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Home , 2008 Namibia floods, Henties Bay, Okombahe, Regions of Namibia, Usakos

Gender and Climate Change: Case Study

by Margaret Angula

namibia case study 00 Table of contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Description of the case study: Namibia 3 2.1 Geographical situation, women’s situation and governance system 3 2.2 Natural environment 3 2.3 Description of communities selected 4 2.3.1 Epyeshona village 4 2.3.2 Daures constituency 5

3 Approach and methodology 7 3.1 Field work process 7 3.2 Rationale for selection of community 8 3.3 Fieldwork activities 8 3.4 Challenges and limitations of the study 9

4 Conceptual framework 10 4.1 Concept of gender 10 4.2 Gender in Southern 10 4.3 Conceptualisation of gender in Namibia 10 4.4 Conceptualising gendered meanings in Namibia 10 4.5 Climate change concepts 11 4.5.1 The concept of vulnerability and differentiated impacts 11 4.6 Gender and climate change in Southern Africa 12 4.6.1 Gender differentiated impacts 12

5 Literature review 13 5.1 Gender and sustainable development 13 5.1.1 Gendered relations in Namibia 14 5.1.2 Gender regulatory framework for Namibia 15 5.2 Climate change and Namibia 16 5.2.1 Anticipated climate change and variability 16 5.2.2 Climate change and vulnerability in Namibia 17 5.2.3 Water, women and climate change 17 5.2.4 Energy, women and climate change 18 5.2.5 Fisheries, women and climate change 18 5.2.6 Adaptation and climate change policy in Namibia 18 5.2.7 Measures to address vulnerability and differentiated impacts to climate change in Namibia 18 5.2.8 Gender and climate change conclusion 20

6 Main findings from the fieldwork 22 6.1 Understanding gender and climate change 22 6.1.1 Understanding gender relations 22 6.2 Differentiated impacts of climate variability and change 27 6.2.1 Environmental degradation 27 6.2.2 Impacts of climate variability and change on water resources 29 6.2.3 and pests 30 6.2.4 Floods 30 6.2.5 Impacts of drought 31

7 Analysis and conclusion 34

8 Recommendations 37

9 References 38

10 Appendices 42 10.1 Appendix A: List of questions guiding the gender and climate change study 42 10.2 Appendix B: Some laws, regulations and policies relevant for the implementation of UNFCCC 44 List of Figures

Figure 1: Administrative of Namibia (Source: Matengu, 2003) 2 Figure 2: Study area 1: Oshana showing the location of Epyeshona village in Okatana constituency 5 Figure 3: Study area 2: showing the location of Omatjete, , Tubusis and Spitzkoppe settlements in Daures constituency 6 Figure 4: Potable water supply in Epyeshona village 30 Figure 5: Semi-precious stones sold to tourists in Daures constituency 32

List of Tables

Table 1: Labour activities that men and women mainly engage in. 24 Table 2: Societal and psychological concerns in the communities studied 25 Table 3: Local perceptions and observed changes in climatic and environmental conditions over the past 10 - 20 years 26 Table 4: Past periods of famine and drought experienced in north central namibia 27 Table 5: Impacts of drought on livelihood, and crop production 31 Abbreviations and Acronyms

CCA Climate Change Adaptation CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women DRFN Desert Research Foundation of Namibia FGD Focus Group Discussion GAF Gender Analysis Framework GAM G GDP Gross Domestic Product GEM Gender Empowerment Measure GEF Gender Enviroment Facility GFP Gender Focal Point GHG Green House Gases HBF Heinrich Boell Foundation IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change INC Initial National Communication ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction IUCN World Conservation Union LME Large Marine Ecosystem MAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry MDG Millennium Development Goals MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism MGECW Ministry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare NDPs National Development Plan NGO Non Government Organization NGP National Gender Policy NGPA National Gender Plan of Action NPC National Planning Commission NRM Natural Resources Management PPA Participatory Poverty Appraisal SADC Southern African Development Community SARDC Southern African Research and Documentation Centre SME Small and Medium Enterprises TA Traditional Authority UN United Nations UNAM University of Namibia UNDP United Nations Development Program UNFCCC U WIDSAA Women in Development Southern Africa Awareness 1. Introduction

There is a strong relationship between gender, on men and women is the different roles, and livelihood and poverty. This relationship has been responsibilities that the two gender play in differ- explored by many researchers, and significant to ent societies. The key issue is whether women and their findings is the relationship between climate men are impacted by climate change differently change and people’s livelihood, which is depend- (Banda, 2005). Because of this, vulnerability and ent on natural resource base and poverty. The adaptation to climate change concepts are social subordinate role of women in societys plays a issues that are extremely important for policy and critical role in determining peoples ability to cope programme intervention. (Wamukonya and Rukato, 2001; Banda, 2005). Rec- Southern African countries differ in geo-physical, ognised in studies of this link is that the majority of economic, social, cultural and political character- the poor, worldwide, are women because of exist- istics. Nonetheless, the largest share of these coun- ing gender inequalities. Despite this established tries’ population lives in rural areas and is heavily linkage, gender issues have not played a major dependent on subsistence, rain-fed agriculture role in climate change discourse. This has inevita- (Wamukonya and Rukato, 2001). According to the bly affected both policy and planning for sustain- GCA report (1999), agriculture plays an overall role able development in many developing countries. in the SADC economy. Although the SADC region However, focus on gender differentiated impacts contributes only 2% to global emissions, it is more of the climate change and gender nexus has only vulnerable to impacts of climate change (Wamu- recently gained momentum around the world. It is konya and Rukato, 2001). Historically people in also noted that communities in developing coun- southern Africa were nomadic and could with- tries that are highly dependent on local natural stand impacts of natural climatic variability. Due to resources are likely to be vulnerable to effects of changes in settlements and population growth in climate change (Tandon, 2007). Gender analysis the last century, balancing vulnerability and risks in disasters and risk studies provides a benchmark in subsistence agriculture is no longer easy. This for understanding gender differentiated impacts of makes coping with anticipated climate change dif- climate change. ficult in southern Africa. Gender analysis focuses on understanding the In the context of southern Africa, Wamukonya relationship between men and women, gender and Rukato (2001) argue that the dependency on household relations, empowerment, access and natural resources by women for their livelihood control, and participation in decision-making at has come about due to the limited opportunity that all levels (Meena, 1992 and Iipinge and Williams, exits for them to forge a decent livelihood. Recog- 2000). Gender relations are socially constructed nised by Wamukonya and Rukato (ibid), is the lack power relations between women and men in of concrete data to enable gender and climate society. They determine the benefits that women change policy making and planning in south- and men can derive from natural resources ern Africa, particularly as regards differentiated (Watson, 2006). Climate change on the other hand impacts of climate change in the region (ibid). refers to any change in climate over time, whether It is against this background that, the Heinrich Böll as a result of human activity or due to natural Foundation (HBF) commissioned a study in south- variability (IPCC, 2001). With regards to climate ern Africa to understand the relationship between change, the rationale for differentiating impacts gender and climate change. This study aims to

namibia case study 1 provide new information in this area to influence • How can the capacity of women and men be policy and decision makers to take into account the strengthened to better adapt to climate change gender aspects of climate change at all levels. and climate variability?

Taking into account the aforementioned considera- HBF commissioned studies in Mozambique, tions, the aims and objectives of this study were to Namibia, Botswana and . This report answer the following research questions: focuses on case study. Due to the fact • Are women and men in Southern Africa differently that climate change and gender has strong links impacted by climate change? to poverty, and that the majority of rural poor are • How are women and men differently impacted? women engaged primarily in subsistence agricul- • What are the physiological, political, economic and ture, the research primarily examined rural com- societal causes for the differences experienced, munities of Namibia. Fieldwork was carried out if any? in Epyeshona village located in northern-central • What are the current coping and adaptation Namibia and Daures Constituency in the North- strategies and capacities? western region (Figure 1).

Angola Eenhana ohangwena caprivi Oshana kavango omusati oshikoto Etosha National Park Etosha Pan Study site’s were skeleton selected from Namib Desert Kunene coast otjozondjupa • Oshana park Ocjiwarongo • Erongo Namibia omaheke

Erongo khomas Botswana

Kalahari Desert Atlantic hardap ocean Mariental Namib Naukluft Park

karas

Namib Desert Luderitz Fish River Canyon

Oranjemund

South Africa

Figure 1: Administrative (Source: Matengu, 2003)

namibia case study 2 2. Description of the case study: Namibia

2.1 Geographical situation, women’s There are several ethnic groups in Namibia, and situation and governance system their Traditional Authority (TA) has jurisdiction Namibia is a Republic which gained independence over a particular tribal area. In particular there from apartheid South African rule in 1990. It is situ- are eight tribal authorities among Owambo, one ated on the south western coast of Africa, approxi- among Damaras and two among Herero tribes. mately between 17°S and 29°S, 11°E and 25°E. It These tribes are either administered by councils shares borders with Botswana in the east, South of senior headmen or by king rule in conjunction Africa in the south and south east, and Angola to with councils of senior headmen. Each Senior the north (Figure 1). Namibia is a large country, Headman is in charge of a district within a tribal covering an area of approximately 824 268 km2 area, and each district is divided into villages with a (Mendelsohn et al. 2002). headman/woman in charge of each village. The population is estimated at 1 826 854 for 2001 The roles of the TA are to administer tribal affairs, (2 million according to 2008 estimates – Ambunda resolve conflicts and allocate land and grazing and De Klerk, 2008), of which 51.3% are women. rights. With the establishment of Communal Land The population growth rate declined from 3.1% in Boards in 12 Regions of Namibia (with exception 1991 to 2.6% in 2001. The spread of HIV/AIDS is one of ), the TA has less influence on of the major factors contributing to this decline, allocating land and most of the functions are either and has led to other poverty related impacts on carried out in conjunction with Regional Council most communities. The majority, over 60%, reside or Communal Land Boards (Fuller, 2006). Article in the north where five out of six most populous 66 (1) of the Constitution states that customary and regions of Namibia are located. The other region is common law may be practised if they do not con- Khomas where Windhoek the capital city is located. flict with the constitution and other statutory laws. The density of the population is approximately These laws allow citizens in rural communal 2.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (NPC, 2002). areas to choose either customary or common law in dealing with local and domestic disputes, conflicts Namibia is divided into 13 administrative regions over land and inheritance. Although major offences (Figure 1), which are further sub-divided into constit- and disputes are dealt with through common law, uencies. Each administrative region is governed by a local and domestic disputes are primarily reported governor together with a number of councillors, each to the headman who is the representative of the TA representing a constituency (Fuller, 2006). Women in at village level. the country make up 8% of regional councils and of the 13 Governors, 3 are female (Beall, 2005). Urban 2.2 Natural environment settlements are administered through local authori- ties. The local and regional development portfolio is Namibia is one of the driest countries south of the allocated to the Ministry of Regional, Local Govern- Sahara and is typified as an arid country. Namibia’s ment and Housing. The National Planning Commis- climate is strongly influenced by the cold Benguela sion coordinates local and regional developmental current that flows north along the west coast. The programs (Matengu, 2003). altitude range in Namibia is from sea level to 2 606 m

