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Центральная власть в иудаизме принадлежит не какому-либо одному лицу или группе, хотя санхедрин, высший еврейский религиозный суд, выполнил бы эту роль, если бы он был вновь создан, а скорее в священных трудах, законах и традициях иудаизма. Иудаизм утверждает существование и уникальность Бога, и подчеркивает выполнение дел или заповедей наряду с соблюдением строгой системы верований. В отличие от таких традиций, как христианство, которые требуют более четкой идентификации Бога, вера в иудаизм требует, чтобы почтить Бога constant struggle with God's teachings () and the practice of their mitzvot. emphasizes a number of basic principles in its educational programs, the most important that there is one single, omniscient, transcendental, non-nuclear God who created the universe and continues to worry about its governance. Traditional Judaism claims that God established a with the Jewish people on , and showed his laws and to them in the form of a written and . In rabbinical Judaism, the Torah consists of both the written Torah (Pentateh) and the tradition of oral law, most of which is later codified in the scriptures (see: Mission, Talmud). Traditionally, the practice of Judaism has been devoted to the study of the Torah and the observance of its laws and commandments. In the normative Judaism of the Torah, and therefore the Jewish law itself, is unchanged, but the interpretation of the law is more open. It is considered an mitzvah (a commandment) for studying and understanding the law. The correct analogue of the general English term faith - as it happens in the expression of the principles of faith - would be the concept of Emun in Judaism. While this usually translates as faith or trust in God, the concept of Emunah can be more accurately described as an innate belief, a perception of truth that goes beyond (...) reason. Emuna can be enhanced by wisdom, knowledge, understanding, and the study of sacred Jewish scriptures. But Emuna is not just based on reason, and cannot be understood as the opposite, or standing as opposed to reason. There are a number of basic principles that were formulated by medieval . They are laid out as the fundamental foundations inherent in the acceptance and practice of Judaism. Concept God Main article: See also: The Divine simplicity of Judaism is based on strict monotheism, and belief in one single, indivisible, not complex God. Hema Israel, one of the most important Jewish , encapsulates the monotheistic nature of Judaism: Look, O Israel: The Lord is our God; God is alone. Judaism strongly rejects any concept of pluralism towards God, explicitly rejecting polytheism, dualism and Trinitarianism, which are incompatible with monotheism, as Judaism understands. The unity of God has been repeatedly stated in the Jewish tradition. This is the second of the 13 principles of ' faith; Maimonides wrote: This God is one, not two or more two, but one whose unity is different from all the other unitys that exist. It is not one, as a genus that contains many species, is one. It is also not one, as the body, containing parts and sizes, is one. But His is a unity that is nowhere to be found (, Yesode Ha- Torah 1:7). In the Jewish tradition, the dualistic God's concept is commonly referred to as Shituf (partnership), which means the wrong but not idolatrous view. God is the creator of the universe, the Jews believe that God is the creator of the universe. However, some Orthodox Jews do not believe in a literal interpretation of the narrative of the creation of Genesis, and according to this view, Judaism does not contradict the scientific model, which claims that the age of the universe is about 13.77 billion years. Norbert M. Samuelson writes that the question of familiarity with the universe has never been a problem of , after all, because this philosophy never took the literal meaning of the to be its open, true meaning. Although the general Jewish attitude was that God created the world ex nihilo, Rabbi Mark D. writes that historically in the Jewish tradition there was a general reluctance to speculate on the metaphysical aspects of creation: An important statement for Judaism is that God really created the world; The evolutionary process did not just happen on its own, but was put into the God movement.When the Bible speaks of God creating a world in six days, he can speak figuratively. The word hom (day) in the history of creation can hardly be proven by referring to the day twenty-four hours. After all, the sun itself was created only the fourth day, so it cannot be said that the first three days were days, as we know them. A more appropriate way to understand the history of creation is that God created the universe in six stages, and each of these stages may have taken millions of years, or twenty-four hours, or moments. In short, Judaism insists