WildAid 450 Pacific Avenue, Suite 201 San Francisco CA 94133 415.834.3174 Fax 415.834.1759 [email protected] www.wildaid.org The END of the LINE ?

global threats to sharks

WildAid The End of the Line? © 2001 WildAid All rights reserved.

Principal author Susie Watts

Editors Peter Knights Juliette Williams

Additional material, research and production Alexandra Sangmeister Victor Wu Bruce McCoubrey Rebecca Chen Mayuri Kanda Wai Yee Ng Alice Ng Cindy Arch

Photos: cover © Doug Perrine back cover © Ben Cropp/Innerspace Visions this page © Bruce McCoubrey

Design by Daniel Brown

WildAid would like to thank the following (whose generous assistance in no way implies their agreement with or endorsement of the contents, conclusions or recommendations in this report): for the production and distribution of this report Wendy P. McCaw Foundation for supporting WildAid’s Shark Conservation Program Barbara Delano Foundation Homeland Foundation David and Lucile Packard Foundation AVINA Foundation Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund Wendy P. McCaw Foundation Wildlifeline for their assistance with information, photos, and WildAid support About Christopher Angell Mr Abdulrazak, Kenya WildAid’s Shark Conservation Program aims to: Peter and Wendy Benchley Nicola Beynon ❧ George Burgess Raise awareness globally about threats to sharks Merry Camhi Andy Cobb ❧Promote sustainable management of shark populations Leonard Compagno Mathieu Ducrocq ❧End the practice of finning globally Bob Endreson Mark Erdmann ❧Reduce excess demand for shark fin Sonja Fordham Sarah Fowler Malcom Francis In addition, WildAid is providing financial and technical support to the Suwanna Gauntlett Charles Goodfellow Galapagos and Cocos Island for patrolling and enforcing the Marine Reserves. Mr Ishmael, Kenya Clive James Kelly Kok Through the WildAid 100% Direct Fund all public donations can go straight to Mr K.H. Kwong field protection with no administrative or overhead deductions. Jerome Manning Rick Martin Bruce McCoubrey WildAid is a US registered public charity with offices in San Francisco, Bangkok, Neal Myerberg Wai Yee Ng London, Washington DC and Vladivostok. Linda Paul Amadou Saine Mr. Shafi, India WildAid provides direct protection to endangered wildlife. We train and equip Howard Shaw wildlife law enforcement teams in the field. We campaign nationally and Alex Smailes Malcolm Smale internationally for truly effective wildlife protection. We enlist local communities Colin Speedie in wildlife programs and help local conservation groups grow stronger. We John Stevens Carol Stimson launch innovative programs to educate the public about the importance of Tony Wu wildlife and healthy ecosystems. We use investigative research and mass publicity Columbia Tristar to expose illegal trafficking and to reduce the market for wildlife products. We Discovery Channel Asia help to preserve and expand wildlife habitat, so protected species can flourish Ocean Wildlife Campaign The Shark Trust once again. Universal Home Video

Printed on recycled paper. To learn more visit www.wildaid.org Contents FOREWORD 3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4

AN INTRODUCTION TO SHARKS 6

HOW WE USE SHARKS 8

WHY WE NEED SHARKS 10 THREATS TO SHARKS

BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY 14

INCREASING FISHING 15

OVERFISHING 16

BYCATCH 17

THE SHARK FIN TRADE 18

LACK OF MANAGEMENT 20

ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES 22

ILLEGAL FISHING 24

SPECIES AT RISK 26 COUNTRY REPORTS

ASIA 32

AFRICA 42

LATIN AMERICA 46

EUROPE 49

NORTH AMERICA 50

OCEANIA 52

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 54

APPENDIX: PROBLEMS FACING GLOBAL FISHERIES 56

REFERENCES 60 Hammerhead sharks in the Galapagos Foreword

Save Our Sharks

ince earliest times, human beings have relied on wild This report is not a scientific study or a systematic global resources. For most of our history, we were just trade review. Rather it is an attempt to assemble a broad S another link in the food chain, another predator. overview in lay terms of the factors likely to affect the survival Increasingly our ever-expanding populations, our technology of sharks. And it is a call to action. and organization mean we have become a superpredator with Using sharks sustainably is not just an option for the poor few of nature’s checks and balances. We now farm resources to fishing communities that depend on shark meat as a protein produce them on the scale we desire—and fisheries are one of source, it is a necessity. Nor is it an option for those who wish the world’s last great wild harvests. Yet, in the last fifty years to continue eating shark fin soup. No sharks, no shark fin humanity has proven beyond a doubt that the oceans are not soup. It is sadly ironic that in countries such as Kenya and infinite. What seemed to be an inexhaustible supply as recently Brazil people are losing their subsistence food to supply one of as twenty years ago has, in many areas, been taken to its limits the world’s most expensive culinary items. and beyond. Leading marine biologists recently warned that As well as being a food security issue, it is likely that we had been wrong to suppose that we could not cause the removing sharks will have serious repercussions for many other extinction of a marine fish species—we are already doing this. species, which may ultimately disrupt fisheries with far greater Sharks are likely to be in the first round of marine economic value. We may only discover this when it is too late. extinctions caused by human activity. As top predators they What hope then for sharks, and ultimately the oceans? are naturally relatively scarce, but also highly vulnerable. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Some have gestation periods longer than an elephant, produce (FAO) has recognized the crisis and asked its 190 members to only a handful of young and take up to 25 years to mature. devise management plans by February 2001. However, the When they have faced directed fishing pressure, response of member states has been poor to date some populations have crashed, taking decades for “Sharks are and other international bodies have been slow to a stock to recover, if ever. play their role in conserving shark stocks. Though they have swum the oceans since before likely to be in Solutions will come only from a combination the dinosaurs, they have never faced a predator as the first round of actions: learning more about sharks, reducing voracious as industrialized humanity. of marine fishing pressure, stopping unnecessary bycatch, Traditionally they have been seen as more of a monitoring shark fishing and trade, and more nuisance by fishermen than a saleable commodity extinctions” effective enforcement of regulations. However, and so were relatively little impacted on a global none of these measures will be effective if the scale. Many of the poorest fishing communities demand for shark products— and in particular consume shark meat themselves as it has so little market value. the fins—is not reduced to sustainable levels. But in the last few decades the situation has dramatically This requires a truly global effort, but also strong changed. As other fisheries have been depleted, fishermen have leadership from Asia, where a dramatic leap in awareness, compensated with sharks. A relatively obscure custom of the concern and self-restraint among consumers is needed. There wealthy from southern China—using the needles of shark fins is nothing wrong with eating shark fin soup, there are just too in soup as an ingredient to add texture, but not flavor—has many of us doing it. The industry needs regulating to prevent burgeoned to the point where shark fin soup has become an stock depletions and the wastage of “finning”. Those who wish almost ubiquitous dish at weddings, banquets and business to maintain the tradition of shark fin soup should be the dinners throughout the Chinese world. What was once eaten loudest voices calling for regulation. on a special occasion by the privileged few is now regularly We still have an irrational fear of sharks which may eaten by hundreds of millions of people. explain our lack of will to conserve them. Perhaps because we The word has gone out to fishermen far and wide that shark fear the unknown and so much about sharks is still a mystery. fins mean money, regardless of whether the rest of the body is Yet increasingly the well-informed are developing a respect for dumped overboard. The shark fin trade has gone global. these magnificent predators, some of nature’s most successful Fisheries management for sharks has been left at the designs. Divers now cherish encounters with sharks, as starting block. Remarkably, no species of sharks is yet terrestrial tourists do with elephants and gorillas, suggesting protected internationally. There are few data and little new ways for us to profit from sharks without destroying them. monitoring of catches to alert us to population crashes. Only a handful of countries have any management of shark fisheries at all. The consequences are easy to predict, but hard to Peter Knights document, as so little reliable data is available. Executive Director, WILDAID © C. P. HUMANN/INNERSPACE VISIONS THE END OF THE LINE? 3 © P. COLLA/INNERSPACE VISIONS

catches rose from 622,908mt in 1985, to over 800,000mt in Executive Summary 1998. A number of species are now considered endangered, Sharks have inhabited the world’s oceans for over 400 threatened or vulnerable. million years. They have widespread global distribution and No sharks are protected internationally. Only a handful of they play a vital role in maintaining the health of ocean countries manage shark fisheries. ecosystems. We utilize them for a number of products, such as meat, cartilage and fins. They are a critical food source for Artisanal fishermen in the developing world are losing their many in developing countries. They are an increasingly catches to modern technology. In many areas, shark important revenue source for dive tourism around the world. abundance has declined due to the arrival of modern longliners and trawlers, many of which are foreign-owned and Sharks are highly vulnerable to overexploitation due to their fish illegally. With human populations increasing and shark longevity, late maturity and slow reproduction rates. Shark stocks decreasing, poor countries are being deprived of an fisheries have often followed a “boom and bust” pattern. essential source of protein. Sharks are being overfished in many parts of the world. Some An estimated 50% of all sharks taken are caught shark populations have declined by 90%. As bony (teleost) fish unintentionally as bycatch in other fisheries. Each year, up to have declined due to overfishing and demand for fins has 800,000mt of sharks may be caught due to the indiscriminate expanded sharks are increasingly targeted. Reported world

4 THE END OF THE LINE? fishing technology of other fisheries. Data are unreliable as Consumers are largely unaware of the origins of shark fin. bycatch is largely unmonitored and unrecorded. Studies in Hong Kong and Taiwan show that consumers have little understanding of where shark fin soup comes from, of Marine Reserves are the new target of illegal fisheries. Many overfishing, of illegal shark fishing or of the practice of of the world’s marine protected areas, such as the Galapagos finning. Islands and Cocos Island, are now regularly fished illegally for increasingly valuable shark fins. Heavy metals, chemicals and discarded plastics pollute the water—and the sharks in it. As more of the world uses the The demand for shark fin soup is at an all-time high. As oceans as dumping grounds, toxicity to sharks increases. affluence has grown in Asia, and in China particularly, so has Marine and coastal degradation exacerbate this ominous the market for luxury items. Reported trade in fins more than threat to sharks, and those who eat them. doubled from 3,011mt in 1985, to 7,048mt in 1997. Lack of research and knowledge may signal the end of the Shark fin is one of the most expensive seafood products. At line for sharks. Effective conservation and management are up to US$100 per bowl for shark fin soup, demand—and hindered by meager insight into the biology, life history, profit—have greatly increased pressure on shark populations. distribution, migration and exploitation of most shark species. Now sharks in all regions of the globe are sought solely for The prospect of a food chain minus its apex predators may their fins, wasting as much as 99% of the animal. mean the end of the line for many more species.

THE END OF THE LINE? 5 An Introduction to Sharks

An Introduction to Sharks © M. ERDMANN

WHALE SHARK Rhincodon typus

WHAT IS A SHARK? people would generally recognize as Note on terminology “sharks,” along with around 630

In this report, harks comprise about seven species of skates and rays. Chimaeras, “shark” refers to all percent of living fish such as elephant fish and ghost chondrichthyans species. They inhabit almost sharks, are thought to comprise 50 except in citations or 2 S ILLUSTRATION © BARBARA every marine ecosystem on earth species. verbatim quotations. HOOPES/WILDLIFE EDUCATION LTD. The term “fishermen” and are found in all the world’s refers to individuals of oceans, as well as in many inland EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESS either gender engaged in fishing activity. For waterways. Unlike bony fish, shark the most part, only skeletons (with the exception of In evolutionary terms, sharks are secondary citations jaws and vertebrae) are composed of one of the most successful families are given in the 1 reference list. cartilage. of animals, having existed in the All weights have Sharks and their close relatives, world’s oceans for hundreds of been converted into skates, rays and chimaeras—known millions of years. The earliest shark LEARNING FROM SHARKS metric tons (mt) and all values to US collectively as Chondrichthyans—fall species predate the first dinosaurs dollars. into two main groups. Elasmobranchs by 100 million years. They have Scientists are still discovering the include the 490 or so species which survived extinction events with their unique characteristics of shark diversity relatively intact and may biology. It is known that they have therefore make excellent indicator extra senses and that some species MIGRATION species in gauging the effects of can generate body heat for greater human activity on marine muscle efficiency. The Some shark species migrate vast distances to find ecosystems. hydrodynamics of their skin has food or to reproduce. provided inspiration for the ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE swimwear industry. A new In 2000, a blue shark, Prionace glauca, tagged off product—Fastskin—replicates the Tasmania was caught off the coast of southwest Since they are often the “apex,” or microscopic toothlike structures on Africa, 9,500 kilometers (km) away.4 top predators in their ecosystems, shark skin and is intended to help A spiny dogfish, Squalus acanthias, tagged off the depletion or removal of sharks swimmers increase their speed. It is Washington state, US, appeared in Japan seven is likely to affect marine ecosystems thought that, by reducing drag, years later, a journey of 6,000km.5 and the abundance of other fish swimming speeds could be species in ways that cannot increased by up to three percent.3 Sharks tagged and released in Cornwall, UK, currently be predicted. Many The US Navy is reported to have have been caught in the waters of New York state, marine experts believe that sharks studied shark skin and propulsion US.6 are vital in maintaining marine in considering a new generation of Nine tags attached to sharks in 1998 by UK biodiversity and concern has been submarines. NASA is reported to anglers were returned from Portugal and Spain in raised that some species may have considered using shark skin as 1999. All the sharks had been caught by become extinct before their a model for the hull of the Space longliners.6 ecological role is fully understood. Shuttle.

6 THE END OF THE LINE? GREAT WHITE SHARK Carcharodon carcharias

GREAT HAMMERHEAD Sphyrna mokarran

SAND TIGER SHARK BASKING SHARK Odontaspis taurus Cetorhinus maximus THRESHER SHARK Alopias vulpinus

MAKO SHARK Isurus oxyrinchus

GOBLIN SHARK Mitsukurina owstoni

TIGER SHARK Galeocerdo cuvieri

BLUE SHARK Prionace glauca

WOBBEGONG Orectolobus ornatus HORN SHARK FRILLED SHARK Hetereodontus francisci Chlamydoselachus anguineus LEOPARD SHARK Triakis semifasciata

SHARK FACTS Sharks range from the world’s largest Sharks have seven senses: hearing, fish, the plankton-eating whale shark, sight, touch, smell (which can range for Sharks diverged from bony fish 400 Rhincodon typus, which can reach 14m in several miles), taste, electrosense (which million years ago, evolving without swim length, to the 15cm spined pygmy shark, picks up weak electrical fields), and bladders or lungs, and with teeth not in Squaliolus laticaudus. lateral line and pit organs (which pick up 1 sockets but attached to the jaw by soft Most shark species are small and weak vibrations). tissue and continually replaced. Sharks harmless to humans. Half of them reach Sharks have been shown to be capable have no gill covers, bony fin spines or less than 1m in length and are 80% of learning and can display complex 1 prominent scales. Shark skin consists of smaller than an adult human. social behavior that is not fully tiny scales or denticles which channel Some shark species lay eggs and understood. They have brain-to-body 1 water to reduce friction. others give birth to live pups, sometimes ratios well within the ranges for birds after lengthy gestation periods. and mammals.4

THE END OF THE LINE? 7 How We Use Sharks

How We Use Sharks RECREATIONAL FISHING Increasingly, recreational fishermen are moving towards a MEAT Recreational shark fishing is a catch-and-release policy for most popular pastime whose large species. However, this hark meat is eaten in most, proponents have often sounded practice is not without problems, if not all, countries of the the alarm on declining catches as recreational fishermen usually Sworld, although and lobbied for protective allow sharks to “run with the consumption is much lower than measures. However, recreational bait” before hooking them, which that of bony fish species. Unless fisheries can contribute results in more gut-hooked quickly processed, the high urea significantly to shark mortality in animals. Virtually all recreational content can render some shark some regions.9 Parts of the US releases of large fishes involve meat inedible. In some countries in East Coast may well host more cutting the leader, leaving the developing world, such as Sri recreational fishing for large animals with hooks in the gut, Lanka, Mexico and parts of Africa, sharks than anywhere else in the throat, or moving mouth parts. shark meat is a significant part of world. In the southern states of Hooks embedded in this way can the human diet and provides much the US, recreational fishermen cause serious injury or death. of the protein requirements of catch large numbers of small This could be solved by the use of poorer communities. coastal sharks.9 In the past, de-hooking tools, allowing even In the West, sharks were viewed as pests gut-hook removal.9 shark meat has which ate target fish, traditionally been such as marlin and Discards from a fishing tournament. viewed as inferior. swordfish, off the To make it more hook. Now there are appealing the so few big sharks spiny dogfish, a that this is less of a widely eaten problem, but with shark species, is recreational fishing marketed under for billfish itself in names like rock decline, sharks have salmon in the become target UK, saumonette species.9 (“little salmon”) © S. GRUBER/INNERSPACE VISIONS in France and Schillerlocken (“locks of

© B. MCCOUBREY/WILDAID © M. ERDMANN Schiller”) and SPIRITUAL ASPECT OF In Fiji, the shark god was seeaal (“sea eel”) SHARKS known as Dakuwaqa, from Top: Shark meat in Germany.7 Recently, mako (Isurus whom the high chiefs of is an important oxyrrinchus) and thresher (Alopias Sharks retain a spiritual Cakaudrove were believed to be source of protein vulpinus) meat has begun to increase importance in numerous beliefs direct descendants. in many in popularity. around the world: developing In Asia many types of shark are In Japan, the shark was an countries eaten. In Japan, meat from the In Hawaii, the shark is an important mythological figure shortfin mako shark is considered animal deity still revered today and was paid homage as the Above: “Rock highly palatable and is reported to as the greatest Aumakua God of the Storms. salmon” in (guardian angel). Stories exist of British “fish and be comparable in price to In parts of Senegal, sharks are 8 canoe paddlers getting into chips” is spiny swordfish. The meat is processed believed to be harmless to difficulties at sea, only to be dogfish, a into “hanpe”, a type of fish cake. humans. If a shark does attack, guided to a safe place by a species of shark Shark meat is often ground into a it is considered to have been shark.10 paste called “surimi”. Both blue “invaded” by an evil spirit. In the shark and spiny dogfish meat are In Vietnam, the whale shark village of Ngor, there is a sage eaten in Japan, although the former was known as Lord Fish. Its who removes evil spirits from needs to be processed quickly to remains were given sacred invaded sharks and renders avoid deterioration.8 burials. them harmless.11

8 THE END OF THE LINE? How We Use Sharks

SHARKS FOR SALE SHARK FIN SOUP not giving face to your guests.”14 This display of wealth and generosity is Sharks provide a wide variety of products, The custom of using shark fin in measured by the cost of the food and some of which are still sought-after cooking is said to date back to the reflects on the efforts of hosts to commercially. Shark liver was a major second century BC. Originally a provide their best hospitality to guests. source of vitamin A until other sources southern Chinese dish, it spread For many superstitious Chinese, were obtained. throughout Chinese communities in even the words for shark fin have a Asia and the rest of the world only bounteous ring. In the famous Chinese Meat: Human food, animal feed, fertilizer relatively recently.12 saying Nian nian you yu, meaning “yearly Liver oil: Consumption of fins was largely prosperity”, yu means “plentiful” (in Tanning and confined to the privileged classes, terms of material wealth) and because textile owing to the difficulty of obtaining fins it has the same tone as yu (fish), it is industries, and the complex processes for important that a fish dish is served at manufacture of preparing them. The processing has Chinese New Year meals, to represent lubricants, eight stages. Frozen shark fin is and welcome prosperity. Although paint, defrosted overnight. Both defrosted steamed fish is commonly used as the cosmetics, and fresh fins are blanched in very hot symbol, consumers now often have yu vitamin A and pharmaceutical products water and the denticles scraped off. chi (shark fins) as well.15 Then the fins are placed in ice water, Shark fin soup can be very Squalene from liver: making it easier to remove the expensive. Depending on the amount Medicinal cartilage. The fins of shark fin in the Blood: Medicinal are sun-dried on soup, the price can (anticoagulants) racks and then range from US$10 transferred to a to as high as Corneas: Medicinal cool drying room US$100 per bowl. (human transplants) to prevent Although the Cartilage/cartilage softening. Finally, quality and texture extracts: Medicinal they are of shark fin is (used to treat refrigerated. At the © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS important in arthritis, cooking stage, the fins are soaked making the soup (the longer and rheumatism and again, this time to remove the odor. thicker the strands, the better and cancer), artificial After they have softened, further costlier they are), the fins are skin, burn preparation is up to the chef1.13 essentially tasteless. The flavor of shark treatments The social standing of Chinese fin soup lies entirely on the preparation families is said to have depended upon of the broth, which is usually chicken their chefs’ ability prepare shark fin soup. The broth is prepared separately © SUSIE WATTS dishes. Chefs were occasionally known from the fins; they are combined just Teeth: to have lost their heads for sub- before serving. A leading chef in Traditionally used standard preparations of fins.12 Singapore explained, “The fins with by Maoris to make Because of its association with their noodle-like cartilaginous tissues weapons/jewelery, privilege and social rank, shark fin have no taste in themselves and are by Inuit to make soup is served to celebrate important used only as a soup thickener”14. knives, sold as events such as weddings, birthdays, or Even though it is widely known that tourist souvenirs even business functions. During shark fin do not have any taste, the Chinese New Year celebrations, the demand for shark fin soup continues to consumption of shark fin soup has an escalate. In recent years, restaurants are Skin: Food delicacy, important cultural symbolism. rumored to put fewer and fewer shark abrasive, tanned to There is also the issue of “face” fins into the soup, or in some cases, to make tough leather (respect), which is of paramount mix real shark fin fibers with artificial products, imitated importance in the Chinese culture. As a fibers.16 Far from turning their backs on in manufacture of leading chef in Singapore explained, “If shark fins, consumers are opting for an swimwear1 you don’t serve shark fin soup at emerging new dish, which consists of weddings, or at important dinners, the whole unbroken fin, evidence that it is host will look very cheap and that is the authentic product.14

ALL PHOTOS © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS EXCEPT WHERE INDICATED

THE END OF THE LINE? 9 Why We Need Sharks

Why We Need Sharks INDIA

A MAJOR SOURCE OF PROTEIN FOR POOR Research conducted by WildAid has revealed the COASTAL COMMUNITIES extent of shark catch declines and their impact on artisanal fishermen. Coastal communities in Andhra any coastal communities in the Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have reported a significant developing world depend on shark meat decline in shark catches over the past six years. In Mas an important source of protein. The 1999, WildAid visited 15 fishing communities on the “Depleting sharks meat is often sun-dried or salted to preserve it. For east coast and interviewed a number of traditional in certain some communities in India, Africa, Mexico and Sri fishermen. Although unable to make assessments of Lanka, for example, shark meat is the primary—and individual species’ declines, locals suggested that ecosystems and sometimes only—source of protein. The reliance on overall shark catches had declined between 50%—70% under certain sharks has increased as overfishing has depleted over the previous five years.17 conditions could stocks of other fish. In 1999, fishermen in Chennai (Madras) reported WildAid’s research has shown that shark catches in that commercial vessels operating within India’s EEZ lead to unforeseen a number of traditional shark fisheries have declined— were posing a serious threat to artisanal catches. and devastating sometimes drastically. The declines have often Shark finning on these commercial vessels is viewed as consequences” coincided with the arrival of industrial (and often a major reason for the apparent declines.17 foreign) fishing vessels in the area, which frequently R AMON B ONFIL, operate in flagrant breach of local fishing regulations. KENYA B IOLOGIST, SHARKS Such declines are poorly documented at local or 2000 CONFERENCE, national level, as few developing countries have active Fishermen and fish dealers in Kenya have reported H AWAII fisheries management or systems for collecting even serious declines in shark catches and, without basic data. exception, they blame this on the appearance of industrial longliners and shrimp trawlers over the past decade.18 In July 1999, a spokesman for the shark- fishing village of Ngomeni in northern Kenya reported that, before the arrival of the longliners, a night’s catch would feed the village and provide enough meat for sale outside the village. Now it does not provide enough for the village.19 At least 20 trawlers were reported to be in the immediate vicinity of Ngomeni, each using three to five centimeter mesh nets, which were Left: Declines in “sweeping the sea clean” and leaving virtually many fisheries in nothing for the shark fishermen of Ngomeni the developing (who have always used 20-23 cm mesh nets “for world have conservation reasons”).19 Malindi, a traditional coincided with fishing village for generations, has experienced the arrival of severely reduced landings and now sharks and industrial fishing other fish for general consumption are trucked in either local or 20 foreign. from Mombasa, 90-minutes away.

