Can be homogenous socioeconomically socioeconomically ethnically and socioeconomically Austin, TX Los Angeles; Silicon Valley; New Orleans East Toronto; Vancouver; Auckland? (Zelinsky& Lee 1998; (Li 1998; 2009; (Airriess et al. 2008; Skop& Li 2005) Li & Park 2006; Wong 2005) Li et al. 2010)

Relating to the differential immigrant working class laborers. Many immigrants have settlement forms, the quick influx of the financial capability to choose where to live large volumes of international migrants and the Civil Rights Movement legislations of various backgrounds changes urban granted them the opportunity to live wherever demography, economy, and landscape; and they want and can afford to. Many chose the sometimes causes tension between old- suburban location, better housing conditions timers and newcomers. This results in the and good schools in the SGV. There were politics of, as in the case of immigration racial backlashes against newcomers in such admission policies, who are being inclusive a large number and at such a fast pace. Local or exclusive? Who are being included or elected officials and community activists excluded? It ultimately needs a change implemented both top-down vs. bottom- of mentality: receiving societies need to up approaches in addressing the issues and change from being tolerant of differences problems they face. The following quote best to creating equality in all aspects of illustrates the changing settlement nature and life and power sharing; international reality: migrants need to culturally, economically, “The community is a much-mixed politically, and socially be integrated one. This is not your traditional into the mainstream society of receiving ethnic enclave, like you think in countries. terms of Chinatown or Little Tokyo. This is not that at all! ... I see Building Equal and Just Multiethnic Monterey Park is a community of Places – the US different ethnic groups, trying to get The San Gabriel Valley (SGV) in along with one another. That is my Los Angeles has experienced tremendous challenge. That is the challenge that demographic changes since the 1980s with we all are facing…” a large influx of Asian immigrants who are – Dr. Judy Chu, 1995 (2- wealthy, middle-class professionals, as well as term US Congresswoman)

C munidades 90 Wangjing District, Beijing, China to build trust between newcomers and ‘old- 1990s-2010s timers’; and how to make and implement International migration and multiethnic effective public policies on building equal places are no longer limited to developed and just societies? These are issues and countries. The Wangjing District in Beijing challenges many countries face in the has been known as the “Koreatown” world and need to learn from each other in in Beijing, which involves with the searching for successful policies and practices suburbanization of Korean migrants. By to make a better world for all residents. 2007, there were 70,000 ethnic Korean residents in this district and accounted for about a quarter of Wangjing’s population. The area is also home of 500 ethnic- Korean-owned businesses, with Korean signatures everywhere. The majority Han Chinese people complain and are concerned about the changing nature of the neighbourhoods and the business signs they cannot understand, something similar to western immigrant receiving countries. Local responses to such issues were hiring Korean-speaking police officers in local beats, and even the discussion of placing trilingual signatures (Chinese, English and Korean) in order to accommodate Chinese and Korean residents and English-speaking tourists alike, and to boost the international image of the district.

Policy Implications One key issue in immigration debate is whether immigrant institutions are agents of resistance to integration, or the integral components for integration. Immigrants’ utilizing ethnic media, newspapers, radio, TV, etc., is often seen as measurement against integration; but such immigrant institutions can serve as integral components for integration – depending on how they are being utilized, including government agencies. The issue then is how to fulfill immigrant needs with mutual understanding and respect; how can grassroots efforts help