namibia case study 3 (Barnard, 1998). Much of the interior basin has to the west is highly productive and is the basis of a mean altitude of 1000 m (Republic of Namibia, the important fisheries industry (O’Toole, 2001). 2002). Annual rainfall is low and highly variable Scenery and wildlife are the major tourist attrac- between years, ranging from an average of 25 mm in tions. Protected areas comprise 13% of the land the southwest to 700 mm in the northeast. Most rain surface. About 41% of the land is State owned falls in the summer months (November to April) in communal land, on which over two thirds of the the form of thunderstorm and showers except in the population rely for subsistence farming. Commer- southwest where winter rains account for at least cial farmers own about 44% of the land. Agricul- half of the annual total. The combination of cold ture is dominated by livestock production and dry water and high pressures leads to subsidence of cold land crop production. The majority of Namibians dry air over much of Namibia, which generally sup- depend on subsistence agriculture; farming pearl presses rainfall (Republic of Namibia, 2002). , sorghum, livestock and fruits. Commer- Fog constitutes another source of moisture in the cial crop production includes maize, pearl, millet, cooler coastal regions where it may reduce visibil- sunflowers, and wheat. Grapes, vegetable and ity to as little as 146 days per annum (Midgley et al., dates are grown under irrigation where water from 2005). This moisture source is important to biota rivers, dams or artesian sources is available. Forest and desert plant species. Coastal lows occasionally and wood resources are used under permit control develop over the west coast during the autumn and (Republic of Namibia, 2002). more frequently spring seasons. Cut-off low pres- sure systems are also found during these seasons. 2.3 Description of communities selected These systems often move slowly and can result in heavy rains and flooding, especially if fed with 2.3.1 Epyeshona village moist tropical air from the north (Midgley et al., Epyeshona village is located in the northern central 2005). High solar radiation, low humidity and high region of Namibia, approximately 3 km north-east temperatures lead to very high evaporation rates, of Oshakati and 2 km north of Towns thus only about 1% of rainfall ends up replenishing (Figure 2). This village falls within the communal the groundwater aquifers that many Namibians area of the Okatana Constituency, . depend on. The main perennial river courses There are approximately 93 households and about flow along the national’s borders and include the 900 people living in Epyeshona. The household size Orange, Zambezi, Kwando-Linyanti- Chobe, Oka- varies from 5 to 25 people per household with an vango and Kunene Rivers. Rivers, springs, pans average of 9.7 members per household. and wetlands within the territory of Namibia are generally not permanent. In the north central area, Although most of the households in this village are temporary water bodies called oshanas form after considered poor, there are a number of employed rainfall (DRFN, 2004). household members within the community. This is The natural resources base comprises mineral attributed to the fact that the village is not far from deposits, a largely intact biodiversity (includ- the main towns (Oshakati and Ongwediva) in the ing wildlife and woodlands), a large area of arid North-central Namibia and also, there is a clinic rangeland, and small area (2%) of arable land. and school in the village. Three main vegetation types predominate: desert, However it should be noted that some household savannah and woodlands (Giess, 1971). There are members are employed elsewhere and only visit 687 known endemic plant species (17% of the total the village either during the weekend or festive hol- flora) located particularly on the escarpment and idays. There are 13 teachers, 5 nurses, 13 Defence & southwest winter rainfall area (Barnard, 1998). The Police officers, 3 cleaners one doctor, 125 orphans Benguela Upwelling System in the Atlantic Ocean and 14 disabled people in the village. No orphan-

namibia case study 4 Epyeshona Village

okatana

Oshana Oshana Namibia

Figure 2: Study area 1 - Oshana region showing the location of Epyeshona village in Okatana constituency

headed households are reported in the village. village; therefore all people have access to potable Inhabitants are Oshiwambo-speaking, either born water. There is also one earth dam for livestock. The in the area or joined the community through mar- nearest local market is at Oshakati town, 3 km from riage or as extended family members. The village is the village. There are a few individualy owned cuca governed by a Headman who operates under the shops (spaza shops) where community members Uukwambi Traditional Authority. buy and socialise basic needs. The tarred from Oshakati ends at Okatana Roman Catholic Church situated on the eastern 2.3.2 Daures Constituency side of the village. The village consists of informal Daures constituency falls within the Erongo sand tracks and paths. There is a church, clinic, one Region, western north of Namibia (Figure 3). school and a kindergarten in the village. Therefore Daures Constituency: Comprises Tubusis, Okom- children have access to primary and junior second- bahe, Omatjete and Spitzkoppe settlements. ary education in the village. Some houses are con- This constituency is divided into centres which nected to the electricity grid, provided through the constitute individual farms. The settlement pattern rural electrification programme in Namibia. There in this constituency is sparsely populated and the is no public telephone and police station in the distances between farms are vast. The selected village. The village is however connected to the cel- settlements are main centres where facilities and lular mobile network. It is noted that there is a trend services for surrounding farms are located. These of people from rural communities owning mobile settlements, surrounding farms included, are gov- phones. There are three water points in Epyeshona erned by a Headman. The Traditional Authority is

namibia case study 5 located at Okombahe and governed by a council • Access to portable water, diesel generated bore- of senior headmen. The nearest towns are holes and Omaruru. Tubusis is about 60 km from Usakos, • Public telephones Spitzkoppe 50 km, Okombahe 80 km and Omatjete • Police station (Except for Spitzkoppe) 115 km from Usakos and 60 km from Omaruru. • Agricultural Extension Office • Ministry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare (at Interviews were carried out as follows: Okombahe) • Tubusis (Youth and Elderly male FGDs) • Regional Constituency office (at Okombahe) • Spitzkoppe (Middle-age men and Middle-age • Gravel women FGDs) • Community Campsites at Spitzkoppe and • Omatjete (Elderly Female FGD) – not included in Tubusis the analysis. • Okombahe (Traditional Authority and Commu- The population of Daures is diverse and has seen an nity worker from MGECW). These settlements increase in numbers of Oshiwambo speaking indi- are equipped with the following infrastructures viduals since 1991. The area has Damara speaking that are serving surrounding farms as well: and Herero speaking ethnic groups among its origi- • Primary school nal settlers. The Damara ethnic group has been the • Clinic majority in this area (NPC 2007a). • Church • Connection to the electricity grid (except for Spitzkoppe)

Omatjete daures Okombahe

Spitzkoppe Tubusis

Namibia

erongo

Swakopmund erongo

Figure 3: Study area 2 – Erongo region showing the location of Omatjete, Okombahe, Tubusis and Spitzkoppe settlements in Daures constituency

namibia case study 6 3. Approach and methodology

3.1 Field work process amongst policy and decision-makers about the The research process commenced with a social need for gender differentiated adaptation policies. research methodology training workshop, held at It addresses the following key questions; HBF, Cape Town. The workshop covered aspects of • Are women and men in differently impacted by Gender Framework of Analysis (GAF) and general Climate Change? social research methodology. During this work- • How women and men are differently impacted? shop, the research team (consultants, trainers and • What are the physiological, political, economic HBF staff) agreed upon the five main research and societal causes for the differences experi- questions, designed the fieldwork strategy (Box 1) enced, if any? and agreed upon selection criteria for study areas • What are the current coping and adaptation strat- (Box 1). The study also aims to create awareness egies and capacities?

Box1: Fieldwork guidelines

Overall methodology: Sampling for focus groups: • Qualitative research • Key informant interviews to be use to select people • Rural appraisal for focus groups • Focus groups • To be relatively homogenous groups • Life histories (case studies) • Younger women (maybe as a mixed group) • Key informant interviews • Elderly women • Keep a journal & try to make the research and • Elderly men (separate from elderly women) report more personal. • Formal work • Concentrate on 2 rural areas with two different • Informal work climatic conditions • Women farmers • Resource user women Criteria for selection of areas: • Mixed women group – age, employment, • Vulnerability • Female headed households • Poverty / relative poverty (according to country • Possible mixed women / men group guidelines) • Vulnerable groups (minority ethnic group, disabled etc.) • Climate change and variability – where impacts • Community / women leaders are already visible • Areas where subsistence farming & livelihood Selection of people for life histories: strategies are dependent on climate – influenced • Lived in area long enough (over 50 years) to be able by climate change to notice change • Try to avoid sites where previous studies have • Women & men been done • Environmental history • Don’t include urban areas • A specifically vulnerable person

namibia case study 7 • How can the capacity of women and men be spent on different activities in one day during a strengthened to better adapt to climate change particular season. It was used to explore the dif- and climate variability? ferences between the activities and workloads of women and men. Life histories interviews with The study was carried out over a period of 20 days; older people who have lived in the area long enough with 10 days spent on fieldwork in each area of the to be able to notice change was used to determine selected population group. This study used the focus environmental history of selected communities. group discussion, life history and Key informant interview research methods. This was done with a Key informants (Traditional Authority, commit- gendered research approach and analysis. tee members and/or government developmental Gender analysis concentrated on the collection and workers) were selected for In-depth interviews. examination of information about the different roles The fieldwork study was carried out in the follow- of women and men, the relationship and inequities ing communities: between them, their different experiences, capaci- • Okatana Constituency in Oshana Region: Epyes- ties, needs, constraints, rights issues and priorities, hona Village and the reasons for these differences as well as the • Daures Constituency in Erongo Region: Tubusis, needed strategies and opportunities for change. Okombahe, Omatjete and Spitzkoppe Settle- ments The Focus Group Discussions were carried out with homogenous groups of men and women: The two sites were selected taking into considera- • Elderly men (60 – 60+) tion the following criterion: • Elderly women (60 – 60+) • socio-economic factor of poverty, • Middle-age women (30 – 59 years) • climatic vulnerability of the community, • Middle-age men (30 – 59 years) • Population size. • Youth (mixed men and women between age of 18-29) 3.2 Rationale for selection • Workers (only in Epyeshona) of community

The selection was based on the fact that it was Epyeshona village was selected because it had important to understand whether knowledge is experienced flood event during 2007/2008 and gendered in terms of climate variability and change 2008/2009 rainy seasons. The village is densely pop- between the elderly women and men and active ulated, and practices a mixture of crop and animal groups of women and men. Dividing the selected production for subsistence agriculture, there is population was done, taking cognisance of levels evidence of land degradation. Daures on the other of literacy, especially between middle-age women, hand, is sparsely populated, located within one of men and the youth. The majority of youth under 30 the most harsh and drier environments of Namibia. have attended school up to junior or upper second- The main practice here is small livestock farming. ary level (That is Grades 10 and 12 school leavers). The key focus of interviews and discussions during 3.3 Fieldwork activities FGDs was to assess local people’s perception of environmental change, its impacts on agriculture The fieldwork activities were started by establishing and natural resource base, household coping mech- contacts with the Regional Council and Traditional anisms as well as gender relations in the community Authority upon arrival at each study site. This was (Guiding questions are listed in Appendix A). done mainly to introduce the study and be granted Daily activities charts were used to identify time permission to carry out research work in respec-

namibia case study 8 tive communities. In Epyeshona, the local Coun- planning and carrying out of the fieldwork, espe- cillor put a radio announcement so that commu- cially for planning was not adequate. Upon arrival nity members were aware of the study. In Daures in the study area, up to two days was spent on Constituency, the traditional authority informed making contacts and seeking permission from the people about the study and assisted in identify- local government and traditional authority. A local ing participants for FGDs. The selection of partici- person from Epyeshona was employed to assist in pants, construction of community profiles and key informing individuals participating in FGDs. questions were asked during interviews with key Appointments made with traditional authority informants. Three and one life histories were con- members in Omatjete (Daures Constituency) were tacted in Epyeshona and Daures areas respectively. unsuccessful. Only two women turned up for the Two FDGs per day were conducted in each area elderly female FGD in Omatjete. Thus, this activity and each comprised a group of 5 –10 people. These was excluded from the analysis. interviews were tape recorded. With regard to FGDs, we encountered different challenges from each area. In Epyeshona village, all 3.4 Challenges and limitations local meetings were held under a “famous” tree and of the study it was the only available venue for FGDs. Transla- This study encountered some challenges and limi- tors were hired for Daures constituency because tations. The following are some of the limitations the research team is not fluent in Damara and and challenges: Herero languages. The Selection of two study sites that met all crite- In Daures constituency, there was a centenary ria was not an easy task. The Research team opted celebration of a Rhenish missionary at Okoma- to select a village from the populous Oshana Region bahe, thereby losing a day of fieldwork research. and selected four settlements of a Constituency A funeral in Epyeshona led to the FGD scheduled from a sparsely populated Erongo Region. with workers to be moved to another date. The major limitation was time. Time allocated for