Opposite page: MEXICO Computer modelling Sharks are described as a resource vital to the suggests that the Mexican economy.21 Many poor Mexicans subsist removal of on a diet of shark meat.22 The bull shark, sharks, like this Carcharhinus leucas, is widely eaten in Mexico and tiger shark, may is probably the most important from a have counter- commercial point of view.21 An estimated 80% of intuitive effects Mexico’s shark catches are accounted for by the on other marine 23 species. artisanal fleet. © B. MCCOUBREY/WILDAID

10 THE END OF THE LINE? Why We Need Sharks

GUARDIANS OF OUR OCEANS’ HEALTH SHARK ATTACKS: FACTS & FICTION Sharks have always had a bad press. They have been seen as monsters of Although research on the ecological role of sharks is the deep, waiting to pounce on any human who dares to venture into the still scarce, it is known that some shark species play water. Books and films, such as Jaws, are often blamed for this myth, but vital roles in marine ecosystems and are therefore sharks have been people’s worst nightmares for centuries. Lurid headlines crucial indicators of marine health. The depletion or reinforce this on the rare occasions that an attack take place. removal of sharks may lead to increases or declines in Resort developers have been known to employ shark experts to remove other species, with unpredictable consequences for any possible predators from the area.26 Hawaii maintained a shark ecosystems. Sharks maintain the “genetic fitness” of eradication program for decades after the death of a schoolchild in 1959. their prey by removing the sick and the weak and help In some parts of the world concern for shark attacks is so great that to keep their population sizes in check.24 It is likely swimming areas are cordonned off by massive shark nets.26 that the removal of significant numbers of sharks will Very few of the more than 400 species of shark have been known to affect numerous species below attack humans and when they do, it is likely that they them in the food chain. have mistaken humans for their normal prey. It is believed that may shark “attacks” are actually Dynamic simulation models attempts by the shark to identify whether or not an have been used to predict object in the water is edible. There are numerous ecosystem changes (over a 100- examples of sharks taking a bite out of a human and year period) resulting from a then, realising its mistake, swimming away. rapid depletion of sharks due to Recently there have been press reports that shark overfishing. Some of the results attacks were diminishing,27a,27b followed by reports were unpredictable and suggest that they were increasing. George Burgess, Director that shark depletion manifests of the International Shark Attack File, points out itself in the food chain in that the apparent increase in attacks is “a reflection complex ways;25 of human population growth and increased interest The Venezuelan shelf model in aquatic recreation rather than a rise in the rate of revealed that two major prey attacks.” In fact, all other factors being equal, there species for sharks actually are likely to be more attacks each year as human

decreased in abundance after © D. FLEETHAM/INNERSPACE VISIONS population grows and we spend increased leisure the removal of sharks, while time in the sea. However, “the attack rate is not there were significant increases in minor prey species;25 increasing—in fact it is likely decreasing as a result of diminished shark stocks and large increases in human utilization of our nearshore waters.”28 The Alaska Gyre model produced unexpected Worldwide, there were nine reported shark fatalities in 2000, higher results in which many species underwent a rapid than the 5.4 average for the 1990s. However, during the 1990s there were initial increase in biomass, followed by a slow and years when 14, 12, 11 and 9 fatalities occurred. The numbers fluctuate sustained decline. Towards the end of the 100 year from year to year. Last year there were four fatalities, so the average for the period most species returned to baseline levels, while a last two years is 6.5, not far off the ten-year average of 5.4. In 1998 there few (mostly unimportant prey) species decreased was only one fatal shark attack in Australia and in 1999 only two. There further25; and were no fatalities at all in 1994, 1996 and 1997.28 The Hawaiian Reef model revealed that the removal In late 2000, three fatal attacks in Australia within a 6-week period of tiger sharks, unsurprisingly, caused reef sharks, prompted local speculation about a possible upward trend in shark turtles, bottom fish, seabirds and other aquatic attacks. Theories ranged from global warming to a lack other “prey” species to increase. However, an unexpected outcome species. After the third of these attacks, which took place off a Perth beach was “a total and rapid crash in the abundance of tuna (the first in this area for 75 years), it was announced that the shark would and jacks.” This was explained by the proliferation of be tracked down and killed. The fisheries headquarters switchboard was seabirds following the removal of the tiger shark (their reported to be jammed with calls, 75% of which were made by people main predator); tunas and jacks are major prey for opposed to the killing of the shark.29 seabirds. Likewise, the tunas are the bottom fishes’ However, the Australian total of six attacks this year (three non-fatal) main predators and their removal caused the increase was, in fact, consistent with the Australian yearly average of 5.3 recorded in in bottom fish as a “third degree” effect of the tiger the 1990s.28 Shark attacks sometimes occur in clusters within a given shark removal.25 calendar year and then do not occur at all for lengthy periods. The fact remains that it is statistically more dangerous to get into a car and drive to the beach than it is to get into the water. More people are killed each year by lightning, by bee stings, by dog bites or by slipping in the bath than are killed by sharks.

THE END OF THE LINE? 11 Why We Need Sharks

SHARK TOURISM followed an incident when a large number Sharks are rapidly becoming the stars of of sharks, believed to diving tourism and in some cases are far be regular visitors at more valuable alive than dead.26 There the shark feeding are an estimated 200 shark dive-sites sites, were finned worldwide.30 Shark feeding is now a well- and discarded.34 Dive established activity and in great demand operators in the from diving tourists. Shark tourism is Bahamas cater to also a very important factor in 2,000 visitors a year supporting policies and legislation in and dive tourism on favor of shark conservation.31 the islands is heavily In some parts of the Philippines, the marketed, using whale shark has become the focus of sharks as the main tourism. Traditionally the warm seas attraction. The sparked the peak shark hunting seasons, number of visitors is but today tourists are able to view whale THE BAHAMAS increasing 20% a year. sharks either from boats or in the water. In some areas of the world, white A code of conduct has been developed to Longlining was completely outlawed in shark populations are zealously ensure that the sharks are not unduly the Bahamas in the mid-1990s, protected by communities that regard disturbed. Local fishermen are learning although the reasons for this are them as an important source of tourist how to become tour operators and unconfirmed. A coalition of tour dive revenue.26 South Africa has become one spotters. Many local people have come operators, under the leadership of the of the world’s most popular countries for to view the species as more valuable alive Bahamas National Trust, had been shark cage diving and it has developed than dead.32 campaigning for this goal.33 This into a multi-million rand industry.35

Cage diving with a great white is billed as the ultimate thrill and is a growing industry. © J. ROTMAN/INNERSPACE VISIONS

12 THE END OF THE LINE? Why We Need Sharks

A Personal Perspective

Ecosystem implications for Overfishing one species can have shark populations resulting unpredictable effects from the effects of fishing on other species

By John Stevens, CSIRO MARINE RESEARCH, HOBART, AUSTRALIA

In recent times, there has been a growing realization that fisheries management needs to consider factors additional to whether catches of the target species are sustainable or not. A more holistic approach is required which

includes, for example, effects on non-target © GREENPEACE/GRACE (bycatch) species, damage caused to the habitat by gear and the effects of discards on Among sharks and rays the direct effects of given that seals are an important item in the populations which scavenge them. These fishing, certainly in terms of general diet of large white sharks in southern Australia objectives have been encompassed by the UN consequences, are fairly well known due to a and most seal numbers are increasing, and Convention on the Law of the Sea, the FAO considerable amount of recent international that shark populations are more likely to be Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and attention. However, there is relatively little decreasing faster than their fish prey. However, several other recent policy documents from hard evidence for the indirect effects of fishing there is virtually no information in the around the world. While these objectives are on this group. Since many sharks and rays are literature on the effects of prey removal on necessary, our understanding of ecosystem predators at or near the top of marine food shark populations. The removal of competitors functioning and interactions are still poor. chains the obvious question to ask is what has been implicated in a shift from a teleost Even in the terrestial environment where happens when large numbers of sharks are dominated community to one dominated by impacts such as deforestation, damming rivers removed? Conversely, what is the effect on skates and dogfish on Georges Bank in the NW and urban sprawl are readily apparent, our these predators of removal of large quantities of Atlantic. Initially, fishing in the area was knowledge of community ecology in terms of their prey species by industrial fisheries? In highly selective targeting gadoids and flounder, predicting changes in abundance of interacting South Africa, an increase in catches of small this was followed by a period of foreign fleets species is poor.36 In the marine environment, sharks was blamed on the removal of large taking a wider range of species including difficulties are orders of magnitude greater sharks in the beach protection program. It was dogfish and skates, and then a reversal to more because of the problems in observing what is suggested that small sharks were important in selective fishing for gadoids and flounder. happening. the diet of large sharks, and with removal of the Survey data showed a significant increase in The effects of fishing are generally divided latter, small sharks had increased due to the catch rate of dogfish and skate over time. into direct and indirect effects. Direct effects reduced predation. However, as is often the The period of selective fishing removed many of through the capture of individual species can case with such hypothesese, this is not the whole the gadoids and flounders. It has been suggested result in changes in abundance, size structure story and there are other explanations. Spiny that dogfish and skates increased in abundance and population parameters (density dependent dogfish have long been considered to have a to exploit available food resources since the change), and at the extreme can lead to major impact on more desirable commercial dietary overlap between dogfish and gadoids extinction. This can affect community structure species through their predation. In the NE and skates and flounder is high. However, through changes in species composition and Pacific, estimates of the consumption of herring again there are different interpretations of diversity. Indirect effects involve trophic by spiny dogfish ranged from 80-250,000t per these data and it has been stated by others that interactions at the community level. These act year. A pest-control fishing program was there is little convincing evidence to suggest that through selective removal of predator or prey actually introduced to reduce their numbers in fishing has ever caused compensatory species, removal of competitors, replacement of that region. However, as noted by Ketchen37 replacement of one fish stock for another. one species by another, habitat damage and there was no apparent increase in herring Models are one way of exploring possible enhancement of food supply through discards. stocks when spiny dogfish were fished down in ecosystem effects of fishing. While the majority Trophic effects are difficult to determine, the 1940s and 1950s. of models are currently relatively simplistic, against a background of natural variation, Following three fatal shark attacks in they do illustrate that responses to shark often poor knowledge at the species level, Australia in the year 2000, a popular view removal may be difficult to predict but may be difficulties in measuring change and usually held by a number of people is that it is a ecologically and economically significant. incomplete knowledge of what the original consequence of the natural food of sharks being John Stevens is one of the world’s leading shark system looked like. reduced through fishing. This seems unlikely biologists.

THE END OF THE LINE? 13 Threats to Sharks

Threats to Sharks Biological Vulnerability

s apex predators, sharks mortality rate. They may have been are not designed for heavy the first vertebrate group to evolve a predation, either by other k–selected life history. While

A © M. CONLIN/INNERSPACE VISIONS marine species or by humans. predation levels on sharks were low Whether caught in directed fisheries the k strategy served sharks well.38 or as bycatch, most shark species are The spiny dogfish is perhaps the Above: Some FEWER SHARKS CAN MEAN unable to withstand protracted most extreme example of the sharks produce LOWER BREEDING RATES periods of heavy exploitation. k–selected life history. Living up to elaborate egg Shark species are generally slow- 70 years, the female does not breed cases If overfished most species of fish growing and long-lived, maturing until she is over twelve years of age. can compensate by increasing egg Below: Many late and with long reproductive Gestation can be up to two years production to take advantage of sharks, like this cycles. They produce very limited and she will produce a maximum of decreased competition for food. lemon shark, numbers of live young or eggs. This 20 live pups. give birth to Because sharks produce relatively makes them inherently vulnerable Lemon shark (Negaprion small numbers of few eggs or pups, there is less to overexploitation and slow to brevirostris) pups develop over a live young capacity to increase reproductive recover from decline. twelve-month period, and their output and it is unlikely to have Unlike most fish, sharks invest mothers require another year before much effect in increasing heavily in a small number of well- mating again. Thus, a mating pair of population growth rate. Increased developed young. Most sharks feed lemon sharks barely reproduce growth rate and juvenile survival their young inside their bodies with themselves over the 24-month may provide some compensatory a yolk, while others provide reproductive cycle. Typically 8–12 mechanisms. Classical models of embryonic nutrition through a pups are born every other year, with fisheries management have placenta. Shark mothers often give a first year mortality approaching assumed that recruitment rate is birth in nursery areas which are 50%. At birth, a lemon shark pup virtually independent of stock size. separated from the rest of the averages 60cm in length and weighs These models are less applicable to population. around one kilo. It grows less than sharks because generally Unlike sharks, most bony fish 10cm in its first year of life and recruitment rate and stock size are species are adapted to a fluctuating requires 13–15 years to become are positively related.39 That is, the environment and are referred to as sexually active.38 larger the stock, the higher the birth “r–selected” species. They are rate. Conversely, reduction of stocks usually small, mature quickly, mate SEGREGATING BY AGE causes a reduction in recruitment. early, and produce large numbers of AND SEX

small offspring which receive little © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS or no parental care but which A further experience a major reproductive characteristic effort and higher natural makes sharks mortality.38 vulnerable to overfishing. Most NOT DESIGNED FOR HEAVY sharks segregate by PREDATION sex and size. This means there are Sharks are generally described as groups consisting “k–selected” species. That is, they solely of mature grow slowly to a large size, mature females, and if late in life, reproduce seasonally such a group is (year after year), produce a few large targeted by offspring—either as eggs or as live fishermen, the young—and experience a effect on breeding correspondingly lower natural can be devastating.

14 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks

Increasing Fishing

lobal exploitation of sharks is 622,908mt in 1985 to 730,784mt in 1994.40 Lanka, Taiwan, the UK and the United very difficult to quantify, since During this period, the reported nominal States. These nations each reported reporting of catches is unreliable catch averaged 678,249mt per year.23 nominal catches of more than 10,000mt G 23 and can be misleading. Member countries of However, it was estimated in 1994 that the annually. the FAO report their shark landings in total world catch was actually more than The FAO reported a considerable different ways and with varying degrees of twice that, at 1.5 million mt, taking into increase in the overall production of shark detail and vast amounts of shark catch are consideration unreported bycatch.41 meat and fins worldwide. Reported world not recorded at all. Over this period notable increases in production of shark meat (fresh, chilled, From the data that exist it is clear that catch occurred in the Northwest Atlantic, frozen, salted, in brine) rose from the commercial exploitation of sharks and the Indian Ocean, and the western Central 35,541mt in 1984 to 57,340mt in 1993, an related species has increased dramatically Pacific regions. The major shark fishing average of almost 44,425mt per year.40 The since the 1940s.40 According to current FAO nations of the world include Argentina, United States, a major exporter of shark data, over 800,000mt of sharks were caught Brazil, France, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, meat, reported soaring exports of fresh and in 1998. The total reported world catch of Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, New Zealand, frozen sharks from 474mt in 1989 to shark and shark-like fish rose from around Pakistan, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sri 8,339mt in 1995.23

HOW MANY SHARKS ARE CAUGHT EVERY YEAR ?

The short answer is nobody knows. Shark catches are so poorly recorded (even less by species) that global shark catches can only be estimated. These numbers vary widely, depending on many unknowns and generally categorize sharks, skates, rays and chimaeras together. In the late 1990s catches reported to the FAO amounted to around 730,000mt worldwide. Actual catches have been estimated to be double the reported catch. On this basis and assuming that the average weight was 10kg, one leading shark scientist estimated that 146 million individuals may be caught per year.2 At the Sharks 2000 Conference in Hawaii, Shark carcasses at Puntarenas, Costa Rica, where fishing for sharks has expanded leading scientists postulated that from dramatically 55-100 million may be a more realistic 820 SOURCE: FAO figure. Right: Nominal Based on an estimated 250 million global catches of 810 consumers, if each consumed two shark sharks, rays and 800 fins per year, and there are assumed to be chimaeras 790 five usable fins per average shark 780 (pectorals, first dorsal and caudal fin), 770 they would consume 100 million sharks per year. 760 Clearly the capacity for the human 750 populace to consume sharks is far greater 740 Metric Tons (thousands) than the shark’s reproductive surplus, 730 which is adjusted to lower levels of natural 720 predation. 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year

THE END OF THE LINE? 15 Overfishing

BOOM AND BUST SHARK FISHERIES

hark populations have generally proved to be fragile when subjected to S 42 unregulated directed fisheries resulting in a pattern of “boom and bust.” Rising catches are followed by rapid declines and very slow recoveries—when stocks are protected. Industrial shark fisheries

have grown steadily since the 1920s © S. WATTS/WILDAID and have frequently involved the Above: Fishermen targeting of unutilized stocks as the catch quickly peaked and never been formally documented. 45 in many parts of catches from established shark declined by the end of the 1950s. India have seen However, anecdotal reports from 41 fisheries have declined. US Pacific angel shark (Squatina catches of sharks artisanal fishermen, divers, researchers and recreational The collapse of the soupfin shark california) catches peaked in decline rapidly fishermen in many parts of the (Galeorhinus galeus) fishery in the US 1985–86 at 560mt but decreased world reveal that areas where sharks Pacific is typical. The fishery quickly to 120mt three years later. A were once abundant have become expanded spectacularly in 1938 ban in 1994 “likely averted 43 depleted. WildAid research in with the discovery that liver oil was population collapse”. Kenya, Senegal, India, and Costa rich in vitamin A. The catch peaked In the early 1980s a fishery for Rica confirms this. at 4,000mt in 1940, crashed in 1942 sevengill sharks (Notorhynchus and by 1944 was down to only cepedianus) in San Francisco Bay, FISHING PRESSURE 300mt. The severe catch decline USA, crashed within a few years. “When sharks continued even under unrelenting A fishery for bluntnose sixgill Declines in diversity associated with fishing effort. Only about 40mt are are overfished, sharks (Hexanchus griseus) began in increasing fishing pressure, now caught annually.42 the stocks can the Maldives in 1980, peaked in particularly among large predators, Catches of porbeagle sharks 1982–84 and collapsed by 1996. remain in a have also been reported. High in the (Lamna nasus) in the north-eastern Other fisheries for this species, in depleted state food chain, sharks and their Atlantic peaked in 1947 then Australia, New Zealand, France, for decades after relatives tend to be more vulnerable declined; catches temporarily rose Brazil and possibly Argentina, are and therefore the first to decline as again during the 1960s as the all reported to have declined.46 fishing has a result of fishing. This may have fishery spread to the northwestern The common skate (Dipturus ceased, simply serious implications for shark Atlantic, but then declined to a low batis) in the Irish sea is considered reproduction, since productivity 43 because it takes 25 level in the mid 1980s. by some to be commercially extinct tends to increase with body size. that long for Large-scale exploitation has led During the 1960s the as a result of short-term 47 to changes in fish community Norwegians and Danes began overexploitation. these animals to structure. The largest fish tend to fishing for porbeagle in the grow and In the Chagos Islands, 500 km be taken first and then fishermen northwest Atlantic; between 1961 south of the Maldives, an produce a new move down the food chain to catch and 1964 their catch rose from abundance of sharks was noted the smaller species.25 Decreases in 1,800mt to 9,300mt and then generation. during three major diving the size of some sharks have, for a declined to less than 200mt.44 Sometimes, expeditions in the 1970s. In 1996 an number of species, been attributed A harpoon fishery for the basking expedition reported very few shark shark stocks do to exploitation. As a result, changes shark (Cetorhinus maximus) off the sightings. It was estimated that not appear to in species composition of fished shark numbers had been reduced to west coast of Ireland began in 1770 recover at all” communities may be expected, with and lasted until the 1830s, when the approximately 14% of 1970s levels small, faster-growing and earlier- 48 species became scarce. The stocks by overfishing. — R OBERT maturing species dominating. This H EUTER,PH D, subsequently recovered and the Many more shark fisheries are likely TESTIMONY TO US pattern has also been reported in 25 fishery was revived in the 1940s but to have declined severely, but have C ONGRESS, 1999 ray communities.

