Supplemental Citations
Alcolado, P. M., R. Claro-Madruga, and R. Estrada. 2000. Status and prospective of coral reef
management in Cuba. Coral Reef Status Report for Cuba, GCRMN. Accessed 13 October
2013 from reefbase.org/pdf/%20GCRMN2000CUB.
Alcolado P. M., P. Garcia-Parrado, and D. Hernandez-Munoz. 2008. Composition and structure
of gorgonian communities of coral reefs in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, Cuba:
Connectivity and Determinant Factors. Bol. Invemar. 37(1):11–29.
Alino, P. M., P. W. Sammarco, J. C. Coll. 1988. Studies of the feeding preferences of Chaetodon
melannotus (Pisces) for soft corals (Coelenterata; Octocorallia). Proc. Sixth Int. Coral Reef
Symp. Townsville 3:31–36.
Andrews, K., L. Nall, C. Jeffrey, S. Pittman, K. Banks, C. Beaver, and W. Jaap. 2005. The state
of coral reef ecosystems of Florida. p. 150–200 In The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the
United States and Pacific Freely Associated States. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Natl. Ocean
Serv., NCCOS, Silver Spring, Md., 522 p.
Armando Sanchez, J., and H. Wirshing. 2005. A field key to the identification of tropical western
Atlantic zooxanthellate octocorals (Octocorallia: Cnidaria). Carib. J. Sci. 3:508–522.
Ata, A., R. G. Kerr, C. E. Moya, and R. S. Jacobs. 2003. Identification of anti-inflammatory
1
diterpenes from the marine gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Tetrahedron 59:4215–
4222.
Bak, R. P. M. 1987. Effects of chronic oil pollution on a Caribbean coral reef. Mar. Pollut. Bull.
18:534–539.
Baker, D. M., K. Kim, J. P. Andras, and J. P. Sparks. 2011. Light-mediated 15N fractionation in
Caribbean gorgonian octocorals: implications for pollution monitoring. Coral Reefs 30:709–
717. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-011-0759-x.
Ballantine, D. L., R. S. Appeldoorn, P. Yoshioka, E. Weil, R. Armstrong, J. R. Garcia, F. P.
Otero, C. Sherman, E. A. Hernandez-Delgado, A. Bruckner, and C. Lilyestrom. 2008.
Biology and ecology of Puerto Rican coral reefs. In B. M. Riegl and R. E. Dodge (Editors),
Coral Reefs of the USA, p. 375–406. Springer, Dania Beach, Fla.
Banks, K. W., B. M. Riegl, V. P. Richards, B. K. Walker, P. Kevin, K. P. Helmle, L. K. B.
Jordan, J. Phipps, M. S. Shivji, R. E. Spieler, and R. E. Dodge. 2008. The reef tract of
continental southeast Florida (Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties, USA). In B.
M. Riegl and R. E. Dodge (Editors), Coral Reefs of the USA., p. 175–220. Springer, Dania,
Fla.
2
Bardales, A. T. 1981. Reproductive patterns of three species of octocorals (families Telestidae,
Briareidae, Plexauridae) in the vicinity of La Parguera, Puerto Rico. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ.
Puerto Rico at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, 86 p.
Bayer, F. M. 1952. New western Atlantic records of octocorals (Coelenterata: Anthozoa), with
descriptions of three new species. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 42(6):183–189.
______. 1959. Octocorals from Surinam and the adjacent coasts of South America. Stud.
Fauna Surinam and Guyanas 6:1–43.
______. 1964. The genus Corallium (Gorgonacea: Scleraxonia) in the western North Atlantic
Ocean. Bull. Mar. Sci. 14(3):465–478.
______and E. Deichmann. 1958. Two new plexaurid gorgonians from the Bahama Islands.
Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. 8(3):224–235.
______and A. J. Weinheimer (Editors). 1974. Prostaglandins from Plexaura homomalla:
Ecology, Utilization, and Conservation of a Major Medical Marine Resource: A Symposium.
Studies in Tropical Oceanography No. 12, University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, FL. 165 p.
Behety, P. A. 1975. Nuevos reportes de gorgonaceos (Coelenterata) para Cuba. Academia de
Ciencias Serie Oceanologica No. 3, 9 p.
3
Beiring, E. A. 1997. Life history and reproductive success of a broadcast-spawning gorgonian
coral and implications for conservation biology. Dissertation Thesis (Ph.D.), SUNY-Buffalo,
Buffalo, NY, 137 p.
Bellwood, D., T. Hughes, C. Folke, R. Steneck, and J. Wilson. 2005. New paradigms for
supporting the resilience of marine ecosystems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 20:380–386.
Boller, M. L., T. D. Swain, and H. R. Lasker. 2002. Skeletal morphology and material properties
of a fragmenting gorgonian coral. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 228:131–141.
Brazeau, D. A., and C. D. Harvell. 1994. Genetic structure of local populations and divergence
between growth forms in a clonal invertebrate, the Caribbean octocoral Briareum
asbestinum. Mar. Biol. 119:53–60.
______and H. R. Lasker. 1988. Inter-and intraspecific variation in gorgonian colony
morphology: quantifying branching patterns in arborescent animals. Coral Reefs 7:139–143.