91 WILLIAM LACY SWING

Biography Keynote Address,

William Lacy It is an honour to be invited to deliver Swing, Ambassador of the keynote address at this distinguished the United States, on 18 forum. I wish to thank the organizers for June 2008, was elected giving me this opportunity. as the Director General Metropolis conferences have become a of the International must for international migration researchers Organization for and practitioners. They have a reputation Migration (IOM). He for picking annual themes that have topical assumed his post on 1 October 2008. resonance, that capture the issues of the From May 2003 till moment. January 2008, as UN This year is no exception. Special Representative of the Secretary- General (SRSG) for the Democratic Republic Introduction of the Congo (DRC), Ambassador Swing We are living through times of economic, successfully led all facets of the largest UN social and political turbulence. peacekeeping operation in history. Prior to As the search goes on for causes, his work in the DRC, Ambassador Swing explanations, and possible solutions, some served from 2001 to 2003 as the Special are inclined to attribute, all too hastily, at Representative to the Secretary-General for least part of this societal malaise to mounting Western Sahara and Chief of Mission for the international migration and the changing UN Mission for the Referendum in Western composition of the nation state. Sahara (MINURSO). A recent Economist editorial noted that During a long diplomatic career at the US Department of State, Mr. Swing was things looked promising at the end of the a six-time ambassador, managing some cold war: “Liberalisation of travel, the West’s of the largest diplomatic missions and economic boom of the 2000s and rapid foreign development and humanitarian growth of emerging markets—all of these aid programmes in two hemispheres, contributed to a new surge of migration”. with a record of strengthening bilateral But it went on to point out that the relationships. onset of the economic crisis reignited fears Through his diplomatic assignments that immigration might be a drain on public in countries facing significant migration services and damage the job prospects of the movements, he has acquired a deep native population. understanding of the multiple factors Even in traditional migrant countries affecting international migration. that have, in the past, taken pride in being Ambassador Swing graduated from a “migrant society” or a “nation of migrants Catawba College in North Carolina there are some who are no longer sure that (Bachelor of Arts) and Yale University (Bachelor of Divinity), and did post-graduate they want to welcome those arriving at their studies at Tubingen University in Germany borders today. and at Harvard University. He speaks fluent There is, manifestly, widespread anti- French and German. migrant sentiment in many parts of the

C munidades 92 world. Anti-foreigner attitudes that seemed I wish to congratulate the organizers of to be on the way to extinction are now re- Metropolis 2011 for having put together a appearing in the form of harmful stereotypes, great program. discrimination and even xenophobia. It is a superb reminder of the extent The overwhelmingly positive to which migration has changed and is contributions to our societies and economies continuing to change the manner in which by the overwhelming majority of migrants migrants themselves - and the multiple are thus, unfortunately often overshadowed, communities they belong to - live, work and and risk being forgotten altogether. interact with one another; in countries of In such circumstances international origin and in countries of destination; in exchanges on migration policy revert all too urban settings or in small islands; and taking easily to feverish argumentation on: account of both economic and social impacts. • whether there should or there should I am particularly pleased to note that not be migration in the first place; one plenary session is dedicated to migration • whether benefits can be demonstrated among “countries of the South”. to outweigh costs or vice-versa; and, Since most research resources are • whether multiculturalism has delivered located in industrialized countries, it is not the goods or not. surprising that the focus of research attention These issues are not without interest or has tended to fall disproportionately on significance, of course. They have kept both migration issues of interest to countries of academic researchers and policy makers busy destination in the North. But there are good in the past and will no doubt continue to do reasons to change this: so in future. • There are clear indications that the What is abundantly clear, however, global economy will be driven more and is that we are living in a world sustained more by developing countries, with the by economic, social and cultural inter- largest growth expected in emerging dependencies. And at the heart of all of them economies. India and China are already are various processes of communication and poised to assume a much larger role in exchange. Including human mobility. the global economy. Looking at migration from this angle • Trade between Asia and the GCC has the advantage of reminding us that we countries is expected to increase from have probably reached the point where it USD 59 billion in 2007 to between 300 is no longer reasonable or useful to look and 500 billion in 2020. at migration simply as a product of the • As yet, we do not quite know how this interplay between push and pull factors. will affect global migratory movements, We must fully come to terms with the but some of the possibilities could be fact that it is part and parcel of the inter- unsettling: connected world we have created. It now has o rapidly growing South-South a life of its own. It is inevitable, unavoidable flows of labour migrants creating and for the most part desirable. We cannot the need for special purpose afford to lose sight of this reality in times of bilateral and multilateral systems economic uncertainty. for the exchange of skills;