16 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks © R. AND V. TAYLOR/INNERSPACE VISIONS Bycatch

ycatch is a term used to refer to any species which Bare caught accidentally while fishing for other “target” species. It is responsible for mortality in a wide range of species: non-target fish, seabirds, whales, dolphins, turtles and sharks. A great deal of bycatch is discarded at sea and never appears in the records. Where bycatch must be reported, it is often under-reported.

CAUGHT BY MISTAKE

According to the FAO, there are few fisheries which do not result in bycatch of sharks, skates and rays. An estimated 50% of the world catch of sharks is believed to be fishing methods, the widespread “For sharks, Above: Sharks taken as bycatch.50 Other estimates use of longlines, combined with the bycatch is a are caught as are lower at 400,000mt.51 Based on a sheer length of lines and number of bycatch in most much debated average weight of hooks, means that more sharks are devastating of the world’s 15kg per shark across the range of caught as bycatch in longline problem—an fisheries species, this suggests that a bycatch fisheries than in any other fisheries estimated 50% of of more than 26 million sharks goes on the high seas.51 unrecorded annually. the world catch is In 1990, it was estimated that Where recorded, the numbers are believed to be Japanese longliners in Tasmanian significant, sometimes even greater waters were catching 34,000 blue taken as bycatch” than the targeted catch. Previously, sharks per year, finning and in many of these fisheries the sharks discarding them. However, the would have been thrown back, often Japanese logbooks for the period still living, or the lines cut. Now UNNECESSARY WASTE 1979-88 recorded an annual average sharks caught as bycatch are combined catch of only 3,421 sharks, invariably finned. Shark bycatch Some shark species are able to survive for long skipjack and other species, which reduction methods are likely be periods on hooks. Recent research in Brazil found suggests severe underreporting of rejected by fishermen wishing to that from a total of 508 sharks of different species bycatch.52 profit from the fins. observed in longline fisheries, 88% arrived alive on Rates of shark bycatch depend to In 1990, the global Japanese deck.54 In Hawaii, it has been estimated that 86% a great extent on the fishing gear bycatch of sharks, skates and rays of blue sharks are alive when landed on deck as used. The most indiscriminate gear was estimated to be 115,441mt.53 bycatch.56 Allowing for some post-release is towed (trawl and seine) nets. In mortality, a very large proportion of blue sharks In Brazil, a survey found that coastal areas, bottom trawl fisheries would have survived if they had been released sharks and rays made up 68.9% of are thought to be responsible for rather than finned. the total catch and the target the largest bycatch of sharks and This huge volume of shark bycatch could be species only 31.1%. The blue shark rays, amounting to hundreds of reduced significantly. There are fisheries which represented 50.4% of the total catch. thousands of metric tons annually.51 result in minimal bycatch by using selective fishing It is estimated that 68,318 sharks Tuna purse-seine nets occasionally gear or appropriate fishing techniques. For are caught this way annually in result in large-scale shark bycatch example, the western Pacific pole and line fishery Brazil.54 and gillnets are also considered to for tuna limits bycatch to less than 1% of total be the cause of heavy shark In the Gulf of Mexico, shrimp catch, and harpoon fisheries for swordfish and bycatch.35.However, while less fisheries discard some 2,800mt of giant tunas have almost no recorded bycatch.57 indiscriminate than some other sharks annually.55

THE END OF THE LINE? 17 Threats to Sharks

The Shark Fin growing wealth, created an in the US rose rapidly. By the first enormous number of consumers.12 quarter of 1987, prices reached Trade The growing middle class in China, 131% of the 1984 price and by early currently estimated at 250 million, 1988 they stood at 262%.12 One f all shark products, the are all potential shark fin soup company reported receiving a fins have by far the consumers. They are likely to dwarf request in the summer of 1987 from Ohighest commercial value the previous major markets in Hong a multinational firm to source by weight. Demand for shark fin Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and 45.4mt of 50% crude dried fins per has expanded dramatically in the among Chinese communities month, equivalent to 300% of the last 15 years. The rise of a number around the world. entire US output for the previous of Asian economies is well- This has led to a sudden Opposite right: year.12 Government data show that documented, as is the dramatic escalation in the price of fins. In Shark finning between 1991 and 1998 the number opening and expansion of China’s 1987, ex-vessel prices for shark fin wastes 95-99% of blue sharks finned in US fisheries of the animal. economy. rose from 0 to 60,083.42 It is now a After 1949, the consumption of Trade data suggest that the common practice shark fin had been officially “The reported volume of trade global trade in shark fin has discouraged, since it was associated has more than doubled in the Below left: The escalated enormously in the past with wealth and privilege, but in results of a two decades. In 1980 a total of 1987 there was a relaxation of last 20 years, while prices have finning operation 3,011mt of dried fins, valued at attitudes. This, combined with more than tripled” in Costa Rica US$28,304,000 were in

Note: In 1995 China did not report any imports to the FAO

A GROWING RECOGNITION OF THE SHARK FIN SOUP PROBLEM

Singapore Airlines announced in 1999 that it would no longer serve shark fin soup to its Business Class passengers. In June 2000, Thai Airways announced that it would no longer serve shark fin soup in First Class. Both airlines stated that consumer pressure had prompted them to take this step.59 © P. KRAGH/INNERSPACE VISIONS

18 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks © M. STRICKLAND/INNERSPACE VISIONS

international trade. By 1989 that limited to one region and certain had risen to 5,910mt (up 96%) species has grown to be totally FINNING BECOMES UNACCEPTABLE valued at US$94,256,000—a 333% global in nature and to involve increase in the total value.40 In 1997, virtually all shark species. In Finning was banned in Canada in 1994, but reported world trade peaked at addition refrigeration, and this was not fully implemented until the 7,048mt. transportation advances have Management Plan of 1997–99.60 As some indication of how meant that containers of fins can be In 1998 the Brazilian government issued a unreliable data are in 1998 total shipped across the globe. federal regulation (Portaria IBAMA nº 121 of world trade reported to the FAO fell This expanded industry is still August 24th, 1998), prohibiting shark finning on to 4,630mt with Hong Kong largely conducted in the “gray all vessels licensed to fish in Brazilian waters.54 reporting only 13mt.58 In the same market”. Fins change hands for cash year Hong Kong Trade in many cases and many The Sultanate of Oman has also prohibited Development Board reported transactions are not recorded. shark finning in its waters. imports of 5,997mt and re-exports In June 2000 the governor of Hawaii signed a of 3,813mt!102 FINNING law banning the landing of fins without carcasses. A NEW GLOBAL TRADE Increase in demand has led to In December 2000 the US adopted legislation to greater targeting of sharks and the prohibit shark finning in all US waters. Finning had While sharks have undoubtedly practice of finning sharks at sea. been banned on the Atlantic coast and in been targeted for their fins in Asia The shark is hauled up on deck, the Californian waters earlier. for some time, in the last 15 years fins sliced off, and the shark—often In Australia, finning is banned in all the dramatic increase in demand for still alive—thrown back into the sea. Commonwealth (federal) tuna fisheries, (which fins has alerted fishermen This conserves space in the hold for cover the area from 3–200 nautical miles from the worldwide to the commercial value high-value food species such as tuna shore) and in all fisheries in New South Wales of sharks. An industry previously and swordfish. (NSW), Victoria and Western Australia. The ban does not apply within the state/territorial waters (out to 3 n.m.) of South Australia, Queensland or the Northern Territory, nor does it apply to non- tuna Commonwealth fisheries.61

THE END OF THE LINE? 19 Threats to Sharks

Lack of LACK OF CATCH, BYCATCH “Most shark have a separate category for shark AND TRADE DATA fisheries and fin (although not by species) but Management customs’ records for shark skin and Much shark catch goes unrecorded bycatch is oil are virtually non-existent, while UNCONTROLLED FISHERIES and, even when it is recorded, totally cartilage does not appear at all.40 species-specific information is unmanaged Accurately assessing the volume hark fisheries were sparse or non-existent and shark of international trade in shark perceived as lacking species are frequently categorized and no shark products in general, let alone by Scommercial value in the together.40 species yet species, is virtually impossible. past, so comparatively little is The only source of global catch benefits from known about many species’ and landings data is the FAO. UNMANAGED FISHERIES abundance, range, distribution, life However, since FAO figures are international history, reproductive behavior and based upon reports from individual protection” At the national level, only Australia, response to external stresses. nations, they are also restricted to Canada, New Zealand and the Records of shark catches are vague the same limitations in terms of United States manage sharks within and few countries record their shark information on specific species. their coastal waters. Some shark catch by species. National agencies often provide fishing restrictions currently exist To date, there are no binding only summary information to the in South Africa, the UK, international agreements for the FAO. If countries do not provide Mauritania, Brazil, Mexico, Malta, protection of sharks and only a few recent data, the FAO extrapolates Namibia, Oman, the Philippines countries (Australia, New Zealand, from previous years.40 and Israel. These restrictions range Canada & US) have developed The recording of such data is from closure of directed shark specific shark management fundamental to the management of fisheries during certain seasons, to a programs. In other areas, such as sharks. In a multi-authored report ban on finning in national waters to South Africa, Namibia, Malta and published by the FAO in 1999, it a prohibition on the catching of west Africa, there are prohibitions was stated that, “The theme that specific species. on the catching of specific species dominates all papers is the According to the FAO, while and/or the closure of shark fisheries dissatisfaction of the authors with there may be valid reasons for the during certain periods of the year. the quality of elasmobranch catch poorer nations to have neglected Other countries, such as Mexico, data, both in identifying the species shark stocks in their waters, there is have some limited regulations. that are caught, and the amount of no excuse for the richer nations, “It In 1998 the FAO agreed to an catch and landings.”50 is the unequivocal documentation Despite the low International Plan of Action for the International trade in shark reproduction of the sad neglect that management conservation of sharks, and its products is also poorly rates of sharks, of elasmobranchs receives, not only member countries were encouraged documented. Standard six-digit few shark in regions where the competition to devise and implement national customs’ tariff headings are not fisheries are for management resources can be plans of action. At the time of specific for meat, and very often the managed. Fifteen expected to be fierce, but also in writing, only Australia and the US categories will simply be “dogfish” pups were the many areas where levels of are known to have begun preparing with “other sharks” combined into entire litter for economic prosperity are such that their plans of action. a single category.40 Some countries this bonnethead little, or no, valid reasons exist for the neglect of the husbandry of resources which so many states have claimed under the aegis of the Law of the Sea and extension of natural jurisdictions.50 ” Ironically, while large areas of the jurisdictional waters of developing countries are heavily exploited by fishing vessels from developed countries, it is the poorer countries which have to find the funds for fisheries management. © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS

20 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS All three proposals were defeated after The Bonn Convention strenuous lobbying by Japan and The Bonn Convention on the At the international or multilateral level, there Singapore, among others. Some major Conservation of Migratory Species of are numerous agreements which could provide fishing nations have fiercely opposed any Wild Animals (CMS) recognizes the need much greater protection for sharks, if the regulation of international trade in shark for countries to cooperate in the political will were there. products and, indeed, Japan has conservation of animals that migrate exempted itself from the UK’s listing of across national boundaries or between Convention on International Trade in basking sharks in CITES Appendix III, a areas of national jurisdiction and the Endangered Species (CITES) move that would simply have required high seas. The whale shark is listed on In November 1994, CITES adopted a Japan to keep records of international Appendix II of this Convention.63 Resolution (Conf. 9.17) on trade in trade in basking shark products through sharks and their products, directing its its borders. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Animals Committee to compile and Commission (IATTC) review data on the biological In June 2000, the IATTC status and factors influencing adopted a resolution on the status of shark species bycatch which, if implemented, subject to international trade. will have a direct effect on It also requested FAO and sharks. other international fisheries Paragraph 3 requires management organizations to fishermen on purse-seine vessels establish programs to provide “to promptly release unharmed, biological and trade data and to the extent practicable, all sea to assist states to collect turtles, sharks, billfishes, rays, species-specific data. The mahimahi and other non target Committee recommended a species.” number of actions, including Paragraph 4 encourages initiatives to improve fishermen “to develop and use identification, recording and techniques and equipment to reporting at species level of landings, “To date facilitate the rapid and safe release of any bycatch and trade, and for new research international such animals.” Paragraph 8 provides for and management efforts.62 the collection of data, before the end of However, at the 2000 CITES bodies and 2000, on bycatches by purse-seine vessels Conference, Conf 9.17 was repealed, individual not covered by the current observer leaving only two actions: that the Chair governments have programme and by longline and other of the Animals Committee would liaise tuna fishing vessels. Paragraph 10 with the FAO to monitor progress of the failed to address encourages the development and International Plan of Action and report the threats to implementation of additional measures back to CITES and that the Secretariat sharks” to reduce “to the maximum extent would liaise with the World Customs practicable” the bycatch of juvenile tunas Organisation to promote the and other non-target species.49 establishment and use of specific UN Agreement On Straddling Fish headings in trade data, in order to Stocks And Highly Migratory Fish Other agreements and bodies which could discriminate between shark meat, fins, Stocks provide assist in the conservation of sharks are leather, cartilage and other products. Oceanic sharks defined as highly the Commission for Sustainable Development, At that same conference Australia migratory species, or which may qualify the International Commission for the proposed the white shark and, along as a straddling stock‚ include the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, which deals with the US, also proposed the whale basking, thresher, hammerhead and with species that prey on tuna, and the shark for CITES Appendix I listings, mako sharks and could therefore be Convention on Biological Diversity. which would have prohibited all covered under this agreement. For the most part, those agreements which commercial trade in the species or its Coordinated management and contain—or could contain—specific provision products. The UK proposed the basking assessment of the entire populations of for sharks are not mandatory or have yet to be shark for Appendix II, which would have these sharks would promote an fully ratified. Those which are mandatory and required import and export permits and understanding of the cumulative in force, such as CITES, have so far failed to non-detriment findings. impacts of fishing effort on their status.62 protect shark species.

THE END OF THE LINE? 21 Threats to Sharks

Environmental estimate that 100,000 manufactured to have been at least partly chemicals are dispersed into the responsible for reproductive and Pressures environment without being immunological abnormalities in monitored.65 Heavy metals, such as marine mammals; one individual he range of environmental cadmium, mercury and lead, are out of three thresher sharks tested factors, both natural and highly toxic in animal tissues even at for PCB contamination was found human-induced, which can low concentrations. Research carried to contain twice the maximum T 67 affect sharks include: chemical out on heavy metal pollution in tolerance level. pollution, thermal pollution, sharks shows that they can inhibit Concentrations of Tributylin marine debris, habitat loss or DNA synthesis, alter heart function, (TBT), a compound used in anti- degradation, changes to patterns of disrupt sperm production and alter fouling paints on boats, have been ocean circulation (e.g. El Nino), blood parameters.64 detected in the kidneys of blue geological events, meteorological Among the heavy metals found sharks caught off the Italian coast.67 events and global climate change.64 in sharks, mercury is particularly Cadmium and lead have been found pernicious. Mercury concentrations in tissue samples of six shark species DEATH IN SMALL DOSES: in four shark embyros were found in the eastern Mediterranean. while CHEMICAL POLLUTION to be equivalent to 9 - 27% of the the effects on sharks of these mother’s muscle tissue.66 substances are not fully known, they The European Environment Agency Persistent organic pollutants Below: Debris on are likely to cause severe damage to and UN Environment Program such as PCBs and DDT are known a Belize beach basic biological functions.

EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION Some of the effects pollutants have in our marine ecosystems are: Suppression of photosynthesis in phytoplankton resulting in loss of primary production Changes in species composition and species diversity of zooplankton Reduction in fish-egg hatching Increase in mortality and malformation in fish larvae Reduction in fish recruitment Reduction in fish growth rates Induction of carcinogenic effects Diseases of the immune system Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems It is important to note that direct up-take by humans of these highly toxic substances may be facilitated by eating contaminated food or products, including fish and fish products. Both heavy metals and POPs have been detected in tissue samples taken from sharks.67 Some of the effects these substances may have on human health are: Diseases of the blood Disruption of the immune, reproductive and nervous systems Respiratory impairment Mutagenic and carcinogenic effects Kidney and liver failure © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS

22 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks © GREENPEACE/VISSER

MARINE LITTER AND DEBRIS

Despite international agreements controlling the dumping of plastics at sea, discarded plastics and other materials constitute a serious source of threat to sharks. Plastic bait straps, used to hold cartons of fishing bait together and often discarded at sea, are known to cause mortality from a variety of effects from the severing of fins and destruction of gills to vertebral deformation and asphyxiation. Numerous sharks in the US, India, South Africa and Western Australia have been affected in this way.64 A model of an Australian dusky shark fishery showed that targeting of the stock reduced the population increase to about half the size that it would have been without contamination in foodstuffs is Above: In total OZONE DEPLETION exploitation. Adding the effect of bait 0.5 ppm.69 marine transport straps to the model showed that a Recently, warnings have been has been Loss of stratospheric ozone is less than three percent increase in issued by both the US Food and estimated to increasingly evident in both mortality caused by bait straps Drug Administration (FDA) and the account for hemispheres, resulting in a strong, resulted in a decline of the size group, around 12% of Hong Kong Consumer Council, selective increase in ultraviolet-B showing that environmental factors contaminants relating to levels of contamination radiation. Although little or no combined with fishing can make the entering the in shark products. 72 specific research has been difference between a sustainable and worlds’ oceans The FDA warned pregnant conducted on the impact of this on a declining population.64 women that mercury levels in shark shark species, UV radiation has been An estimated 6.5 million metric meat could be high enough to harm shown to damage DNA and have tons of plastics are discarded every the nervous systems of human other effects on aquatic organism, year by ships. Much of this is foetuses.70 In January 2001, a report which may in the longer term discarded or lost fishing by the Hong Kong Consumer impact sharks. equipment that results in Council revealed that at least five widespread damage to fish and brands of shark liver oil capsules other marine life as it continues to were contaminated with PCBs. The OZONE “ghost fish”. One 1500m section of report warned that the tests carried net recovered from the Pacific out on the capsules examined only In April 1998, NASA scientists revised the peak Ocean contained 99 seabirds, 2 25 out of 209 congeners of PCBs period for ozone depletion from 2000–2005 to sharks and 75 salmon after an and that the Council could not around 2020 and noted the likely development of a estimated month adrift. In Kuwait, guarantee that further samples did severe Arctic ozone hole over the Northern lost fish traps were estimated to not contain PCBs.71 Hemisphere. At the same time, an ozone hole three catch between 3-13.5% of the total times the size of Australia was identified, leaving Kuwait landings.68 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE more than 27 million square kilometers of the planet temporarily unprotected from ultraviolet EFFECTS ON HUMANS Predicted climate change scenarios radiation. are expected to displace and alter Research on shark fin from Hong Kong sold by wholesalers and tested marine ecosystems significantly. in the US were found to contain up Shark distribution and fitness is to 5.84parts per million (ppm) of likely to be affected as populations mercury. Hong Kong’s maximum shift to obtain an optimum permitted level of mercury environment.