______and ______. 1989. The reproductive cycle and spawning in a Caribbean
gorgonian. Biol. Bull. 176:1–7.
______and ______. 1992. Growth rates and growth strategy in a clonal marine
invertebrate, the Caribbean octocoral Briareum asbestinum. Biol. Bull. 183:269–277.
4
Brinkhuis, V. 2009. Assessment of gorgonian transplantation techniques offshore southeast
Florida. M.Sc. Thesis, Nova Southeastern University Oceanographic Center, Dania Beach,
Fla., 96 p.
Bruckner, A. W. 2005. The importance of the marine ornamental reef fish trade in the wider
Caribbean. Rev. Biol. Trop. 53:127–137.
Cadena, N. J., C. Rey, M. Hernández-Hoyos, J. Sánchez, T. Darío, A. N. Stanislas, and J. A.
Sánchez. 2010. Linking local to global properties in branching modular networks: gorgonian
coral colonies. Mar. Biol. 157:1003–1010. (doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-009-1380-1).
Cairns, S. D. 2009. Influence of Frederick (Ted) M. Bayer on deep-water octocoral research.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 397:7–10, doi: 10.3354/meps08066.
Cerrano, C., A. Arillo, F. Azzini, B. Calcinai, L. Castellano, C. Muti, L. Valisano, G. Zega, and
G. Bavestrello. 2005. Gorgonian population recovery after a mass mortality event. Aquat.
Conserv. Mar. Freshw. 15:147–157.
Chacón-Gómez, I. C., J. Reyes, and N. Santodomingo. 2012. Deep-water octocorals (Anthozoa:
Cnidaria) collected from the Colombian Caribbean during “Macrofauna Explorations” 1998–
2002. Boletín de Invest Mar. Costeras INVEMAR. 41(1):193–211.
Chamberlain, C. K. 1967. Some Octocorallia of Isla de Lobos, Veracruz, Mexico. Coastal Stud.
5
Inst., Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, LA.
Chiappone, M., H. Dienes, D. W. Swanson, and S. L. Miller. 2003. Density and gorgonian host-
occupation patterns by flamingo tongue snails (Cyphoma gibbosum) in the Florida Keys.
Carib. J. Sci. 39(1):116–127.
______and K. M. Sullivan. 1997. Reef invertebrates of the Exuma Cays: Part 2 –
Octocorals. Bahamas J. Sci. 6:31–37.
Coffroth, M. A., T. L. Goulet, and S. R. Santos. 2001. Early ontogenic expression of specificity
in a cnidarian-algal symbiosis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 222:85–96.
______and H. R. Lasker. 1998a. Larval paternity and male reproductive success of a
broadcast-spawning gorgonian, Plexaura kuna. Mar. Biol. 131:329–337.
______and ______. 1998b) Population structure of a clonal gorgonian coral: the
interplay between clonal reproduction and disturbance. Evolution 52(2):379–393.
______, ______, M. E. Diamond, J. A. Bruenn, and E. Bermingham. 1992. DNA
fingerprints of a gorgonian coral: a method for detecting clonal structure in a vegetative
species. Mar. Biol. 114:317–325.
______, C. L. Lewis, S. R. Santos, J. L. Weaver. 2006. Environmental populations of
6
symbiotic dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium (Freudenthal) can initiate symbiosis
with reef cnidarians. Curr. Biol. 16:985–987.
Collier, C., R. E. Dodge, D. Gilliam, K. Gracie, L. Gregg, W. Jaap, M. Mastry, and N. Poulos.
2007. Rapid response and restoration for coral reef injuries in southeast Florida: Guidelines
and recommendations. Workshop Presentation. Fla. Dep. Environ. Prot. (FDEP) through an
agreement with the National Coral Reef Inst. (NCRI) at Nova Southeastern Univ.
______, R. Ruzicka, K. Banks, L. Barbieri, B. Beal, D. Bingham, and 21 additional authors.
2008. The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of Southeast Florida. Paper presented at The State
of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States. U.S.
Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Ocean Serv., NCCOS. Silver Spring, MD, 569 p.
Coma, R., and H. R. Lasker. 1997. Effects of spatial distribution and reproductive biology on in
situ fertilization rates of a broadcast-spawning invertebrate. Biol. Bull. 193:20–29.
______, E. Pola, M. Ribes, and M. Zabala. 2004. Long-term assessment of temperate
octocoral mortality patterns, protected vs. unprotected areas. Ecol. App. 14(5):1466–1478.
Correa, H., B. Haltli, C. Duque, and R. Kerr. 2013. Bacterial communities of the gorgonian
octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Micro Ecol. 66:972–985.
______, A. L. Valenzuela, L. F. Ospina, and C. Duque. 2009. Anti-inflammatory effects of
7
the gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae collected at the Islands of Providencia and San
Andrés (SW Caribbean). J. Inflamm 6(5), doi:10.1186/1476-9255-6-5.
D’armas, H., D. Bermúdez, and A. Castera. 2004. Bioactividad de algunos octocorales de aguas
Venezolanas. Saber 16(1):19–25.