that God created the world, that he created it in stages, and that he continues to support the universe he created. The specific details of the creation process are not central to Jewish thought. Maimonides wrote that because of the existence of the Creator, everything exists and asserts in his 12th century Guide to the Puzzled (2:13) that time itself is part of creation and that therefore, when God is described as existing before the creation of the universe, the concept of time should not be understood in its normal sense. The 15th-century Jewish philosopher Joseph Albo also argued in his Ikkarim that there are two types of time: Measured time that depends on movement, and time in the abstract, the second of which has no origin and is an infinite space of time before the universe was created. Albo argued that while it is difficult to imagine a God existing in such a duration, it is also difficult to imagine God outside space. Other Jewish writers came to different conclusions, such as 13th-century scholar Bahia bin Asher, 16th-century scholar Moses Almosino, and 18th-century 18th-century Gasid teacher Nahman from Bratslaw, who expressed - just as the Christian neo-platonic writer Boethy expressed - that God lives in the eternal present and goes beyond or above all. Nature of God See also: The Jewish point of view is that God is eternal, with neither beginning nor end, a principle stated in a number of biblical passages. The rabbis were taught quite literally ... down to earth look at the eternity of God: That God is eternal, but it is not given to man to explore the whole meaning of this idea, and therefore, one cannot therefore expect to find in rabbinical literature anything like a detailed study of what is meant by divine eternity. Mishna's famous statement about trying to pierce the veil is that whoever thinks about four things, it was better for him not to come into the world: What's higher? What's underneath? What happened before? And then what? The traditional Jewish view is that God is omnipotent, omniscient and omnivorous. Various Jewish thinkers, however, have proposed the ultimate God, sometimes in response to the problem of evil and the idea of free will. Louis Jacobs writes, that modern Jewish thinkers, such as Levi Olan, echoing some classic Jewish writers such as the 14th-century Talmudic , thought of God, bounded by his own nature, so that although He is infinite in some respects, he is finite in others, referring to the idea, present in classical sources, that there is a primordial formless material that is composed of God. and that God only knows the future in a general sense, but not how individuals will exercise their choices. On the subject of omniscience and free will, Jacobs writes that in the medieval period three views were put forward: Maimonides, who wrote that God knew and man is free; Gersonides, who wrote that man is free and therefore God does not have full knowledge, and Hasdai Crescas, who wrote in Or Adonai that God has complete foresight and therefore man is not actually free. Several Jewish writers have considered the question of theodicy: is God all- powerful and all-weather, given the existence of evil in the world, especially the Holocaust. John D. Levenson argues that the doctrine of omnipotence does not give due consideration to the resilience and resilience of the forces that oppose creation (such as the primal state of chaos that existed before creation) and leads to disregard for the role of humanity in shaping and claiming the world order. Hans Jonas offered a preliminary myth that God chosen at the beginning to give God Himself to chance and risk and infinite diversity of formation, entering into the adventure of space in time. Jonas expressed the opinion that God does not create the world with fiat (although God creates the world), but leads it, beckons him into the novel Becoming. Jonas, who has been influenced by the Holocaust experience, that God is omnipresent, but not in every way is not temporary, impenetrable, immutable and unskilled the almighty. Most classical Judaism regards God as a personal god. Rabbi Samuel S. Cohon wrote that God, conceived by Judaism, is not only the First Cause, the Creative Power and the World Mind, but also the living and loving Father of men. It is not only cosmic, but also personal... Jewish monotheism thinks of God in terms of a certain character or personality, while is content with the notion of God as impersonal. This is shown in the Jewish liturgy, for example, in the hymn of Adon Olam, which includes the confident statement that He is my God, my living God... Who hears and answers. Edward Kessler writes that the Jewish Bible represents a meeting with a God who cares passionately and addresses humanity in the quiet moments of his existence. British chief rabbi Jonathan Sachs suggests that God is not far in time or separated, but