93 o ever stronger competition for the platform for cooperation between “best and brightest” talent around developing and developed countries; the world and potential shortages • It is at the centre of the annual Global in industrialized countries that Forum; have until now had the pick of • It will also provide the basis for the crop; discussion at the next High Level o and, quite possibly, potentially Dialogue in 2013. large return flows of members of At the same time we, should never migrants diasporas in developed lose sight that the flows of capital at the countries. centre of the migration and development Can we, at this particular point in time, equation are generated not by ODA or FDI imagine a migration landscape so totally but by migrant workers. And, as yet, the altered that industrialized countries struggle international community is far from agreeing to attract labour migrants (including the on how best to ensure that all these workers highly skilled) while the BRICs become the can move around in a humane, safe and major poles of destination? orderly manner. Or is this stretching conjecture to the There has been, it is true, a fair amount point of disbelief? of progress in relation to highly skilled The point I wish to make is that while migrants: I cannot say whether this or any alternative • They are valued as innovators and scenario will be played out or not, it is quite multipliers of knowledge; possible that we will in future face migratory • They bring a diversity of skills and circumstances significantly different from the viewpoints to workplaces that design ones obtaining today. and produce goods for the global The conference agenda – through its market; very title - is very much an invitation to • They are esteemed for their consider how the international community entrepreneurial flair and ability; and might acquire the preparedness to handle the their willingness to take risks; changes to come. They are in brief, those who belong I would like in response to discuss three to what Richard Florida has called the broad policy assignments that are highly “creative class” – the drivers of change in likely to require attention, whatever scenarios contemporary society. are played out in coming years: Given such strong demand for their services, it is not surprising that 1. The global supply and demand of skills industrialized countries compete strongly to Over the last decade or so, international attract them. dialogue on migration has been dominated A number of middle-income countries by one topic: migration and development. such as India, China and Malaysia have There are good reasons for encouraging also begun to advertise their need for highly these exchanges: qualified migrant workers, including their • the link between migration and own citizens who have left for study or development offers the most promising professional experience abroad. The idea of

C munidades 94 attracting back “home-grown, but overseas- working conditions for low and middle- nurtured” talent is even incorporated as a skilled workers. major policy objective in the 11th Chinese • These are the people who build 5-Year Plan. skyscrapers, who clean homes, hospitals Experimentation is continuing, but and hostels, who serve at tables in there are some large questions that remain restaurants and who provide childcare unanswered: services all over the world. • Should migration programmes for • While they are just as essential to the the highly skilled place emphasis on global economy, and transfer far more temporary residence or on permanent money, in aggregate terms, than their entry? In other words should highly highly-skilled counterparts, they enjoy skilled migrants be seen as a revolving (or rather suffer from) a much lower pool of talent or as a stable, long-term level of political recognition. investment? • They often work in what Martin Ruhs • Should the focus be on the management has called “a zone of semi-legality” of supply or demand? and are vulnerable to exploitation and o The first method allows potential abuse, all the more so when they arrive migrants to apply on the basis of as irregular migrants. certain personal and professional Asian countries of origin have reacted characteristics that favour by creating the Colombo Process to develop employability. It is then up to a coordinated approach to the protection of them to market their skills on the their workers abroad, and they have sought job market. dialogue with Gulf Countries of destination o The other method requires a to establish lines of cooperation. The recently more or less specific identification adopted ILO Convention of Domestic of demand (expressed most Workers provides additional reason for hope. commonly through employer There is, however, a long way to make sponsorships) following which sure that all the good work on migration and targeted recruitment is effected). development is firmly grounded on efficient, • Policy coherence is a difficult challenge safe and secure labour migration practices. in the field of migration management. How can policies governing the entry 2. Social diversity and stay of highly skilled migrants The second policy assignment I be meaningfully connected to other, wish to discuss is what I would call the often broader, relevant sectors of management of social diversity. In the past public administration such as labour there has been much debate about the market management, human resource advantage and disadvantages of available development or education? policy models: assimilation, integration and Important as they are, however, these multiculturalism. questions pale into insignificance when Each model has been, at various times in placed side by side with the challenge of the past, praised for its usefulness or decried ensuring fair recruitment practices and for its weaknesses. But all of them are a