Dayan, N., A. Babik, T. Higgs, and H. Lasker. 2011. The harvest of marine-derived cosmetic
ingredients: A case study of Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Cosmetics and Toiletry
126(8):572–577.
de Putron, S. J., and J. S. Ryland. 2009. Effect of seawater temperature on reproductive
seasonality and fecundity of Pseudoplexaura porosa (Cnidaria: Octocorallia):latitudinal
variation in Caribbean gorgonian reproduction. Invert. Biol. 128:213–22,
doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7410.2009.00170.x.
Devictor, S. T., and S. L. Morton. 2010. Identification guide to the shallow water (0–200 m)
octocorals of the South Atlantic Bight. Zootaxa 2599:1–62.
Drohan, A. F., D. A. Thoney, and A. C. Baker. 2005. Synergistic effect of high temperature and
ultraviolet-B radiation on the gorgonian Eunicea tourneforti (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea:
Plexauridae). Bull. Mar. Sci. 77:257–266.
Dube, D., K. Kim, A. P. Alker, and C. D. Harvell. 2002. Size structure and geographic variation
8
in chemical resistance of sea fan corals Gorgonia ventalina to a fungal pathogen. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser. 231:139–150.
Duque-Alarcón, A., L. Z. Santiago-Vázquez, and R. G. Kerr. 2012. A microbial community
analysis of the octocoral Eunicea fusca. Electr J. Biotech [online] 15(5):15.
Epifanio, R., L. F. Maia, J. R. Pawlik, and W. Fenical. 2007. Antipredatory secosterols from the
octocoral Pseudopterogorgia americana. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 329:307–31.
Espinosa, Y. O., L. Hernandez-Fernandez, and A. J. Capote. 2010. Structure and injuries of
octocoral communities (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) of Ecological Reserve Siboney-Jutici,
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58(4):1211–1221.
Etnoyer, P. J., H. H. Wirshing, J. A. Sánchez, and M. Solan. 2010. Rapid assessment of octocoral
diversity and habitat on Saba Bank, Netherlands Antilles. PloS One 5:351–370.
Fabricus, K. and P. Alderslade. 2001. Soft corals and sea fans. A comprehensive guide to the
shallow-water genera of the central-west Pacific, the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.
Australian Inst. Mar. Sci., Townsville, 264 p.
Fabricius, K. E., A. Genin, and Y. Benayahu. 1995. Flow-dependent herbivory and growth in
zooxanthellae-free soft corals. Limnol Oceanogr. 40:1290–1301.
9
Fenical, W. 1987. Marine soft corals of the Genus Pseudopterogorgia: A resource for novel anti-
inflammatory diterpenoids. J. Nat Prod 50(6):1001–1008.
Florida Administrative Code and Florida Administrative Register 2010. Retrieved from Florida
Department of State:
flrules.org/gateway/RuleNo.asp?title=REPORTING%20REQUIREMENTS%20FOR%20TH
E%20MARINE%20FISHERIES%20INFORMATIONSYSTEM&ID=68E-5.002, Accessed
21 November 2014.
Florida Department of State, Florida Administrative Code and Florida Administrative Resister
2010. Florida marine life rule. Retrieved from:
flrules.org/gateway/ChapterHome.asp?Chapter=68B-42, Accessed 11 November 2014.
Gerhart, D. J. 1990. Fouling and gastropod predation: Consequences of grazing for a tropical
octocoral. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 62:103–108.
Gilliam, D. 2010. Southeast Florida Coral Reef Evaluation and Monitoring Project 2009 year 7
Final Report, Miami Beach, FL. 42 p.
Gittings, S. 2003. Pre-construction coral survey of the M/V Wellwood grounding site: April 23–
24, 2002. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series MSD-03-1. U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Marine Sanctuaries Division,
Silver Spring, MD, 16 p.
10
Gittings, S. R., T. J. Bright, and D. K. Hagman. 1993. The M/V Wellwood and other large vessel
groundings: coral reef damage and recovery. p. 174–180 In Global aspects of coral reefs:
health, hazards, and history. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science,
University of Miami, Miami.
______, ______, and B. S. Holland. 1990. Five years of coral recovery following a
freighter grounding in the Florida Keys. p. 89–105 In 10th Annual Scientific Diving
Symposium of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences: Diving for Science 1990. St.
Petersburg, Fla.
Goenaga, C. 1991. The state of coral reefs in the wider Caribbean. Interciencia 16(1):12–20.
Goffredo, S., and H. R. Lasker. 2006. Modular growth of a gorgonian coral can generate
predictable patterns of colony growth. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 336:221–229.
Goldberg, W. M., and Y. Benayahu. 1987. Spicule formation in the gorgonian coral
Pseudoplexaura flagellosa. 1: Demonstration of intracellular and extracellular growth and the
effect of ruthenium red during decalcification. Bull. Mar. Sci. 40(2):287–303.
Gonzales-Brito, P. 1970. Una lista de los octocorales de Puerto Rico. Carib. J. Sci. 10:63–69.
Gorgonian and sponges for seahorse tank? 2006) Retrieved from Reef Central Online
11
Community: reefcentral.com/forums/showthread.php?t=784736.
Goulet, T. A., and M. A. Coffroth. 1997. A within colony comparison of zooxanthella genotypes
in the Caribbean gorgonian Plexaura kuna. Proc. Eighth Int. Coral Reef Symp. Panama
2:1331–1334.