passionately engaged and present. It is important to note that the personal predicate applied to God does not mean that God is bodily or anthropomorphic, views that Judaism has always rejected; rather, personality refers not to the physical, but to the inner essence, mental, rational and moral. Although most Jews believe that God can be tested, it is understandable that God cannot be understood because God is completely unlike humanity (as shown in God's answer to Moses when Moses asked for the name of God: I am who I am); all anthropomorphic statements about God are understood as linguistic metaphors; otherwise, it would be impossible to talk about God at all. While the dominant tension in Judaism is that God is personal, there is an alternative stream of traditions, exemplified by ... Maimonides who, along with several other Jewish philosophers, rejected the idea of a personal God. This reflected his belief in negative : that God can only be described by what God is not. Rabbi Mordechai Kaplan, who developed reconstructive Judaism and taught at the Conservative Jewish Theological Seminary of America, also rejected the idea of a personal God. Kaplan instead thought of God as a force, like the gravity embedded in the very structure of the universe, believing that because the universe is built to allow us to find personal happiness and community solidarity when we act morally, it follows that there is a moral force in the universe; this power is what builders mean under God, although some reconstructionists believe in a personal God. According to Joseph Theoshkin and Morris N. Kerzer, Kaplan's rationalist rejection of the traditional Jewish understanding of God has had a powerful impact on many conservative and reformist influencing the stop believing in a personal God. According to the 2008 Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life in the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, Americans who identify as Jews by religion are twice as likely to favor God's ideas as an impersonal force over the idea that God is a person with whom people can have relationships. Only God can be praying, Judaism often emphasized strict monotheism and exclusivity of divinity and prayer directly to God; references to or other intermediaries are usually not seen in the Jewish liturgy or in the (prayers). The fifth principle of Maimonides' faith reads, I believe with perfect faith that it is right to pray to God, and this is often seen as a statement: No one can pray to anyone or anything else. This principle teaches that God is the only one we can serve and praise. Therefore, it is not right to serve (angels, stars, or other elements) or to mediate them to bring us closer to God. Talmudic literature shows that some evidence that Jewish prayers, referring to angels and other intermediaries, existed in the 1st century AD, and there are several examples of post-talmudic prayers, including a familiar piyut (liturgical song) called Usherers of Mercy read before and after Roshan in (Jewish penitent prayers). Revelation of Scripture Main Article: The Jewish Bible See also: The development of the Jewish the Jewish Bible or Tanah is the Jewish biblical canon and the central source of Jewish law. The word is an abbreviation formed from the original Hebrew letters of the three traditional tanah divisions: Torah (Teaching, also known as the five books of Moses or Pentateuch), Nevi'im () and (Letters). Tanah contains only 24 books; its authoritative version is the masoret text. Traditionally, Tanah's text was reportedly finalized at the Jamnia Council in 70 AD, although this is uncertain. In Judaism, the term Torah refers not only to the five books of Moses, but also to all Jewish scriptures (the whole of Tanah), as well as to the ethical and moral instructions of the rabbis (The Oral Torah). In addition to Tanah, there are two other textual traditions in Judaism: Mishna (treatises that spell out Jewish law) and the Talmud (comments of Misne and Torah). These are codifications, and editorials of Jewish oral traditions, and the main works of rabbinical Judaism. The Talmud consists of the Babylonian Talmud (produced in Babylon around 600 AD) and the (produced in the Land of Israel around 400 AD). The Babylonian Talmud is the more extensive of the two and is considered more important. The Talmud is a re-presentation of the Torah through sustainable analysis and argument with an unfolding dialogue and between the rabbis of the wise men. The Talmud consists of Mishna (legal code) and Gemara (Aramaic for training), analysis and commentary on this code. Rabbi Adin Steinsalles writes that if the Bible is the cornerstone of Judaism, then the Talmud is the central pillar ... No other work has had a comparable effect on the theory and practice of Jewish life, forming an influence on the theory and practice of Jewish life and states: The