Interventions: New Studies in Medieval Culture Ethan Knapp, Series Editor REVIVALIST FANTASY Alliterative Verse and Nationalist Literary History RANDY P. SCHIFF THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITYPRESS Columbus Copyright © 2011 by The Ohio State University. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schiff, Randy P., 1972– Revivalist fantasy : alliterative verse and nationalist literary history / Randy P. Schiff. p. cm.—(Interventions : new studies in medieval culture) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8142-1152-6 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-8142-9251-8 (cd-rom) 1. English poetry—Middle English, 1100–1500—History and criticism. 2. Alliteration. I. Title. II. Series: Interventions : new studies in medieval culture. PR317.A55S36 2011 821’.1093581—dc22 2010047838 This book is available in the following editions: Cloth (ISBN 978-0-8142-1152-6) CD-ROM (ISBN 978-0-8142-9251-8) Cover design by Larry Nozik Type set in Times New Roman Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American Na- tional Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48–1992. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Acknowledgments vii INTRODUCTION REVIVALIST FANTASY: ALLITERATIVE NATIOnaLISM, FROM MODERN TO MEDIEVAL 1 1 BEYOND THE BackWATER: ALLITERATIVE REVIVALISM AND NATIOnaLIST FANTASY 17 2 CROSS-CHANNEL BECOMINGS-ANIMAL: PRIMAL COURTLINESS IN GUILLAUME DE PALERNE AND WILLIAM OF PALERNE 45 3 DesTABILIZING ARTHURIAN EMPIRE: GENDER AND ANXIETY in ALLITERATIVE TEXTS OF THE MILITARIZED MIDLANDS 72 4 BORDERLAND SUBVERSIONS: ANTI-IMPERIAL ENERGIES IN THE AwNTYRS OFF ARTHURE AND GOLAGROS AND GAWANE 100 5 BAGS OF BOOKS AND BOOKS AS BAGS: POLITicaL PROTEST, COMMUnicaTIONS TECHNOLOGIES, AND THE PIERS PLOWMAN TRADITION 128 EPILOGUE EPOCHAL HISTORIOGRAPHY AND RE-ENGAGEMENT WITH ALLITERATIVE POEMS 157 Notes 163 Bibliography 229 Index 255 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IRST AND FOREMOST, I would like to thank Aranye Fradenburg, whose insights and enthusiasm have been at the heart of this work. My adviser when this project began, Aranye has remained a key source of counsel, encouragement, and inspiration. F I owe a special debt to Jerold Frakes, who has counseled me on mat- ters great and small in my development of this book. I am grateful for his continued mentorship. To Carol Braun Pasternack I owe great thanks for her searching com- mentary on my work, in both its early and later stages. I wish I could thank Richard Helgerson once more for all his care and cheer in responding to my dissertation. The memory of his warmth and wisdom will always enrich my work. I must acknowledge my unique debt to Patricia Clare Ingham and to the other, anonymous reader who responded to my manuscript. Their extraor- dinary insights have enriched my argument, and their careful analysis has saved me from much error. Any infelicities in the present work are my responsibility. I am very grateful to Malcolm Litchfield, Maggie Diehl, Martin Boyne, and everyone else involved at The Ohio State University Press for helping bring my manuscript to print. In this respect I also owe a singular debt to Ethan Knapp for enabling this wonderful venue for my work. To Jim Holstun I am very grateful for feedback on so much of my work, which is all the stronger for his having engaged with it. I must also thank Graham Hammill, for his rich readings of two chapters and his sage advice on my general project. Reflecting on the road leading to this book, I owe a singular debt to Carolyn Dinshaw, who inspired me to pursue medieval studies and who gave me my first, fateful taste of alliterative verse. vii viii · ACKNOWLEDGMENTS An earlier version of portions of chapter 2 appeared in Exemplaria 21 (2009); I am grateful to Maney Publishing for allowing me to reprint this expanded and updated version and to the editors, Patricia Clare Ingham, James J. Paxson, Tison Pugh, and Elizabeth Scala. An earlier version of portions of chapter 4 appeared in Speculum 84 (2009); I thank Speculum and its editor, Paul E. Szarmach, for permission to reprint the work. For providing access to manuscripts that I consulted in my research, I owe thanks to all at the British Library; the Bodleian Library, Oxford Uni- versity; and the Cambridge University Library. For financial assistance in my archival research, I must thank the English Department and the College of Letters and Science at UC Santa Barbara and the English Department and College of Arts and Sciences at SUNY Buffalo. For help with the cover design, I am grateful to the Pierpont Morgan Library and to the Julian Park Publication Fund. For feedback on my general project, I am grateful, among many others, to Rachel Ablow, Barbara Bono, Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, Siobhain Calkin, Jody Enders, Laurie Finke, Geraldine Heng, Kathy Lavezzo, David Mar- shall, Carla Mazzio, Cristanne Miller, Michael O’Connell, David Schmid, Martin Shichtman, Scott Stevens, Andy Stott, Joseph Taylor, Katherine Terrell, and Candace Waid. For comments on chapter 1, I owe thanks to Ruth Mack; Thomas