namibia case study 9 4. Conceptual framework

4.1 Concept of gender studies in Southern Africa and in Namibia particu- The concept of Gender has been generally larly are documented in Meena (1992) and Iipinge, described as socially constructed, culturally vari- Phiri and Njabili (2000) respectively. The rationale able roles that women and men play in their daily is to explore issues related to relationships between lives (Meena, 1992). It also refers to expectations men and women, gender household’s power rela- which society has of women and men based on tions, understanding issues of empowerment, sexes (Iipinge and Williams, 2000). However, there access to economic and market facilities, access is a distinction between concepts of gender and and control issues as well as examining participa- sex. Gender identities and roles are constructed tion of women in decision-making. in society but are not fixed, not universal and do change over time. Sex is biological and sex roles are fixed and universally similar (Meena, 1992 and 4.3 Conceptualisation of gender Iipinge and Williams, 2000). Gender relations are in Namibia socially constructed power relations between men and women in a given society; they determine the The construction of gender in Namibia has been different benefits that men and women can derive influenced both by colonial administration his- from natural resources (Watson 2006). Women’s torical policies and Christian mission’s influences. and men’s differential access to social and eco- These influences transformed gender relations nomic resources is one of the key aspects of gender among indigenous tribes (Iipinge et al., 2000). The inequality (Brody, Demetriades and Esplen, 2008). colonial policies also influenced gender relations Women occupy subordinate social positioning among other races. However, the post independent because their roles are less visible and often, espe- Namibia displays a mixture of traditional/cultural cially in rural areas, do not earn wages. However, and modern values and norms shaping current they are expected to assume primary responsibility gender relations in the country. Iipinge et al. (2000) for their families’ subsistence, agricultural produc- show that at ethnic level, the cultural perception of tion and sustainable livelihood (Brody et al, 2008 & gender is seen in relation to men and women’s roles Banda and Mehlwana, 2005). and responsibilities as well as symbolism attached to a concept of man or woman. Hence the Owambo symbolise a “man” as a bear, an axe for his father and 4.2 Gender in Southern Africa a bone for hunger. Yet clearly noted over time has In Southern Africa, the gender approach has histor- been the dynamism of gender relations. ically been used in: (i) human rights issues regard- ing women’s oppression and subordinate position 4.4 Conceptualising gendered in respective cultures (ii) economic issues regard- meanings in Namibia ing the division of labour, employment patterns and social security policies and, (iii) political issues Conceptualising gender shows how men are seen regarding law, policies and participation in deci- as the stronger sex compared to women. In the sion-making at all levels (Meena, 1992 and Mbil- Namibian case this implies that a man is a strong inyi, 1992). The rationale for research and gender person, he is an indispensible tool and that where

namibia case study 10 a man is there should be no hunger. A “woman” climate in some way or other. Where people live however, is symbolised as a clay pot, spoon or as a and the way they generate a livelihood and wealth child. These similes imply that a woman is physi- is influenced by the ambient climate. Climate cally weak, she is an indispensible tool for the is naturally variable and human societies have man and that she cannot lead an independent life always had to develop coping strategies when faced without a man. with unwelcome variations in climate or weather Amongst the Damara the man is defined a “man” extremes (Adger, 2006). This study represents an as the middle pillar of the house. This is the central attempt to highlight gender differentiated impacts pole that holds the house intact. He is the tough of climate change. Determining how men and tree that can survive long period without water. women are vulnerable to climate change and their This implies that a man is strong and can endure associated adaptive capacity provides an expla- hardship and is able to protect his household. nation as to how they are differently impacted. The “woman” on the other hand is defined as the Vulnerability is a concept that has been used in foundation and keeper of the house. The Damara various disciplines, notably in the field of disaster further regard a woman as a right-hand of the man. and risk management (Kasperson and Kasperson, The Herero regard a “man” as a protector of the 2001, Galloppin, 2006). Adger (2006) concluded family, collector of food and a fighter. A “woman” that vulnerability is conceptualised as being con- is known as a mother of the nation and a collector stituted by components that include exposure to of wild food. The differences in conceptualisation perturbations or external stresses, sensitivity to also affect roles, responsibility and power relations perturbations and the capacity to adapt. Adaptive in the two societies. capacity is therefore a component of vulnerability (Adger and Vincent, 2005). Furthermore, Babugura (2005) argues that vulnerability can be viewed as a 4.5 Climate change concepts state of well-being. The UNFCCC defines climate change as change of climate that is observed over long periods of time, 4.5.1 The concept of vulnerability and attributed directly or indirectly to human activ- differentiated impacts ity, above that caused by natural climate variability The concept of vulnerability has been used closely (UNFCCC, 1992). However, according to IPCC (2001) with poverty and sustainable livelihood stemming climate change refers to any change in climate over from the study of hazards and disasters (Prowse, time, whether as a result of human activity or due to 2003). Studies on natural hazards suggested that natural variability. Schneider et al. (2007) define an human’s social, economic, political and psycholog- impact as a specific change in a system caused by ical circumstances mediate how they experience its exposure to climate change. This exposure may changes (Bradshaw, 2004). Therefore, the concept be judged as harmful or beneficial. The degree to of social vulnerability takes into account people which these systems are susceptible to and unable and differences among them. This concept is also to cope with the adverse impact of climate change is seen as a condition and an ability to cope depend referred to as vulnerability (ibid). The UNFCCC has on socio-economic factors listed above. Follow- identified two responses to climate change (i) miti- ing Babugura (2005), Adger (2006) and Bradshaw gation of climate change by reducing green-house (2004) contributions, this study defines vulner- gases and enhancing sinks and (ii) adaptation to ability as the ability or inability of individuals, or impacts of climate change, by making communities groups of people to respond, cope, adapt or recover engage in coping mechanism that assist in prepar- from impacts of climate change on their livelihood. edness measures (Klein et al., 2007). The differences in exposure to climate change, sen- Human societies and activities are sensitive to sitivities to the impacts of past and current climatic

namibia case study 11 conditions and capacity to cope and adapt were of climate change for individuals and communi- taken into account to assess men and women dif- ties. Brody et al., (2008). Brody (2004) also caution ferentiated vulnerability to climate change. that a gendered approach to climate change study should not only be about women. Men, women, youths and children are vulnerable to impacts of 4.6 Gender and climate change in climate change but in different ways. Southern Africa Existing frameworks for gender and poverty According to Wamukonya and Rukota (2001), the (Chant, 2003b) as well as gender and disaster studies main rationale for differentiating between men and (Bradshaw, 2004) provide a conceptual framework women as far as climate change is concerned, is the applicable for gender and climate change studies. different roles that the two sexes play in different In addition, gender and climate change analyses societies. Understanding how the different expecta- could draw on studies conducted on gender-spe- tions, roles, status and economic power of men and cific aspects of disaster prevention and mitigation women affect and are affected by climate change will (Dankelman, 2002). improve interventions to reduce vulnerability in the developing world. Effective design and implemen- 4.6.1 Gender differentiated impacts tation of adaptation measures could be enhanced Denton (2002) argues that women play a major role by acknowledging and taking into account different in natural resource and environmental management ways in which climate change impacts on men and yet their contribution is ignored. Dankelman (2002) women (Wamukonya and Rukota, 2001). The differ- adds that it is helpful to consider studies of the rela- ences in gender roles indicate that climate change tionship between gender and the environment, in will impact women and men differently, based on order to determine the gender dimension of climate their different roles and responsibilities in their change. Women in developing countries are respon- community and their level of access to natural and sible for climatically sensitive tasks such as securing other resources including knowledge (ibid) food, water and energy which ensure Discussions on gender (Wamukonya and Rukota, and household well-being (Aguilar, 2007). (2001); Iipinge and Williams, (2000) and Meena, Men are responsible for climatically sensitive (1992) in Southern Africa, confirm gender inequal- tasks as well such as livestock farming, land man- ity, lack of empowerment and limited access to and agement and forestry. It is clear that ways in which control of assets. Lopi (2004) claim that in southern individuals, groups of people and communities Africa, women experience subordinate legal status, interact with their natural environment are differ- limited access to productive resources such as land, ent. It is also clear that climate change does not technology, credit, education and training, formal affect women and men in the same ways. There- employment and training, as well as susceptibil- fore, this study explores differentiated impacts of ity to HIV and AIDS. These factors not only inten- climate change on women and men. The differen- sify inequalities between men and women but also, tiated impacts concept is an aspect of the overall make woman more vulnerable to poverty, disasters, concept of vulnerability. Studies on disasters risk risks and climate change. management and adaptation discuss differentiated An approach to establish linkages between gender impacts of climate change in relation to disaster, and climate change should attempt to create an health, food security, water and income (Aguilar, understanding of factors listed in subsequent 2007; Bradshaw, 2004). These discussions differen- paragraph and ways in which climate change can tiate how women and men are affected by impacts exacerbate inequalities between men and women. of climate change and variability and further show Such an understanding would highlight ways in how women are vulnerable to adapt and cope with which these inequalities can intensify the impacts these changes.

namibia case study 12 5. Literature review

5.1 Gender and sustainable to financial facilities, allocation of time on labour development (market and household) as well as data on health The Human Development Index (2001 and and HIV/AIDS indicates inequalities in favour of 2007/2008) has shown that there is a strong rela- men (Lopi, 2004). tionship between human development and Given the exsisting gender inequalities reported in income. This is especially true for southern Africa, literature, women are clearly more socially vulner- confirming a strong relationship between poverty able than men. Additionally, Chant (2003b) stresses and gender equality. The gender empowerment that there is much going on within the household measures1 (GEM) – 1997 in southern Africa has than outside it, which determines women’s poverty, shown that South Africa (0.529), Botswana (0.423) well-being and power. Studies that focus on the and Lesotho (0.390) had the highest measures. gender and climate change nexus (Brody et al., The 2007/08 figures show that Namibia, Tanzania, 2008; Aguilar, 2007; Banda and Mehlwana, 2005; Mauritius and Botswana have the highest GEM Denton, 2002 and Dankelman, 2002), disaster and measures in southern Africa. These values are very risk management (literature Bradshaw, 2004; Inter- low in comparison to developing countries. national Strategy for Disaster Reduction- ISDR, Studies have shown that the level of gender 2008) as well as poverty and sustainable livelihood inequality is greatest among developing and the literature (Chant, 2003b) highlights the following poorest countries (Chant, 2003b; Bibars, 2001 and factors that seem to promote gender inequalities: Chant, 1997). Still, in countries such as Sweden • Women form a disproportionate share of the poor which has the highest level of gender equal- whereby 70% of human beings worldwide livings ity, men earn more than women in all income below the poverty line are women. groups (Johnson-Latham, 2007). Studies focusing • In the event of natural disasters, women and men on women have shown that women have limited are affected differently because of their social range of options, suffer more from lack of leisure roles, responsibilities and access to support. time and give priorities to others (Chant, 2003a, • Women and children are collectors, users and Jonathan-Latham, 2007). Southern African studies managers of water in the household. focusing on women and men, reported that men • Women are responsible for 60-80% of the food and women play substantial roles in southern production in developing countries. African economies. However they are not equally • Women are responsible for more domestic tasks distributed across productive sectors, neither are than men. they equally remunerated for their labour. In terms • Women have unequal access to information and of land, women’s access to arable land is less than resources, and are under-represented in deci- men. Further analysis of gender-specific access sion-making. Women and youth are marginalised

1 GEM provides a general measure of the extent of inequality between women and men in areas of economic and political participation and decision-making in the public and private sector.

namibia case study 13 in the decision-making processes at both com- Klerk, 2008). The majority of Namibian women are munity and household levels. responsible for most of the household chores and • Women have less opportunity to negotiate upon have no decision-making power within households their concerns regarding food production at and community. This is exemplified by the defini- policy level. tions of women across ethnic groups in Namibia: The “mother of the nation”, “mother creator”, The status of women development and empower- “keeper of the house” and “keeper of the cooking fire”. ment suggests that not with standing interventions A national gender study concluded that decision- aiming at empowering women and addressing making powers usually belong to the man. Women women practical needs, achieving gender equality are thus regarded as dependants and therefore remains a challenge. These inequalities and social required to follow decisions and directions by the gender relations seem to suggest greater vulner- man. The study also revealed that although deci- ability among women to poverty, climate change sions are made in consultation with a woman, the and natural disasters (Chant, 2003b). man has the power to overrule a womans decision. Resources management and control over resources 5.1.1 Gendered relations in Namibia such as livestock and income from all sources is There is matrilineal descent (Owambo and vested in the man. Kavango communities), bilateral system (Nama This follows the notion that men are the head and Damara) and double or bifurcate descent of the household as reflected by similes symbolis- (Herero communities) in Namibia. Caprivi com- ing a man in various ethnic groups. The literature munities are matrilineal with a strong patriarchal is however silent as to how decision-making and influence. These descent patterns have influence power relations take place in female-headed house- on customary marriages, methods of inheritance holds in contemporary Namibia. Nevertheless, a and control of children. The Iipinge and LeBeau female-headed household is traditionally regarded (2005) profile explain that, all ethnic groups in the as insignificant and ranked very low in the commu- country exhibit gender inequality in the form of nity. The eldest son makes all major decisions in a patriarchy. Women are still viewed as second-class female-headed household. citizens and at worst as the property of men. Cul- Ambunda and De Klerk (2008) made an interest- tural attitudes vary from relative equality to rigid ing point that, the socialisation of women and girls inequality. The reported incidences of violence with administration of the household and exclu- against women and children continue to increase sion from decision-making, leads to their devel- in Namibia. More than 90% of convicted perpe- opment of inferiority complex when they have to trators are men between the ages of 21 and 39 compete with men in the job market or in the urban (Iipinge and LeBeau, 2005). As in most African cul- household. This creates a vicious cycle of inferior- tural communities, duties and responsibilities are ity throughout the life of a female Namibian. As divided among husband, wife and siblings based discussed in the preceding section, women are on stereotypes of what men and women should the main producers of subsistence agriculture and do and how women should behave and not neces- main guardians of the environment 2. This observa- sarily based on skills or ability (Ambunda and de tion is also true for Namibia; women constitute the