Talmud is a repository of thousands of years of Jewish wisdom, and an oral law that is as old and significant as the written law (Torah) is in this expression. It is a conglomerate of law, legend and philosophy, a mixture of unique logic and shrewd pragmatism, history and science, anecdotes and humor... While its main purpose is to interpret and comment on the book of law, it is at the same time a work of art that goes beyond the law and its practical application. Although the Talmud is still the main source of Jewish law, it cannot be cited as an authority for the purposes of governance... Although it is based on the principles of tradition and the transfer of power from generation to generation, it is unparalleled in its desire to challenge and revise the convention and to accept opinions and to eradicate root causes. The Talmudic method of discussion and demonstration tries to approach mathematical accuracy, but without resorting to mathematical or logical symbols. ... The Talmud is the embodiment of the great concept of the Mitzwat Talmud Torah - the positive religious duty of studying the Torah, acquiring learning and wisdom, learning, which is its own end and reward. Moses and the Orthodox and conservative Jews of the Torah believe that Moses' is considered true; he is considered the leader of all prophets, even those who came before and after him. This belief was expressed by the Maimonides, who wrote that Moses surpassed all prophets, regardless of whether they preceded it or emerged afterwards. Moses has reached the highest possible human level. He perceived God to such an extent, surpassing every person that ever existed... God spoke to all other prophets through an intermediary. Moses alone does not need it; this is what the Torah means when God says: Mouth in mouth, I will speak to him. The great Jewish philosopher Philo understands that this prophecy is an extremely high level of philosophical understanding that was achieved by Moses and which allowed him to write the Torah through his own rational deduction of natural law. Maimonides, in his Commentary to Mischna (preface to the head of Chelek, The Sandrine Treatise), and in his Mission to Torah, (in the laws of the foundations of the Torah, p. 7), describes a similar concept of prophecy, since a voice that did not originate from the body cannot exist, the understanding of Moses was based on his high Understanding. However, this does not mean that the text of the Torah should be understood literally as karaism. The rabbinical tradition states that God conveyed not only the words of the Torah, but also the meaning of the Torah. God gave rules on how laws were to be understood and implemented, and they were passed on as an oral tradition. This oral law was passed from generation to generation and eventually recorded almost 2,000 years later in The Mission and the two . For the Reformed Jews, Moses' prophecy was not the highest degree of prophecy; rather, it was the first in a long chain of progressive revelations in which humanity gradually began to understand God's will better and better. Thus, they argue that the laws of Moses are no longer binding, and it is up to today's generation to appreciate what God wants from them. This principle is also rejected by the majority of Jewish reconstructionists, but for a different reason; most believe that God is not a creature with will; thus, they claim that no will can be revealed. The origin of the Torah Ofrah consists of 5 books written in English by Genesis, Exodus, Levit, Numbers and Deuteronomy. They chronicle the history of the Jews, and contain commandments that Jews should follow. Rabbinical Judaism believes that the torah that exists today is the same as that given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai. Maimonides explains: We do not know exactly how the Torah was passed on to Moses. But when it was handed over, Moses simply recorded it as secretary taking the dictation... Thus, every verse in the Torah is equally holy, because they all come from God, and are part of God's Torah, which is perfect, holy and true. The Jews of Haredi tend to believe that the Torah today is no different from what was received from God to Moses, and only the slightest of the Carabal errors. Many other Orthodox Jews have suggested that for millennia some doodles have crept into the text of the Torah. They note that masoretes (7-10 centuries) compared all known variations of the Torah in order to create the final text. However, even in keeping with this position that the scrolls that Jews possess today are not literal-perfect, the Torah scrolls are certainly the perfect word text vessel that was divinely revealed by Moses. Indeed, the consensus of the Orthodox rabbinical authority suggests that this belief in the word-perfect nature of the Torah scroll is an undeniable condition for the membership of Orthodox