95 bit the worse for wear and fresh thinking multiethnic, multicultural societies, is urgently needed, beginning not with whether by design or default. How can the search for solutions but with a better core values be identified and adhered to understanding of the issues at stake. in the midst of that diversity? • Multi-ethnic societies are increasingly • What are the social and political the norm rather than the exception; impacts of trans-nationalism and • The very notion of individual identity the growing trend towards multiple itself is evolving in unexpected and citizenships? complex ways. While most people • Are there limits to the amount of social would admit to having a dominant change that a community can absorb national identity, they are also likely to over a period of time? acknowledge multiple other affiliations • Is it possible for highly diverse urban on grounds as varied as gender, communities to live in harmony with religion, cultural practice, professional mainly mono-ethnic rural communities? interest and even local or regional • How can we ensure the cohesion and commonalities; stability of societies while protecting the • Many of these ties can be of a rights of minorities? transnational nature, all the more • Can people be taught to live so because modern networks of successfully with multiple identities? communication allow personal contacts • How do we educate children to grow to be maintained in real time whether it up in the context of dynamic social is across a city or across the world. change? o More than 247 billion emails are Policymakers will need all the help transmitted every day. researchers can provide to develop new o Almost 2 billion persons now policy paradigms for the future. have access to the internet (in contrast to only 390 million 3. Migration related consequences of people 12 years ago). natural or man-made disasters o Facebook now has more than 500 The third policy challenge I want to million subscribers; and highlight is one that the international o Twitter has some 200 million community has been struggling to come to users; and both are growing terms with in many parts of the world in exponentially. recent years. Under these circumstances, it is no For want of a simple label, I will call it longer desirable or even possible to view managing the mobility related consequences the encounter between migrants and their of natural or man-made disasters. host communities in the light of past policy When an earthquake hit Haiti early in models. 2010, an estimated 3 million people were Consider just a sample of the issues that affected. More than 300,000 people died, require re-examination: an equal number were injured and at least • Once relatively homogenous and 1 million were left homeless. The risk of cohesive societies are giving way to a massive exodus was enormous, but was

C munidades 96 headed off through prompt international had to intervene rapidly to provide protection intervention. The number of homeless has and assistance to large numbers of migrant gone down considerably but at last count workers. In the best of circumstances they had there were still hundreds of thousands still fled or were fleeing conflict and were seeking waiting for new accommodation. repatriation, in the worst circumstances they were trapped in the middle of hostilities and were crying out to be led to safety. This has required close coordination among humanitarian agencies and rapid deployment of a complex chain of services including registration, provision of non-food items, medical services, consular services, chartering of air and sea transport and assistance upon arrival. I point to these emergencies because although the displacement consequences of each of them were contained, seen from close quarters each effort was an exercise in humanitarian brinkmanship, with resources scraped together virtually on a daily basis to attend to the most urgent needs. There is every reason to believe that in years to come there will be similar and perhaps even greater challenges to respond to. And while sudden disasters tend to catch the headlines, over the longer term slow onset environmental changes are the ones most likely to require attention – when small island states are swamped by rising sea levels, or low-lying areas in delta basins are clogged A few months later, the worst floods with salt, or again when continental deserts in Pakistan’s history devastated more than encroach on pastures. half of the country - 78 out of a total of 141 The crisis of the past and the future districts. An estimated 18 million people threats tell us that humanitarian response were affected and 1.7 million had their is not the only action that we can take. The homes either destroyed or severely damaged. greater need is in the areas of preparedness Large displacement-inducing events were and disaster risk reduction. In the light of also recorded in Colombia and Sri Lanka. recent experiences there is a clear need for More recently, current affairs reports an emergency funding mechanism to enable have been dominated by rapidly evolving the international community to acquire the developments in North and West Africa. In readiness to respond rather than having to both cases the international community has through time consuming appeal procedures.