THE END OF THE LINE? 23 Threats to Sharks

“With shark fin Illegal Fishing GALAPAGOS UNDER SIEGE pound, the only thing this can be going for compared to in terms of its MARINE RESERVES UNDER The Galapagos Marine Reserve is a profitability is drug trafficking,” $50/pound, SIEGE World Heritage Site which is famed said Rodrigo Jacome, president of a the only thing for providing opportunities to dive non-partisan civic committee in the this can be Although there is yet no with large groups of hammerhead Galapagos. “It’s big money, quick international protection for any sharks and the 42 other species of and easy money for fishermen. So compared to in shark species and only a few shark which occur there. According long as the government permits the terms of countries have shark management to a local scientist, “Diving here export, it’s not going to change.”76 profitability is regulations, some sharks are depends on sharks. If you reduce The Director of the Galapagos protected in marine reserves, which their numbers or make them National Park, Eliecer Cruz stated, the drugs are usually “no take” or restricted aggressive, you have ruined dive “The trade in shark fins, sea trade.” fishing areas. tourism.74” cucumbers and other marine

— R. JACOME, Because of the difficulty and Since the expansion of the resources are in the hands of a mafia P RESIDENT OF expense of patrolling large areas of Reserve, the poorly funded on the mainland. The high prices C IVIC C OMMITTEE ocean, marine reserves are often Galapagos National Park Service paid for our local resources (US$50 a IN THE G ALAPAGOS poorly protected in developing has fought running battles with pound for shark fins and up to US$1 countries. WildAid found that they longliners from the Ecuador per sea cucumber) the fierce are increasingly under pressure mainland and Costa Rica, which encouragement of the trade by from illegal fishing, shark fin being come to target sharks, tuna and middlemen (often Asian) and the one of the most lucrative targets. In other valuable species inside the buying power of the Far East, are some protected areas, illegal fishing Reserve. Since 1998, four such boats driving an illegal trade, in these now threatens the tourism diving have been intercepted. The Park animals. This leads to social industry as divers report reductions Service has seized thousands of disorder, greed, and a total disrespect in shark numbers.73 shark fins and divers have for nature and the ecosystems of the To maximize profits while discovered illegal nets and Galapagos. Moreover, it makes a fishing illegally, fishermen will longlines. In 1999, one small boat farce out of management procedures often take only fins, dumping was found with 8,000 shark fins which aim at preserving the stocks carcasses overboard. In this way, a and boxes of sea cucumbers taken into the future.”77 relatively small boat can catch illegally for the Asian market.75 In literally thousands of sharks in a November 2000, WildAid MORE FISHING Below: Divers remove a shark short period, effectively fishing out investigators were told by fishermen from an illegally- an entire area. There have been a in Costa Rica that Costa Rican Fishermen are now pushing for set net in the number of high-profile raids on boats continue to fish illegally in longlining in the Galapagos. In the Galapagos marine reserves specifically the Marine Reserve for sharks. longlining process, sea turtles, sea Marine Reserve targeting sharks. “With shark fins going for $50 a lions and other bycatch are frequently caught. Pablo Guerrero, Director of Marine Resources, stated that the sharks “serve as regulators for the entire marine ecosystem” and that removing them would “create an imbalance in certain marine populations with unforeseeable consequences.”76 © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS

24 THE END OF THE LINE? Threats to Sharks © P. KNIGHTS/WILDAID

REVILLAGIGEDO ISLANDS MARINE RESERVE

The Revillagigedo Islands, southwest of Cabo San Lucas, Mexico, became a Marine Reserve six years ago. They are home to the world’s largest Giant Pacific Mantas and tourists spend over US$2,000,000 each year to dive with these amazing animals. Marine Reserves in developing However, in April 2000, a fleet of countries seldom have resources seven large drift gillnet boats, to enforce their regulations. The BREAKING OTHER COUNTRIES’ LAWS carrying two miles of net each, main patrol vessel for the surrounded one of the Islands and Galapagos has only been kept in Although very few countries have direct protection decimated the shark populations in service with outside support for sharks, many have fishing regulations designed five days of intensive fishing. Even to protect artisanal and domestic fisheries. then, their nets were still getting In November 2000, fishermen in However, developing countries rarely have the from 100 to 200 sharks per boat per Costa Rica told WildAid that they resources to enforce these regulations. day. It is estimated that they killed fish illegally in Cocos for sharks. For example, in the state of Orissa, India, between 2,000 and 4,000 sharks, The Park Service and Coast Guard mechanized shrimp trawlers are not supposed to plus mantas, turtles, tuna, and are aware of the situation, but operate within ten nautical miles of the coastline. other marine animals. After the currently lack the resources to Yet, as WildAid witnessed, they can routinely be gillnet boats were gone, no live combat the illegal fishing seen trawling 500m or so off the coast. Similar sharks were observed in two days of effectively. Local dive operators are transgressions are reported in Senegal and Kenya. diving, where previously hundreds very concerned that the illegal Most countries suffer from illegal fishing would have been seen.77 fishing will impact their operations. activities within their waters, which greatly The Los Angeles Times reported undermine management efforts. that the sharks were finned and the BANC D’ARGUIN NATIONAL carcasses discarded in most cases. In PARK FLAGS OF CONVENIENCE 1994 a tourist video aired throughout Mexico had contributed Banc D’Arguin, off the coast of To evade internationally agreed-upon fishing to pressure to establish the Reserve. Mauritania in northwest Africa is regulations, some boats are registered under It showed gillnets and longline gear the largest marine reserve in Africa countries, which are not signatories. This practice catching dozens of sharks, which and the country’s most important is known as fishing under “Flags of Convenience” were finned and discarded alive.73 reproduction and nursery area for (FOCs). In this way, a boat from Taiwan may be fish and crustaceans. The reserve registered in Panama. Most of these vessels are COCOS ISLAND MARINE was originally established at the owned and operated by Taiwanese interests, with RESERVE request of local fishermen, the almost all of their products being exported to Imraguen, who were given exclusive Japan.82 Singapore companies are also involved. In Cocos Island is famed as one of the fishing rights using traditional, non- December 1996, FOCs accounted for over 20% of world’s top dive sites and is billed as motorized methods. However, the vessels and 46% of gross tonnage.83 “The Island of Sharks.” This World Imaraguen were soon approached ICCAT has a list of 300 vessels, which are Heritage Site is frequently fished for shark fin by middlemen for believed to be involved in “illegal, unregulated, illegally for sharks and other species Asian traders and a new fishery and unreported fishing activities.”84 These vessels at night, according to authorities. A developed within the reserve. Some are registered in Taiwan, Singapore, Belize, dozen boats fishing illegally, many species, such as sawfish, have already Equatorial Guinea, Cambodia, Guinea, Honduras, targeting sharks for their fins, were disappeared. In 1999, the Reserve the Philipines, the Seychelles and St. Vincent arrested last year.78 A film crew was reported to be threatened by among others. found three miles of illegal line, incursions from small-scale Such vessels compound reporting problems. with 16 sharks, of which only four fishermen from Mauritania and ICCAT stated, “The degree of under-reporting...is were still alive.79 Jaws author, Peter Senegal, and industrial fishing, difficult to assess, but can be up to 75%. On the Benchley, witnessed a shark often from Europe.81 Recent moves high seas...the degree of non-reporting with graveyard of dozens of finned to regulate shark fisheries in the respect to these stocks may be well 100%.”82 sharks while diving in the islands.80 reserve may put an end to this.

THE END OF THE LINE? 25 Species at Risk

Species at Risk BRAZILIAN GIANT FRESHWATER GUITARFISH STINGRAY Sharks in Decline Rhinobatos horkeli Himantura chaophraya

here is growing evidence that many shark stocks are declining and indeed that several Tspecies are facing commercial or even biological extinction owing to overfishing as well as a IUCN Classification: Critically number of factors: Endangered continual advances in fishing technology and effort Max. size: 1.4m Distribution: Western Atlantic: the collapse of other fisheries Lesser Antilles to southern Brazil the globalization of the fishing industry and shark Reproduction: Not known IUCN Classification: Vulnerable; fin trade Threats: Overfishing Thailand sub-population Critically Notes: Extremely vulnerable to Endangered a rapidly increasing human population overfishing; mating and nursery Max. size: 2.4m the rising popularity and affordability of shark fin areas are heavily fished. Abundance Distribution: Southeast Asia and soup decreased by 96% in southern Brazil Oceania from 1984-94 Reproduction: Not known the pollution of oceans and coastal habitats Threats: Habitat alteration and The FAO has become increasingly concerned about PACIFIC ANGEL destruction; overfishing the effects of overfishing on shark populations: SHARK Notes: Possibility of extinction for some populations extremely high; “For centuries artisanal fishermen have conducted fishing Squatina californica status in Australia probably for sharks sustainably in coastal waters, and some still do. favorable However, during recent decades modern technology in combination with access to distant markets have caused an BLUE SHARK increase in effort and yield of shark catches, as well as an expansion of the areas fished.…There is concern over the increase Prionace glauca of shark catches and the consequences which this has for the populations of some shark species in several areas of the world’s oceans….The prevailing view is that it is necessary to better IUCN Classification: Lower manage directed shark catches and certain multi-species Risk/Near Threatened fisheries in which sharks constitute a significant bycatch. In Max. size: 0.9m some cases the need for management may be urgent.”85 Distribution: Eastern Pacific, from IUCN Classification: Lower Alaska to Mexico and from Ecuador Risk/Near Threatened According to the FAO, the foremost conservation to southern Chile Max. size: 3.8m priority is for freshwater elasmobranchs4, such as the Reproduction: Gestation Distribution: Worldwide in open speartooth sharks, Glyphis spp., and freshwater sawfish, unknown, litter size 8-13 annually ocean Pristis microdon. New species are still being described Threats: Overfishing Reproduction: Gestation 9-12 and the ranges of known species extended. Few or no Notes: In ten years went from being months, litter size 40 average catch data are collected, much less reported.50 “trash fish” to highly sought-after (largest recorded litter 135) The second priority is the deepwater food in California. Landings peaked Threats: Bycatch and finning elasmobranchs, which are now particularly threatened in 1985 and 1986. Then declined Notes: Estimates for annual catch because of their often limited distribution, the rapidly. California banned fishing range from 433,447 to 6.2–6.5 absence of biological knowledge and lack of species in 1993 million. A possible 4 million taken catch data.50 A rapid expansion of fisheries for annually as bycatch deepwater species has resulted in an increase in shark bycatch. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species 2000, classifies 39 species as “Critically Endangered,” “Endangered” or “Vulnerable.”86 Some sub- populations of Vulnerable or Endangered species are listed in a higher risk category.

26 THE END OF THE LINE? Species at Risk

GANGES SHARK PORBEAGLE SHARK Sources COMMON SKATE Glyphis gangeticus Lamna nasus IUCN Red List 2000 Dipturus batis Sharks, L. Taylor, pub. Weldon Owen 1999 Sharks & Rays, T.C. Tricas et al; consultant editor IUCN Classification: Critically IUCN Classification: Lower L.Taylor, pub. Collins 1997 Endangered Risk/Near Threatened;Northeast Sharks of Tropical & Max. size: 2m Atlantic sub-population Vulnerable; Temperate Seas, Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Northwest Atlantic sub-population R.H. Johnson 1978, India, Pakistan, reported from Lower Risk/Conservation pub. Les Editions Du Pacifique Taiwan Dependent IUCN Classification: Endangered Reproduction: Not known Max. size: 3.7m Castrol et al, FAO Max. size: 2.5m 1999 Threats: Overfishing Distribution: Cold waters of North Distribution: Eastern Atlantic: John Stevens Notes: Originally known only from and South Atlantic, South Pacific pers.comm. Norway, Iceland, the Faeroes to three museum specimens, collected Reproduction: Gestation Senegal, including Western Bonfil 1994 Overview in the 19th century. Recently re- unknown, litter size 1-5 of World Elasmobranch Mediterranean and Western Baltic reported from coast of India but Threats: Targeted for meat and fins Fisheries. FAO Reproduction: Not known identifications require confirmation Notes: Heavily overfished in North Fisheries Technical Threats: Overfishing Paper 34. FAO of Atlantic UN Rome. Notes: Once abundant in DUSKY SHARK www.fishbase.org Northwest Europe, now extirpated Carcharhinus obscurus PONDICHERRY from much of former range. SHARK Populations around UK extremely Carcharhinus hemiodon depleted SMALLTOOTH SAWFISH IUCN Classification: Lower Pristis pectinata Risk/Near Threatened;Northwest Atlantic/Gulf of Mexico sub- IUCN Classification: Vulnerable population Vulnerable Max. size: 2m Max. size: 4m Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: Distribution: West, East & North Reproduction: Not known Atlantic; Western Indian Ocean; Threats: Fishing for meat IUCN Classification: Endangered; Western & Eastern Pacific Notes: Only two specimens found North and Southwest Atlantic sub- Reproduction: Gestation 16 since 1970s. Last was seen in India population Critically Endangered months, litter size 10 in 1982. Max. size: 7.6m Threats: Overfishing in Western Distribution: Western & Eastern Atlantic Atlantic; Indo-West Pacific; possibly Notes: Now protected in US Mediterranean and Eastern Pacific Atlantic after serious declines Reproduction: Not known Threats: Targeted for food, sport; saws sold as tourist souvenirs Notes: Reduced or extirpated from large areas of north and southwest Atlantic

THE END OF THE LINE? 27 Species at Risk

GREY NURSE SHARK Notes: 3. Beach Meshing Queensland and Carcharias taurus 1. Bycatch No directed fishery since NSW have introduced shark nets to 1984, but bycatch in other fisheries protect bathing beaches. Nets in Also known as the sandtiger shark has caused concern, although full NSW cover approximately 200 km or spotted ragged-tooth shark impact is unknown. Accidentally of coastline.88 IUCN classification: Vulnerable caught on baited lines targeting In NSW during early 1950s, up to Max. size: 4.3m wobbegong sharks (Orectolobus 36 individuals were meshed per year; Distribution: Widespread in spp).88 by 1980s, figure had decreased to inshore waters around the main 2. Recreational fishing Between maximum of three or fewer per year continental landmasses in sub- 1961 and 1980, 405 Carcharias taurus and in last decade only three caught. tropical and cool temperate areas recorded landed by fishing clubs on In Queensland, 90 individuals Reproduction: Gestation 9 NSW coast. Recreational fishermen captured between 1962 and 1972 months, litter size 2 noted a decline during 1960s and but 21 caught in past decade.88 Threats: In Australia, incidental 1970s and implemented a 4. Shark finning Shark finning is catch in other shark fisheries and voluntary fishing ban in 1979. recognized as threat by Australian beach meshing. Elsewhere unknown Current figures indicate no Fisheries Scientific Committee: Protection: Protected in New subsequent recovery. Until 1980s, divers in NSW have reported South Wales (NSW), Queensland was perceived as “maneater” owing Below: The grey individuals surviving finning nurse shark and Tasmania, Australia, since to fierce appearance; many killed by process.88 Finning regulations in which 1984. Listed as Vulnerable in spear-fishers and scuba divers. Also reproduces very place in many parts of Australia. Australia, recently proposed for caught live to sell to aquaria. Today, slowly has been 5. Ecotourism Australian Fisheries Endangered. Fully protected in with protection and increased depleted in Scientific Committee considers South Africa, Namibia, Florida and public awareness, very few reports Australian increase in ecotourism a potential California and the Maldives87 of kills by divers.88 waters threat, possibly requiring regulation.88 © J. D. WATT/INNERSPACE VISIONS

28 THE END OF THE LINE? Species at Risk © T. CAMPBELL/INNERSPACE VISIONS

BASKING SHARK California, Peru, Ecuador, China Above: A number 2. Protecting salmon fisheries Cetorhinus maximus and Japan. Also taken in nets, of fisheries for During 1950s, Department of including bottom gillnets and even the second Fisheries and Oceans of Canada IUCN Classification: Endangered bottom and pelagic trawls.90 largest fish in the conducted eradication program off Max. size: 10m Norwegian fishery dates from world, the west coast of Vancouver Island, after basking shark, Distribution: Western & eastern 16th century but expanded in 1960s salmon fishermen lost nets and have collapsed Atlantic, western Indian Ocean, owing to increased demand for catches to basking sharks. Local western & eastern Pacific livers. Annual catches 1,266-4,266 populations not yet recovered to Reproduction: Unknown sharks recorded for 1959-80.41 original levels after 110 basking Threats: Targeted for liver oil, fins, Today targeted for fins for export to sharks killed from 1955-56.41 skin and meat Japan, primarily by Norway: exports 3. Lack of trade regulation In Protection: Listed on Appendix II increased from 96kg in 1992 to 2000, UK proposed listing species of Bonn Convention; listed on 26,859kg in 1994.41 on CITES Appendix II. Proposal Appendix III of CITES by UK In recent years, FAO only defeated. Notes: Second largest fish after received reports of catches in Basking shark total catches 1950-96 whale shark. Plankton feeder, northeast Atlantic from Norway SOURCE: FAO WEBSITE (90) prefers temperate water and occasional catches from 20,000 1. Overfishing Historically meat Portugal. Norwegian catches consumed, fins used in soup or as peaked in 1970 and 1975 at 16,000 displays in restaurants to advertise around 18,000mt. Since then shark fin soup; liver oil extracted for general decrease to only 413mt in 12,000 41 leather tanning, lamp oil and 1996. metric tons 8,000 vitamin A; skin processed for From 1947 to 1975, basking leather and carcass rendered for sharks were netted and harpooned 4,000 fishmeal.41 off the west coast of Ireland with Basking shark was target of peak annual catches reaching over 0,000 coastal harpoon fisheries off 1,000 animals. Decline of fishery 1950 Norway, Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, was attributed to overfishing.41 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Year

THE END OF THE LINE? 29 Species at Risk © C. HUSS/INNERSPACE VISIONS WHITE SHARK SPINY Carcharadon carcharias DOGFISH Also known as great white shark Squalus acanthias IUCN Classification: Vulnerable. IUCN Max. size: 6m Classification: Distribution: Worldwide, along Lower Risk/Near continental margins of all Threatened temperate seas and entering tropics Max. size: 1.5m Reproduction: Gestation Distribution: unknown, litter size 7-9 Atlantic and Threats: Sport fishing; trade in jaws Pacific Oceans; Protection: Protected in South southwest Africa, Namibia, Maldives, Malta, Australia; tip of Florida and California, US, and Africa Australia (except beach meshing) Reproduction: Notes: Most famous (and feared) of Gestation two all sharks, gained global notoriety years. Litter size Above: The spiny Mature females reduced by 50% from blockbuster movie and book 2-20 (average 6-8). dogfish is sold as since 1990 and average body lengths Jaws. Perceived as unstoppable Threats: Overfishing “rock salmon” in rapidly declined.94 Scientists and “killing machine” but in reality, this Protection: None fish and chip fishermen estimate catch-per-unit- supreme predator is highly Notes: Possibly most abundant shops. With a effort (CPUE) decreased by 30-50% gestation period vulnerable. Naturally scarce, it is shark, supporting fishing industry since 1993. Gillnetters now use two longer than an long-lived with relatively low natural of global importance, but highly elephant, it is to three times more net and smaller mortality. Females do not reproduce vulnerable to overfishing. Female vulnerable to mesh size but still unable to catch until in excess of 4.5m. Owing to only matures in teens or early overfishing same volume as previously.95 low reproductive potential, would twenties. Tend to segregate by age Scientists warned that US recover slowly if numbers reduced.91 and sex, with mature females often Below left: Atlantic stocks may never recover 1. Trophy fishing and trade in targeted, thus threatening two The great white without management plan.93 jaws In aftermath of Jaws, white generations. shark has been Management plan for 2000 sharks sought by trophy fishermen 1. Overfishing US encouraged targeted as a included very low catch quotas— as “ultimate catch” with jaws targeting of spiny dogfish— trophy and for 1,800mt for entire coast. However, coveted as trophies and sold to marketed as “cape sharks”— in its jaws Massachusetts, main dogfishing tourists. Authorities in a number of attempt to reduce pressures on state, set quota for own state waters countries have now stepped in to overfished fish stocks off east coast. of 3,100mt, a move that would protect white shark. Lucrative Formerly regarded as “trash” fish undermine federal efforts.93 “shark cage diving” industry has with no commercial value, annual In UK waters, no current developed around species. landings off Atlantic coast rocketed assessments of stock levels and no In 2000, a joint US/Australian from annual average of 4,500mt in laws or quotas governing catch proposal for CITES Appendix I 1990 to 20,400mt in 1993. By 1996 levels. However, both commercial listing (to ban international scientists warned stocks on point of and recreational fishermen report commercial trade in body parts) collapse.92 By 1998 landings had dramatically reduced catch: one of defeated. risen to 28,000mt.93 UK’s major fishing companies reports decline of around 50% over past five years. UK importers now say they are being forced to import smaller fish.96 During 1930s and 1940s, tens of thousands of dogfish landed at Plymouth every day. This fishery also quickly collapsed and yet to recover.97 Late 1970s - early 1980s saw introduction of monofilament nets resulting in decimation of stocks off Cornwall: fishery collapsed within two years and has not recovered.98 © C. & M. FALLOWS/SEAPICS.COM

30 THE END OF THE LINE? © R. & V. TAYLOR/INNERSPACE VISIONS WHALE SHARK Rhincodon typus

IUCN Classification: Vulnerable Max. size: 14m Distribution: Worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters Reproduction: Gestation unknown, litter size up to 300 Threats: Targeted for meat and fins Protection: Appendix II of Bonn Convention in 1999 identifying species as one whose conservation status would benefit from implementation of international co-operative agreements63 Notes: World’s largest fish 1. Overfishing Targeted for fins— sometimes fetching thousands of dollars a set—for use in soup and as shark fins smuggled out in personal Above: Whale Declining landings reported at displays to advertise shark fin soup baggage, mainly to Singapore.99 sharks offer one Taiwanese site from 50-60 per and for meat, consumed either Meat from Veraval is frozen and more revenue year in mid-1980s to ten in 1990s. locally or in Taiwan. IUCN projects exported to Taiwan, where it is a from tourism Not known whether this result of 20-50% population reduction over popular delicacy known as “Tofu than fishing overfishing, environmental changes which appears to ten-year or three-generation period, meat” because of pale color. The or changes in catch effort. Fishermen be unsustainable whichever is longer. Whale shark exporters buy meat from fishermen on southern coast used to catch 30- in many cases generation period conservatively for US10 cents/kg and export it for 100 whale sharks in a season but, by estimated as 24 years.63 at least US$1/kg.99 late 1980s catch down to fewer than Small harpoon and In 1995-96 India’s exports of ten.46 Fishermen at An-Ping harbour entanglement fisheries for whale dried fins were valued at caught more than 70 individuals in sharks are reported in India, US$3,700,000.99 Press reports state 1992, but only two in 1993 and 14 in Pakistan, Taiwan, the Philippines that a set of four dried fins fetches 1994.46 Anecdotal information (banned in 1998), the Maldives around Rs22,000 (US$500). suggests total Taiwanese landings (prior to protection in 1995)63 and However, the fishermen are said to formerly 250-300 sharks per year. the Andaman Islands. Targeted by earn only Rs6,500 per shark, While this appears to have fallen harpoon fishery at Veraval on Rs1,500 0f which is used to cover the steeply, market size remains Gujarat coast of India. Elsewhere in fishing trip.100 An average of 300mt unchanged. Although Taiwanese India targeted for liver and fins.99 of meat are exported annually.100 customs do not record imports of Indian press reports suggest 800- Fishermen in the Maldives used whale shark products specifically, 1,000 whale sharks killed to take 20-30 whale sharks a year, this indicates increased volumes of annually.100 Landings increased using liver oil to treat boats, but imports.63 markedly in late 1990s, but fell reported declining catches during Whale shark fisheries expanded significantly (despite market 1980s to early 1990s.63 Fishing now significantly within past ten years, demand and possible increase in banned and whale sharks viewed as mainly for booming Taiwanese fin fishing activity) in 2000 season.63 potentially major attraction for and meat market. Limited fisheries Fishermen said to harpoon animals, tourists.101 data on whale sharks suggests that drag them for eight to ten hours Filipino fishermen in Talisayan, even relatively low catches of the until exhausted, then tow into on the Bohol Sea, caught 100 sharks species from a small population may shallow water and cut up, in 1994, 80 in 1995 and 30 in not be sustainable.63 sometimes still living. Value in 1996.46 High demand resulted in The US proposed listing the Veraval of landed whale sharks increased fishing effort and falling whale shark on CITES Appendix II increased steeply in 1990s, catches in the Philippines fishery, which would have required import particularly when meat began to be culminating in 1998 fishery ban. and export permits and a non- utilized in 1994. Prices particularly Poaching and smuggling said to detriment finding. Proposal high since 1997.63 Occasionally continue on small scale.63 defeated.