2 Equal rights to apply for land rights among men and women in communal areas have been granted through the Communal Land Reform Act, Act No. 5 of 2002. This Act also, protects the surviving spouses, who are predominantly the wives, and gives them the right to apply for the land to be registered in their names (Lendelvo, 2008)

namibia case study 14 majority of those engaged in subsistence farming against women, but their attitudinal change is not (Iipinge and Le Beau, 1997). forthcoming (Iipinge and LeBeau, 2005). Labour force statistics from 2005 indicate that in rural Namibia 40% of women above the age of 5.1.2 Gender regulatory framework 15 compared to 51% of men actively participate for Namibia in formal and informal employment and income Governments in the SADC region have set a gender generation activities (Andongo, 2006). The income policy framework to address gender disparities levels among household heads in rural communi- and engender human development programmes. ties are low and unable to secure access to infor- Twelve of the 15 SADC countries have gender or mation technology, financial facilities and services women empowerment policies in place. The com- available to most people in urban areas. Adongo mitment is cemented by ratifying the Convention (2006) reported that the use of informal micro on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination lenders seems to be present among low-income Against Women (CEDAW) and adopting the Proto- households in rural areas. Formal microfinance is col to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ available through the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Rights on the rights of women in Africa. Further- and Forestry (co-operatives), Ministry of Trade and more, SADC governments have put institutional Industry (SMEs) and NGOs (funding agencies). structures to address challenges of achieving full According to Adongo (2006), extension of banking equality between men and women and in particu- and other financial institutions in rural areas is lar advance women’s empowerment (Lopi, 2004). difficult due to environmental, demographic and The Namibian constitution makes provisions to technical challenges 3. eliminate all discriminatory practices based on sex, Until Namibia gained its independence, its society colour and race (Namibian Constitution Article 10 (2). was deeply patriarchal (as discussed above) and Furthermore the previously disadvantaged position divided along racial lines. However, upon gaining of women is recognised and the implementation of independence there has been a paradigm shift in affirmative action is encouraged. Equal power rela- human rights concepts. This has led to adoption of tions in all spheres of social and legal and economic human rights laws guided by the Namibian consti- life are acknowledged and encouraged through the tution (Ambunda and De Klerk, 2008). These laws Constitution (Iipinge and LeBeau, 2005). Marriages, specifically those focusing on gender, eliminate all co-habitation, family and domestic issues are some forms of gender inequalities and women discrimi- of the gender aspects that were legally inadequately nation as well as promoting women empower- addressed before independence. The National con- ment as discussed earlier. Despite these develop- stitution recognises these rights and as such, identi- ments, most women in contemporary Namibia still fies the family as a basic fundamental human right face challenges due to influences of the historical and also provides for equal rights in and during imbalance of power between men and women, marriage and in divorce. social structural factors, unemployment and There has been significant progress on gender in related social problems. Men welcome these laws Namibia since independence in the areas of gov- and acknowledge that some customs discriminate ernment policies and programmes, ratification

3 Challenges to put banking facilities in rural areas include: Harsh and dry environment, sparsely distributed rural population, high per unit cost of serving rural poor due to the relatively small size of each transaction and oligopolistic market structure that inhibits innovation due to limited competitive pressure (Andongo, 2006).

namibia case study 15 5.2 Climate change and Namibia of international instruments as well as gender- related law reform. The Namibian government has 5.2.1 Anticipated climate change also established several institutions and a system and variability to address gender inequalities. The Women’s desk It is widely recognised that there has been a was established in 1990, which was upgraded to detectable rise in global temperature during the the Department of Women Affairs in 1997 and later last 40 years and that this rise cannot be explained in 2000 to the Ministry of Women Affairs and Child unless human activities are accounted for (IPCC, Welfare (Iipinge and LeBeau, 2005). In 2005 it was 2001; IPCC, 2007). Impacts of climate change and finally renamed the Ministry of Gender Equality variability identified in the third IPCC assessment and Child Welfare (MGECW). MGECW is tasked report (IPCC, 2001) remain valid in the fourth with the implementation of the Convention on the assessment report (IPCC, 2007). These impacts Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against are: decrease in grain yields, changes in runoff Women (CEDAW), ratified in 1992 and provisions and water availability in the Mediterranean and of the Namibian Constitution relating to human southern Africa, increased stresses resulting from rights (Iipinge and Williams, 2000 and Iipinge and increasing drought and floods and significant LeBeau, 2005). plant and animal species extinction and associ- The MGECW’s mandate is to co-ordinate ated livelihood impacts. In southern Africa, the national gender developmental programmes, increase in temperature will combine with drying constitute gender sectoral committees, organise that will affect most ecosystems, crop and live- ministerial Gender Focal Points (GFPs), co-ordi- stock production. The major consequences of nate international affairs and maintain bi-lateral these changes pose a threat to livelihoods, with relations. Gender research and legislation activi- the poor bearing the brunt of the impacts. The ties are also facilitated by this ministry. Namibia impacts of drought and less precipitation will be has two national documents that guide gender most adverse in arid and semi-arid countries such policy: the National Gender Policy (NGP) and the as Namibia which is the driest south of Sahara National Gender Plan of Action (NGPA).The NGP, (Christen et al., 2007). seeks to recognise and address the priority needs Namibia contributes little to global greenhouse of women, to identify targets and actions that will gas (GHG) emissions. Instead, Namibia was esti- increase women’s access to resources and facilities, mated to be a net sink for carbon dioxide in 1994, and to ensure growth in participation of women in as a result of increasing woody biomass in the decision-making. The NGPA identifies each of the rangelands due to the process of bush encroach- critical areas of concern with NGP goals as well ment (Republic of Namibia, 2002). There is a large as objectives, planned activities, role players and degree of uncertainty on the extent and rate of bush expected outputs for reaching these goals. The encroachment and hence the magnitude of CO2 NGPA’s goal is; uptake estimate for 1994. Projections of climate “to promote gender-equality by empowering change in Namibia are presented in Namibia’s Initial women through the dissemination of information, Communication to the UNFCCC report (2002), the co-ordination and networking with all stakehold- book Benguela Predicting a Large Marine Ecosys- ers, mainstreaming of gender issues, promotion of tem (LME) (Shannon et al., 2006), the Namibian law and policy reform, and monitoring of progress Country Study (Barnard, 1998) and recent related to ensure that women, men, children and people assessment reports (2003- on going). with disabilities have full and equal participation The Initial National Communication (INC) report in the political, economic, social and cultural devel- suggests a 2-6ºC temperature rise above the 1961- opment of the nation” –Iipinge and LeBeau, 2005 1990 mean surface air temperature for Namibia by

namibia case study 16 2100. The sea surface temperature of the Benguela • Agriculture Current Ecosystem has risen by approximately • Fisheries 1.0ºC between 1920 and 1990 (Clark, 2006). • Ecosystems, biodiversity and tourism Precipitation is expected to decrease and by the • Coastal zone 2080s the western subtropical region (including • Health northern Namibia) is expected to become drier due • Energy to fewer rainy days and less intense rainfall (IPCC, 2007; Hudson and Jones, 2005). Rainfall is expected 5.2.3 Water, women and climate change to be more variable in the future than present. The water sector is the most vulnerable to climate Rainfall reductions are expected to be greatest change. Even without the threat of climate change, in the North West and central regions of Namibia Namibia faces absolute water scarcity by the year (Republic of Namibia, 2002). 2020 (Republic of Namibia, 2002). The combined An increase in evaporation of about 5% is flow of the rivers Namibia shares with its neighbour- expected per degree of warming for Namibia. This ing countries is 66 500 million m3 per year. Ground- implies that water balance is expected to be drier water and ephemeral water bodies supply the rest due to increases in evaporation rates as tempera- of Namibia’s water needs. The assured annual yield tures increase. of water is about 500 million m3. The per capita Sea level measurements of southern African water supply is thus below 300 m3 per person per coasts show an increase of 1.2 mm per year over the year, making Namibia a nation with absolute water last three decades (Shannon et al., 2006). Although scarcity. Even in the case of a moderate increase in it is not clear whether it is due to climate change, evaporation of 15% and no change in rainfall, the projected changes may exacerbate this trend. additional stress on the water sector due to climate The frequency of extreme events of hot days, heat change would be severe. If rainfall decreased by waves, drought, heavy rainfall and floods is also 30% and coincided with an increase in evapora- expected to increase in Namibia (Reid et al, 2007). tion of 30%, as projected by some models, then the impact on the water sector and human develop- 5.2.2 Climate change and vulnerability ment in Namibia would be extreme. in Namibia Water supply for irrigation of crops and live- Climate change, especially changes in rainfall distri- stock watering amounts to about 120 million and bution, will have effect on Namibia. Water scarcity 6 million m3 per year respectively, while mining is already a major constraint to development and activities require about 8 million m3 per year. Water this is likely to get worse under the existing climate flow in the Kunene River is essential to ensure the change scenarios. Namibia is also vulnerable in continued functioning of the Hydropower sectors such as human health, crop and livestock plant, which supplies almost half of Namibia’s elec- production, fisheries, ecosystems and biodiversity. tricity needs (Republic of Namibia, 2002). During Moreover, over half of the population depend on periods of drought and low river flow; electricity subsistence agriculture and income distribution in production at Ruacana is severely shortened. Under Namibia is not equitable (Gini co efficiency is 0.7 for climate change scenarios of increased evaporation 2001). This makes Namibia one of the most vulner- and reduced rainfall, electricity generation would able countries in the world to climate change and be adversely affected. Under some scenarios, rain- associated impacts. The INC (Republic of Namibia, fall is predicted to increase in the southern parts 2002) has identified the following sectors as most of Angola, in which case the catchments of the vulnerable to climate change: Kunene River could receive more rain (Republic of • Water Namibia, 2002).