______and ______. 2003. Stability of an octocoral-algal symbiosis over time and
space. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 250:117–124.
______and ______. 2004a. Genetic composition of zooxanthellae between and
within colonies of the octocoral Plexaura kuna based on small subunit rDNA and multilocus
DNA fingerprinting. Mar. Biol. 142:233–239.
______and ______. 2004b. The genetic identity of dinoflagellate symbionts in
Caribbean octocorals. Coral Reefs 23:465–472, doi: 10.1007/s00338-004-0408-8.
______, C. Simmons, and D. Goulet. 2008. Worldwide biogeography of Symbiodinium in
tropical octocorals. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 355:45–58, doi: 10.3354/meps07214.
Grigg, R. W. 1972. Orientation and growth form of sea fans. Limnol Oceanogr. 17:185–192.
Guisan, A., and N. E. Zimmermann. 2000. Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.
Ecol. Model 135:147–186, doi: 10.1016/S0304-3800(00)00354-9.
12
Gutierrez-Rodriguez, C., M. S. Barbeitos, J. A. Sanchez, and H. R. Lasker. 2009.
Phylogeography and morphological variation of the branching octocoral Pseudopterogorgia
elisabethae. Mol. Phylogenetics Evol. 50:1–15.
______and H. R. Lasker. 2004. Reproductive biology, development, and planula behavior
in the Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Invert. Biol. 123:54–67.
Hart, S. P., and M. J. Keough. 2009. Does size predict demographic fate? Modular demography
and constraints on growth determine response to decreases in size. Ecology 90:1670–1678.
Henry, L. A., and M. Hart. 2005. Regeneration from injury and resource allocation in sponges
and corals-a review. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 90:125–158.
Hernández, L. F., and P. M. Alcolado. 2007. Estructura de la comunidad de octocorales de una
zona propuesta como área protegida en Cayo Coco, Cuba. Rev. Invest. Mar. 28(3):209–216.
Hernandez-Delgado, E. A., L. Alicea-Rodriguez, C. G. Toledo, and A. M. Sabat. 2000. Baseline
characterization of coral reefs and fish communities within the proposed Culebra Island
marine fishery reserve, Puerto Rico. Proc. Gulf Carib. Fish Inst. 51:537–555.
Hernández-Muñoz, D., P. M. Alcolado, and M. Hernandez-Gonzalez. 2008. Effects of a
submarine discharge of urban waste on octocoral (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) communities in
13
Cuba]. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56:65–75.
Hinman, J. 1973. Studies on experimental harvesting and regrowth of Plexaura homomalla in
Grand Cayman waters. Paper presented at the Offshore Technology Conference.
Hudson, J. H., and R. Diaz. 1988. Damage survey and restoration of M/V Wellwood grounding
site, Molasses Reef, Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary, Florida. Proc. Sixth Int. Coral
Reef Symp. Townsville 2:231–236.
Hudson, J. H., and E. C. Franklin. 2006. Coral reef restoration of a storm-disturbed vessel
grounding site in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, USA. Proc. Tenth Int. Coral
Reef Symp. Okinawa 2:1631–1636.
Hunt, L. R., S. M. Smith, K. R. Downum, and L. D. Mydlarz. 2012. Microbial regulation in
gorgonian corals. Marine Drugs 10(6):1225–1243.
Jaap, W. C., A. Szmant, K. Jaap, J. Dupont, R. Clarke, P. Somerfield, J. S. Ault, J. Bohnsack, S.
G. Kellison, and G. T. Kellison. 2008. A perspective on the biology of Florida Keys coral
reefs. In B. M. Riegl and R. E. Dodge (Editors), Coral Reefs of the USA. Springer, p. 75–
125, Dania, Fla.
Jaap, W. C., and J. L. Wheaton. 1977. Unpublished Report to the National Park Service on coral
research in Biscayne National Monument. Cited In Dupont J, Jaap W, Hallock P 2008) A
14
retrospective analysis and comparative study of stony coral assemblages in Biscayne
National Park, FL (1977–2000). Carib. J. Sci. 44:334–344.
Jackson, J. B., and T. P. Hughes. 1985. Adaptive strategies of coral-reef invertebrates. Amer. Sci.
73:265–274.
Jamison, J. L., and H. R. Lasker. 2008. Identification of octocoral recruits using microsatellite
primers: Relationships between recruitment and adult distribution of Pseudopterogorgia sp.
Limnol Oceanogr. 53:1963–1972.
Jeyasuria, P., and J. C. Lewis. 1987. Mechanical properties of the axial skeleton in gorgonians.
Coral Reefs 5:213–219.
Jolles, A. E., P. Sullivan, A. P. Alker, and C. D. Harvell. 2002. Disease transmission of
aspergillosis in sea fans: inferring process from spatial pattern. Ecology 83:2373–2378.
Jones, J. A. 1977. Morphology and development of southeastern Florida patch reefs. Proc. Third Int.
Coral Reef Symp. Miami 2:231–235.
Jordán, E. 1979. An analysis of gorgonian community in reef calcareous platform of the
Caribbean coast of Mexico. An Cent Cien Mar. Limnol UNAM 61:87–96.
______. 2002. Gorgonian distribution patterns in coral reef environments of the Gulf of
15
Mexico: evidence of sporadic ecological connectivity? Coral Reefs 21:205–215.