THE END OF THE LINE? 31 Country Reports: Asia

Both the volume and value of the Asia shark fin trade have increased Country Reports dramatically in recent years. Hong Kong saw its reported The following section is not intended to be a detailed analysis of Hong Kong imports rise from 2,420mt in 1972 shark fisheries, utilization or consumer markets. Instead it to 4,105mt in 1991.7 By 1995, this focuses on a number of dominant themes which have been THE GLOBAL HUB had risen to 6,121mt.40 In 1998, addressed earlier in this report and which are now revisited in there was a slight fall to light of information gathered from selected regions of the world. ong Kong, as the gateway 5,997mt,102 but imports rose again to China and with its to 6,427mt in 1999. In the first international trading five months of 2000, 2,900mt were “From 1972-99 According to one of Hong H 102 status, naturally evolved as the center imported. imports of shark Kong’s major shark fin dealers, Mr. of the global shark fin trade. Just as it Re-exports of shark fin from K.H. Kwong, in 1981 the booming had been for the global ivory trade Hong Kong totalled 150mt in fin to Hong economies of many east Asian (both legal and illegal) prior to 1989, 1972.103 By 1991, this had risen to Kong rose from nations had resulted in a rapid Hong Kong acts as an entrepôt, with 1,844mt.7 In 1998, re-exports were 2,420mt to increase in demand for shark fin some fins consumed domestically recorded as 3,813mt, rising sharply and an escalation in prices in Hong but a great deal re-exported to other to 6,854mt in 1999. In the first five 6,427mt. Kong. However, an economic parts of the Chinese-speaking world. months of 2000, 3,412mt were re- Average prices downturn in Hong Kong in the Hong Kong’s biggest customer is exported.102 have risen mid-1990s resulted in a 50% fall in mainland China, where shark fin Average prices for fins rose from local demand and led dealers to products were politically US$11.20/kg in 1980 to fourfold since increase their exports to Taiwan and “rehabilitated” in 1987. US$41.00/kg in 1992.40 1980”103,40 elsewhere in the region. This

32 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Asia

situation still prevails and Mr. SOURCES OF FINS Above: Hong China was the main recipient of fins Kwong believes that Hong Kong is Kong is the from Hong Kong, importing 616mt. now responsible for only 1/10th of Mr. Kwong obtains most of his fins center of the Other major destinations for Hong world consumption.104 from India, South Africa, Yemen, world’s shark fin Kong fins were Japan (134mt), Mainland China is the major the United Arab Emirates (UAE) trade. Singapore (125mt), Taiwan (78mt), importer, with around 3,000mt of and Kenya. In the past, large Canada (45mt), Korea (44mt) and frozen fins and large quantities of quantities of fins were imported the US (41mt).102 dried fins imported annually. While from Japan. Japanese fishermen mainland China accounts for froze the fins, took them back to Left: A worker around 60% of fins from Hong Japan for drying and then exported trims dried shark Kong, other destinations are Taiwan, them to Hong Kong. However, fins in Hong Singapore, Malaysia and Korea.104 Japanese imports have diminished Kong A sizeable proportion of the considerably since 1997.104 frozen fins are sent back to Hong In 1999, Hong Kong imported Kong from mainland China after 5,830mt of dried shark fin. Of this, drying and processing, as labor is 903mt came from Mainland China. cheaper there. Furthermore, Chinese Other major sources were Taiwan dealers are obliged by law to export (384mt), Singapore (375mt), UAE 40% of their fins after processing.104 (350mt), Japan (250mt), India This constant flow of exports (237mt), Yemen (220mt), Indonesia and re-exports makes the task of (169mt) and South Africa (89mt).102 quantifying trade and consumption In the same year, Hong Kong re- levels in the region very difficult. exported 6,218mt of dried shark fin. © W.Y. NG/EARTHCARE

THE END OF THE LINE? 33 Country Reports: Asia

❧THE HONG KONG SURVEY ❧ A Personal Perspective

In January 2000 WildAid and Earthcare, Hong Fish Fin Alert I was never told by adults about the Kong, commissioned a telephone survey of cruelty behind shark fin soup, because consumer attitudes about sharks and shark fin By Wai Yee Ng EARTHCARE, HONG KONG they didn’t know the truth either. Sadly, soup. The survey was conducted by the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Only those people Consumer Ignorance they do not have the time, curiosity or who regularly eat shark fin soup (372 out of There is no word in Chinese for interest to know, and neither do they 1006 respondents) were asked the questions shark fin. In Cantonese we use the term have access to information about sharks. relating directly to soup. A brief summary “fish fin,” and it is used in a number of How Can We Change Consumer follows: contexts. “Fish Fin Stir with Rice” is a Behavior? congratulatory expression to someone It is of paramount importance to Most important reason for eating shark fin soup? who has achieved wealth and success. reduce excess demand for shark fin and 208—social habit; 93—delicious; 36—healthy We also talk of “rinsing one’s mouth other shark products by educating Would you eat shark fin alone or in company? with Fish Fin,” to emphasize that mere consumers and changing their 343—in company; 5—alone; 21—either water is no longer all one can afford. consumption patterns through mass When I was a child, I was told by media campaigns. In cities like Hong Do you eat as much as you did five years ago? More? adults that shark fin soup is tasty. Kong and Singapore, which are very less? During the 1960s and 70s, my family tiny areas with huge populations, the 208—the same; 104—more would gather every Sunday for dinner most important pastime is watching TV, If you knew shark species were declining owing to the and I had the chance to eat shark fin reading newspapers and watching demand for shark fins would you still eat it? soup nearly every week. After I went to movies. Therefore, it is important to 165—no; 123—yes; 82—unable/unwilling to University, I seldom ate shark fin soup publicize the shark conservation answer again, except at wedding banquets. message, using the media, so that these Shark fin soup is a dish associated busy city consumers are educated about All 1006 respondents were asked the following with happy events like weddings and the issues. It is the only effective way, questions: important social functions. As it is especially in the absence of international With which of the following statements do you agree? expensive, it also enhances the feeling of management and regulation. importance of the social group. It is At the end of the day, it all goes back “Sharks are important in keeping the balance of associated with well-being, wealth and to square one—when the buying stops, marine life” social status. Now it has become an the killing can, too. The fate of sharks 643—agree important part of business luncheons. and many other species will depend on “Sharks are dangerous to people and should be I was never told about the source of the choices and decisions of individual killed” “fish fin,” that it is actually cut from consumers. 57—agree sharks, sometimes when they are still alive. People never associated this “fish” Wai Yee Ng directs Earthcare Hong Kong “It is not important what happens to shark working to raise awareness of wildlife with sharks, which are relatively scarce. consumption and animal welfare. populations” 175—agree Left: Jaws author, “Would you agree that it is wrong to kill a shark just Peter Benchley, for its fins?” and Taiwanese 707—no; 110—yes; 169—could not answer celebrity, Ms. Shui, hosting a press conference to raise awareness of shark conservation issues in Taipei, Taiwan. © P.KNIGHTS/WILDAID

34 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Asia

China Imports of shark fins (dried, salted or in brine) mt. ntil 1987, China was a 1980 31 3 1981 48 9 relatively small player in 1982 48 40 the international trade in 1983 102 40 U 1984 85 31 shark fins. In that year, the Chinese 1985 133 35 authorities relaxed the long-held 1986 334 91 official attitude to shark fin soup as 1987 575 235 an unacceptable symbol of wealth 1988 902 463 1989 1,066 563 and privilege, thereby opening the 1990 1,335 809 door to a vast new market. Rapid Source: Adapted from FAO in TRAFFIC Network economic development, especially Report 1996 in southern China and the cities of Exports of shark fins Beijing and Shanghai, led to huge (dried, salted or in brine) mt. increases in disposable income and 1992 9,429 - the creation of a new middle class. 1993 3,079 - 1994 3,375 - New-found affluence could be 1995 Not reported Not reported demonstrated to friends and Source: Adapted from China Customs Statistics business associates by serving shark 1992-94 in TRAFFIC Network Report 1996. fin soup.

FISHING Existing FAO records show that China does not report the volume mainland China’s shark fin imports or species composition of its shark (dried, salted and in brine) rose landings.7 It is known, however, that from 31mt in 1980 to 1,335mt in China’s fishing industry has grown 1990, a 43-fold increase in the ten- rapidly since 1987. The distant- year period. During the same water fleet grew from one vessel of period, its exports rose from three Above: As China capacity greater than 500 GRT in metric tons in 1980 to 808mt. In subsequent years, reported has opened to 1975 to 26 vessels in 1992. By 1996, During this period, China international trade increased. While FAO figures the Shanghai industry alone was imported a total of 4,659mt of trade it has show that world imports of shark reported to have 64 vessels shark fins, and exported 2,284mt, a become the no.1 fin in 1992 totalled almost 6,000mt, operating in the north Pacific, difference of 2,375mt which may market for shark mainland China’s own 1992 figures Atlantic and Indian oceans.7 indicate the volume of fins fin with demand show imports of 9,429mt. Data are From the scant information consumed in the country during likely to increase. undoubtedly flawed as Burma alone available, researchers have that decade. wasreported to export 5,397mt to concluded that Chinese shark China in that year! landings may be increasing, that the China’s GDP per capita In 1995, China and Singapore small size of some sharks caught did not report their trade figures to may be of concern, and that coastal the FAO. This failure to report is fisheries may have reduced the 7,000 reflected in the steep decline in populations of some species.7 world shark fin trade reported by 6,000 the FAO in that year. Had they SHARK FIN CONSUMPTION 5,000 reported, one would have expected (US$) ta i to see world import figures for 1995 4,000 Mainland China has become the standing at around 7,300mt. per cap world’s largest consumer of shark 3,000 Taking into account mainland GDP s fin. With an estimated 250 million- ’ China’s own import figures for

na 2,000

strong middle-class, the number of Chi 1993-1994, one can estimate that its potential consumers of shark fin 1,000 imports stood at around 3,700mt in soup in mainland China exceeds the 1995, which equates to half of the 0 populations of all the other markets FAO’s total estimated world trade in the world combined. 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 for that year. Year

THE END OF THE LINE? 35 Country Reports: Asia © H. WOU/WILDAID

100 160,000

Singapore 90 Import FOB Value 140,000 Overall GDP (S$m) 80 ingapore is reported to be 120,000 70

the second largest shark fin 60 100,000

trading nation after Hong 50 80,000 GDP (S$m) S103 Kong and acts as an entrepôt as metric tons 40 60,000 well as having a domestic market 30 40,000 for shark fin. 20

According to Singapore Trade 10 20,000

Development Board figures, 0 0 Singapore imported a total of 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 820mt of dried shark fin in 1997, Year 538mt in 1998, 692mt in 1999 and 279mt in the first five months of Singapore’s GDP and shark fin import values 2000. The five largest exporters to Singapore during the period were Hong Kong (417mt), India (241mt), Pakistan (204mt), Taiwan (191mt) and Japan (127mt).105 player, prices have increased by source them from Spain and South Left: Dealers The total amount of dried shark about ten percent per year.105 Africa. The chain currently serves an often specialize fin exported between January 1997 It is impossible to estimate how average of 3.5mt of shark fin per in a large and May 2000 was 1,837mt. The top much shark fin is actually being month. The company also manages number of three countries importing from consumed annually in Singapore shark fin operations in Indonesia, marine products Singapore during that time were but focusing on one restaurant and is in the process of expanding Below: Fins on Hong Kong (1,269mt), Malaysia chain in Singapore gives an its shark fin processing capacity in sale in Singapore (397mt) and Taiwan (46mt). alarming indication of the scale of both Singapore and China.106 Tracking the fin trade is made the retail trade. complicated by the fact that In April 2000, Thai Village Singapore imports much of its fin Holdings Ltd, a company that owns from Hong Kong and exports most a chain of shark fin restaurants, of it to Hong Kong. Malaysia is the underwent a highly successful second major export market for initial public offering (IPO) in Singapore. Singapore. Traders remember the time when The company comprises five eight to ten auctions were held daily restaurants in Singapore, one in and an inexpensive supply of fins Shanghai and another planned was readily available. Since 1987, elsewhere in China. It receives fins when China became a significant from Singapore-based suppliers who

INDONESIA into Singapore. Indonesian export figures show exports to Statistics on the fin trade with Singapore of 369mt in 1997, Indonesia are “classified” in 93mt in 1998 and 155mt in Singapore and are not available 1999.107 to the public.7 In addition, Total exports of dried shark official statistics state that fin from Indonesia amounted to fishery products offloaded 676mt in 1997, fell to 231mt in directly from vessels in 1998 and rose again to 614mt Singapore are not included in in 1999. Figures for January to trade figures. The figures shown August 2000 show record here should therefore be exports of 918mt.107 regarded as showing the minimum volume of fin imports © H. WOU/WILDAID

36 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Asia

A Personal Perspective © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS Foot Binding, Slavery, Racism and Shark Fin

By Tony Wu SINGAPORE Beginnings As an experienced diver, it had always seemed odd to me that in nearly 1,000 dives in some of the world’s most biologically rich waters, I could practically count on a single hand the number of sharks I had ever come across. It wasn’t until I received a mailing from my favourite airline that the proverbial light bulb went on in my head. One of the featured items was shark fin soup. My heart sank with the sudden realization that shark fin soup might be linked to the dearth of sharks. Shark Fin Today People in Asia love good food. The Divers in many parts of the world report fewer sightings of sharks preparation, serving and consumption of gourmet dishes is an integral part of most Asian cultures. There are few large gatherings Understanding the Motives airlines in question, encouraged others to do the or functions that do not revolve around a If there’s one message I’d like to ensure gets same, and the airlines responded in a spectacular feast. Shark fin soup is one of the through, it is this: people in Asia order, serve and responsible and positive manner. main dishes served. It has always been consume shark fin for the same reasons that The Bottom Line expensive, at least for what it is—essentially people buy multiple Rolex watches, wear This issue is about more than having a bowl chicken soup with a bit of boiled collagen fiber excessive amounts of gold jewelry, buy bottles of of shark fin soup. It is about the age-old thrown in. cognac and destroy them in front of friends or struggle of change, of learning to adapt to new Shark fin has never been about practicality drive Ferraris in places like Singapore where the circumstances and to act in a responsible or nutrition. Perhaps more than any other urban speed limit is 80 kph. It is for ego, pride, manner. It is about changing practices like foot dish, it has been a symbol of extravagance and exhibitionism, hubris…call it what you will. binding, slavery and racism to leave future wealth. It is a way of honoring one’s guests, Paper Tigers and Red Herrings generations a better world. In Asia, as much as while demonstrating that one has “made it.” There are certainly some in Asia who would anywhere else, we need not just to face change, This was all fine and good when only a argue otherwise.There are those who attribute but to bring it about in a proactive manner, relatively small proportion of people in Asia medicinal or regenerative properties to shark and demonstrate that we are responsible could actually afford such luxuries, but the fin, just as they do to tiger penises and rhinoceros enough not to follow a deadend path. combined purchasing power of people in Asia horns. There are those who argue that serving Those who make the decisions about shark has grown exponentially. The demand for all shark fin is integral to Asian culture, and that conservation and finning should understand luxury goods, including shark fin, has efforts to control shark finning are really just that there are many people in Asia who are increased dramatically. The dish is now a attempts at cultural imperialism by extremists. concerned about this issue and who are prerequisite for most weddings in Asian urban However, most of us realize that shark fin working to educate friends, relatives and others areas. Nearly every major corporate function has no magical properties and that there is in the hope that the senseless, ego-driven desire features shark fin, and virtually all large nothing imperialist about seeking to prevent to serve shark fin will abate. family gatherings, too. There are now $8.99 overfishing or the obliteration of marine It is a long and difficult task, however, as all-you-can-eat shark fin buffets. Shark fin is species. The assertion about “extreme” groups we are working to overcome personal available on the street, in cans on grocery leading a campaign to stop airlines offering insecurities, pride, ignorance and those who shelves, and yes, even as in-flight meals on shark fin soup, for instance, was published have become attached to the huge profits they Asian airlines. without question by a leading Singapore make from shark fin. So once I started to look around, it became newspaper when, in fact, there were no We could use your help.

obvious to me that the demand for shark fin extreme groups involved. I know, because I Tony Wu is a private individual working to raise has exploded during my lifetime. was the campaign! I wrote a polite letter to the awareness of threats to sharks.

THE END OF THE LINE? 37 Country Reports: Asia © R. CHEN/WILDAID

Taiwan ❧TAIWAN SURVEY ❧

TAIWANESE FISHERIES In July 2000, WildAid commissioned a survey of aiwan is not only a 1,015 people on attitudes major player in the about shark and shark fin Tinternational fin soup. It found that: trade, it is also one of the 30% of respondents had foremost shark fishing never eaten shark fin soup nations, with an annual catch of sharks which has shown a 7% had stopped eating it gradual upward trend over because of a concern for the the past half-century.13 environment Reported Taiwanese shark 43% knew that shark fin catches were approximately soup is made from sharks; 10,700mt in 1953 and rose to 29% knew only that it was 32,700mt in 1969, with a mean of Taiwan’s major shark fin dealers, Above: Wet fins made from fish 19,300mt in the period.39 In 1999, sharks are never regarded as arrive for this figure rose to 39,779mt. By far bycatch. The Taiwanese fish for processing 60% of respondents agreed the largest proportion of these tuna and sharks equally.13 When with the statement that shark catches—33,637mt—were taken in sharks are caught by the Taiwanese fin soup is not a special dish; Taiwan’s far seas fisheries, with fleet, those regarded as having a 16% strongly agreed; 21% offshore fisheries and coastal high value are kept, while others are disagreed and only 3% fisheries accounting for only finned and thrown back.13 strongly disagreed 5,710mt and 432mt, respectively.108 79% said that social events These figures represent the catch AT THE PORT were the most common levels recorded by Taiwanese- occasion for eating the soup; registered fishing vessels alone and Locally-caught sharks have their 25% ate it at family dinners; do not include those made by fins left on, but those caught in far 1% ate it alone Taiwan-owned vessels registered to seas fishery have their fins cut off at other countries under Flags Of sea and dried out on deck, to save 33% believed shark fin Convenience (FOCs). freezer space. These are called “sea- soup to be irreplaceable;15% dried’, while the locally-caught ones thought any soup would be OFFSHORE SHARK FISHERY are called “mountain-dried”. equally acceptable According to the dealer, there is no 69% said they would be Unlike China, which operates a price difference between the two. prepared to pay US$100 for a closed season for two months of the What differentiates price is species serving of soup and 27% year, Taiwanese vessels never stop and condition105. would not fishing. In 1998, Taiwan had 2,325 There are still large quantities of longliners, 1,520 gillnetters, 2,161 fins-only landings from sharks 80% agreed that shark fin “otter trawls,” 56 “bull trawls” and which are bycaught in the soup had caused overfishing an unknown quantity of drag Taiwanese tuna longline fleet, but 13% believed that fins grow nets.108 Sharks taken in local that is reported to be gradually back after being removed fisheries are utilized, while in the changing107. “Far Seas” fishery they may be At the ports, landed sharks are 52% agreed that it was finned. lined up and the hooks removed. wasteful to fin and discard Many dealers go to the ports to bid sharks, while 19% strongly FAR SEAS FISHERY for the sharks, which are auctioned agreed; 24% disagreed and at the quayside along with other 5% strongly disagreed The sea-going vessels, most of valuable fish, such as tuna. 70% believed that sharks which are longliners, go as far afield Prospective buyers dig sticks into are important to ocean as Mauritius, Las Palmas and the the sharks, to test the quality of the ecology and 18% strongly waters of mainland Spain. They meat. Once bought, the sharks are agreed; 11% disagreed and return with container-loads of cleaned, gutted and, if locally 1% strongly disagreed sharks. According to one of caught, their fins removed.