Hahn, who invited me to present before the Early Studies Group at the Univer- sity of Rochester; Russell Peck; Alan Lupack; and Susan Eilenberg, who invited me to address the SUNY Buffalo English Department. For chapter 2, I am grateful to my anonymous readers at Exemplaria; Patricia Clare Ingham; Elizabeth Scala; and Molly Lynde-Recchia, for inviting me to present at the 2008 Kalamazoo congress. Regarding chapter 3 material, I am indebted to Mili Clark; Mark Amodio, who invited me to present at the 2007 Medieval Academy meeting at the University of Toronto; Kurt Heinzelman; and Sue Niebrzydowski, who invited me to present at the 2008 NCS congress at Swansea University. Regarding chapter 4 material, I am grateful to Paul Szarmach; my anonymous readers at Speculum; Jacqueline Brown; Sandro Sticca; Steven Deng; the students in my 2006 Pre-Postcolonialism Seminar at SUNY Buf- falo; Scott Kleinman, who invited me to present at Kalamazoo in 2003; and Ned Lee Fielden, who invited me to present at the 2005 MAP meeting. For chapter 5, I am grateful to Frank Grady; Robert J. Meyer-Lee, who invited me to present at the 2001 MLA meeting; Aranye Fradenburg, who invited me to present at the 2006 NCS congress; and Daniel Hack, who invited me to present before the SUNY Buffalo English Department. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS · ix I am very grateful for the support of my family and friends, especially my parents, Barbara and Neal Schiff. More than anyone, I thank my wife, Maki Becker, and my sons Duncan and Desmond, for all their loving support. This book is dedicated most especially to you three. INTRODUCTION Revivalist Fantasy ALLITERATIVE NATIOnaLISM, FROM MODERN TO MEDIEVAL N an 1868 essaY on alliterative verse, Walter W. Skeat argued that, to move forward in framing the “rules and laws of English pros- ody,” literary critics must cast their eyes inward, reconsidering their discipline’s foundational assumptions.1 Critiquing the “absurd and Imischievously false terminology” produced by applying concepts from “temporal” classical verse to the “accentual” English corpus,2 Skeat urged scholars to generate “genuine English terms” for the study of “English” poetic works.3 While Skeat is concerned primarily with meter rather than politics, it is telling that he turns to a nationalist rhetoric of uniqueness and authenticity when considering alliterative prosody. Although Skeat’s ter- minological suggestions did not reshape prosodic studies—we still speak of the iamb and trochee, for example, rather than Skeat’s “genuine English terms,” Return and Tonic4—his insistence on retooling a classically oriented criticism of alliterative meter led to considerable standardization. Indeed, Skeat’s key claims concerning alliterative verse—that of a four-stress line, with two caesura-divided half-verses, each marked by two major stresses, with the stresses tending to be marked, in various patterns, by alliteration— still form the basic framework within which most literary historians work.5 Skeat’s call for literary critical self-critique has been echoed in recent medievalist work.6 Critics practicing the New Medievalism have turned increasingly to self-reflexive studies of literary criticism’s institutional con- text. The New Medievalist writing of “the history of medieval studies from within the perspective of the discipline itself”7 has been aptly described as an “Oedipal” project that directs critical violence against the enduring work of foundational scholar-fathers.8 Narrating the “family romance” of medi- eval studies, New Medievalists have foregrounded the epochal nineteenth- century transition from amateur to professional literary criticism9 and thus have called attention to the often hidden ideological legacy generated by the 1 2 · INTRODUCTION institutionalization of literary studies.10 As I shall argue, nationalism proves the most powerful paradigm of this nineteenth-century critical inheritance. Tracking the development and continuing impact of the literary his- torical concept of an Alliterative Revival, Revivalist Fantasy participates in such disciplinary history. I will define Alliterative Revivalism as the dis- semination of the theory that the Old English alliterative line re-emerged in a mid-fourteenth-century Middle English literary “efflorescence” practiced by a single, nativist “school” that competed with French-influenced, syl- labic poets associated with the English South.11 I will maintain that the Alliterative Revival is a medievalist rather than medieval phenomenon that originates from, and continues to sustain, Western nationalist inter- ests linking British, American, and Continental scholars. Tracing the Allit- erative Revival only so far back as the nineteenth century, I will argue that Euro-American nationalists project modern racialism into the Middle Ages, using the fantasy of an atavistic alliterative movement to narrate the rise of a Chaucerian proto-modernity. In foregrounding critical fantasy, I do not claim an objective vantage point from which the folly of past scholars can be isolated and removed, exposing a stable medieval corpus beneath.