97 Efforts to improve coordination among Conclusion international partners should continue. And The international migration community there is a particularly strong base for national - consisting in the first place of the migrants capacity development to enable governments themselves, but including all also all those to cope more effectively with the mobility- who have their welfare at heart – is living related consequences of disasters. through a period of transition. The impacts In conclusiocn, with the opening of of the global financial crisis are still being the new IOM Mongolia Country Office, I felt. At such times it is common for doubts greatly look forward to a new strengthened to be expressed about the value of migrants level of cooperation between IOM and the and migration. Government of Mongolia. Let us take the broader and more realistic The crisis of the past and the future view: migration is part and parcel of the threats tell us that humanitarian response world we have constructed. We cannot avoid is not the only action that we can take. The it. We must instead acknowledge its reality greater need is in the areas of preparedness and come to terms with it. and disaster risk reduction. In the light of I have highlighted three large policy recent experiences there is a clear need for assignments relating to: an emergency funding mechanism to enable • Effective matching of supply and the international community to acquire the demand on the global labour market readiness to respond rather than having to • Social diversity through time consuming appeal procedures. • The mobility-related consequences of Efforts to improve coordination among natural and man-made disasters. international partners should continue. And I have raised them not to claim that there is a particularly strong base for national I have all the answers, but rather to capacity development to enable governments demonstrate the seriousness of purpose and to cope more effectively with the mobility- the breadth of thinking that will be required related consequences of disasters. to make migration work to the benefit of all.

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ZHANG XIAOMIN

Biography RETURNED OVERSEAS CHINESE: A FORCE TO STIR THE CHINESE CULTURE*

Purpose of My Study Return migration has been a hot topic. Studies have focused on returned models(Ding Yueya); Claiming the diaspora as national strategy(Elaine Ho); Chinese Canadians in Beijing(Guo Shibao), Mainland Chinese Return Migration in the view of citizenship and Hukou(Elaine Lynn-Ee Ho) and China’s Talent Plan (Wang Huiyao). My presentation will focus on influence of the returned Oversea Chinese on creating the diversity culture in China. I. general introduction of the increase ZHANG Xiaomin, MA, Drama, Movie and number of returnees and organization related TV Studies, Beijing Broadcasting Institute, to services and management of Chinese Now Assistant Professor at Institute of Studying abroad Ethnology and Anthropology, Chinese Chinese Students Study Abroad Academy of Social Sciences. Focus on Visual From 1978 to the end of 2010, China’s Anthropology and inner Migration in China. total students studying abroad reaches 1.9 Member of the Organizing committee at million, a total of 632,200 students choose to return upon graduation. From 1996-2009, some international Congress and conference: 97.8% government-sponsored students 16th IUAES Congress, 2009, Metropolis studing abroad returned on schedule. Inter-Conference on 2010, May, 22-24 held In Global Political Security issued in in Beijing, etc. 2007 by CASS, report shows that China is Panel presentation “Business of the becoming the sending country of the largest Ecological Migrants from the Source Region number of immigrants, while at the same of the Three Rivers in Qinghai, China time it loses the largest number of Chinese Qinghai Ecological Migrants”in Antalya, elite in the world: Turkey 2010 IUAES Inter-Congress; “since 1978, there have been “The New Generation Migrant Workers 1.06 million chinese students study in Labour Market in China ”Workshop abroad, but only 275,000 returned. presentation for the Special Forum on China, The number of the other 785,000 stay Third Workshop of the Co-Reach Project overseas equals the total number of on“Migration, Labor Market and Ethnicity, undergraduates of 30 Beijing universities and 30 Tsinghua Universities---two top Comprarative Studies among Germany, universities in China.“ Holand, France, UK and China”Paris, 2010 Winner of special Award for Canadian * ZHANG Xiaomin, Institute of Ethnology & studies, 2011. Anthropology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, E-mail: [email protected].