38 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Asia © R. CHEN/WILDAID

THE FIN TRADE

Demand for fins in Taiwan is growing, both for local consumption and for export. But supply is diminishing, down by 30% in 1999, and prices have gone up as a result. In 1999, fin prices were reported to be at their highest in ten years.13 The owner of a soup canning factory told WildAid that he believed someone was trying to monopolize the fin market.109 Sharks are getting smaller as well as scarcer. For example, “black” shark fins used to average 40cm in length but are now averaging 35cm.13 A major fin dealer informed WildAid that when the sharks had all gone, he would move on to other products, such as scallops and abalone.13 More and more shark fin soup restaurants are opening in THE WORKINGS OF Above: Fins Taiwanese dealers buy from local Taiwan, and more families can now THE TRADE drying in Taiwan fishing companies as well as afford to eat it. importing shark fin. The day before According to the manager of a The “Brothers” are reported to be a Below: Taiwan is WildAid’s interview with the dealer, shark trading company in Australia, private cartel of fin dealers, whose a major shark he had received a container of fins fishing nation all seafood that comes into Taiwan objectives are control of the from Spain, which he had bought and a major must be landed from a Taiwanese industry and the maintenance of a directly from the Spanish vessel.13 consumer vessel, either fishing or transport. If buying and selling price balance Five years ago, the local shark catch not, it attracts a 42% import tax. This between Singapore and Taiwan. was sufficient to supply the market, means that it is not profitable for fin They are said to control all the fin but because there are fewer sharks to be imported directly from other that comes off Taiwanese longliners locally and a larger market, imports countries and Taiwanese vessels in Taiwan and Singapore.110 have increased.13 trans-ship fins from the vessels of The dealer reported that all Most of Taiwan’s fins are other nations on the high seas.110 transactions are carried out in cash. exported to Hong Kong, for later export to China. The dealer said that Spain was the biggest exporter of fins to Taiwan and that he owned a company in Las Palmas, in the Spanish Canary Islands, which was a center for fin collection.13 The dealer exports more than 100mt of dried fin per year from his Taiwan-based company and estimates that 60% of them come from blue sharks. There are a number of fin processing factories in Taiwan. Once the fins have been sorted, a decision is made as to which should be used for local consumption and which should be exported.13 © R. CHEN/WILDAID

THE END OF THE LINE? 39 Country Reports: Asia

Asia — The Producers

DECLINING CATCHES

RSGA In the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden (RSGA) region, artisanal fishermen are responsible for most of the shark and ray landings, using longlines and gillnets. Despite increased effort, the total landings of sharks and rays by artisanal fishermen in Yemeni waters in the RSGA demonstrate a decline.111

UAE Arabs do not consume a great deal of fish, but the large—and growing—populations of Indians, Bangladeshis and Pakistanis do. This has stimulated both the local of the sharks caught. Above: India is At the present rate of fishing and and export markets for fish. The Overexploitation is a clear trend, the largest shark with the increase in effort in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has similar to the previous collapse of fishing nation in inshore waters, sustainability of the experienced a decline in shark shark fisheries in Pakistan.99 the world—yet resource there appears to be catches in recent years and there are In 1999, fishermen in many there is no threatened.99 management of growing concerns about villages in Andhra Pradesh and shark fisheries overexploitation.17 Tamil Nadu reported that they had THE FIN TRADE to travel farther and farther afield INDIA The annual average to find sharks. Most of the 20 “My family’s UAE The UAE exports significant landings of sharks and rays in India fishermen interviewed by WildAid protein lies at quantities of fins to Hong Kong. during 1987-96 was 56,000mt, of reported that shark catches had The Caribbean Trading Company, which sharks were 62.5% or decreased significantly over the the bottom of based in Sharjah Emirate, claimed a 35,000mt.99 By 1997, India was by past ten years. Fishermen arrested the sea.” few years ago to be exporting ten

far the world’s leading shark fishing for illegal fishing in the Gahirmata AN I NDIAN metric tons of fin to Hong Kong 113 country, landing nearly 131,000mt, Marine National Park in Orissa FISHERMAN each week. Hong Kong import or 16% of the world total.103 The told WildAid, “We used to catch COMPLAINS ABOUT statistics reveal annual imports FINNING BY fishery has increased over the years, sharks regularly, but now they are INDUSTRIAL from the UAE averaging 340mt 112 102 with steady decreases in the length extinct here.” LONGLINERS, 1999 since 1998. In 1999, a new company, Al

© SMAILES ALEX/CORBIS SYGMA Mansoor, was established in Ajman Left: Fins drying Emirate just prior to WildAid’s in the UAE visit. Local fishermen were delighted that the owner was offering ten times more for fins than is paid for meat. They stated that they would begin strenuously targeting sharks in order to supply the new company. Al Mansoor had also offered to buy shark skin and meat from local fishermen.17

RSGA In the RSGA region, increased demand for dried fins has led to greater fishing effort on the larger offshore species, since larger

40 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Asia © S. WATTS/WILDAID shark fins fetch higher prices. Sharks are often finned.111

INDIA In 1999, fishermen along the coast of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh reported receiving far higher prices for their fins than they had even three years ago.17 Apart from the east and west coasts of mainland India, it is generally believed that sharks are being finned in large numbers by mostly foreign trawlers off the Andaman Islands. Numerous longliners operating just outside the Indian Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ) are reputed by 50-60mt of large dried fins per year, Above: Juvenile According to the Indian Centre local fishermen to be finning sharks mostly to Singapore, Taiwan, China sharks are for Marine Fisheries Research, the off both the west and east coasts.17 and Japan. At the time of WildAid’s considered a quantity of fins exported fluctuated A shark meat dealer in Mumbai visit, 3.5mt of fins were in stock and delicacy in the from 96mt in 1985 up to 192mt in (Bombay) reported in 1999 that very there was an outstanding order UAE 1989 and, after a brief drop, rose to few large sharks remain in local from mainland China for 6.5mt. 185mt in 1994.99 India exported waters because fishermen had been Most of the fins sold by this 241mt of dried fins to Singapore targeting more sharks for fins.17 company are from blacktip and between January 1997 and May There are about a dozen hammerhead sharks from Gujarat. 2000105 and 340mt to Hong Kong companies in Chennai (Madras) They occasionally obtain whale during the same period.102 exporting shark fins to east and shark fins from the same area. The southeast Asia.17 One of the company can sell as much as 100mt LACK OF DATA AND companies, Marine Mercantile, had of baby shark fins per year, if there MANAGEMENT four metric tons of fins stockpiled are advance orders lined up. in February 1999; the day before However the demand for these fins RSGA Surveillance and WildAid’s visit, two metric tons had is very sporadic. In 1997, 100mt monitoring are inadequate in the been sold to a company run by the were exported; only two metric tons RSGA region, making it very owner’s brother in Singapore. in 1998. difficult to estimate total catches Exports from this one company As part of a drive to help local with reasonable accuracy.111 There is average 40mt per year and fins are exporters capture the added value a serious lack of data on catch effort exported mainly to Hong Kong, of marine products, the Marine and composition, but a preliminary Singapore and Taiwan. Export Development Authority of study in April 1999 showed that the A fin dealer in Mumbai admitted Mumbai ran a training workshop present catch probably exceeds the that he had noted a dramatic on fin processing in 1997. The estimated Maximum Sustainable decline in the availability of fins. intention was to teach Indian Yield (MSY) of the fisheries in Some years ago he could gather dealers to process fins in a way Socotra Island.111 three metric tons by making one acceptable to importers. However, visit to each of twelve fishing buyers from Singapore and Hong INDIA There is no explicit villages. Now he has to make 300 Kong rejected the quality of fins management of Indian shark separate trips in order to buy the processed in India, and the project fisheries and no fishing vessels same amount. He sells an average of was canceled.114 complete log sheets.99

THE END OF THE LINE? 41 Country Reports: Africa

Africa

OVERVIEW INDIAN OCEAN Mauritania From field investigations in Tanzania, South Africa, Kenya, Senegal Mauritania, Gambia and Senegal, and data from previous The Gambia studies, WildAid has found that shark meat remains an important source of protein for Africa. For centuries, shark

meat was obtained by traditional fishing in non-motorized Somalia boats. However, in the last 15 years, African fishing effort has dramatically increased owing to expanding human Kenya Tanzania populations, mechanization, technical innovations such as ATLANTIC OCEAN nylon nets and longlines, and demand for shark fins. While effort has increased in many places, the resulting catch very often has not. In many countries, shark catch declines have been attributed to foreign industrial fisheries—often conducted illegally—which have proliferated in African waters. With the exception of South Africa, management and South Africa enforcement of fisheries law have been scarce.

DECLINING CATCHES by the resident Ghanaian “Certain once- an alarming drop in both the fishermen.117 A further surge in abundant number and size of sharks caught THE GAMBIA In The Gambia, effort occurred in 1994 when the during the previous five years.7 In sharks are rarely eaten and shark devaluation of the Senegalese species have 1999, fishermen and fish dealers stocks remained virtually currency led to a boom in prices for declined, reported seeing a precipitous unexploited, except for bycatch, until fins.118 In October 2000, fishermen become rare or decline in shark catches along the in the 1970s. At that time a group of in the villages of Mbour and Ngor northern Kenyan coast for the past immigrant Ghanaians began an reported that shark catches were even decade. In Malindi, a local artisanal, directed shark fishery. decreasing despite increased fishing commercially fishmonger estimated that shark Since then, the shark fishermen of effort.119 A 30-year-old fisherman in extinct.” catches had gone down by 50% in “Ghanatown” have witnessed Ngor reported that, as a child, he ten years. Ironically, although significant declines in shark catches. had frequently encountered sharks A MADOU S AINE, Malindi is a traditional fishing G OVERNMENT OF They must travel increasingly farther while swimming. He had not seen a T HE G AMBIA village, the trader must make a afield to catch sharks.115 Ray catches single shark in the area for 15 three-hour round trip to Mombasa are still relatively high, but the years.11 Declines had also been to buy fish for the people of people of Ghanatown fear that they, noted by recreational fishermen at a Malindi.121 Local fishermen said too, will decline if fishing pressure Dakar club, who now very rarely see, that they can fish all night and does not diminish. In recognition of let alone catch, a shark. come back with only 5kg of shark, the problem of overfishing, the despite increased effort and a fishermen of Ghanatown are seeking MAURITANIA Shark fishing by variety of gear. The size of alternative sources of income.115 In the Imraguen people in the north of individual fish is also declining. No the Brufut region of The Gambia, Mauritania is known to have existed sawfish have been caught for five local artisanal fishermen measure since the early 1900s. Always a years.121 Fresh fish shops in the the decline of the fishery by their minor fishery, it disappeared in the Mombasa and Malindi areas have fuel use: a few years ago 60 liters of 1970s, but began again in earnest in noted similar problems. One fuel was required to catch a certain 1988. Sharks were abundant at that market vendor reported that a few volume of sharks. Today, 600 liters time but catches have rapidly years ago he was able to buy ten are necessary to obtain the same diminished.120 sharks a day on average. Now, he volume.116 would be surprised to see one every KENYA Coastal fishermen three months. SENEGAL The shark fishing effort expressed concerns about WildAid visited a huge increased in Senegal in the 1970s, overexploitation as early as 1989.7 In warehouse in the city of Mombasa due to the export market provided 1995, recreational fishermen noted containing approximately 80mt of

42 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Africa © B. MCCOUBREY/WILDAID dried shark meat almost entirely South Yemen. Sharks from Somalia. The warehouse comprise 40% of landings owner stated that this was because in some areas.7 “sharks are finished in Kenya”. Reports show that at least 30mt of THE SEYCHELLES The shark meat is imported every month shark fishing industry in from Somalia.122 the Seychelles dates back to the early 1920s. By the end TANZANIA In 1995, artisanal of the 1950s increased fishing was thought to be the demand led to a larger greatest source of pressure on number of vessels entering sharks. It accounted for 96% of the fishery. Shark stocks on fishing effort at that time, landing the Seychelles plateau and 1,103mt of sharks.7 More than 25.4% nearby banks showed clear were immature, a possible indication signs of overexploitation. It of overexploitation. In May 1999, was reported that, after just gillnet fishermen in Zanzibar told two years of shark fishing, WildAid that shark catches are the most accessible areas declining markedly, while large had been cleared of large sharks were seldom caught. sharks, resulting in the need to fish farther SOUTH AFRICA It is highly likely afield.126 Shark catches rose that most stocks in South African to 37.4mt in 1985, peaked waters have already been exploited at 116.5mt in 1995 and had beyond sustainable levels. As stocks of dropped to 83.9mt by bony fish species decline in South 1996.126 African waters, more fishermen are targeting sharks.123 Correspondingly, THE FIN TRADE dive operators on the east coast observed a marked decline in sharks THE GAMBIA In The between 1997 and 1999.124 The long Gambia, all the sharks and history of shark exploitation, and its some rays have their fins low management profile, does not removed. These are sold to the Above: Fins left the north and from one of Africa’s bode well for the future and it is likely Guinean traders who regularly visit to dry in Cape largest Marine Reserves, the Banc that stricter control and stock Ghanatown. The Guinean traders Town docks d’Arguin National Park.127 rebuilding will be needed.125 finance the Ghanaian fishing boats Recreational fishermen are also from the profits they make from SENEGAL The fin trade has reported to be taking their toll on fins.115 In a very direct way, the shark provided an added incentive to South Africa’s sharks. Some are fin market is financing the catch sharks in Senegal. After selling their catches commercially. overexploitation of sharks in the landing, fins are removed, dried, Catch and release practices often region. In 1990, the average price and sold to Guinean traders.119 result in sharks being so badly injured paid to the fishermen for one kilo At a west African regional that they are effectively dead.123 of fins was 4,000 CFA (US$5.60). In workshop in April 2000, it was 2000, the price had escalated to 50- generally agreed that the profits SOMALIA In 1996, the annual 60,000 CFA (US$70–85). As a result, accruing from the fin trade were shark catch in Somalia was fishermen in Ghanatown increased realized by the fin dealers and not estimated to be 6,700mt, more than their efforts to catch sharks.115 the fishermen.117 However, it is not four times the catch twenty years easy for the fishermen to extricate earlier. In 1995, there was concern MAURITANIA The international themselves from the business, since in Somalia regarding the fin trade sparked the revival of the they are caught in a debt trap. As in overfishing of sharks in the directed shark fishery in 1988. At The Gambia, the dealers supplied northeast region, where sharks were first, only fins were utilized.120 Since the financing for their boats and directly targeted. There were also then, Ghanaian traders in the equipment, so the fishermen are fears that shark stocks were capital, Nouakchott, have begun committed to providing fins for the declining in the Gulf of Aden of exporting dried shark meat from dealers.128

THE END OF THE LINE? 43 Country Reports: Africa

A Personal Perspective KENYA In 1999, a Kenyan THE SEYCHELLES In the fishmonger reported that, just a few Seychelles, the largest fishery by far Shark Fisheries in years before, local fishermen were is the purse seine fishery, with The Gambia unaware of the value of fins. Now landings of nearly 273,000mt of they were trying harder to catch tuna.126 All shark bycatch is reported by Amadou Saine sharks.121 Mombasa’s main shark fin to be finned.126 Officially, the SENIOR FISHERIES OFFICER, GOVERNMENT OF THE GAMBIA dealer is Mr. Kim, a Korean.One of Seychelles exports of dried fins to Mr. Kim’s staff confirmed that he Singapore amounted to 27mt harks and rays have been exploited in sends large containers of shark fins between January 1997 and May The Gambia for more than three to Korea each month.18 It is likely 2000.105 decades, mainly by the Ghanaians who that, by using Korean and other S foreign vessels, large volumes of fins FOREIGN FISHING export the dried meat to Ghana. The export of shark fins from The Gambia to Asia was can leave Kenya without being initiated in the early 1960s by Hong Kong recorded in any way. Officially It is impossible to establish the businessmen in collaboration with a Guinean. Kenya exported 15mt of dried fins extent of damage being done to Shark fin exporters offer local middlemen and to Singapore between January 1997 artisanal fisheries by foreign fishermen up to US$50 per kg of quality dry and May 2000.105 industrial vessels. Every artisanal fins, while the exporters gain hundreds of US$ fishery which WildAid visited in per kilo in Asian markets. Is it not obvious who TANZANIA The price of fins in Africa attributed catch declines to benefits from the shark fin trade? Presently, Tanzania was said to have increased the presence of numerous foreign both Gambian and foreign entrepreneurs by 70% from 1994-99 accompanied fishing fleets. export shark fins to South East Asia.. It is by a dramatic reduction in shark estimated that industrial vessels harvest a catch and leading to a decline in fin SENEGAL Drought in Senegal substantial amount of sharks as bycatch on the exports. To avoid duties in has forced many people to migrate Gambian coast. The fins are cut and the living Tanzania, fin traders have declared to the coast to seek a living animals thrown back into the water…a terribly shark fins as “fish offal” with a increasing local pressure on marine unsustainable and cruel way to fish! The value of US$2/kg.7 Researchers resources. Additionally, there is no livelihood of an entire community, the concluded that because of this, the control over foreign vessels, which Ghanaian community, is dependent on the real catch was more than double the are believed to be responsible not shark fishery. Although there are no official reported figures. In Mafia Marine only for uncontrolled fishing of a records of the biomass and status of shark stocks, Park, fin traders from Zanzibar have wide variety of fish species, but also it is evident that production has been declining, encouraged and financed the for large amounts of shark despite increased fishing effort and capital adoption of longline technology, bycatch.119 The poor of Senegal investment. Stakeholders in the shark catches from which are dominated must compete with well-financed exploitation chain admit that certain once- by larger sharks.7 foreign fleets for the last of the abundant species have declined, become rare or nation’s meager food supply. even commercially extinct. The tiger shark, SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is (Galeocerdo cuvier) and others such as the a major center for shark fin trade. KENYA A spokesman for Ngomeni barbeled houndshark (Leptocharias smithii), the Fins are landed from fishing vessels said that the village depends scalloped hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini), and loaded into containers for entirely on the sea. They eat shark the smooth hammerhead shark (Sphyrna export. Fin exports peaked in 1995 meat and sell the fins.19 One retired zygaena), the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma at 95mt, valued at 4.1 million rand fisherman from there reported a cirratum), the bull ray (Pteromylaeus bovinus), (US$907,000). This fell to 55mt by steep decline in shark catches, the greater guinean mobula (Mobula coilloti), 1998.125 However, Hong Kong which he attributed to the and the common sawfish (Pristis pristis) are customs data show that South longliners and trawlers. The decline rare and threatened. The shark resources, not Africa exported 90mt of dried fins began ten years ago, when the just of The Gambia, but of the entire world, to Hong Kong in 1998 and 89mt in trawlers arrived. It has continued must be properly managed and conserved for 1999.102 Between January 1997 and ever since. In the mid-1980s, the the benefit of present and future generations. May 2000, South Africa exported fishermen sold a daily average of This will require the adoption of sustainable 28mt to Singapore.105 150kg of shark fin. In the 1990s, it exploitation strategies, reduction of threats to WildAid was told by a had fallen 2kg per day.19 habitats, establishment of protected areas and confidential source that South It also has been reported that rational management and utilization. African trade figures are very likely small-scale fishermen off the A six-month survey of the status of Gambian shark to be fudged, probably because of Malindi coast lose nets worth up to stocks, co-ordinated by the author, has just been import/export tariffs. US$5,000 every month to completed.

44 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Africa © S. WATTS/WILDAID trawlers.129 A fish trader in Mombasa told WildAid that trawlers in Kenyan waters were using illegal nets with fine mesh. He said that trawler owners produce large-mesh nets for Fisheries Department inspections, then switch the nets at sea.130 By law the trawlers are supposed to stay at least five nautical miles out to sea, but they have been known to come to within 200 meters of the shore at night.131 Environmentalists and fishing communities recently claimed that at least five trawlers had been fishing less than five nautical miles off the Malindi, Watamu, Mayungu and Ngomeni coast for two weeks, despite government threats to withdraw licenses.129 longliners have been known to sail Above: Artisanal THE SEYCHELLES In the There are also more than ten directly into Wanainchi Marine. fishermen have Seychelles, foreign tuna longliners longliners in the area which are Kenyan fishermen believe that by experienced capture sharks as bycatch and often supposed to respect the 200 mile offloading their shark catch (minus dramatic decline land them in the Seychelles. The EEZ. They reportedly catch species the fins) in Waininchi and Southern in shark catches main species landed is the mako in west Africa that the local fishermen used to Engineering, these vessels were able shark; other species are discarded at catch: tuna, sharks, sailfish and to avoid paying Kenyan taxes.133 sea but records of bycatch and marlin. Some years ago, members of discards are not kept.126 a local angling club reported seeing SOUTH AFRICA In South Africa longliners operating only 16 miles there are reports of illegal fishing ILLEGAL FISHING offshore, in the marlin fishing inside the EEZ, but a lack of patrol grounds. This was stopped, but now vessels has hampered prosecution.134 SENEGAL There is a conflict in they take huge numbers of sharks.132 South Africa permits 85 Japanese Senegal between law-abiding There are at least two private and 24 Taiwanese longliners to fish resident fishermen and those ports in Mombasa, both with tuna inside its EEZ.135 A further 100 entering the Bijagos Archipelago, a security guards and both reputedly or more Taiwanese vessels have used Biosphere Reserve, for illegal shark are reluctant to allow even Fisheries Cape Town for re-supply and repair. and ray fishing. Reports refer to Department officials to visit. One Permit conditions state that “mountains of finless shark such port belongs to Southern bycatch should not exceed five carcasses”137 indicating that this is a Engineering, a company owned by percent of total catch and that fins serious problem, but as in many Mr. Abdul Haman. WildAid saw one from sharks caught in the EEZ parts of the world there is no container with approximately two should be accompanied by the information as to the number of metric tons of frozen sharks inside, relevant carcasses. Often fishermen sharks and rays that are being all finned. A company manager can claim the fins were obtained in caught in illegal fisheries. reported that these were from international waters.136 Taiwanese Korean vessels and that they were longliners are reported to ply the INDIAN OCEAN There is always delivered minus their fins. oceans between Kwazulu-Natal and reportedly widespread illegal fishing Another private port, Waininchi Mozambique.124 Japanese and in the Indian Ocean generally. There Marine, is owned by a Mr. Taiwanese longliners catch oceanic are numerous commercial—and “Mahmood”, whose original name shark species such as mako, blue, often illegal—longline fishing was Tung. A local conservationist silky, oceanic white tip, thresher vessels operating in the EEZs of the claimed that Fisheries Department and porbeagle sharks. Discard region. Many of them are operating officials needed permits to inspect ratios are estimated to be high when out of the Seychelles. Some of them the premises and that at least one compared with known catch rates are EU-registered. These had been ejected.133 Korean in other parts of the world.125 commercial fleets have all been