namibia case study 17 5.2.4 Energy, women and climate change less rainfall (Republic of Namibia, 2002 and Mfune Namibia’s energy needs in rural areas are largely and Ndombo, 2005). All these factors impact nega- met by traditional biomass fuel which account for tively on women’s livelihood. over 60% of rural energy needs. The supply of wood for fuel is increasing because of bush encroach- 5.2.5 Fisheries, women and climate ment in some parts of the country, but these are change often remote from the areas of fuel wood scarcity. Fisheries are the mainstay of livelihood of coastal The high sunshine hours in Namibia make the peoples. However, the marine fisheries are threat- country ideally suited to exploit solar power, but ened by possible changes to the ocean current on this renewable energy source is currently under- Namibia’s west coast. The fisheries rely on nutri- utilised. The direct effects of climate change on ent-rich upwelling of the cold Benguela Current. the economic sectors described above would be Any change in the frequency, timing or distribution felt throughout the economy, ultimately reducing of the upwelling would influence production, with productivity, influencing sustainable development significant economic impacts due to the promi- options and affecting social stability (Reid et al., nence of marine resource industries in Namibia 2007). The increased diminishing of marginal envi- (Republic of Namibia, 2002). Over the last decade, a ronment for energy needs means a lot of hardships trend of warmer sea surface temperatures has been for women to meet their reproductive and produc- noted over the northern Benguela region (Republic tive chores at household level. Studies in Namibia of Namibia, 2002). This warming trend may be one by several researchers illustrate the hardship met of several environmental factors that have contrib- by women in procurement and utilisation of indig- uted to declining fish stocks in recent years. Marine enous biomass. biodiversity may also be impacted if there are shifts Other climate related challenges have been peri- in the Benguela Current system. The predicted rise odic droughts, which are attributed to stock losses of 0.3 m or more in sea level would certainly inun- and reduced grain production. Aridity is indeed date significant parts of Walvis Bay, the main port regarded as an expected state of the environ- of Namibia. The coastal towns of Swakopmund and ment, although agricultural systems are not always are also vulnerable, to a lesser degree adapted to this reality. In times of drought, live- (Republic of Namibia, 2002). It is women who will stock production is reduced because the availabil- most likely suffer the consequences of reduced ity of forage is reduced, milk production declines, household incomes and nutrition as this industry health status deteriorates and growth rates decline. is impacted further. Over two-thirds of the population practise subsist- Changes in rainfall and temperature would ence cropping with staple crops such as millet. impact on biodiversity and ecosystems in Namibia. Impacts of climate change on household food Endemic species, such as those found on the security in the subsistence farming area could escarpment and in the winter rainfall area of the be dramatic. The agricultural sector is crucial to southwest, and wetland ecosystems, are particu- national food security. The sector’s sensitivity to larly vulnerable. In particular, the Succulent Karoo climate change amplifies social vulnerability of biome is vulnerable to ecosystem boundary shifts subsistence farmers, whose majority are women. and local species extinctions due to climate change. In the extreme, climate change could lead to social Impacts on the natural resource base, on which disruptions and displacement amongst rural com- the tourism, agriculture, inland and marine fish- munities. Maize is the principal commercial crop eries, craft, wildlife and many subsistence sectors but only half of the country’s needs are met locally. rely, are difficult to predict but may be substantial. Maize yield is likely to decrease under climate (Midgley et. al. 2005). change scenarios of increased temperatures and is one of the main causes of children

namibia case study 18 and adult mortality (Republic of Namibia, 2002). UNDP also funded a study during 2008, which Projected changes in climate could extend the area specifically investigated climate change impacts at risk of malaria southwards into the centre of the on crops and livestock. The financial assistance country, a trend that is already apparent. In short, from development partners is highly valuable to if as some models predict, the climate of Namibia adaptation. A lot still needs to be done in order to becomes hotter, drier and more variable over most address adaptation to climate change in Namibia of the country, marginalised rural populations and (Mfune et al., 2007). the urban poor will be most severely affected par- Namibia still needs to put a policy and action ticularly women, children, the aged, and the disa- plan in place that would effectively respond to bled (Mfune et al, 2007). climate change. Namibia has been commended for its sound envi- 5.2.6 Adaptation and climate change ronmental legislation framework, being one of the policy in Namibia first countries in the world to incorporate clauses Since climate change will affect the environ- on environmental protection in its constitution. ment as well as livelihood of Namibians, and that To date, there is no policy on climate change in Namibia is a net sink for GHG as opposed to a Namibia that incorporates a gender focus. Activi- new emitter, adaptation is crucial in addressing ties that address climate change mitigation, vul- climate change issues and environmental sus- nerability and adaptation are being coordinated tainability. Adaptation issues in Namibia are dealt by the national climate change committee com- with at local and national levels with involvement prised of line ministries and governmental agen- of NGOs and development partners (which may cies (Nghitila, 2006). Some laws, regulations and be both from the private sector or international). policies relevant for the implementation of the Since the local people bear the brunt of climate UNFCCC are listed in Appendix B. change, adaptation strategies at this level are important. Local people have indigenous knowl- 5.2.7 Measures to address vulnerability edge that reveal mechanisms used, for instance, and differentiated impacts to climate to cope with severe drought, crop failure or an change in Namibia epidemic of livestock. Some local adaptation Existing legislation related to environmental man- measures are: agement in Namibia adequately addresses syner- Planting local (longer growing period) or gies between biological diversity, climate change improved varieties (grow faster) such as okashana and desertification. For example, the National depending on the timing of the onset of rains. Drought Policy has strong emphasis on drought, Okashana is only grown if rains come late while emergency relief and early warning systems. These they prefer to grow the local millet if rains come measures are relevant to improve long-term coping early. mechanism to possible impacts of climate change. Namibia has benefited from GEF and the UNDP Moreover, there is a shift towards mainstreaming funds through the climate change specific case concerns and issues related to sustainable envi- study: “Adapting to climate change through the ronmental management into cross-cutting legisla- Improvement of traditional crops and livestock tion (National Poverty Strategy Plan) and National (CCA) in Namibia”. This study investigates tradi- Developmental Plans (NDP3 – 2005/6 – 2009/10). tional crops in order to identify drought resist- Thematic working groups that formulated NDP3, ant crops or varieties, or faster growing varieties worked on environmental sustainability, in which such as okashana millet and livestock farming to concerns of climate change are addressed (Mfune improve indigenous breeds such as saga. The study et al., 2007). is being carried out in Oshana Region.

namibia case study 19 5.2.8 Gender and climate change mothers are more vulnerable. conclusion Psychological – increasing violence towards Until very recently, gender issues have not played a women. major role in climate change discussions in many Physical – poor populations are settled in areas developing countries such as Namibia. To date there of risk, without contingency planning and disaster are few studies that have specifically addressed preparedness. gender aspects of climate change. Moreover, many These studies also confirm that children and projects in developing countries are now address- elderly are more marginalised and prone to suffer ing the different situation of women and men with fatal consequences of natural disaster (especially respect to their different vulnerabilities to climate hurricanes and floods). changes (Hemmati, 2008). It is widely acknowl- edged that the negative effects of climate change Brody et al., (2008) state that, the effects of climate are likely to hit the poorest people in the poor change on gender inequality are not limited to countries the hardest. In other words, the poor are immediate impacts and changing behaviours but the most vulnerable to climate change. also lead to subsequent changes in gender rela- In particular, Tandon (2007) noted that in tions. Furthermore, spending more time on tra- developing countries and communities that are ditional reproductive tasks reinforces traditional highly dependent on local natural resources, work roles and works against a change in which women are likely to be largely vulnerable to the women might begin to play other roles (Ibid.). For effects of climate change. Approximately 67% of instance, because women are primary care-givers the Namibian population live in rural areas and in times of disaster and environmental stress, the depends upon subsistence agriculture. There are a occurrence of magnified burdens of care giving is disproportionate number of women in rural areas likely to make them less mobile. Also, since climate due to male migration to urban centres in search change is expected to exacerbate existing shortfalls of employment opportunities (Iipinge and LeBeau, in water resources and fuel wood, the time taken 1997). According to Wamukonya and Rukato to fetch water or wood (which in most countries is (2001), Aguila (2007), and Boko et al. (2007) climate the responsibility of women) will certainly increase change often impacts the areas that are the basis women’s workloads, thus, limiting their opportuni- of livelihoods for which women are responsible, for ties to branch out into other, non-traditional activi- example, nutrition, water and energy supplies. The ties (Bradshaw, 2004 and Brody et al., 2008). effects of climate change are likely to affect men and women differently due to gender differences Although most studies on the climate change, MDG in property rights, access to information and in and sustainable development nexus lack a gender cultural, social and economic roles (Ambunda and focused analysis (Desert Research Foundation of De Klerk, 2008). Namibia – DRFN, 2004; Zeidler, 2005; Angula, Nan- gulah and Smit, 2005; Mfune et al., 2007 and Reid Studies on hurricane Mitch, the Tsunamis in India, et al., 2007), the Participatory Poverty Assessment Bangladesh and floods in Mozambique (Bradshaw, (PPA), conducted in each Region of Namibia at 2004; ISDR, 2008 and Osbar et al., 2008) indicate local and village level (during 2005/6) had a gender that women face a range of vulnerabilities. Brad- perspective. The resultant report discussed poverty, shaw, (2004) identified these vulnerabilities as: vulnerability and well-being of men and women in Financial – women are poorer due to lower Namibia. This detailed information is meant to aid incomes, lack of job stability and dependence on the identification of poverty reduction strategies men’s income. in Namibia. Although, silent on links of gender to Social – female headed households and teenage climate change, this report highlighted some links

namibia case study 20 between livelihood and gender among rural and between gender, poverty and agriculture, in terms peri-urban communities (NPC, 2007a and NPC of gender disaggregated data only (NPC, 2002 and 2007b). NPC, 2006). The image and status of women in The rest of Namibian literature on climate change these studies is absorbed by focusing on house- is silent on issues of gender and marginalised hold dynamics of rural communities. The analysis groups. Earlier studies on gender roles as described does not go beyond differences between female in sections 3 and 4, illustrate the role of women in and male headed households. This study however agriculture and their reliance on climate related looks at gender aspects from both men and women sectors for livelihood and food security. National point of view irrespective of their marital status or studies on poverty have made superficial links social positioning in their community.

namibia case study 21 6. Main findings from the fieldwork

The findings were analysed using GAM to under- that there is an equal representation of women and stand situations of women and men whose lively- men in water point committees, drought relief com- hoods are likely to be impacted by climate change. mittees and constituency development committees. Within the Gender analysis framework is the vul- In Daures Constituency, women are also equally nerability assessment. This framework was used to represented in water point committees, conserv- examine why women and men are affected differ- ancy committees, constituency development com- ently by climate change. It examines the exposure, mittees and school boards. These findings are in line sensitivities and adaptive capacity of women, men with those of the NPC (2007a&b) study on gender within their livelihood system. equality which states that, access, ownership and This section presents the findings of the study. It control of resources has improved in Oshana and describes how the communities of Epyeshona and Erongo Regions. Daures are affected by climatic variability, assesses However, the study illustrates that in Epyeshona the women and men’s roles and responsibility and village, traditional gender based roles still persist. how this makes them socially vulnerabil to impacts “Traditionally, women are responsible for fruit of climatic variability and anticipated changes. harvesting, thatching grass and all tasks of prepar- The section also discusses how men and women ing and processing food. Men mostly engage with are coping with these impacts. Aspects of gender livestock farming related activities” (Epyeshona- equality, gender relations and gender roles within Female Key informant: Village secretary). the two communities are presented as well as their Elder people (both men and women) who par- understanding of the concept of climate variability ticipated in life history interviews have reported and change. The findings on gender differentiated that women are becoming more involved in deci- impacts of climate variability and change are pre- sion-making and are more empowered than in the sented based on the local perception of environ- past (before independence). The youth reported mental, climate variability and change as well as that women are better at running households than climatic risks. Due to cultural and environmental men. They also reported that most men were sup- differences between Epyeshona village and Daures portive of their spouses in the past years but now constituency, findings are presented differentiated they do not really care and are more engaged in both by gender and study area. alcohol abuse. “The man was and has always been the head of the household. The woman was more active in the 6.1 Understanding gender and kitchen to make sure that the family has something climate change to eat every day. A house without a woman is not a 6.1.1 Understanding gender relations house, although in the past men had more to say This study found more women participating in lead- and made most of the decisions” (An 80 year old ership of local institutions. In Epyeshona, the village male life history respondent – Epyeshona) secretary and the community liaison officer from The researcher noted interesting behaviours the Constituency office (Oshana Regional Council, during FGD. The elderly women FGD were passive Ministry of Regional and Local Government and and less expressive during discussions as com- Housing) are both female. The Key informant from pared to middle-age women. The elderly women Epyeshona (Male, Water point committee), reported appear to be content with contemporary gender

namibia case study 22 relations and were not as expressive as the middle- This study found that, rural villages and settle- age group. Middle age women were free to express ments are headed by headman/woman who is a their views during discussions citing their dissatis- representative of the traditional authority. Also, in faction with regard to decision-making processes rural areas household matters are dealt with under within their community. traditional (customary) law and justice system. In A Female key informant (Ministry of Gender and Epyeshona village, the inheritance process is super- Child Welfare) from Daures constituency reported vised by family members and relatives. In the post that traditionally, men have always been the head independent Namibia, women are protected by of the household and women had to obey every- law and automatically can inherit land from their thing they say. However among the contemporary spouses. In Daures Constituency (Damara culture), Damara culture, women have more rights and have the ‘Will” directs how property will be inherited equal power sharing and decision making as their and culturally men and women have a 50/50 own- spouses at household level. This is confirmed by ership of resources. Although these laws exist, in one male participant from the Daures FGD who Oshiwambo culture (Epyeshona), women are not stated that: empowered to make their own decisions. Land “The decision-making between men and women grabbing is a very rare phenomenon in Namibia. is 50/50. The man decides on livestock and other Household and cultivation equipments and live- matters outside the house in consultation with his stock are inherited by the husbands relatives. The wife. If there is a food shortage in the house, the lack of agricultural equipment and livestock in a woman also approaches her husband to discuss household undermines the quantity and quality of how they can best solve the situation”. crop produce. Gender roles still exhibit conventional division of The Youth feels that in a Damara society a man labour between men and women in rural settings. is tasked with major responsibility of ensuring As in other southern African countries, these roles household food security, while the woman is only and responsibilities are very much linked to the concerned with cleaning and cooking. One female utilisation of natural resources (land, water, range- participant from the Daures middle-age FGD aired land and forestry). Using the activity profile assess- her views that; ment, Table 1 (see next page) lists daily and sea- “women are regarded as masters who know how sonal activities that men and women are involved to save money, food and other household resources. in throughout the year. Women know it best when it comes to well-being of the household”

namibia case study 23 Table 1: Labour activities that men and women mainly engage in