______, M. Moreno, and E. Martin. 1981. Community structure of coral reefs in the Mexican
Caribbean. Proc. Fourth Int. Coral Reef Symp. Manila 2:303–308.
______and R. S. Nugent. 1978. Evaluacion poblacional de Plexaura homomalla (Esper) en
la costa noreste de la Peninsula de Yucatan, (Octocorallia) [Mexico]. Paper presented at the
Anales Del Centro de Ciencias del Mar. y Limnología.
Kai, S., and K. Sakai. 2008. Effect of colony size and age on resource allocation between growth
and reproduction in the corals Goniastrea aspera and Favites chinensis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
354:133–139.
Kim, E. A. B., H. R. Lasker, M. A. Coffroth, and K. Kim. 2004. Morphological and genetic
variation across reef habitats in a broadcast-spawning gorgonian coral. Hydrobiologia
530/531:423–432.
Kim, K., C. D. Harvell, P. D. Kim, G. W. Smith, and S. M. Merkel. 2000. Fungal disease
resistance of Caribbean sea fan corals (Gorgonia sp.). Mar. Biol. 136:259–267.
______, A. P. Alker, and C. D. Harvell. 2000. Chemical resistance of gorgonian corals
against fungal infections. Mar. Biol. 137:393–401.
16
______and H. R. Lasker. 1997. Flow-mediated resource competition in the suspension
feeding gorgonian Plexaura homomalla (Esper). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 215:49–64.
Kinzie, R. A. 1974a. Experimental infection of aposymbiotic gorgonian polyps with
zooxanthellae. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 15:335–345.
______. 1974b. Plexaura homomalla: the biology of a harvestable marine resource. In F. M.
Bayer and A. J. Weinheimer (Editors), Prostaglandins from Plexaura homomalla: ecology,
utilization, and conservation of a major medical marine resource: a symposium, p. 22–38. Stud.
Trop. Oceanography No. 12, Univ. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Fla.
Kirk, N. L., J. P. Andras, C. D. Harvell, S. R. Santos, and M. A. Coffroth. 2009. Population
structure of Symbiodinium associated with the common sea fan, Gorgonia ventalina, in the
Florida Keys across distance, depth, and time. Mar. Biol. 156:1609–1623.
Kirk, N. L., J. Ward, D. Harvell, and M. A. Coffroth. 2005. Stable Symbiodinium composition in
the sea fan Gorgonia ventalina during temperature and disease stress. Biol. Bull. 209:227–
234.
Kühlmann, D. H. H. 1988. The sensitivity of coral reefs to environmental pollution. Ambio
17(1):13–21.
LaJeunesse, T. 2002. Diversity and community structure of symbiotic dinoflagellates from
17
Caribbean coral reefs. Mar. Biol. 141:387–400.
Lang da Silveira, F., and T. Van't Hof . 1977. Regeneration in the gorgonian Plexaura flexuosa
(Cnidaria, Octocorallia). Bijdr Dierk 47:99–108.
Lasker, H. R. 1990. Clonal propagation and population dynamics of a gorgonian coral. Ecology
71:1578–1589.
______. 1991. Population growth of a gorgonian coral: equilibrium and non-equilibrium
sensitivity to changes in life history variables. Oecologia 86:503–509.
______. 2006. High fertilization success in a surface-brooding Caribbean gorgonian. Biol.
Bull. 210:10–17.
______, M. L. Boller, J. Castanaro, and J. A. Sanchez. 2003. Determinate growth and
modularity in a gorgonian octocoral. Biol. Bull. 205:319–330.
______, D. A. Brazeau, J. Calderon, M. A. Coffroth, R. Coma, and K. Kim. 1996. In situ
rates of fertilization among broadcast spawning gorgonian corals. Biol. Bull. 190:45–55.
______and ______. 1985. Determinate growth and modularity in a gorgonian
octocoral. Proc. Fifth Int. Coral Reef Congr Tahiti 205:319–330.
18
______, ______, Fitzgerald LM 1988. Foraging patterns of Cyphoma gibbosum on
octocorals: the roles of host choice and feeding preference. Biol. Bull. 174:254–266.
______and ______. 1999. Responses of clonal reef taxa to environmental change.
Amer. Zool. 39(1):92–103.
______, M. Gottfried, and M. A. Coffroth. 1983. Effects of depth on the feeding capabilities
of two octocorals. Mar. Biol. 73:73–78.
______, C. Gutierrez-Rodriguez, K. Bala, A. Hannes, and J. P. Bilewitch. 2008. Male
reproductive success during spawning events of the octocoral Pseudopterogorgia
elisabethae. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 367:153–161.
______, ______, and M. A. Coffroth. 1996. Reproductive and genetic variation among
Caribbean gorgonians: the differentiation of Plexaura kuna, new species. Bull. Mar. Sci.
58:277–288.
______, ______, and ______. 1998. Production, settlement and survival of
plexaurid gorgonian recruits. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 162:111–123.
Lewis, C. L., and M. A. Coffroth. 2004. The acquisition of exogenous algal symbionts by an
octocoral after bleaching. Science 304:1490–1492.
19
Lewis, J. B. 1982. Feeding behaviour and feeding ecology of the Octocorallia (Coelenterata:
Anthozoa). J. Zool. 196:371–384.