THE END OF THE LINE? 45 Country Reports: Africa

documented as dealing in shark fin. WEST AFRICAN REGION The “As a child I rays. They wished that the Park Sharks are caught as bycatch and west African Sub-Regional Fisheries would often see would become a sanctuary for finned. The potential offtake is Commission (SRFC) was created in sharks, having for so long been an immense, but to date is more or less March 1985. Its members are the sharks as I area of shark extermination. He unknown and unrecorded.122 Cape Verde Islands, The Gambia, swam…. I hoped their actions would serve as Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania haven’t seen an example to others in the sub- POOR REPORTING and Senegal. It encompasses region.120 1,273,700 km2 of sea and 3,000km one in 15 Across Africa, the rate of reporting of coastline.138 The coalition seeks to years.” KENYA The government of Kenya shark catches is extremely low. harmonize policies on preservation, F ISHERMAN, NGOR, has imposed a temporary ban on Artisanal fishermen do not record conservation and exploitation of S ENEGAL trawling, effective the end of catches at all and knowledge of the marine resources. A common policy November 2000. A task force has activities of foreign vessels is scant. on shark exploitation was been set up to carry out research announced in 2000. It is currently but a preliminary study has shown SOUTH AFRICA The shark being refined after in-depth that bycatch, consisting of fish, fishery in South Africa has been discussion between fisheries sharks, turtles and other marine perceived as wasteful by experts, managers and fishing communities, animals, comprises 70-80% of the with significant misreporting and almost all of whom have recognized total catch.140 no requirement to record bycatch. that sharks are seriously depleted in Below: This is Shark landings are difficult to many parts of the region.119 Local part of a 80mt THE SEYCHELLES In the quantify; authorities rely on fisheries authorities believe that this stockpile of dried Seychelles, legislation was passed in “returns” submitted by commercial policy will result in far better shark meat August 1998, banning the fishing of fishermen, but are sceptical about management of shark fisheries in imported from sharks with nets.126 Somalia as local their accuracy.123 Records of catches the region. sharks stocks are sometimes made long after the have collapsed in event, often when the crew has SENEGAL Fishermen in Senegal Kenya come ashore, allowing for a great believe that the new government, deal of error. It is also suspected elected by popular vote in March that numbers are simply invented, 2000, may not renew foreign fishing so there is something to put on licenses. Some believed that even record. In South Africa, a record of current licenses would be catching a certain species is a pre- withdrawn. At the time of WildAid’s requisite for permit renewal.123 visit, the government was in discussion about future policy on THE SEYCHELLES In the foreign fishing licenses,139 but the Seychelles, shark landings are outcome of those discussions has grossly under-reported. When not been established. converted to wet weight, the 1997 dried fin export data indicate that MAURITANIA The Imraguen of the quantity of sharks caught is Mauritania are collaborating with about 700 times higher than the Banc d’Arguin Marine Reserve recorded landings.126 managers to devise a series of shark conservation measures. These HOPE FOR THE FUTURE? include closing the waters of the Park to shark fishing during the Local authorities in west Africa, migration season and collecting Kenya and South Africa have data on shark landings by species recently made some encouraging and size. In some villages in the moves to increase active shark Park, the Imraguen have expressed a management. However, these desire to stop shark fishing countries have few resources to altogether.128 An Imraguen combat illegal fishing activities by representative said that his people foreign companies with no long- are proud to be among the first term interest in the health of the fishing communities to be actively fishery. involved in conserving sharks and © S. WATTS/WILDAID

46 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Latin America © INNERSPACE VISIONS Latin America

DECLINING CATCHES

BRAZIL In Brazil, a two-year study, completed in December 1998, showed a decrease of 14cm in the average total length of blue sharks caught by longliners and landed in Itajai. “This considerable decline could be explained by increasing fishing pressure on the blue shark stock not only caused by national fleets but also by foreign high seas vessels…. (it) could be a first indication of overfishing.”54

COSTA RICA Pelagic fishery resources were evaluated in 1992 in Costa Rica’s EEZ and sharks, greatest effects of overfishing, with Above: Blue THE FIN TRADE among other fish, were found to be CPUE rates down more than 90%. sharks are abundant. Recently, however, CPUE for grey and thresher sharks frequently finned BRAZIL Longliners in Santos, longlining activity in the Costa fell by more than 65%.142 as their meat has Brazil, target tuna, with incidental Rican EEZ has resulted in the Costa Rican fishermen told little value in catches of sharks. Initially sharks many regions of depletion of fish stocks. This has WildAid that they were catching had little commercial value, but in the world led to further expansion into fewer and smaller sharks. They also 1977 the market for shark meat international waters, with some spoke of routinely targeting sharks Below: A blue began to develop, followed by a rise boats traveling as far as Chile. illegally around the Cocos and the shark is finned in the price of fins in the 1980s. Fishermen admit that they must go Galapagos. One fisherman on a Costa Rican From 1984-94, when tuna catches either to the Cocos Island or the explained that they fish at night in longliner. Boats declined, blue shark became the 141 Galapagos Islands to catch sharks. order to avoid detection. travel to the target species.144 By 1993 sharks Despite this, the Costa Rican Cocos Island and comprised 60% of the total longline fisheries authority, Instituto MEXICO The Mexican artisanal Galapagos now catch. About 30% of the total catch Costarricense de Pesca y fishery accounts for 80% of the to fish for sharks were blue sharks.144 Between 1990 Acuacultura (INCOPESCA), is national shark catch.23 However, and 1994, the average number of currently considering increasing its studies have concluded that the blue sharks caught per year by the 142 fleet size and fishermen are main species have been heavily national fleet is estimated to have converting their shrimping vessels fished for the last ten years in been 68,318 sharks.54 141 into longliners. coastal areas, leading to a high In 1998, on-board observers A recent study has shown that proportion of immature sharks monitored three fishing trips taken both CPUE and the average size of being caught. The few described by tuna longliners. The combined sharks has diminished significantly shark nursery areas in the Mexican in the last seven years. A study in Gulf are also under intense fishing © R. VARGAS 2000 compared current catch data pressure.143 to data collected in 1993. Bearing in mind that the 1993 study measured CUBA Earlier this century, the only to the tail fork, while the later Cuban shark fishery relied heavily study measured total length, the on the night shark, which made up average size for a grey shark was between 65-70% of the total shark 43.4% smaller in the later study. For catch. From 1937-41, the average thresher, blue and hammerhead annual catch was 12,000 sharks. By sharks, the average sizes were 1971, a steep decline had begun. 47.55%, 15.4% and 37.5% smaller, The mean weight of sharks CPUE 142 respectively. dropped from 53.34kg in 1971 to Blue and hammerhead sharks 21.11kg in 1973.46 have apparently suffered the

THE END OF THE LINE? 47 Country Reports: Latin America © D. HIGGS/ENVIRONMENTAL PRESS AGENCY

Left: Costa Rican FOREIGN FISHING fishermen now consider even BRAZIL Many Taiwanese juvenile sharks longliners operate in Brazilian as “large” waters and finning continues on a large scale.54

COSTA RICA A number of foreign vessels—mainly Taiwanese— fish in Costa Rican waters. Coastal resource depletion led to the development of a high seas fishery in the early 1980s, with technological and financial assistance from Taiwan.141 According to Alvaro Moreno, president of the Puntarenas Fishermen’s Association, “Even though some Costa Ricans are marketing fins, the Taiwanese are definitely the larger buyers and exporters. We are concerned because they are extremely efficient. Even vessels with foreign flags land their shark fins in Costa Rica, usually the Taiwanese.” It is believed that some foreigners are developing their own private ports in Costa Rica.141

LACK OF DATA AND MANAGEMENT

BRAZIL For Brazil as a whole, data on sharks caught by different fishing gear (longlines and gillnets) is not broken down by species. A further problem is a lack of catch of the three trips was 1,247 COSTA RICA Vessels in Costa “Right now, information on the number of sharks, skates and rays (68.9% of the Rica are landing tons of shark fins there is no vessels and type of gear being used total catch), and just 563 bony fish with very few trunks, a cause of in shark fisheries. Even the exact size (31.1% of the total). The blue shark great concern to local people regulation and of the gillnet fleet operating along represented 50.4% of the total catch, worried about the future availability finning has the Brazilian coast is unknown.54 hammerheads 8.2%, night sharks of shark meat.145 In Playas del Coco become a big 6.2% and shortfin mako 4%.54 the local shark fin dealer sells to COSTA RICA There is currently Off the Brazilian coast as a Productos del Mar Tico in San Jose, problem. It is no control over either legal fisheries whole, there was a marked increase whose publicity says that “Costa lack of or the high volume of illegal fishing from the mid-1980s to the mid- Rica’s privileged geographic awareness that in Costa Rican waters.145 Fishermen 1990s in shark, skate and ray position allows the harvesting of are so concerned that they are catches, mainly by drift gillnets. In species best suited to the particular allows sharks to calling on the government to start Santa Catarina state, sharks uses our clients desire.” The be caught so regulate fishing. According to represented 98% of the total gillnet company has been in operation for irresponsibly.” Alvaro Moreno, there should be a catch, with the hammerhead alone more than ten years, claiming as quota system for sharks, as there is A LVARO M ORENO, representing 76%.144 their regular clients “some of the for tuna, as well as legislation P RESIDENT OF most prestigious in Hong Kong, P UNTARENAS preventing the taking of fins if they China and Singapore.”146 F ISHERMEN’ S are not associated with the correct A SSOCIATION proportion of trunks.

48 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Europe

Europe BYCATCH FOREIGN FISHERIES urope is both a producer Approximately 23,000 blue sharks and a major consumer of are taken annually in the northeast The general decline Eshark products. It is also Atlantic, mainly as bycatch of the in European now responsible for widespread non-European fleets. Up to 82% of fisheries has led a fishing in the waters of other these are thought to be discarded number of EU countries—at times in violation of because of their low value. However, countries to begin local laws. The northeast Atlantic as with fisheries elsewhere, the fishing elsewhere, and surrounding seas are some of rising price of fins means that the particularly in the the most heavily fished areas in the distinction between target and developing world. world. The major shark fishing bycatch is eroding.62 One thousand three nations of the region are France, the hundred European UK, Norway, Portugal and Spain.7 SHARK CONSUMPTION boats are permitted There are also fleets from Russia, to fish in the waters Japan and South Korea.62 Shark Europeans have a large appetite for © S. WATTS/WILDAID of developing catches are comparatively higher in shark, skate and ray species. Among Above: Europe is countries, for which they pay an this part of the Atlantic than in the commonly eaten species are spiny a major annual fee of around US$100 others.7 However, compared with dogfish, small-spotted catshark, consumer of million.147 commercially important teleost smooth-hound species, porbeagle and shark meat Seventy-eight EU boats are species, such as herring and cod, shortfin mako.7 International and licensed to fish in Senegal alone, in sharks were lightly exploited until domestic trade in shark and dogfish an agreement worth US$10.5 recently.62 meat grew steadily within the EU in million/year to Senegal. In addition, the decade up to 1996. Italy is the 22 trawlers of unlimited capacity DECLINING CATCHES most important importer of dogfish may fish in Mauritanian waters.148 and other sharks, while Germany is The main beneficiary of the There has been an overall decline the most significant exporter.7 agreement is the Dutch pelagic fleet in the total declared landings of While Europe as a whole is not and its new breed of “super trawler.” sharks, skates and rays from the one of the bigger sources of shark These vessels, with a range of 50,000 majority of grounds in the fins for international trade, Spain km, are 144 meters long and can northeast Atlantic.62 In 1969, the exported 118mt to Hong Kong carry 7,000mt of fish. The Dutch total landings of all non-teleost between 1992 and 1994.102 Spain also boats are the biggest trawlers ever fish from the northeast Atlantic shipped 21mt to Singapore in 1998 made. Equipped with state-of-the- was 127,000mt, out of total and 1999 combined. It has also been art fish-finding technology, they landings of all fin fish of over 9 reported that Spanish vessels sell fins can deploy more than 4km of net million mt. The respective figures directly to Taiwan, but the volume of into the ocean.148 in 1982 were around 77,000mt of such “exports” from European Trawlers from France, Spain and a total of almost ten million vessels is largely undocumented.13 Italy (as well as Japan and Korea) metric tons, suggesting that the The UK exported three metric have also targeted these waters.148 relative abundance of sharks, tons to Singapore in 1999, and Senegalese fishermen have skates and rays has decreased Norway exported five metric tons in reported that some of these vessels significantly.62 This decline the same year.105 fish illegally inside areas reserved continued, dropping to just over Between March 1998 and March for artisanal fishermen. With their 60,000mt in 1994.7 2000, 90% (3,905mt) of US spiny lights switched off at night, they There are many examples where, dogfish exports went to Europe. cannot be seen from shore. Local following years of good fishing, the France and Germany, the major fish catches have declined target species disappeared or was so destinations, imported 1,364mt and dramatically.148 depleted that the fishery was no 1,048mt respectively while lesser WildAid’s research among shark longer worthwhile.62 One recent amounts were imported by Italy, fishermen in Senegal, Mauritania, example is the spiny dogfish fishery Belgium, the UK and the Netherlands. Kenya and India has consistently in the Irish Sea. In 1981, 835mt The UK’s imports of 401mt were found that declines in shark catches were landed by English and Welsh earmarked for the fish and chips trade. have coincided with the arrival of vessels. The fishery peaked at While an Asian culinary tradition may industrial vessels, both trawlers and 3,574mt in 1987 and fell to threaten some shark species, a British longliners, and that these vessels are 1,028mt in 1996.62 one may threaten the spiny dogfish. often from the EU.

THE END OF THE LINE? 49 Country Reports: North America

North America consisting of species-specific DECLINING FISHERIES quotas.23 The porbeagle fishery had NORTH AMERICAN existed prior to 1970, but was then US In the US Pacific, major directed FISHERIES terminated because of the high fisheries are carried out for only two mercury content in the muscle species, the spiny dogfish and the US Historically, the US has been a tissue. It was reinstated in 1991 and common thresher shark.149 The major shark fishing nation. The landings increased from 300mt in fishery for the common thresher commercial shark fishery in the US the first year to 1,545mt in 1994.23 shark in California has shown a Atlantic peaked at 6,350mt in 1989. The only significant Canadian marked decline in recent years. Since then, it has been subject to a Pacific fishery is for spiny dogfish, a Catches peaked early at around 3,266mt quota in 1993 and to a fishery which has existed since the 1,000mt in 1982, declined sharply 1,633mt quota in 1997.44 1870s.23 Landings from this fishery in 1986, and now stand at around have undergone a series of declines 200mt.42 In the US Atlantic, the CANADA Canada’s fishery has and rebounds but are now status of pelagic sharks as a group is been minor. Most Canadian considered to be well below the low- currently unknown, but large commercial landings have consisted risk yield estimate.23 In 1996, high coastal sharks are considered to be of spiny dogfish, while other species landings of spiny dogfish fins overfished.42 Stocks are estimated to tended generally to be bycatch in prompted speculation that the have declined by 40-85% from Authorities tuna and swordfish fisheries.23 In specimens under commercial former levels, the exception being estimate it will recent years, a small directed fishery weight were being finned and take 39 years to the blacktip shark, Carcharhinus 23 44 for porbeagle, shortfin mako and discarded. While it is legal to trade rebuild limbatus. blue sharks has developed in the fins from the commercial fishery, populations of The dusky shark has undergone Canadian Atlantic. These are they must be in correct proportion sandbar sharks a severe decline. The CPUE subject to a management plan to carcasses sold.60 in US waters decreased in the Chesapeake Bight © D. FLEETHAM/INNERSPACE VISIONS

50 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: North America © D. PERRINE/INNERSPACE VISIONS region of the mid-Atantic coast from 1.73 sharks per 100 hooks between 1974 and 1979, down to 0.0011 sharks per 100 hooks in 1991. There was also a decline in CPUE for stocks in the Gulf of Mexico in 1990. Declines in CPUE for the sandbar shark occurred in the Chesapeake Bay area and off South Carolina. A 39-year rebuilding timeframe was established for the species. A 30-year rebuilding program was also established for the blacktip shark.42

RECREATIONAL FISHING

US The total catch of large sharks (all but dogfish) rose from just over 1,800mt in 1965 to over 9,000mt in 1986. For the period 1970-1986, this catch fluctuated around an average of 7,400mt/year.44 the pelagic longline fisheries, Above: A were retained for finning. The Recreational landings from where it often exceeds that of the fishmonger in catch comprises blue, mako and 1980-89 were approximately target species. the Caribbean thresher sharks.42 In June 2000, the 3,600mt and discard mortality prepares shark governor of Hawaii signed a law equaled, or exceeded, this value.44 THE FIN TRADE meat banning the landing of fins There are conflicting figures for without carcasses. The recent recreational fishing after this, but US In 1991, the US pelagic longline signing of the US legislation means recent reports suggest that catches fleet in Hawaii released around that finning is now banned in this have declined from approximately 65,481 blue sharks and kept none. region. 5,440mt during the 1980s to about In 1998, 91,228 blue sharks were The US exported 319mt to Hong 2,100mt in the 1990s.44 caught by commercial longliners Kong in 1998 and a further 155mt originating from Hawaii alone. in the first five months of 2000.102 BYCATCH About one-third of these were US fin exports to Singapore released, while over 55,400 were amounted to 84mt between 1997 US Blue sharks caught in the US finned.150 By 1999, annual shark and May 2000.105 drift gillnet fishery are not catches were estimated to have marketed, as there is rapid spoilage risen to around 150,000 in CANADA Finning was banned in after death. They were usually Hawaii.151 US fishing vessels based the Canadian Atlantic by a 1994 discarded at sea. An estimated in Honolulu transhipped management plan, although the 6,706 to 16,743 blue sharks were thousands of kilos of fins from ban was not fully implemented caught annually from 1990-94, foreign fishing vessels. The until the 1997-99 management down from an estimated annual estimated weight of trans-shipped plan.60 catch of 20,000 from 1980-83. A fins in 1998 was 132mt.151 In decreasing trend in their length January 1999, an eleven metric ton MANAGEMENT over the period 1990-94 was consignment of shark fins was reported. Catches of the species are landed at Honolulu Harbor worth The US and Canada are among the unknown because of their low US$200,000, despite having no handful of countries in the world market value.149 trans-shipment or entry permit.151 that have management plans for The US mainland has probably sharks. The US is also one of the CANADA Blue shark catches in been an important market for fins very few which has prepared a the Canadian Atlantic fishery are landed in Hawaii.42 national Plan of Action in line with said to be under-reported. The In American Samoa, 72% of the FAO’s International Plan of most significant bycatch occurs in sharks caught by the longline fleet Action for Sharks.

THE END OF THE LINE? 51 Country Reports: Oceania

Oceania school sharks.154 From 1970-97, without making the fishery these two species comprised 88% of unprofitable.4 DECLINING CATCHES the shark catch.150 The school shark fishery has operated since the NEW ZEALAND Before 1980, AUSTRALIA CPUE statistics 1930s. As far back as the 1940s, total shark landings in New Zealand suggest that the Taiwanese fishery there was evidence of steep catch were usually lower than 4,500mt per reduced the Northern declines in some areas.154 year. They increased rapidly in the Territory/Arafura Sea stock by Recent assessments indicate that early 1980s, peaking at 13,154mt in about 60-70% and in August 1978, by 1973 the biomass of school 1984, mainly as a result of the the Gulf of Carpentaria was closed sharks had dropped to about 50% of expansion of the school shark and to foreign fishing.152 There have its 1930 level. By 1993 it had spiny dogfish fisheries. Landings been indications of continuing dropped to about 25%.154 It was peaked again at between 15,422 - stock decline in recent years, despite concluded that rebuilding the stock 17,236mt from 1993/4 to 1996/7.155 the elimination of the legal foreign to 30-40% of initial biomass within Large numbers of school sharks fishing that was mainly responsible 15 years would require reductions were caught, but only the livers were for the initial decline. in fishing effort to below half the retained and total weights were not In western Australia there are current level.150 Similar recorded. From 1979-84, school strict regulations relating to fishing recommendations were made for shark landings increased gear and fishing effort.153 However, gummy sharks, where a reduction dramatically, from 454mt to after an increase in the number of of 40% across the fishery was 5,080mt.155 vessels fishing for sharks in the late considered sustainable.154 By the 1970s and early 1980s, 1970s and early 1980s, some It is now thought that the landings of rigs (Mustelus lenticulatus) fishermen reported declining catch current gummy shark fishery is rose rapidly, peaking at 3,447mt in rates and financial difficulties.153 sustainable, while the fishery for 1983. Eighty percent were taken as Total catch peaked at 1,996mt in the less productive school shark is bycatch in trawl fisheries.155 1987-88, declining to 1,248mt in not.4 It is not possible to catch one Sold in the fish and chips trade as 1996-97 after the introduction of a without the other, so fisheries Below: This grey “silver fish” and “silver trumpeter,” management plan.153 managers are faced with a nurse shark elephantfish were considered Shark fisheries in southern dilemma: how to manage a fishery survived the severely overfished by 1986.155 Since Australia mainly target gummy and for the most susceptible species finning process then, fisheries for school shark, rig © KEES DA WAAL

52 THE END OF THE LINE? Country Reports: Oceania

and elephantfish (Callorhinchus milii) shark, this would mean that “Australian From 1974-86 a Taiwanese have all been managed through the anywhere from 112,500-300,000 shark fisheries gillnet fishery operated in the allocation of Individual Transferable sharks are likely to have been finned offshore waters of northern Quotas (ITQs).155 in Australian waters in just two are generally Australia.152 Sharks, tuna and years. Trade figures for 1998-99 among the best mackerel comprised about 63%, BYCATCH show significant shark fin exports managed in the 26%, and six percent, respectively of of 83.5mt of dried shark fin, valued the catch in the Australian Fishing AUSTRALIA In western Australia, at US$2.86 million.87 world” Zone (AFZ).152 the two directed shark fisheries The major source of fins from Total shark catch in the target a number of species. However Australian waters is from the tuna Taiwanese gillnet fishery from some species, such as the Port fisheries, which produced an 1979-86 amounted to a minimum Jackson shark, are discarded.153 estimated 20mt of dry shark fins in of 22,488mt.152 Most sharks were 1999, predominantly from blue retained for their meat; fins of all NEW ZEALAND In New Zealand sharks. More than 50,000 but the smallest sharks were several pelagic sharks (blue shark, individuals were caught in that retained.152 mako and porbeagle) are regularly year.156 Domestic tuna fishermen are Indonesian vessels also fished for caught by tuna longliners. This reportedly earning up to US$37/kg shark in northern Australian waters catch has expanded along with the for wet fins. One member of a Tuna prior to the declaration of the AFZ domestic fishery. Most blue sharks Association is reported to be in 1979. Today, there is limited and porbeagles are finned, whereas landing US$260,000 worth of shark access by traditional Indonesian makos are retained for their flesh fins each year.156 fishermen to an area off and fins, providing they do not In Australia's northern prawn northwestern Australia. Some compete with tuna for freezer space. fishery, bycatch was estimated in illegal fishing by Indonesians In 1992, a number of species were 1998 to be 2,370mt and included persists within the AFZ.152 protected in specific areas, although shovelnose and shark rays. The fishermen were allowed to take retention of bycatch, particularly for NEW ZEALAND There was a unlimited quantities as bycatch in the fin market, has increased over large, mainly unreported, catch by other fisheries.155 recent years and much of it has gone Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean unrecorded. Revenue from fins now tuna longliners that fished THE FIN TRADE approaches that from meat.152 intensively in New Zealand's EEZ There has been a series of during the late 1970s and early AUSTRALIA In Australia as a finning bans introduced in some 1980s.155 whole, sharks have been finned in states/territories and in some nearly all fisheries where they were fisheries. MANAGEMENT taken as bycatch. A 2000 report on finning in Australian waters FOREIGN FISHING Australian shark fisheries are describes the process as both generally agreed to be among the wasteful and sometimes cruel.87 In AUSTRALIA A significant best managed in the world, while 1998-99, approximately 6,078mt of proportion of shark fishing in New Zealand is also believed to landed shark catch was reported northern Australian waters in recent manage its fisheries well. However, from target shark fisheries. It is years has been carried out by fisheries experts in the region are estimated that a further 4,082mt of foreign vessels, many of them the first to acknowledge the sharks were caught, with only the Japanese and Taiwanese. Large areas significant gaps in understanding fins utilized.87 Extrapolating, using of Australia's waters are now closed of shark fisheries and average weights of 15-40kg per to foreign fisheries. management.