Epyeshona village Daures Constituency

Women • Cultivating fields • Cooking • Weaving baskets • Cleaning • M aking traditional drinks (omagongo, • Looking after children omalodu and ontaku) • Tending for the sick • Collecting firewood • Selling semi-precious stones • Cooking • Assisting in livestock rearing • Picking spinach • Collecting veld product • Fetching water • Cleaning the house • Washing clothes • Caring for the sick • Collecting indigenous fruits • Reproductive roles of child bearing & nursing • Taking care of the rest of the family • Processing marula oil • Pounding mahangu and sorghum grains • Harvesting crops • Preparing “olupale” (a place where grain is processed)

Men • Grazing livestock • Livestock rearing (grazing) • Cultivating fields • Maintaining water point • Harvesting crops • Mining semi-precious stones • Maintaining water points • Maintaining house and fixing fences • Build granaries • Migrating for seasonal grazing • Cutting wood and carve household utensils • Fixing fences

Household • Cultivating fields • Fetching water • Fetching water • Feeding young livestock • Fishing • Thatch grass

Community • Attending church services • Attending church services • Attending and assist at wedding ceremonies • Attending communal meetings • Assisting other households during funerals • Attending and assisting at wedding ceremonies and mourning • Assisting other households during funerals • Serving community committees on water, and mourning development and village traditional activities • Serving community committees on water, development and conservancy

namibia case study 24 During the harvest or rainy season, household and reproductive roles (where applicable) require labour is intensified whereby tilling of land, planting women’s consideration throughout the year. of seeds, weeding, harvesting of mahangu, sorghum There are social and psychological concerns that and beans as well as processing of mahangu require make gender relations in rural areas problematic. all household members to participate. Livestock These concerns affect women more than men grazing, inspection and kraal maintenance also because it is their responsibility to care for other require additional attention during this season. household members. Table 2 below lists some of During the dry season, household maintenance identified social issues facing men and women in livestock inspection and leisure activities domi- Daures and Epyeshona communities. nate. However, daily household labour activities

Table 2: Societal and psychological concerns in the communities studied

Epyeshona village Daures Constituency

• Alcohol and drug abuse • Alcohol and drug abuse • Laziness among the youth • Laziness among the youth • HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria • Unemployment (problem among the youth) • Unemployment (problem among the youth) • High rate of Grades 10 and 12 school • High rate of Grades 10 and 12 school leavers with leavers with no opportunities to enhance their skills no opportunities to enhance their skills • High rate of Grades 10 and 12 school leavers with • Absence of developmental projects to improve no opportunities to enhance their skills the people’s standard of living • Stock theft

namibia case study 25 Declining social relations on their knowledge of climate change and whether It was found that social relations amongst commu- they could distinguish natural climatic variability nities are declining. People are not as compassion- from climate changes definitions. When men and ate as they used to be and the culture of sharing of women attempted to describe the climate change food resources at the community level is diminish- concept, no distinction was made between climate ing. At household level, alcohol abuse is affecting change and climate variability. Their understand- women as some men are not taking responsibility ing and perception of climate change indicate that of their households and therefore spend most of their views on climate change are closely linked to their income and pensions on alcohol (Middle-age observed changes experienced over the past 2 to 3 female FDG – Epyeshona). decades. The increasing number of unemployed youth The youth and middle-age men FDGs partici- (Grade 10 drop outs) in the community is another pants from both communities reported that they social and psychological problem reported. This has are aware of climate change through education coincided with the increasing number of incidents of (geography curriculum) and radio respectively. stock theft in Daures constituency. These social ills However, most adult women and elderly members exert additional psychological and emotional burden of communities are not aware of what climate upon women who as discussed earlier, are regarded change is. Nevertheless, there is a general agree- as mothers, caretakers and mothers of the nation. ment that today’s climate is different from the past 30 years. Local perceptions of climate variability Understanding climate change and change are summarised in Table 3. A parallel The study probed awareness of climate change and study commissioned by UNDP in , local perceptions of observed changes in rainfall during 2008, has reported similar findings to those patterns, temperature, humidity, extreme events of Epyeshona community (Kuvare, Ogunmokun and wind. Therefore, participants were assessed and Maharero, 2008).

Table 3: Local perceptions and observed changes in climatic and environmental conditions over the past 10 – 20 years

Epyeshona village Daures Constituency

• Frequent drought • Frequent drought • Late arrival, early withdrawal of rainfall • Late arrival, early withdrawal of rainfall • Irregular dry spells coinciding with critical • Reduced grazing area growing stages of crops and vegetation • Poor aquifer recharges • Reduced length of growing period • Good river flow and aquifer recharge (2008) • Floods of 2008 • Strong winds blowing away pods which goats feed on

namibia case study 26 In focus group discussions, participants perceived October to January. The middle-age men FGD that rainfall patterns have changed both in dura- observed that appearance of fog during July and tion and season. In Epyeshona village, the start August months has been reduced to an occurrence of the rainfall season has shifted from Septem- of a day or two in a year. The winter season is also ber/October to December/January and end of the noted to have been extended to September and season has shifted from April/May to February/ October months. Furthermore, participants sug- March. The duration of rainfall has also been short- gested that the wind has changed from moderate ened from 7 months to 3 months. to strong in intensity. The middle –age FGD female Droughts have been occurring in the former participants reported that the weather and climate Owamboland (North-central Namibia) in the past in their constituency is no longer fixed and they (see Table 4) but over the past 2 decades, have find it difficult to describe and predict. become more frequent. 6.2 Differentiated impacts of climate During 2007/2008 season, the village experienced variability and change a worm outbreak associated with severe floods. Although most participants expressed their opin- The impacts of current climatic events such as ions that the area has never experience a flood of floods, drought, insect outbreaks and reduction in such an intensity, an article in the Namibian News- fog are already felt as reported from all FGD, from paper (3 November 2008), reported heavy floods Epyeshona and Daures communities. Both men experienced in Northern Namibia during the year and women reported that these impacts are aggra- 1934. “The flood we experienced this year (2008) is vated by human influence on the natural environ- really something strange to us, we have never seen ment, population growth and increased demand this type of flood before” (FGD Participant: Middle- for settlement. Still, the climate change projections age man from Epyeshona). Moreover, participants for southern Africa (Wamukonya and Rukato, 2001) felt that summer days are getting hotter (noted an and Namibia in particular (Republic of Namibia, increase in average temperatures), wind intensity 2002), anticipate these changes to increase. has increased and wind direction has changed. Both men and women reported that changes in In Daures constituency, FGD participants per- today’s climate results either in insufficient rain- ceive that the rainfall season has shifted from fall or heavy rainfall events. The consequence is

Table 4: Past periods of famine and drought experienced in north central namibia

1820s Known as drought years 1877-79 Recorded as famine years 1896-98 Famine as a result of a rinderpest epidemic and massive locust attacks on crops 1907 -08 Harvest destroyed by severe locust attack, followed by a major drought during which an estimated 20,000 people died 1915 an army worm plague followed by drought caused a famine which reportedly killed over 20,000 people 1920 Reported as famine year 1929-31 “Famine of the Dams” when people built dams during the first food-for work programme.

(Source, Mendelsohn, Obeid & Roberts, 2000).

namibia case study 27 either drought or floods, as mentioned earlier, are common in the past and rivers at Okombahe used to becoming more frequent and severe. The severity flow throughout the year. Christmas was celebrated of these unpredicted events is measured in terms in green surroundings but now everything has dried of amount of food available or lack thereof. In up even trees along the river are dying. In the 1950’s Epyeshona for example, concepts of famine and 1960’s and 1970’s people were planting corn and drought are used as synonyms. Rainfall is therefore wheat along the river bed, this practice was reduced an important determinant of harvests, successful at the beginning of 1980’s and declined completely livestock farming and better livelihood options. during 1990’s and 2000s. This was due to less rain- The impacts of inadequate or too much rainfall are fall received during those specific years. The rain presented in succeeding sub-sections. received during this period was not even enough to make the river flow. The 2007 rainy season was the 6.2.1 Environmental degradation only year in which people started planting maize Epyeshona and Daures communities rely to a and wheat again.” (Key informant, male – Tradi- greater extent on the natural environment for tional Authority Okombahe, Daures Constituency) their livelihood. Daily activities and responsibili- ties are also closely linked to the natural environ- Climate variability and change ment. It has been reported earlier (sections 4 and One of the life history respondents (80 years old, 5) that women are responsible for chores that are male) reported that early settlers in the village impacted by weather and climate such as collec- managed to own more productive land. He also tion of wild fruits, medicinal plants and harvesting narrated that, female-headed household4 young of other natural resource products for food. The couples and late arrivals owned land that was less participants (middle-age and elderly FGD, both productive and yielded less harvest. One partici- male and female) have noted environmental deg- pant from the middle-age male FGD and another radation, deforestation and overgrazing. They also from the middle-age female FGD (Epyeshona) con- noted that changes in vegetation cover, coupled firmed that crop fields had lost their fertility. with strong winds and erratic rainfall culminate as Daures and Epyeshona communities (both men effects on land productivity. This is especially true and women) noted the link between rain and trees. for the Epyeshona community that relies heavily They believed that deforestation has also con- on crop harvests as their main source of livelihood. tributed to less rainfall, soil erosion and reduced A quote below presents narratives of an Okombahe grazing quality. Although livestock farming is tra- TA representative. This narrative represents local ditionally a man’s world, women also contributed environmental problems and changes observed for to the discussion that population increase in the about 20 – 40 years ago. village and demand for land had led to the reduc- “If we compare the changes over time, we observe tion of grazing area available for livestock. Both men that the rain has decreased drastically. The last and women (Epyeshona and Daures) concurred on (2007/8) rain season was the only closest to compare the late arrival and short duration of rainy season with 3 to 4 decades ago. Drought was not that as well as poor grazing land.

4 Women have only been allowed to own land (north-central Namibia and other communal area) since 1990 after law reform in post-independent Namibia.

namibia case study 28 Life history of Mr Bonaventura Ipinge Mr Bonaventura Ipinge migrated from another village that September is much hotter than it used to be in and settled in Epyeshona in 1960. He remembers that the 1960s. Drought phenomena were less frequent and Epyeshona’s natural environment has been more or he has noted that they are experiencing more droughts less similar as it looks today. It was never a forested than in the past. Furthermore people coped better in area and has always been characterised by sparse the past because livestock and crop farming compli- trees and shrubs vegetation cover. He also say that the mented each other well. He says the impacts of climate rangeland was very good and there has always been variability were not severe because there were few abundant grazing for livestock. He has observed that people around sharing grazing and available natural there have been changes in weather and he perceives resources; there was enough grazing; and livestock provided sufficient manure for fertilising the land. He mentiones that those who settled in the village first got better quality land for cultivation. He has observed over the years that social structures, cultural norms and values are breaking down. He fears that poor and vulnerable members of the community will find it hard to cope during famine because social relations and a culture of helping each other are no longer exist.