______and E. E. Post. 1982. Respiration and energetics in West Indian Gorgonacea
(Anthozoa, Octocorallia). Comp Biochem Physiol Part A Physiol 71(3):457–459.
Locke, J. M., J. P. Bilewitch, and K. A. Coates. 2013. Scleractinia, Octocorallia and Antipatharia
of Bermuda’s reefs and deep-water coral communities: a taxonomic perspective including
new records. p. 189–200 In Coral Reefs of the United Kingdom Overseas Territories.
Springer, NY.
Lutz, S. J., and R. N. Ginsberg. 2007. State of deep coral ecosystems in the Caribbean region:
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the
United States, p. 307–365. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-3, Silver Spring, Md.
Mayer, A., P. B. Jacobson, W. Fenical, R. S. Jacobs, and K. B. Glaser. 1998. Pharmacological
characterization of the pseudopterosins: Novel anti-inflammatory natural products isolated
from the Caribbean soft coral, Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Life Sciences 62:PL401–
PL407.
McLean, E. L., and P. M. Yoshioka. 2007. Associations and interactions between gorgonians and
sponges. Porifera Research: Biodiversity, Innovation, and Sustainability 443–448.
20
______and ______. 2008. Substratum effects on the growth and survivorship of the
sponge Desmapsamma anchorata. Carib. J. Sci. 44(1):83–89.
Menzel, L. P., C. H. Bigger, and B. Stein. 2012. Ultrastructure of Swiftia exserta, a gorgonian
octocoral from the western Atlantic. Microscopy Microanalysis 18(S2):80–81.
Mescher, K., and A. Sturgess. 2009. Coral reef recovery from hurricane damage and implications
of coral reeds for future medical discoveries. Epistimi:27–30.
Meszaros, A., and C. Bigger. 1999. Qualitative and quantitative study of wound healing
processes in the coelenterate, Plexaurella fusifera: Spatial, temporal, and environmental
(light attenuation) influences. J. Invert. Paleont. 73(3):321–331.
Miller, M. W. (Editor). 2003. Status of reef resources of Navassa Island: Cruise report Nov 2002.
NOAA Tech Mem NMFS-SEFSC-501, 119 p.
______and J. Barimo. 2001. Assessment of juvenile coral populations at two reef
restoration sites in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: Indicators of success? Bull.
Mar. Sci. 69:395–405.
Murdoch, G. R. 1978. Digestion, assimilation, and transport of food in the gastrovascular cavity
of a gorgonian octocoral (Cnidaria: Anthozoa). Bull. Mar. Sci. 28(2):354–362.
21
Mydlarz, L. D., R. S. Jacobs, J. Boehnlein, and R. G. Kerr. 2003. Pseudopterosin biosynthesis in
Symbiodinium sp., the dinoflagellate symbiont of Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. Chem
Biol. 10(11):1051–1056.
O'Neal, W., and J. R. Pawlik. 2002. A reappraisal of the chemical and physical defenses of
Caribbean gorgonian corals against predatory fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 240:117–126.
Obeso, J. R. 1993. Does defoliation affect reproductive output in herbaceous perennials and
woody plants in different ways? Func. Ecol. 7(2):150–155.
Olivera, E. Y., L. Hernandez-Fernandez, and C. A. Jover. 2010. Structure and injuries of
octocoral communities (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) of Ecological Reserve Siboney-Juticí,
Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58(4):1211–1221.
Page, C. A., and H. R. Lasker. 2012. Effects of tissue loss, age and size on fecundity in the
octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 434–435:47–52, doi:
10.1016/j.jembe.2012.07.022.
Pakes, M., and R. Woollacott. 2008. Reproduction of the gorgonian Plexaura flexuosa in
Bermuda. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 357:121–127.
Paul, V. J., R. W. Thacker, K. Banks, and S. Golubic. 2005. Benthic cyanobacterial bloom
impacts the reefs of South Florida (Broward County, USA). Coral Reefs 24:693–697.
22
Pérez, C. D., B. Neves, and D. H. R. Oliveira. 2011. New records of octocorals(Cnidaria:
Anthozoa) from the Brazilian coast. Aquat. Biol. 13(3):203–214.
Peters, E. C. 1984. A survey of cellular reactions to environmental and disease in Caribbean
scleractinian corals. Helg Meers 37:113–137.
______. 1993. Diseases of other invertebrate phyla: Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Annelida,
Echinodermata. p. 393–449 In Pathobiology of Marine and Estuarine Organisms. Couch JA,
Fournie JW (Eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Petes, L. E., C. D. Harvell, E. C. Peters, M. A. H. Webb, and K. M. Mullen. 2003. Pathogens
compromise reproduction and induce melanization in Caribbean sea fans. Mar. Ecol. Prog.
Ser. 264:167–171.
Pfennig, D. W. 2013. Inviable immigrants drive diversification in the sea. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
110:3713–3714.
Poland, D. M., J. M. Mansfield, A. R. Hannes, C. L. Lewis, L. Fairbank, T. L. Shearer, S. J.
Connelly, N. L. Kirk, and M. A. Coffroth. 2013. Variation in Symbiodinium communities in
juvenile Briareum asbestinum (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) over temporal and spatial scales. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser. 476:23–37.