C munidades 100 Although the Worry about Brain Drain High-tech Development Zones. still exist, more Skilled Immigrants came China’s other programs on overseas talents back for more opportunities in recent years. Started 1998, Changjiang Scholars Factors in the receiving countries: Program, 14000 scholars awarded for making integration, global decrease in economy, services to over 130 universities in China unemployment, etc. Started 1997,Spring Light Program, 12000 Factors in China: returned on short term basis for the service with the coming of information era and Started 1994, Hundred Person Program knowledge economy era, China’s industries by Chinese Science Academy will have to change into high-tech clustered There are also 150 returnee from labor clustered one, which increase entrepreneurial parks set up in China and the need of international talents; steady over 10000 enterprises set up by returnees. increasing in economy offer opportunities; Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly attracting talents programes from all Exchange (CSCSE) government levels, research institutions, CSCSE was founded in 1989 on the universities and enterprises. initiative of Mr. Deng Xiaoping, as he thought Reasons of Return migration: at that time thousands of scholars would National Medium- and Long-term be sent abroad and return each year. It was Talent Development Plan (2010–2020) was considered very necessarily to establish a jointly issued by the Central Committee of special organization providing one-stop the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and service for the going-abroad and returning- the State Council on June 6, 2010, shows back scholars. the need of skilled labor force and educated China Scholarship Council (CSC) talent for new growth of China’s economy. China Scholarship Council (CSC) National Strategy was established in 1996 as a non-profit 1000 Talents Plan (The Recruitment institution affiliated with the Ministry of Program of Global Experts) Education. The Recruitment Program of Global CSC is the national institution entrusted Experts, which is also called the Thousand- by the Chinese Government with the Talent Plan, is organized by the Central responsibilities of sponsoring Chinese Coordination Committee on the Recruitment citizens to pursue studies abroad and of Talents. The program will last for five to international students and scholars to study ten years and has been carried out since the in China. year of 2008. It aims to recruit overseas top II. Contribution of the returnees to the scientists and talents back to China. economy It is hoped that the recruited talents Example: Zhongguancun Science Park will lead the innovative industries, improve Zhongguancun Science Park is China’s key technologies and develop the high-tech first national innovation demonstration area, industries in State Key Labs, National Key where there are 18,000 high-tech enterprises Innovative Programs, State Key Subjects, with a total income o two trillion Yuan RMB. National Enterprises, State-Owned According to statistics, at least two returnees Commercial and Financial Institutes and found business enterprises in Zhongguancun

101 per working day. By the end of June 2011, internet users has The “Zhongguancun high-end reached 485 million, covering 36% of the total leading talent Converging Program”, was population. In the first half of 2011, the Weibo launched in 2008, which has attract many user in China has climbed to 195 million from 63 million, an increase rate of 208%, which Overseas talents, 15 of which have been covers 40% of the total internet users. selected “1000 Program”, 28 selected Source: CNNIC 28th Report on China’s Overseas Converging Talent Program, 18 Internet Development Survey selected “high poly projects”, which is III. Cases of the returnees’ influence on 88% of the total Beijing listed talent in the creation of diversity Chinese culture entrepreneurship category. Democracy brought by the IT To attract more overseas high-end talent, technology: Zhongguancun has established 7 overseas An editorial in the People’s Daily, echoed liaison offices in the United States, Canada, netizens in saying the microblogs possessed Japan, Britain and other developed countries, innate capability of bringing the truth to to introduce these outstanding talent from light. “The development of the microblogs overseas to visit Zhongguancun and to has only just started. Overall, they make an seek opportunities for their innovation indispensable contribution to fostering citizens’ and entrepreneurship.So far, the overseas rights to knowledge, self-expression and supervision”. liaison offices of Zhongguancun have been Examples of Internet discussion: China cooperating with more than 20 organizations on film and sport stars’ changing nationality of students studying abroad effectively for a Stirring of the Concept of Health with long term. traditional Chinese Principles on life: a concept and lifestyle education for urban Ratio of Returnees' Industry Division people to return to tradition. "China's Talent Development Report" (2009) Xu Wenbing, government sponsored shows that most successful entrepreneurs of TC doctor to study in USA in 1997-1998, the "returnees" engage in high-tech fields: returned with the new thinking about • more than 70% in the Internet, IT and the traditional expressions of the health, communications technology field; wrote the best seller: health wisdom in the • 20% "returnees" in consulting, legal characters. His conversation-style programm services and education; lecturing of HuangdiNeijing, in Central • about 5% in manufacturing industry. People’s Radio, attract many urban peoples’ III. Cases of the returnees’ influence on interest in traditional principle of health and the creation of diversity Chinese culture traditional culture of China. Information and IT technologies and enterprises bring to the huge growth of Conclusion information exchange with messages, blogs, Returned Overseas Chinese brought to weibo (microblog) and internet. These new their homeland not only enterprises, hi- technologies bring about chances for self- technologies, but also ideas and concepts expressions and source of news and opinions on basis of comparison of the two different which expand participation of the public on cultures, which is an important force to stir the social life. Chinese Culture, to expecting it to be a culture Data of the internet users: of both good tradition and modern one.

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