Adaptation strategies participant from the middle-age FGD – Daures, Men and women have been coping and adapt- argued that, another way of improving livestock ing to effects of drought/floods and other climate survival was to collect pods (from acacia trees) for related variability for years. In order to ensure good feeding. productivity, crop field requires manure. Concerns were raised that the declining numbers of livestock 6.2.2 Impacts of climate variability and compromise, this farming method especially as change on water eesources there are no other sources of fertiliser available. The Epyeshona community reported that (all FGD) Indigenous knowledge of local land units also there were no variations in water availability apart helps to decide what to plant where during floods from lack of infrastructure, maintenance and the or dry years. The poor households do not own suf- newly introduced consumption cost. There is a ficient livestock to produce manure and usually are water supply network throughout the entire Oshana settled on poor arable land. During female middle- Region and other settled areas in north-central age FGD, (Epyeshona), it emerged that women are Namibia. On the contrary, men and women from mainly responsible for preparing the fields. There- Daures Constituency reported that water availabil- fore women are expected to cope and develop ity is the main climatic factor creating hardship. adaptation strategies to deal with reduction in land Poor rainfall negatively affects recharging capacity productivity. Also, as reported by a key informant for the aquifers and boreholes in the area. (80 year old man), women and young couples are forced to settle on marginal and fragile land that are Water supply in rural Namibia is not free, and prone to both floods and dry environmental condi- natural water sources provide livestock with drink- tions. The only way to cope with lack of grazing is to ing water. In order to adapt to changing patterns migrate to other areas for seasonal grazing. A male of water access, the country and villages have

namibia case study 29 munities have access to health com- munities, but caring for the sick is an additional burden to women responsibilities. Women’s time to concentrate on empowering activi- ties such as informal business would be compromised in the process. “Modernisation has caused a lot of problems in Epyeshona and people are more vulnerable to diseases and all sorts of social ills”. (88 Year old woman – Life history)

6.2.4 Floods During floods, Epyeshona crop Figure 4: Potable water supply in Epyeshona village fields become inundated with water and all the pans and grazing fields instituted stringent measures for water manage- are filled with water. However, during the middle- ment practices and measures to minimise the age female FGD and middle-age male FGD in Epye- costs especially in Epyeshona village. In Daures, shona, both women and men reported that during the community is responsible for supplying diesel flood years most households had a good harvest of to pump water. These socio-economic chal- beans and melons. Millet and sorghum which com- lenges are indirectly related to climate variability. prise the main stable diet in the village are reported However putting a strain on existing livelihood to be mostly vulnerable to climate variability and resources would jeopardise household’s ability to change. Good rain years or extreme rain events are afford water. Female-headed households might be proven to be beneficial in Daures Constituency, as affected more in this scenario. they recharge aquifers, improve grazing quality and sporadic rivers tend to have standing water for much 6.2.3 Diseases and pests of the year. Epyeshona village and its surroundings usually There were no reports of lost lives during the suffer from locust outbreaks and in recent years, study in Epyeshona village. Severe floods often pest incidents have increased. The worm outbreak associated with damage to property, human and associated with floods of 2008 made it impossible livestock loss of life was reported in Daures Con- for a majority of households to harvest anything. stituency. The national disaster risk management The worms destroyed both crops and grass cover. through Oshana Regional office assisting re-locat- Incidents of insect outbreaks are managed through ing household members that are affected by floods. de-worming and pest control methods of digging During the study (2008), one of the key informants trenches around the field and manual removal of (Epyeshona- female, village secretary) reported insects. Both men and women reported that they that some households did not have any food. The were unable to control the recent outbreak. village headman/woman is responsible for identi- Problems associated with pest, were not reported fying affected households and recommends them in Daures. Although the increase in diseases such as for drought relief. Priority is given to the elderly diarrhoea, stomach cramps, HIV/AIDS and fever has and children. Coping strategies required in event of been reported both women and men did not make drought are also applicable to dealing with flood- the link to climate related phenomenons. Both com- ing impacts.

namibia case study 30 Table 5: Impacts of drought on livelihood, livestock and crop production

Epyeshona village Daures Constituency

• Reduced agricultural crop yield • Reduced grazing area and overgrazing • Reduced grazing area and overgrazing • Reduced number of livestock • Reduced number of livestock • Land degradation • Reduction in land productivity • Water scarcity and boreholes becoming non-functional • Declining quality of soils for sorghum • Strong winds blowing away pods which goats feed on and mahangu farming • Shift from livestock farming to semi-precious stones mining • Deforestation and land degradation • Reduced sale of small stock – loss of income • Lack of construction materials • Reduced quality of small-stock thereby affecting • Soil erosion auction prices

6.2.5 Impacts of drought nity groups whose livelihood is more vulnerable Drought is associated with short rainfall durations to climate related events. They identified the fol- and/or low rainfall figures (dry years). Not surpris- lowing groups as more vulnerable to impacts of ingly, both men and women of all ages from Epye- climate variability and change: shona agreed that, drought has a severe impact on • Elderly crop yields and reduces livestock numbers (Table 5). • Children Drought (Epyeshona – Female elderly and middle- • Widows aged FGD) affects food security in the household. • Young couples

During the discussion, one participant (Daures, Livestock farming in Oshana region has become Female Middle-age FGD) noted that droughts increasingly difficult over the past years. House- experienced during 1991, 2000 and 2006 were char- holds in Epyeshona are reported to own fewer acterised by loss of livestock and money. There are livestock than in the past. During famine, men existing coping strategies when the community is select from remaining livestock either to barter faced with impacts of climatic variability. However, for mahangu or sell to earn a cash income. Epye- existing adaptive capacity is not sufficient to deal shona female FGDs reported that usually women with long-term impacts of climate change. In Epye- make decisions regarding goats, pigs and shona village as with the rest of Namibian commu- to either sell or slaughter for household consump- nities that are involved in crop production, select- tion. Men from Epyeshona (elderly male FGD), ing crop variety that are resistant to drought is very stressed that the practice of seasonal grazing is important. Women make use of ‘Okashana’ variety declining, because livestock is stressed and cannot that requires fewer amounts of water and shorter reach cattle posts. Men and women are engaged in rainy seasons than traditional millet variety. There other income generating activities to supplement is some resistance from elder people (elderly female the main livelihood systems available. FGD – Epyeshona) to use ‘Okashana’. They believe ‘Okashana’ millet cannot be stored for longer Women are first to adapt (years) period of time. Women also, make attempts During the FGD with middle-age female in Epyeh- to re-plant and refill the gaps. sona, it was revealed that women are the first to Women and men who participated in FGD, and diversify their livelihood. They do basketry, process key informants were asked to identify commu- marula nuts and oil or sell their , pigs or

namibia case study 31 goats to raise money in order to buy food. Remit- tances and relying on neigh- bours for assistance is also considered to be a crucial coping mechanism. The discussion with workers in Epyeshona village revealed that earning a salary helps them cope better with poor crop yields. A man from this group reported that he regards employment as the main source of livelihood. Most households in Epye- Figure 5: Semi-precious stones sold to tourists in Daures constituency shona have a member who is employed either in the area or elsewhere. The presence of an employed “When survival gets tough, men migrate to household member or receiving remittances from nearby towns of Swakopmund, Omaruru Usakos, relatives improves household security. Opportu- Walvis Bay etc. to look for employment. Some men nity to participate in economic activities is limited migrate to other communal areas within the Con- to informal business such as shebeens (home stituency or to other Constituencies in search of based liquor bars/stores), sale of natural products better grazing opportunities” (Male FGD partici- (mainly women), wood carving (mostly men, but it pant – Daures). is no longer sustainable), basketry, traditional brew, Attempts to achieve this involves, de-stocking by brick-making and domestic work. A market exist, selling more livestock at auctions, collecting acacia some 3 km from Epyeshona village where men and pods to feed goats and sheep, seasonal migration women can sell local products. for better pastures and shifting to semi-precious In Daures Constituency, there are limited formal stones mining. Income from employment and employment opportunities. However the tourism selling semi precious stones becomes the main potential in the area has created jobs for a few source of livelihood (Figure 5). For poorer house- household members in Spitzkoppe. It has also holds, particularly the elderly and widows and the created a market for semi-precious stones. employed, the only coping strategy available is to The Daures Constituency area offers opportu- beg for food. nity for people to move livestock around for sea- Both women and men reported that the govern- sonal grazing. However, the harsh conditions and ment provides drought relief, and during discus- scarcity of water in Erongo communal areas make sions, it became clear that local people rely too much it difficult to comprehend. The community is on government relief and are not attempting other assisted by the government to transport their live- means or mechanisms to enhance their adaptive stock to better grazing areas. This coping mecha- capacities (Epyeshona key informant, male – Water nism is only offered during famine years. Because point committee and middle-age male FGD) .What livelihood in Daures Constituency revolve around is more, there are no credit facilities for community livestock farming, ensuring livestock survival is members to engage in other livelihood or income very crucial to all farmers (The majority of whom generating activities. Developmental needs are dis- are men). cussed at Constituency Developmental Committee

namibia case study 32 level. The Regional Councillors are responsible for ity to deal with impacts of climate related changes. the development of respective communities. Poor maintenance of water sources like boreholes Both communities have reported that employ- exposes the community even further to poverty. ment and income generation activities are crucial “Asking questions on what can be done to enhance to deal with impacts of climate change. Women our adaptive capacity only raises false hopes. You are from Epyeshona feel that there should be devel- asking a hungry man leading a hungry community. opmental projects for women to participate. The There have been other researchers and development number of unemployed youths is increasing every workers who has been asking such questions over year, because there are no other opportunities the years but nothing is happening” (Male Okom- available if they fail Grade 10 and 12. Communi- bahe Traditional Authority – Daures). ties living in drier environments such as Daures are The headman and councillor are up in arms as already reaching their maximum adaptive capac- they have no resources to help their communities.

namibia case study 33 7. Analysis and conclusion

The following conclusions are made at managing households than men. There is also a from findings: trend among Oshiwambo ethnic group whereby The concept of gender and its associated vari- men are neglecting their duties as head of house- ables is not constant in any society. Gender equal- holds. Perhaps equal distribution of power between ity and gender relations change over time in any women and men is causing gender relations to given society. Namibian literature on gender and worsen much to the disadvantage of women. women still describes differences between women and men and their respective roles in respect to tra- The Damara ethnic group displays a mixture of con- ditional norms and values. ventional and contemporary gender relations. It Some of these characteristics do not take into appeared that women have more decision-making consideration the fact that the construction of the power than men but further discussion during this gender concept in Namibia has been shaped by study revealed that women and men have equal colonialism, Christianity and modernisation. decision-making power. This study has revealed that there might be It is also clear from both communities that changes among gender relations in rural areas due women have more decision-making power and to equal opportunities awarded to women and control over domestic resources and men still men. These changes could be beneficial or det- have the power to make major decisions regarding rimental to relations especially between wife and assets and financial resources. Another dynamic husband. Women in the age group of 30 - 59 display that emerged is the differences between single and signs of empowerment to participate in deci- married women in terms of empowerment and sion-making and economic activities. The elderly gender equality. women however, still understand and seem to accept the status quo. Tracing changes in environment and climate is The perception of gender as a unit for analy- very difficult. There is no local or indigenous moni- sis is not given enough attention. Attitudes from toring system for changes that are taking place. local leaders seem to confirm this sentiment, given Women and men have become passive and believe their reaction towards this study. One male leader it is the responsibility of the government to provide remarked “gender, gender, gender” upon hearing them with climate information. the purpose of this study. Because rural communities are subsistence They do not seem to understand how women farmers, rainfall is the most important climatic are affected by poverty and climate change. Also variable determining crop yield and maintaining they do not seem to consider a possibility that men healthy livestock. Women and men from Epyes- maybe more vulnerable to impacts of poverty and hona perceived changes in local climate over the climate change than women. past two decades. There is a feeling of hopelessness among women There is a general agreement that current climate in rural areas. This could be caused by attitudes is different from the past. Climatic hazards such as among women stemming from long held beliefs floods and drought have become more frequent. that they are weak and should be looked after. The rainfall season has shifted, become shorter The youth have noted that women are much better and irregular affecting the potential growth period