23
Prada, C., and M. E. Hellberg. 2013. Long prereproductive selection and divergence by depth in
a Caribbean candelabrum coral. Proc. Natl Acad Sci. USA 110:3961–3966, doi:
10.1073/pnas.1208931110.
______, N. V. Schizas, and P. M. Yoshioka. 2008. Phenotypic plasticity or speciation? A
case from a clonal marine organism. BMC Evolutionary Biology 8:47 doi:10.1186/1471-
2148-8-47.
______, E. Weil, and P. M.Yoshioka. 2010. Octocoral bleaching during unusual thermal
stress. Coral Reefs 29:41–45. doi: 10.1007/s00338-009-0547-z.
Prada Montoya, C. A., and P. Yoshioka. 2007. Phenotypic and genetic variability in the
octocoral Plexaura flexuosa. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Puerto Rico-Mayaguez, Puerto
Rico, 75 p.
Randall, J. E. 1967. Food habits of reef fishes of the West Indies. Stud. Trop. Oceanogr. 5:665–847.
Rey-Villiers, N., and P. M. Alcolado. 2012. Variación de la talla de Eunicea flexuosa y Plexaura
kükenthali (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) en arrecifes coralinos cercanos a fuentes contaminantes
en La Habana, Cuba. Serie Oceanológica No. 11:91–102.
Rinkevich, B. 1996. Do reproduction and regeneration in damaged corals compete for energy
allocation? Marine ecology prog. ress series. Oldendorf 143:297–302.
24
Roussis, V., Z. Wu, W. Fenical, S. A. Strobel, G. D. Van Duyne, and J. Clardy. 1990. New anti-
inflammatory pseudopterosins from the marine octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae. J.
Org. Chem. 55(16):4916–4922.
Ruesink, J. L. and C. D. Harvell. 1990. Specialist predation on the Caribbean gorgonian
Plexaurella sp. by Cyphoma signatum (Gastropoda). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 65:265–272.
Sadovy, Y. 1992. A preliminary assessment of the export trade in marine aquarium organisms in
Puerto Rico. Proc. Seventh Int. Coral Reef Symp. Guam Vol. 2:1014–1022.
Sánchez, J. A. 2009. Systematics of the candelabrum gorgonian corals (Eunicea Lamouroux;
Plexauridae; Octocorallia; Cnidaria). Biol. J. Linn Soc 157:237–263.
______, C. Aguilar, D. Dorado, and N. Manrique. 2007. Phenotypic plasticity and
morphological integration in a marine modular invertebrate. BMC Evol. Biol. 7:122. (doi:
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-7-122).
Sánchez, J. A., J. M. Diaz, and S. Zea. 1997. Gorgonian communities in two contrasting
environments on oceanic atolls of the southwestern Caribbean. Bull. Mar. Sci. 61:453–465.
______and H. R. Lasker. 2003. Patterns of morphological integration in marine modular
organisms: supra-module organization in branching octocoral colonies. Proc. Royal Soc
Lond B 270:2039–2044.
25
______and ______. 2004. Do multi-branched colonial organisms exceed normal
growth after partial mortality? Proc. Biol. Sci. 271 Supp 3:S117–S120. (doi:
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2003.0108).
______, ______, E. G. Nepomuceno, J. D. Sanchez, and M. J. Woldenberg. 2004.
Branching and self-organization in marine modular colonial organisms: a model. Amer. Nat.
163:24–39. (doi: https://doi.org/10.1086/382139).
______, C. S. McFadden, S. C. France, and H. R. Lasker. 2003. Molecular phylogenetic
analyses of shallow-water Caribbean octocorals. Mar. Biol. 142:975–987.
______, S. Zea, and J. M. Diaz. 1998. Patterns of octocoral and black coral distribution in
the oceanic barrier reef-complex of Providencia Island, Southwestern Caribbean. Carib. J.
Sci. 34:250–264.
______, W. Zeng, V. R. Coluci, C. Simpson, and H. R. Lasker. 2003. How similar are
branching networks in nature? A view from the ocean: Caribbean gorgonian corals. J.
Theoret Biol. 222:135–138.
Santiago-Vázquez, L. Z., L. K. Ranzer, and R. G. Kerr. 2006. Comparison of two total RNA
extraction protocols using the marine gorgonian coral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae and its
symbiont Symbiodinium sp. Electr J. Biotech 9(5):DOI: 10.2225/vol9-issue5-fulltext-15.
26
Santos Gutierrez-Rodriguez, S. R., H. R. Lasker, and M. A. Coffroth. 2003. Patterns of
Symbiodinium associations in the Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae: high
levels of genetic variability and population structure in symbiotic dinoflagellates of the
Bahamas. Mar. Biol. 143:111–120.
Schärer, M. T., and M. I. Nemeth. 2010. Mass mortality of gorgonians due to a Cyphoma
gibbosum (Linnaeus) population outbreak at Mona Island, Puerto Rico. Coral Reefs 29:533–
533.
Sebens, K. P., and K. Miles. 1988. Sweeper tentacles in a gorgonian octocoral: morphological
modifications for interference competition. Biol. Bull. 175:378–387.