THE END OF THE LINE? 53 Conclusions & Recommendations

FAO recommends WildAid concludes WildAid recommends

Ascertain control There is an urgent need to assist some Marine Reserves must be protected as a matter of urgency with over access of developing countries in preventing international financing if necessary. If properly patrolled, they are among fishing vessels to illegal fishing, often carried out by the few areas where sharks are assured of protection. Establishing which shark stocks foreign boats, within their EEZs. But areas need closing during particular seasons and identifying and few fisheries agencies have either the protecting shark pupping and nursery grounds should also be priorities. resources to patrol their EEZs or the It will also be necessary to police such restrictions. Developed fishing cooperation of their navies. nations should support these efforts financially.

Decrease fishing Many fisheries managers lack basic Basic research is urgently to be carried out on catch levels, effort and effort in any shark information to establish whether or composition. In the interim, a highly precautionary approach must be where catch is not a fishery is sustainable. Evidence taken to quota-setting, area closure, bycatch reduction, species unsustainable often clearly indicates sharks are protection, establishment of Maximum Sustainable Yield and other being overfished.The “boom and management measures. Sharks will face increasing environmental bust” history of directed shark pressures from pollution, global warming, ozone depletion etc. fisheries and the fact that sharks’ life Allowances should be made for these factors when using a precautionary history makes them extremely approach to shark management. vulnerable to overexploitation means that sustainability should be assumed the exception, not the rule.

Improve the Finning not only wastes 95-99% of the The UN should enact an immediate ban on shark finning in utilization of shark, but also makes accurate international waters. Some shark species migrate many thousands of sharks caught monitoring of shark catches miles. Only an international ban would make sense for these species. impossible. The burgeoning demand Some nations already prohibit finning nationally; while similar bans do for shark fin over the past 15 years is not exist in other EEZs and on the high seas, their attempts to conserve very likely to continue. If it does, the sharks are compromised. practice of taking sharks for their fins Governments should enact immediate bans on finning in national will become even more widespread. waters. Enforcement could be made appropriate to the needs and As human populations grow, this resources of developing countries. Specific ports could be designated for constitutes a truly shameful waste of shark landings, and on-board and beach-side observers could also be the world’s resources. used.

Improve data Few countries record accurate catch Data collection must be vastly improved in almost all countries. Catch collection and data by species, which is the first step and landings data should be species-specific. On-board observers could monitoring of toward ensuring sustainable fisheries. be used more extensively in monitoring catch effort, volumes and shark fisheries composition.

Train all concerned Many fishing communities have their All fisheries should, at the very least, use species identification cards. in identification of own local names for shark species. Simple, inexpensive, waterproof cards showing the main species in the shark species There is no provision for these to be area with local names have been produced by Taiwan, for example. translated into commonly recognized names.

Facilitate and Top shark specialists are concerned by Research at all levels is an urgent priority, and not only for little known encourage the paucity of data on individual species. Governments of major shark-fishing nations should put far more research on little species, particularly those known to resources into research on species and stock abundance, shark biology, known shark be heavily fished. reproductive behavior, migration patterns and responses to fishing species pressure. Further research should also be done on predator-prey relationships and potential ecosystem changes following shark declines.

54 THE END OF THE LINE? Conclusions & Recommendations

FAO recommends WildAid concludes WildAid recommends

Obtain utilization Numerous factors hamper this Trade and utilization data should be species-specific and should be and trade data on process: poor reporting, the cash submitted to the FAO—and to CITES—in a timely manner. The Convention shark species basis of many transactions, complex on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has export and re-export arrangements designed a plan to track toothfish shipments in international trade. The and aggregation of data. These data system is based on certificates of origin and could equally be applied to the are not compiled on a national (let international fin trade.214 alone an international) basis. The FAO should be more pro-active in its data-gathering. Many nations keep detailed import and export data, in some cases making it available to the public.

Ban or restrict Unnecessary shark bycatch is caused Highly damaging fishing methods must be limited or prohibited if the certain destructive by inappropriate fishing gear and/or goals of fisheries managers are to ensure sustainable fisheries and fishing practices, destructive deployment of fishing maintain employment in the fishing industry. There should be e.g. limit length of gear. considerable reduction of shark bycatch through the use of appropriate longlines, etc. and selective fishing gear and fishing techniques.

The IPOA- The FAO alone with member nations CITES and other international bodies and treaties must finally assume SHARKS is complying on a voluntary basis will their necessary roles in shark conservation. For example, international voluntary...all not ensure the long-term conservation trade clearly threatens a number of shark species, yet CITES has not concerned states of all shark species. Response has listed any shark species to date. If these bodies do not accept their are encouraged to already been poor from most member responsibilities it may be necessary to develop a new international body implement it. nations. or treaty to coordinate management of shark fisheries internationally.

States that Many developing nations currently Wealthier nations, particularly those that have benefited considerably contribute to lack the resources to manage their from trade in shark products, should support these countries’ research fishing mortality shark fisheries sustainably. and management efforts financially. For example, Hong Kong has on a species or a undoubtedly profited more than any other city or nation from the shark stock should fin trade and yet has put few, or no, resources into sustainable participate in its management of sharks. It is in the long-term interest of consumers that management sharks are managed sustainably.

WildAid concludes WildAid recommends In addition, Measures to conserve sharks to date To assist in shark management, demand reduction programs are WildAid concludes have focused entirely on managing the needed now in key consumer countries. There should be a major and recommends supply. As long as the high prices and international effort to raise awareness of the threats to sharks and to high levels of demand for shark discourage the ongoing expansion of consumption of shark products. products, fins in particular, are not Alternatives to shark fin soup should be actively promoted. addressed, such measures are likely to have limited success. WildAid found there is little or no awareness of the threats to sharks among consumers or of the waste involved in finning or the extent of illegal fishing for sharks.

THE END OF THE LINE? 55 Appendix: Problems Facing Global Fisheries

Appendix Problems Facing Global Fisheries

THE WORLD’S FISHERIES

he threats currently faced by sharks are typical of Tmuch broader problems facing global fisheries. Oceans are under severe pressure from overfishing, excessive bycatch and © M. KANDA/WILDAID waste, lack or failure of many of them using ever more is, unable to replenish themselves management and pollution and Above: A sophisticated fishing technology. and in imminent danger of collapse. degradation of coastal ecosystems. Japanese In 1989, the FAO estimated that Species of importance that are In 1996, total world fish industrial it cost US$92 billion to operate the thought to be on the brink of production reached 121 million mt. longliner global fishing fleet, which generated commercial extinction are cod, Marine capture fisheries accounted US$70 billion of revenue; the mackerel, hake and North Sea for 87.1 million mt of this, the rest shortfall was made up by subsidies. haddock. North Sea whiting is also being from inland waters and the To that point Japan had given some reported to be at very low levels.159 aquaculture sector. The value of US$19 billion of credit to its fleet. world exports of fish and fisheries “There are too In the 1990s, Canada was spending THE PATH TO EXTINCTION products was estimated to be $3 on its fisheries for every dollar many US$52.5 billion.157 earned.158 Until very recently, the general However, these astronomical fishermen with perception of oceanic fish species figures should not be taken as too much AT THE LIMIT was that they could not be driven to evidence of healthy marine fish sophisticated extinction by human activity. In stocks or of a healthy fishing In 2000, the FAO estimated that November 2000, the American industry. On the contrary, the rate gear chasing too 44% of major fish stocks for which Fisheries Society, a leading body in of increase in marine capture few fish.” information is available are fully the field of marine biology, fisheries is continually slowing exploited and producing catches P ETER B ENCHLEY, published a report co-funded by the down despite technological J AWS A UTHOR that have reached, or are very close National Marine Fisheries Service advances and subsidized industrial to, their maximum limit with no (NMFS) challenging this view. expansion. Many fish stocks are in room for further expansion. Around “It has long been a dogmatic trouble and many jobs have been 16% are overfished and have no view that extinction of marine fish lost through overfishing. room for expansion. Moreover, stocks is an impossibility,” said In the 1950s and 1960s, total there is an increasing likelihood John A. Musick, lead author of the global marine fisheries production that catches might decrease if report. “Now we’re beginning to increased, on average, by as much as remedial action is not undertaken realize that we can drive these fish 6% per year, doubling from 17 to reduce or suppress overfishing.157 out of existence.”160 million mt in 1950 to 34.9 million A further six percent appear to The report listed 82 species and mt in 1961, and doubling again in be depleted, with a resulting loss in stocks of fish in North American the following two decades to reach total production, and only three waters as being “at risk of 68.3 million mt by 1983. In the next percent appear to be recovering extinction.” Some of the species ten years, annual growth slowed to slowly.157 were once abundant—some of them 1.5% and to just 0.6% during 1995 Seventy percent of British waters the subject of long-established and 1996.157 are being overfished.158 The North commercial and recreational In the 1970s, there were half a Sea has been fished to the limits of fisheries. million fishing vessels on the seas; its productivity, with most stocks On the East Coast, species such now there are over one million, “outside safe biological limits,” that as cod and halibut are listed. On the

56 THE END OF THE LINE? Appendix: Problems Facing Global Fisheries © G. ROBERTSON/AMERICAN BIRD CONSERVANCY

West Coast, species included oceans into a series of small squares, lingcod, cowcod, bocaccio, giant sea allowing a fishing vessel to return bass, Pacific ocean perch, shortspine time and again to within meters of a and thornyhead. West Coast chosen location.162 fisheries face area closures for the We are now capable of catching first time, as opposed to merely far more fish than ever before, and establishing closed seasons and yet the rate of increase in global catch limits. Two vast tracts of catches is continuing to decline. southern California coastal waters have been declared off limits to BYCATCH AND WASTE deep-water fishing. In closing these areas, the US government was Not only are we causing severe tacitly recognizing that humans are depletions of fish stocks taken in capable of wiping out entire salt- directed fisheries, we are wasting water species, rather than just some 35% of the fish caught.162 individual stocks. Marine mammals, seabirds, fish and other animals, which are TECHNOLOGY: accidentally caught in fisheries THE DESTROYER targeting other species are classified as bycatch. Bycatch is usually In the second half of the twentieth discarded at sea, sometimes still century, commercial fisheries alive, more often dead or dying. Above right: there is little incentive to abide by changed beyond recognition. Radar The FAO estimates that from Wandering regulations to protect fish which technology, sophisticated 1988-90, an average of 27 million albatross someone else will catch. One author navigation equipment and the use mt of fish per year were discarded, drowned on summed up the situation noting, of sonar to detect schools of specific compared with the “usable harvest” longline “One of the greatest obstacles to species have all contributed to our average of 77 million mt.162 restoring the cod stocks of Below left: Olive ability to find and catch every last Discarding occurs mainly in the Newfoundland is an almost Ridley turtle fish. larger commercial fisheries. caught in shrimp pathological collective denial of Factory ships are often 140m or Artisanal and small-scale fishermen fishery, India what has happened and the fact longer, with 3,630mt capacity or tend to land most of their catch. that the fishing industry rarely more, pulling trawls with openings considers regulation to be its large enough to swallow jumbo jets. LACK OR FAILURE OF responsibility. As the industry sees They trawl 24 hours a day. The MANAGEMENT it, the duty of the government is to ocean floor left behind is a desert.161 make the rules and the duty of the Schools of fish can be located by Fisheries suffer from the “tragedy of industry is to navigate around spotter aircraft, while sophisticated the commons.” As the fisheries are them. If the stocks are not mapping has turned vast, uncharted not owned by individual fishermen conserved, governmental mismanagement is to blame.”158 The author illustrates his point with an example, “When Iceland called for larger mesh to protect their cod, the fishermen responded with more boats. When boat numbers and days at sea were restricted, fishermen switched to more efficient gear.”158 Many attempts at fisheries management have been governed by politics and controlled by vested interests rather than science and ’ conservation and have often been too little, too late. Numerous regulatory measures have been

OPERATION KACHHAPA sidestepped by fishermen, with little ‘ risk of detection on the high seas. © K. RAM,

THE END OF THE LINE? 57 Appendix: The Future of Global Fisheries © J. MOREAU

CAN OUR FISH STOCKS It has been estimated that RECOVER? around 200 million people are directly employed in commercial Fisheries’ managers often and small-scale fisheries globally considered that if fishing effort and that perhaps 500 million was reduced, stocks would draw their livelihoods indirectly bounce back. However, recent from the sea.158 research has shown that many species of marine fish are not AQUACULTURE recovering as quickly as had been predicted and that a very Fish farming is often cited as the Above: Cod large proportion of species are answer to declining fish stocks. ATLANTIC COD stocks have not as resilient as previously However, in a recent evaluation of Gadus morhua collapsed in thought. worldwide aquaculture, ten A cod can produce up to ten million many regions Analysis has shown that, of leading experts (ecologists, eggs and stocks have been exploited 90 fish stocks for which data economists, fisheries and commercially for centuries. In were available, many gadids aquaculture specialists) found recent times, some stocks have (e.g. cod, haddock) and other that, overall, fish farming may be crashed. During the 1950s, catches non-clupeids (e.g. flatfishes) exacerbating rather than grew annually in the North Sea, off experienced little, if any, alleviating the problem. the coasts of Iceland and Norway recovery as much as 15 years— In 1996, aquaculture accounted and westward across the Atlantic to approximating to three for roughly 22% of global fisheries the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along 157 generations—after reductions production. the New England coast. However, in reproductive biomass of Many types of aquaculture were high-powered “factory ships” with between 45% and 99%. Of these found to be relying too heavily on freezers heralded the decline of the 90 stocks, 37 (41%) continued feeding farmed fish with wild- Atlantic cod fishery.161 to decline after the 15-year caught fish. It is thought that Cod now faces commercial period, 46 (51%) showed some three pounds of wild fish is extinction in UK waters.165 In 1981 recovery, and only seven (8%) required to rear one pound of the North Sea cod catch was 163 had fully recovered. shrimp or salmon. 287,000mt, falling to 86,000mt ten Some aquaculture produces years later.158 Cod stocks are reported THE CONSEQUENCES OF waste containing fish feces, to be just ten percent of their size 30 OVERFISHING antibiotics and uneaten feed, and years ago. The volume of young cod, produces a flow of untreated haddock and plaice produced by The economic and social effluent which contributes to North Sea stocks has fallen by up to consequences of fisheries pollution of coastal waters. 60% during the past 40 years. In mid- collapse are considerable. The Hundreds of thousands of 2000, it appeared that the year’s collapse of New England hectares of coastal wetlands and quota of 31,117mt would not be met, groundfish stocks, including mangroves—critical nursery areas as catches up to July 13, 2000, cod, is reported to have cost for many fish and shellfish amounted to 12,070mt because of US$350 million in lost annual species—have been destroyed for the difficulty of finding the fish.147 164 income and 14,000 jobs. In the aquaculture. Even herbivorous In the Irish Sea, cod stocks are at UK, the number of fishermen farmed fish species are often fed an historic low. The quota for 2000 has fallen by more than half with fish oil and fishmeal from the was 80% lower than that set for since 1948, with a drop of 20% wild. 1999, nevertheless, catches have still 165 in the last decade alone. The future of fish farming failed to meet the quota.165 In the US, it is estimated should ultimately depend upon In July 1992, Canada closed that 300,000 jobs have been lost whether bad practice can be Newfoundland, the Grand Banks to overfishing. Advances in sufficiently reduced for and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to technology and efficiency have aquaculture to become a net ground fishing. Fishermen claimed also destroyed jobs as labor contributor to the global demand that offshore trawlers had taken intensive artisanal fishing has for fish. At the moment, there virtually every last cod. The been replaced by capital appears to be a net deficit. prediction is that it will take 15 intensive industrial methods. years with no commercial fishing to restore the fishery.158

58 THE END OF THE LINE? PATAGONIAN However, if illegal and SWORDFISH TOOTHFISH unregulated fishing continues, Xiphias gladius scientists predict that the Dissotichus eleginoides Swordfish, like tuna, are a highly Patagonian toothfish will be (CHILEAN SEA BASS; BLACK HAKE) valuable commercial species. commercially extinct within the Populations in the north Atlantic The toothfish is a very slow-growing, next two to three years.170 are reported to have been severely long-lived species, reaching maturity depleted and in August 2000 the US at 10–12 years of age. This means government announced measures that, even if regulations are enforced SOUTHERN to protect juvenile north Atlantic now, the species’ recovery from BLUEFIN TUNA swordfish from fishing.171 overfishing is likely to be a long Thunnus maccoyii In 1960, most swordfish caught process, estimated to take 30 years.169 in the North Atlantic weighed over A deep-sea species fished to a The southern bluefin tuna can live 110kg. Today, three decades after depth of 3,500 meters, the toothfish for up to 40 years and can weigh as the emergence of longlining, the is caught mainly in the south much as 200kg. Coveted for the average north Atlantic swordfish Atlantic and the south Indian Japanese sashimi market, one caught weighs only 40kg, which is Oceans.169 kilogram of bluefin tuna can sell thought to be below breeding size.171 Stocks show signs of being for US$100.166 The US decision will close overfished in most fishing zones, Numbers fell dramatically 132,670 square miles of the Atlantic and several vessels granted licenses following severe overfishing in the ocean to pelagic longline fishing on in the Argentina zone have stopped 1960s and 1970s. The species has a seasonal basis. The closures are fishing for the species, owing to declined by as much as 98% since expected to result in a reduction of small catches.169 the 1950s167 and has been Below: A bluefin between 31% and 42% in the At the 1998 meeting of the classified by the IUCN as a tuna can fetch number of juvenile Atlantic CCAMLR in Hobart it was stated critically endangered species. US$40,000 in swordfish caught by longliners.171 that it is no longer commercially Australian government Japan

viable to fish in the South African- scientists have predicted that at © NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION/DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE owned Patagonian toothfish the current level of fishing grounds, owing to depletion of there is a less than 50% stocks by illegal fishermen. This likelihood that the stock will fishery had been operating for only recover back to 1980 levels by two years. the year 2020.167 As a result, the The average size of fish landed species has been subject to from areas around the Prince strict catch quotas.166 Edward Islands is reported to have Despite this, in 1998 and dropped from 80-90cm in 1996 to 1999 Japan took a “scientific” 60cm in 1997. The same applies to quota of southern bluefin tuna, fish caught around Kerguelen and in the face of strong opposition Crozet.169 from Australia and New The Patagonian toothfish has Zealand. In 1999, Japan sent 65 suffered from massive illegal fishing tuna fishing vessels to the west during the past few years. Estimates coast of Australia with the suggest that the illegal catch in intention of catching a further 1997 amounted to 100,000mt, with 1,814mt, 25% over the a value of more than US$420 established quota.166 million.170 Between 50 and 70 vessels A Tribunal for the UN Law of are thought to be involved in “pirate the Sea ruled that Japan should fishing” for this species.169 immediately cease fishing for The illegal fishing is often bluefin tuna and that any excess carried out by vessels flying Flags of its 1999 quota should be Of Convenience. Pirate vessels, subtracted from its quota for while often registered in Panama. 2000. However, a year later Honduras, Belize and Cyprus, are another Tribunal, also under the usually owned by companies in UN Law of the Sea, reversed the Europe, the US and Japan.170 interim ruling.168 References

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