Jews. (quote is necessary) Although even in modern Orthodox circles there are some rabbis (e.g. Professor Mark Shapiro) who point to numerous rabbinical sources of the Talmudic, post-talmudic and medieval centuries who claim that there were some changes in the text that include whole verses that were made intentionally during the Mishnai period, and even in the first temple. Professor Shapiro lists many medieval rabbis to discuss the changes and additions that occurred during the time of Ezra Scribe in his work Borders of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Reassessment. The words of the true Neviim, the books of the prophets, are considered divine and true. This does not mean that they are always read literally: Jewish tradition has always believed that prophets used metaphors and analogies, and there are many comments explaining and explaining metaphorical verses. Oral Torah Orthodox Jews view the written and oral Torah in the same way that Moses taught for all practical purposes. Conservative Jews tend to believe that much of the oral law is divinely inspired, while Reformist Jews and Re-revolutionary Jews tend to view all oral laws as a fully human creation. Traditionally, the Reform Movement considers that Jews have an obligation to abide by the ethical but not commandments of Scripture, although today many Reform jews have adopted many traditional ritual practices. Karaite Jews traditionally consider the Torah to be authoritative, considering the Oral Law as the only possible interpretation of the Written Torah. Most modern Orthodox Jews would agree that although some laws in the Framework of the Oral Law were given to Moses, most Talmudic laws were organically derived by the rabbis of the Tinsna and Talmudic eras. God's relationship with human Judaism focuses more on how God defines man than on how he tries to define God. Therefore, the focus is on what people should be or should do much more than to express theological beliefs. People are born with both the tendency to do good and to do the evil of the Jewish tradition largely emphasizes free will, and most Jewish thinkers reject determinism, on the grounds that free will and the exercise of free choice have been seen as a precondition for moral life. Moral uncertainty seems to be assumed by both the Bible, which invites man to choose between good and evil, and the rabbis who adher to the decision to follow a good inclination, not evil, rests with every person. Maimonides asserted the compatibility of free will with the foresight of God (Mission Tora, Hilhot Teshuva 5). Only a handful of Jewish thinkers expressed deterministic views. This group includes the medieval Jewish philosopher Gaddai Kreskas and the 19th-century Ghasid rabbi Mordechai Joseph Leiner of Izbia. Judaism asserts that people are born with both ,propensity or urge to do evil. These phrases reflect the concept that in every person, there are opposing natures constantly in conflict and many times in the rabbinical tradition. Rabbis even recognize ,(יצר הרע) the propensity or the urge to do good, and the yetzer-hara ,(יצר הטוב) the yetzer ha-toov recognize meaning to yetzer ha-ra: without the yetzer ha-ra there would be no civilization or other fruits of human labor. Midrash (Bereshit Rabba 9:7) states, Without an evil inclination, no one will father a child, build a house, and make a career. It is implied that the yetzer ha-to and yetzer ha-ra is best understood not only as moral categories of good and evil, but also as an innate conflict within a person between selfless and selfish orientation. Judaism recognizes two classes of sin: crimes against other people, and crimes against God. Crimes against God can be understood as a breach of contract (a covenant between God and the children of Israel). (See Jewish views on sin.) The classic rabbinical work of Avot de Rabbi Nathan reads: One day, when Rabban Johan bin Sakkai was walking in Jerusalem with Rabbi Iehosua, they arrived where the was now in ruins. Woe to us, rabbi Ehosua exclaimed, for this house, where to the sins of Israel now lies in ruins! Replied Rabban Yochanan: We have another, no less important source of redemption, the practice of gemiluth Ambush (loving kindness), as they say: I wish loving kindness, not ( 6:6). In addition, the Babylonian Talmud teaches that Rabbi Johan and Rabbi Eleazar both explain that as long as the Temple stood, the altar is thinned for Israel, but now, one table is redeemable (when the poor are invited as guests) (Talmud, treatise Berachoth 55a). Similarly, the liturgy of the Days of Reverence (High Holy Days, i.e. and Yum Kippur) states that prayer, and tsedak atone for sin. Judaism rejects the belief in original sin. Both ancient and modern Judaism teach that every person is responsible for his actions. However, the existence of some innate sinfulness on each person was discussed both in biblical (Genesis 8:21, 51.5), and in post-biblical sources. Some apocryphal and pseudographic sources express pessimism about human nature (The grain of the evil seed was sown in Adam's heart from the beginning) and the Talmud (b. Avodah zara 22b) has an unusual passage that Edward Kessler describes as a serpent seduced by Eve in paradise and impregnated with her spiritual and physical filth, which was inherited from generation to generation, but the revelation of the Sina and the reception of the Kessler argues that although it is clear that faith in some form of original sins existed in Judaism, it did not become a basic doctrine nor a dogmatically fixed one, but remained on the margins of Judaism. The basic Jewish view is that God will reward those who keep His commandments and punish those who intentionally violated them. Examples of rewards and punishments are described throughout the Bible and throughout classical rabbinical literature. Teh the understanding of this principle is accepted by the majority of Orthodox and conservative and many Jewish reformers; it is generally rejected by The Reconstructionists. See also the Free Will In Jewish Thought the Bible contains references to Sheol, illuminated. gloom as a common place of the dead, which can be compared to Aiva or the underworld of ancient . In later traditions, this is interpreted either as hell or as a literary expression of death or a grave in general. According to the aggadic passages in the Talmud, God judges who followed His commandments and who did not and to what extent. Those who do not pass the test go to a cleansing place (sometimes referred to as Gehinn, i.e. Hell, but more like a Christian purgatory) to learn their lesson. There is, however, for the most part, no eternal curse. The vast majority of go to this place of reformation only for a limited period of time (less than one year). Some categories are said to be having no part of the world in the future, but this seems to mean destruction rather than eternity of torment. Philosophical rationalists such as maimonids believed that God did not actually meet awards and punishments per se. From this point of view, these were beliefs that were necessary for the masses to believe in order to maintain a structured society and promote adherence to Judaism. However, as soon as someone learned the Torah properly, it was possible to learn the highest truths. From this point of view, the nature of the reward is that if man has perfected his intellect to the highest degree, then part of his intellect that is connected to God - active intelligence - will be immortalized and enjoy the Glory of presence for all eternity. The punishment would simply be that it would not happen; no part of his intellect will be immortalized with God. See Divine Providence in Jewish thought. Kabbalah (a mystical tradition in Judaism) contains further developments, although some Jews do not consider them authoritative. For example, it allows for the possibility of , which is generally rejected by non-Smithian Jewish theologians and philosophers. He also believes in the triple , of which the lowest level (nefesh or animal life) dissolves into the elements, the middle layer (ruah or intellect) goes to Gan Eden (Paradise), while the highest level (neshama or spirit) aspires to an alliance with God. Many Jews consider Tikkun Olam (or the Restoration of Peace) to be a fundamental motivating factor in . Therefore, the concept of life after death, according to the Jews, is not promoted as a motivating factor in the performance of Judaism. Indeed, it is believed that it is possible to achieve intimacy with God even in this world through moral and spiritual perfection. Israel Selected for Purpose Main Article: Jews as a Chosen People See also: Jewish Views on God Chose people to be in a unique covenant with God; the description of this covenant is the Torah herself. Contrary to popular belief, the Jewish people do not just say that God chose Jews. This statement itself does not exist anywhere in Tanah (the Jewish Bible). Such a statement may mean that God loves only the Jewish people, that only Jews can be close to God, and that only Jews can have a heavenly reward. The actual statement is that the Jews were chosen for a specific mission, the duty: to be the light of the peoples, and to have a covenant with God, as described in the Torah. Reconstructionist Judaism rejects even this option of electability as morally non-existent. Rabbi Lord Immanuil Jakobowitz, former chief rabbi of the of Great Britain, describes the main Jewish view of this question: Yes, I believe that the concept of the chosen people, confirmed by Judaism in its holy order, its prayers and the millennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every nation, and indeed, in a more limited sense, every person - is chosen or intended for some particular purpose in promoting