Shaffer, C. F., C. Bigger, C. Beck, and A. Shope. 2001. Effect of salinity stress on wound
healing in Plexaurella fusifera, a soft coral. Faseb Journal 15(4):A692.
Simpson, A. 2009. Reproduction in octocorals (Subclass Octocorallia):a review of published
literature. Univ. Maine, Darling Mar. Center. Accessed 12 November 2014.
http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~scf4101/Bambooweb/repro_AS.html.
Smith, L. D., and T. P. Hughes. 1999. An experimental assessment of survival, re-attachment
and fecundity of coral fragments. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 235:147–164.
Somerfield, P. J., W. C. Jaap, K. R. Clarke, M. Callahan, K. Hackett, J. Porter, M. Lybolt, C.
27
Tsokos, and G. Yanev. 2008. Changes in coral reef communities among the Florida Keys,
1996–2003. Coral Reefs 27:951–965.
Sorokin, Y. I. 1991. Biomass, metabolic rates and feeding of some common reef zoantharians
and octocorals. Australian J. Mar. Freshwater Res 42:729–741, doi: 10.1071/MF9910729.
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) 2014. Coral Fishery Management Plan
(FMP). Retrieved from safmc.net/Library/Ecosystem/CoralFMP_History.pdf Accessed 10
November 2014.
Sponaugle, S., and M. LaBarbera. 1991. Drag-induced deformation: a functional feeding strategy
in two species of gorgonians. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 148:121–134.
Sterrer, W. 1986. Marine Fauna and Flora of Bermuda. A systematic guide to the identification of
marine organisms. Wiley-Interscience, NY. 742 p.
Swain, T. D., K. Kim, and H. R. Lasker. 1997. Use of fluorescence microscopy in an assay of
sperm density for the gorgonian coral, Plexaura kuna. Proc. Eighth Int. Coral Reef Symp.
Panama 2:1341–1344.
Szmant, A. M. 1986. Reproductive ecology of Caribbean reef corals. Coral Reefs 5:43–53.
Toledo-Hernández, C., V. Gulis, C. P. Ruiz-Diaz, A. Sabat, and P. Bayman. 2012. When
28
aspergillosis hits the fan: disease transmission and fungal biomass in diseased versus healthy
sea fans Gorgonia ventalina. Fungal Ecol. 6(2):161–167.
U.S. Senate Natural Resources Committee 1998. Senate staff analysis and economic impact
statement. Bill CS/SB 1506, Retrieved from
archive.flsenate.gov/data/session/1998/Senate/bills/analysis/pdf/SB1506.nr.pdf. Accessed 18
November 2014.
Van Oppen Mieog, M. J. H., J. C. Sanchez, and K. E. Fabricius. 2005. Diversity of algal
endosymbionts (zooxanthellae) in octocorals: the roles of geography and host relationships.
Mol. Ecol. 14:2403–2417.
Velayutham, P., V. Ramadhas, and K. Venkataramanujam. 2003. Gorgonians as an indicator of
metal pollution. SDMRI Res Publ. 3:149–153.
______and K. Venkataramanujam. 2005. Conservation measures on gorgonian corals.
Proc. Natl Sem Reef Ecosystem Remediation 3:244–245.
Vreeland, H. V., and H. R. Lasker. 1989. Selective feeding of the polychaete Hermodice
carunculata Pallas on Caribbean gorgonians. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 129:265–277.
Wagner, D. E., P. Kramer, and R. Van Woesik. 2010. Species composition, habitat, and water
quality influence on coral bleaching in southern Florida. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 408:65–78.
29
Wahle, C. M. 1983. Regeneration of injuries among Jamaican gorgonians: the roles of colony
physiology and environment. Biol. Bull. 165:778–790.
Weinheimer, A., and R. Spraggins. 1969. The occurrence of two new prostaglandin derivatives
(15-epi-PGA2) and its acetate, methyl ester) in the gorgonian Plexaura homomalla.
Tetrahedron Letters 10(59):5185–5188.
West, J. M. 1997. Plasticity in the sclerites of a gorgonian coral: tests of water motion, light
level, and damage cues. Biol. Bull. 192(2):279–289.
______, C. D. Harvell, and A. M. Walls. 1993. Morphological plasticity in a gorgonian
coral (Briareum asbestinum) over a depth cline. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 94:61–69.
Williamson, E. A., K. B. Strychar, K. Withers, and B. Sterba-Boatwright. 2011. Effects of
salinity and sedimentation on the gorgonian coral Leptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck 1815). J.
Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 409:331–338.
Yoshioka, P. M. 1994. Size-specific life history pattern of a shallow-water gorgonian. J. Exp.
Mar. Biol. Ecol. 184:111–122.
______. 1996. Variable recruitment and its effects on the population and community
structure of shallow-water gorgonians. Bull. Mar. Sci. 59:433–443.
30
______. 2005. Biotic neighborhoods of shallow-water gorgonians of Puerto Rico. Bull.
Mar. Sci. 76(3):625–636.
______. 2009. Sediment transport and the distribution of shallow-water gorgonians. Carib.
J. Sci. 45:254–259.
______and B. B. Yoshioka. 1987. Variable effects of Hurricane David on the shallow-
water gorgonians of Puerto Rico. Bull. Mar. Sci. 40:132–144.
31