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Home , Code of Hammurabi, Syrian Desert, Ziggurat

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------~~------Guide to Reading _ "ain Ideas People to Identify Reading Strategy • Mesopotamia, one of the first civiliza- Sumerians, Akkadians, Sargon, categorizing Information As you read tions, began between the and this section, complete a chart like the one Rivers. shown below to explain the Sumerians' Places to Locate • The Sumerians formed city-states and various contributions to civilization. created forms of communication that Tigris River, Euphrates River, Political Life Cultural Life Inventions affect our lives today. Mesopotamia, , , KeyTerms Preview Questions city-state, , theocracy, empire, 1. How did geography affect the civiliza- patriarchal, polytheistic, ~ tions in Mesopotamia? - Preview of Events 2. How did the begin? I

2340 B.C. 1792 B.C. Akkadians set up Hammurabi the first empire comes to power

The following poem reflects the deep despair of the people of after the burning and sacking of their city:

--Ur is destroyed, bitter is its lament. The country's blood now fills its holes like hot bronze in a mould. Bodies dissolve like fat in the sun. Our is destroyed, the gods have abandoned us, like migrating birds. Smoke lies on our city like a shroud.~~ -Legacy: TheSearchfor Ancient Cultures, Michael Wood, 1995 Constant conflict marked early civilization in Mesopotamia. Invaders flowed into the flat land of the , and city fought city for land and water.

The Impact of Geography The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land "between the rivers." Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of an area known as the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the to the . Because this land had rich soil and abun- dant crops, it was able to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia was a region with little rain, but its soil had been enriched over the years by layers of silt-material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, depended on the melting of snows in the upland

CHAPTER 2 Western and Egypt 37 NATIONAL D GEOGRAPHIC Ancient Mesopotamia \ 300E 400E 500E 600E

D Fertile Crescent ~ Direction of flow

Syrian

First Cataract L I ~~PrGYPT Several important cultures and civiliza- Second catara(,. ,~ •• Desert tions developed in Mesopotamia. 1. Interpreting Maps What moun . Third catara:±~r:USH Fifth range forms the eastern border of Cataract' Fertile Crescent? 2. Applying Geography Skills In which direction do the Tigris and o 500 miles Arabian I Euphrates Rivers flow? Inwhich direc I I Sea o 500 kilometers tion does the Nile flow? Lambert AZimuthal Equal-Area projegjpn !

mountains where the rivers began. People in the val- , , and . We focus first on the ley could not exactly when the floods would Sumerians, the creators of the first Mesopotamian come or how large they would be. civilization. Because of these circumstances, farming in ancient Mesopotamia could be done only when people ~ Explaining What role did geography controlled the flow of the rivers. Irrigation and play in the development of Mesopotamian civilization? drainage ditches-part of a large-scale system of water control-made it possible to grow crops on a The City-States regular basis. The resulting abundance of food enabled large numbers of people to live together in of Ancient 'Mesopotamia cities and made possible the emergence of civiliza- The origins of the Sumerian people remain a mys- tion in Mesopotamia. tery. By 3000 B.C., they had established a number of When we speak of Mesopotamian civilization, we independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, includ- are referring to the achievements of several peoples. ing , Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they Ancient Mesopotamia includes three general areas: came to have political and economic control over the

38 CHAPTER 2 and Egypt surrounding countryside. They formed city-states, goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted the basic units of Sumerian civilization. much of their wealth to building , as well as elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who Sumerian Cities Sumerian cities were surrounded served the gods. The temples and related buildings by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall served as the center of the city physically, economi- six miles (10 km) long with defense located cally,and even politically. along the wall every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m). City Priests and priestesses, who supervised the tem- dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both ples and their property, had a great deal of power. In the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings fact, historians believe that in the early stages of the of the city officials,priests, and priestesses. city-states, priests and priestesses played an impor- Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood tant role in ruling. The Sumerians believed that the for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy- Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake a government by divine authority. Eventually, how- in the hot sun until they were hard enough to use for ever, ruling power passed into the hands of worldly building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably figures, or kings. creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in origin. the dome, and they built some of the largest brick Kings, they believed, derived their power from the buildings in the . Mud bricks are still used in gods and were the agents of the gods. As one person rural areas of Southwest Asia today. said in a petition to his king: "Youin your judgement, you are the son of [god of the sky]. Your com- Gods, Goddesses, and Rulers The most prominent mands, like the work of a god, cannot be reversed. building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated Yourwords, like rain pouring down from heaven, are to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple without number." was often built atop a massive stepped called Regardless of their origins, kings had power. They a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and led armies, supervised the building of public works,