namibia case study 34 for mahangu, sorghum, beans, nuts and melons. explore first other means of ensuring food security These climatic shifts also affect regeneration of before they discuss the matters of food shortage rangelands resulting in insufficient grazing oppor- in the household with their husbands, the head of tunities for rural livestock populations. Immediate household. Men are not concerned with worries impacts of drought, floods and climate variabil- and anxiety of where the next meal might come ity are decreased land productivity, reduced crop from, therefore the psychological effect and efforts yields and loss of livestock. are much less on men compared to women. The changes in climate affect the livelihoods of On the contrary, men are impacted more in events women and men differently. This study concludes of climatic variability that severely affects the liveli- that compared to female-headed households, hood and minimise food security of the household. widowed and bachelor households find it harder In Epyeshona village, a man is required to ensure to balance the risks and vulnerability to impacts of that the household acquires food that would reach climatic variability and changes. the next harvest season. In Daures constituency, a This study confirms that women and men’s man is required to migrate to other towns in search relationship with climate related variables such of employment to sustain the household or to other as environment, agriculture and forestry is dif- communal areas in search of better grazing for the ferentiated. In addition, the relationship between livestock. This also implies that women are left to women and the environment is not homogenous manage households on their own and thus become across societies and environmental settings. It can de facto heads of household. be concluded that, among societies that practise subsistence crop and livestock farming as the main Women and men are already faced with social chal- source of livelihood, women have a stronger link to lenges of unemployment, alcohol abuse, crime, environment and climate related sectors. teenage pregnancies and social decay. These chal- The activity profile assessment revealed that lenges make their households vulnerable to poverty. women in such rural settings interact with the In particular women, engage in selling agricultural environment more than their male counterparts. products or simply engage in informal business to Clearly women are expected to maintain food generate money needed for the well-being of the security in the household. Maintenance implies household. Since women are responsible for the complimenting the main source of livelihood with well-being of household members, such income other sources in order to prolong household food is spent towards education, health, food and water security. Women and men in drier environments payments. To sum up, women lack technical skills interact with the environment differently. Because to participate in formal employment and are there- in these environmental settings, livestock rearing is fore engaging in informal economic activities. the main source of livelihood, men interact with the Income generating capacities between men and environment more. The environmental conditions women also differ. In general men are better pre- do not offer many opportunities for women to pared for climatic events than women due to their participate beyond the household chores. In areas improved socio-economic situations. with high tourism potential, women engage in tourism related activities such as selling of semi- Non-Agricultural adjustment has been noted. precious stones. Kuvare et al., (2008) listed examples such as sewing, The degree of climate change impacts and expo- brick-making, selling of traditional drinks, vending sure of women to climatic risks is high. Similarly, crafts and pottery items. These adjustments either the emotional burden and extra effort is felt more exist or were recommended as coping strategies in by women than men. Because, traditionally women Epyeshona village. In Daures constituency, there is are submissive to their husbands, they would a trend of farmers reverting to small-scale mining

namibia case study 35 of semi-precious stones. Improving access to capacity of both men and women. However inter- resources, enhancing existing coping strategies and vention should take into consideration the gender diversification of adaptive strategies for rural com- aspects of climate change impacts and adaptation. munities is imperative in order to enhance adaptive

namibia case study 36 8. Recommendations

This report offers a number of general and policy grammes should be developed that would enhance recommendations. Some are directed towards adaptive capacity of rural women. gender while others to climate change and differ- The report offers recommendations that climate entiated impacts of climate change. Both levels change programmes develop a comprehensive demand response from government, private sector, programme of service provision regarding seed, local and donor community as well as research and fertiliser, credit, market access and agricultural academic institutions. extension services. Such programmes should A study focusing on gender, climate change and ensure that women access these services. Infor- development in southern Africa is required. Such mation and awareness programmes on climate a study need to examine how climate change will change and agricultural production targeting rural impact development of women and men. It will women in order to enhance their capacities should also examine how climate change affects gender be produced frequently. The Ministry of Agricul- equality in southern Africa. Research institutes ture, Water and Forestry, academic institutions such as the Southern African Research and Docu- such as University of Namibia and the Polytechnic mentation Centre (SARDC) in conjunction with of Namibia as well as United Nations Development Women in Development Southern Africa Aware- Program need to engender their programmes of ness need to collaborate with SADC governments extension, research and service delivery. to produce these data. More gender disaggregated data and focussed There is a need to conduct studies examining research is required to assess community’s existing gender relations in contemporary Namibia. Such adaptive capacity in dealing with long-term impacts a study needs to show what is happening to the of climate change. There should be research to relationship between men and women given chal- determine the advantage of implementing gender- lenges of climate change affecting food security. It sensitive adaptation programmes. More research will also assess the progress of women empower- to identify the gendered impacts, coping strate- ment and gender equality in Namibia. Finally, it gies and adaptation priorities of women and men will address challenges preventing realisation of in urban settings is needed. The NPC, MAWF and women empowerment in rural Namibia. The Min- MET should acknowledge and mainstream gender istry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare and the and climate change into poverty, early warning Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF) system and environmental management policies. need to facilitate this process. Climate change pro-

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namibia case study 41 10. Appendices

• What do you know about climate change? 10.1 Appendix A: List of questions • Where did you get your knowledge on climate guiding the gender and climate change? change study • What is your understanding about climate vari- ability? A.1 Life history questionnaire • Would you say there is a difference between • How long have you lived in this community? climate change and climate variability? If yes, • What climatic changes have take place over what would you say the difference is? time? • If no, why do you think there is no difference? • Would you describe the changes to be good or • What kind of activities are women and men bad? If bad explain. If good explain. involved in? • What changes have taken place due to change in • What is the status attached to each activity? the climate? • How much time is used in each activity? • What was it like in the past? • What are the main livelihood strategies? • What has changed today? • What other livelihood strategies are used and • What climatic events are most frequent? what is their contribution? • How do men and women cope with these cli- • What kind of formal and informal employment is matic events? available in the community? • Are people coping better today than in the past? • What criteria are used in recruitment? Explain your answer. • What natural resources are available in the area? • What has caused the change in the way people • What are the uses of these resources? cope to climatic events? • Rank the natural resources in terms of value and • How do men and women currently cope with importance climate variability? • What are the local rules with regard to the use of • What are the existing challenges that affect men these resources? and women’s ability to cope and adapt to current • Who has access to the resources identified? climate variability? • Who has the right to use the resources identified? • What are the existing challenges that may affect • Who owns the resources identified? men and women’s ability to cope and adapt to • Who makes decisions about natural resource future climate change? ownership, use, access and benefit sharing? • What makes men and women vulnerable? • What are the gender differences in access to • Are there any social networks to help reduce vul- resources and what is the reason for these differ- nerabilities of men and women? Explain. ences? • What would be the best way to empower men • What are the current land tenure rights in the and women so as to reduce risk and vulnerability community? to climate variability and future climate change? • Who has land rights in the community? • What are the major land uses within the community? A.2 Focus group discussions and key • How (and who) is land allocated in the community informants • Do men and women have equal opportunity to • Do you know about climate change? If yes, own or inherit land? How?

namibia case study 42 • Who facilitates inheritance of land and property • Is there a market for local products and produce? in the community? • Who possesses agricultural indigenous knowl- • Who ensures that the laws on land and natural edge in the community? resource use are adhered to? • How useful is the knowledge? • Who resolves conflict in the community? • Does everyone have access to this knowledge? • Who decides how benefits from government, • What other environmental problems are experi- natural resources or donors are shared? enced in the area? • Who prioritizes the needs of the community? • How do they affect food security and livelihoods? • What are local institutions and programmes exist • Has there been any change in the amount and in the community? duration of rainfall in the community? • What is the number of women and men in the • Has there been any change in the quality and management of such institutions? quantity of the crops harvested over the past ten • What do the institutions do? years? • Who are the members and how does one become • Has there been any change in the quality of the a member? soil over the past ten years? • Are certain people excluded from being members? • Has there been any change in the varieties, quan- If so why? tity and quality of wild plants, animals and grass • What are the norms and values of the commu- species? nity? • Has there been a change in the number of live- • What is the justice system of the community and stock over the past ten years? do women have access to it? • Has there been any change in grazing: reduced • What is the process of decision making and how grazing area, increased number of livestock, and lack do women participate in this process? of grass cover? Can these be attributed to a change • Have women’s and men’s health changed over the in climatic conditions or poor management? years? • What climatic events/ natural disasters have been • How do women and men access health facilities? experienced in the community? And health services? • Which of the events are the most frequent? • What are the most common health problems in • How do these climatic events/ natural disasters the area? impact on the community and individuals within • How are theses health problems dealt with? the community? • How far do the community/ individuals travel • What activities is the community/ individuals to collect fuel wood, water, fruits and edibles, involved in that are affected by these climatic thatch, and household construction materials? events/ natural disasters? • What community groups or resource user groups • How far does the impact of the climatic events exist in the community if any? stretch? • Are there any mechanisms that control who has • Has there been an increase in the number of these access to and control of productive resources? If extreme climatic events/ natural disasters? yes explain. • Is there a group of people that is better prepared • How have women and men’s agricultural prac- for these climatic events/ natural disasters? Why tices changed over the years, if at all? is this so? • What agricultural products are produced in the • Is there a platform where environmental problems community? are discussed and/ or information is shared? • Is there a market for local products and produce? • Who discusses these problems? • How does the community access markets for • How did each household and the community their agricultural products? deal or cope with the climatic events/ natural

namibia case study 43 disasters mentioned above? • What adaptation options can be developed and • What social structures (e.g. social networks) help implemented to lower risk and vulnerability to the community to cope and deal with climatic climate change? events/ natural disasters? • What kind of policies or programmes do you • Who makes use of these social structures? think would be effective in reducing vulnerabil- • Who benefits from these social structures? ity of women and men to climate variability and • What norms, beliefs, laws and programmes future climate change? (local and national) make dealing with climatic • Are there any specific needs you feel should be events/ natural disasters more difficult and addressed urgently in order to build the coping reduce ability to cope? and adaptive capacity of women and men? • What norms, beliefs, laws and programmes (local and national) make dealing with climatic 10.2 Appendix B: Some laws, events/ natural disasters easier and increase regulations and policies relevant for ability to cope? the implementation of UNFCCC • Which weather or climate related problems make agricultural production difficult and also • Environmental Management and Assessment Act affect household livelihoods (access to natural (2007) resources)? • Ozone Depleting Substances Regulation (Import • What is done to prepare for and deal with such and Export Act 30 of 1994) problems? • Environmental Assessment Policy (1995) What will individuals; households and the commu- • Environment Investment Fund Act nity do if: • White Paper on Energy Policy (1998) • Flooding becomes more frequent • National Water Policy (2000) • Drought becomes more frequent • Water and Sanitation Policy (1993) • Pests and insect outbreak becomes more frequent • Towards Responsible Development of Aquacul- • Changes in growing seasons (shorter growing ture Policy (2001) season) • Development Forestry Policy for Namibia (2001) • Shortage of water • White Paper on the Responsible management of • Areas suitable for crop production becomes less Inland Fisheries (2001) • Areas suitable for grazing becomes less • Towards Responsible Fisheries Policy (2004) • Conditions becomes more drier • Marine Fisheries Act (2000) • More outbreaks • Namibian Civil Aviation Regulations 2001 devel- • Increased good rainfall years oped in compliance with Convention on Interna- • What natural resources and services help individ- tional Civil Aviation (CICA), Annex 16: Environ- uals, households and the community cope better mental Protection with climatic events/ natural disasters? • Pollution Control and Waste Management Bill • During natural disasters are there natural (1999) resources (Mopani worms, thatch, indigenous • National Environmental Health Policy (2002) fruits etc) that become more abundant and con- • National Policy on Safe Use of Biotechnology in tribute towards household livelihoods? Namibia (1999) • What are the aspirations of women and men in • National Drought Policy and Strategy (1997) the community? • National Policy on Research Science and Tech- • What would you like to see happen that will help nology (1999) women and men cope better and adapt to climate • Community Based Natural Resources Manage- variability and climate change? ment Policy.

namibia case study 44 Heinrich Böll Foundation – Regional Office SouthernA frica The Heinrich Böll Foundation, associated with the German Green Party, is a legally autonomous and intellectually open political foundation. Our foremost task is civic education in Germany and abroad with the aim of promoting informed democratic opinion, socio-political commitment and mutual understanding. In addition the Heinrich Böll Foundation supports artistic and cultural as well as scholarly projects, and co-operation in the development field. The political values of ecology, democracy, gender democracy, solidarity and non- violence are our chief points of reference. Heinrich Böll’s belief in and promotion of citizen participation in politics is the model for the foundation’s work.

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