~ History through Architecture

Restored ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 B.C. At the top of a ziggurat was a shrine, which only the priests and priestessescould enter. Describe the technology and resources needed to build a ziggurat.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 39 and organized workers for the irrigation projects on estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and crafts- which Mesopotamian farming depended. The army, people. Probably 90 percent or more of the people the government, and the priests and priestesses all were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials, aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple Sumerian kings, their wives, and their children lived officialsmost often used female slaves to weave cloth in large palaces. and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Economy and Society Although the economy of the Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on farm- ~ Explaining Why were the City-states ing, trade and industry became important as well. considered to be theocracies? The peoples of Mesopotamia were well known for their metalwork, but they also made woolen textiles Empires in Andent Mesopotamia and pottery. The Sumerians imported copper, tin, As the number of Sumerian city-states grew and and timber in exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose. City- wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled by land to state fought city-state for control of land and water. the eastern Mediter- Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Sumer- ranean in the west ian city-states were also open to invasion by other and by sea to India in Med7&;"'pnea"{, groups. ' Sea F~~"'" the east. The mven- Euphrates To the north of the Sumerian city-states were the tion of the wheel, R. Akkadians (uheKAYedeeeuhnz). We call them a around 3000 B.C., led Semitic people because they spoke a Semitic lan- to wheeled carts, guage. Around 2340B.C., Sargon, leader of the Akka- which made the trans- dians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the port of goods easier. first empire in world history. An empire is a large Sumerian city-states contained three major social political unit or state, usually under a single leader, groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are included royal and priestly officials and their fami- often easy to create but difficult to maintain. The rise lies. Commoners worked for palace and temple and fall of empires is an important part of history.

The Royal Standard of Ur is a box, created about 2700 B.C., that depicts different Sumer- ian scenes. This panel shows a royal . celebration following a military victory.

40 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt People In History Attacks from neighboring hill peoples eventually caused the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end by 2100 Hammurabi B.C. brought a return to the system of warring city- Ruled 1792-1750 B.C. states. It was not until 1792 B.C. that a new empire Babylonianking came to control much of Mesopotamia. Leadership came from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad, Hammurabi was justly proud of his where Hammurabi (HAemuheRAHebee) came to famous code of . As he stated: power. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus "When [a Babylonian god] creating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his sent me to rule the people ... I estab- death in 1750 B.C., however, a series of weak kings lished and justice in the land, and was unable to keep Hammurabi's empire united, and promoted the welfare of the people." Hammurabi built it finally fell to new invaders. temples and irrigation canals, encouraged trade, and brought an economic revival. Hammurabi was also a ~Readin Check Evaluating Why was it so easy for man of war. He had a well-disciplined army of foot sol- Sargon and his army to invade the Sumerian city-states? diers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze daggers. Hammurabi divided his opponents and defeated them one by one. After his conquests, he called himself "the sun of Babylon, the king who has made the The Code of Hammurabi four quarters of the world subservient." CTURNINGlpOINT:JHammurabi is remembered for his law code, a collection of 282 laws. Many of its ideas were similar to later Israelite codes. they had to be replaced and the house rebuilt at the For centuries, laws had regulated people's rela- builder's expense. tionships with one another in the lands of The largest category of laws in the Code of Ham- Mesopotamia. Hammurabi's collection of laws pro- murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents vides considerable insight into social conditions in arranged marriages for their children. After mar- I~ Mesopotamia. riage, the two parties signed a marriage . The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system Without a contract, no one was considered legally of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were married. severe, and they varied according to the social class Society in ancient Mesopotamia was patriarchal- of the victim. A against a member of the upper that is, Mesopotamian society was dominated by class (a noble) by a member of the lower class (a com- men. Hammurabi's code makes it clear that women moner) was punished more severely than the same had far fewer privileges and rights in marriage than offense against a member of the lower class. More- did men. over, the principle of retaliation ("an , A woman's place was definitely in the home. If she tooth for a tooth") was a fundamental part of this sys- failed to fulfill her duties, her husband had legal tem of justice. grounds for divorce. In addition, if a wife was not Hammurabi's code took seriously the duties of able to bear children or tried to leave home to eng\l.ge public officials.Officials were expected to catch bur- in , her husband could divorce her. Even ~ s. If they failed to do so, the officialsin the district more harsh, a wife who was a "gadabout ... neglect- ere the crime was committed had to replace the ing her house [and] humiliating her husband," could - property. If murderers were not found, the offi- be drowned. -= - had to pay a fine to the relatives of the murdered Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives. n. Judges could be fined or lose their positions Obedience was expected: "If a son has struck his _ruling incorrectly on a case. father, he shall cut off his hand." If a son committed -:he law code also included what we would call a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit sumer protection laws. Builders were held him. Obviously, Hammurabi's law code covered _ nsible for the buildings they constructed. If a almost every aspect of people's lives. - ~ collapsed and caused the death of the owner, - builder was put to death. If the collapse caused ~Readin Check Identifying Identify at least five _:e death of the son of the owner, the son of the aspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code of cuilder was put to death. If goods were destroyed, Hammurabi.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 41 The Importance of Religion The physical environment strongly affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. Ferocious floods, heavy downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian climate. These conditions, as well as famines, convinced Mesopotamians that this world was controlled by supernatural forces, which often were not kind or reliable. In the presence of nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel helpless, as this poem relates:

"The rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to tremble, In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.~~

To the Mesopotamians, powerful spiritual beings-gods and goddesses-permeated all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified almost three thousand gods and goddesses. Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic because of this belief in ~turing History many gods. Human beings were supposed to obey and serve the gods. According to Sumerian beliefs, The people of Mesopotamia associated gods with different aspects of nature and the universe. What human beings were created to do the manual labor aspect of nature do you think this goddess the gods were unwilling to do for themselves. Bytheir represents? Explain. very nature, humans were inferior to the gods and could never be sure what the gods might do to help or hurt them. They have been a valuable source of information - modem scholars. ~Readin Check Describing What role did the physi- Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily - cal environment play in the way Mesopotamians viewed the record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were ais world? used in schools to train scribes, members of t:!: learned class who served as copyists, teachers, an The Creativity of the Sumerians jurists. For boys of the upper class in Mesopota - t'TURNING!POINT-<:Jr The Sumerians are credited with becoming a scribe was the key to a successful car inventing the oldest writing system, cuneiform, which Men who began their careers as scribes became - dates from about 3000 B.C. leaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scri The Sumerians created many inventions that still came to hold the most important positions in Sum affect our lives today. Probably their greatest inven- ian society. tion was their writing. In addition, historians credit To become scribes, boys from wealthy famili them with many technological innovations. many of them the sons of scribes, attended the n schools that were in operation by 2500 B.C. Yo Writing and Literature Around 3000 B.C., the boys seeking to become scribes began school w Sumerians created a cuneiform ("wedge-shaped") they were small children and trained until they w system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writ- young men. School days began at sunrise and en "- ing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay at sunset. Discipline was harsh. The following es tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. written by a teacher as a copying exercise for pup Once dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Sev- shows that punishments-being caned or bea eral hundred thousand tablets have been found. with a stick-were frequent:

42 CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, and perfect in "In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me: body. He is part man and part god. Gilgamesh "Why are you late?" I was afraid, my heart befriends a hairy beast named . Together,they beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took set off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gil- my place. gamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search for My "school-father" read my tablet to me, said, the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gil- "The word is cut off," caned me. gamesh remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epic He who was in charge of drawing said "Why makes clear that "everlasting life" is only for the gods. when I was not here did you go out?" caned me. Sumerian Technology The Sumerians invented He who was in charge of the gate said several tools and devices that made daily life easier "Why when I was not here did you go out?" and more productive. They developed the wagon caned me. wheel, for example, to help transport people and My teacher said "Your hand is not good," goods from place to place. The potter's wheel to caned me.~~ shape containers, the sundial to keep time, and the arch used in construction are other examples of Scribalstudents spent most of their school days fol- Sumerian technology. The Sumerians were the first to lowing the same routine. They were taught by copy- make bronze out of copper and tin, creating finely ing and recopying standard works on clay tablets and crafted metalwork. The Sumerians also made out- reciting from them. Although boring, this was proba- standing achievements in mathematics and astron- bly the scribe's only way of learning how to form the omy. In.math, they devised a number system based cuneiform writing signs neatly and correctly. on 60. Geometry was used to measure fields and Writing was important because it allowed a soci- erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians charted ety to keep records and to pass along knowledge the heavenly constellations. A quick glance at your from person to person and generation to generation. watch and its division into 60 minutes in an hour Writing also made it possible for people to communi- should remind you of our debt to the Sumerians. cate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident in The Epic of Gilgamesh. ~ Identifying Name two major inven- Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian epic poem that tions of the Sumerians, and tell how those inventions affect our records the exploits of a legendary king named lives today.

SECTION ASSESSMENT Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, 6. Explain Which type of government- 8. Examine the photograph of the Royal empire, patriarchal, polytheistic, separate city-states or an empire- Standard of Ur on page 40 of your text. cuneiform. would have been most advantageous What facts about Mesopotamian life to the people living in Mesopotamia? can you identify by studying the pic- 2. Identify Sumerians, Akkadians, Sar- ture? How does this box reflect the val- gon, Hammurabi, Code of Hammurabi, 7. Create a Organizing Information ues of the Sumerian civilization? The Epic of Gilgamesh. chart showing the achievements made by the Sumerians and list the effects of 3. Tigris River, Euphrates River, Locate these achievements on our lives today. Writing About History Mesopotamia, Fertile Crescent, Uruk, Effects on our Babylon. Achievements 9. Expository Writing Explain why lives today Hammurabi's code was a significant 4. Explain what the Mesopotamians development. Develop a set of laws believed was the relationship between based on the Code of Hammurabi gods and mortals. that would apply to your community 5. List the three general areas of ancient today. Explain why your code differs Mesopotamia. from that developed by Hammurabi or why it is similar.

CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 43