Providence projects. Only some are fulfilling their mission, while others are not. Maybe the Greeks were chosen for their unique contribution to art and philosophy, the Romans for their innovative services in law and governance, the British to attract parliamentary rule to the world, and Americans to pilot democracy into a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be introduced to me as pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national goal. The main articles of the : Jewish , , messianic age and the world of the wandering Judaism recognize the afterlife, but do not have a single or systemic thinking about the afterlife. Judaism places great influence on Olam Hazeh (this world), not Olam haba (gimma), and speculation about the gimma is peripheral to mainstream Judaism. Pirkei Avot states that One hour of repentance and good deeds in this world is better than the whole life of Mr. Peace; but one hour of spiritual peace in the World of The World is better than the whole life of this world, reflecting both an understanding of the on Earth and the spiritual peace given to the righteous in the next world. The Jews reject the idea that of Nazareth was the messiah, and agree that the messiah has not yet come. Throughout , Jewish history has had a number of Jewish Messiah applicants considered false Jews, including primarily Simon Bar Kohba and , whose followers were known as sabbateans. The twelfth of maimonides' 13 principles of faith was: I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the messiah (Machiah), and although it may die down, I still wait for it every day. Orthodox Jews believe the future Jewish messiah (Meisic, anointed) will be a king who will rule the Jewish people independently and in accordance with Jewish law. In the traditional view, the Messiah was understood as a human descendant of King (i.e., the Davidian line). Liberal, or , does not believe in the arrival of a personal Messiah who will lie to exiles in the Land of Israel and cause the physical resurrection of the dead. Rather, Reform Jews focus on a future era in which there is a perfect world of justice and mercy. History and development Have appeared a number of formulations of Jewish beliefs, and there is some debate about how many basic principles there are. Rabbi Joseph Albo, for example, in Sefer Ha Ikkarim considers three principles of faith, while Maimonides lists thirteen. Although some later rabbis tried to reconcile differences by arguing that maimonides' principles were covered by a much shorter list of Albo, the alternative lists submitted by other medieval rabbis seemed to indicate some level of tolerance for different theological perspectives. No official text canonized Although to some extent included in the liturgy and used for teaching purposes, these formulations of cardinal principles of Judaism do not have more weight than gives them the glory and scholarship of their authors. None of them had an authoritative character similar to that given by Christianity to the three great formulas (Creed of the Apostles, Nikan or and Afanese), or Kalimat Al-Shahadat of Muslims. None of the many summaries of the pens of Jewish philosophers and rabbis were invested with a similar meaning. The Unlike many other religions, Judaism has not made a decisive attempt to convert non-Jews, although official conversion to Judaism is allowed. Righteousness, according to the Jewish faith, was not limited to those who accepted the Jewish religion. And the righteous among the nations who put into practice the seven fundamental laws of the covenant with Noah and his descendants were declared participants in happiness in the future. This interpretation of non-Jews made it unnecessary to develop attitudes. Moreover, the rules of reception of proselytizers, developed over time, prove exceptionally practical, that is, harmless nature of Judaism. Observing certain rites - immersion in the mikvah (ritual bath), Brit-mile (circumcision) and acceptance of mitzvot (Torah Commandments) as mandatory - is a test of the faith of the convert. He or she is instructed in the basic paragraphs of Jewish law, while the profession of faith requires a limited recognition of the unity of God and the rejection of idolatry. ha-Levy (Kuzari 1:115) puts the whole question very striking when he says: We do not put on equality with us man, entering our religion through alone. We demand action, including in this term restraint, purity, law study, circumcision, and other duties required by the Torah. Therefore, no other method of training was used to train the new convert, except to train one born . The purpose of the teaching was to convey the knowledge of the halaha (Jewish law), obedience to which the acceptance of fundamental religious principles was manifested; namely, the existence of God and the mission of Israel as the people of God's covenant. Are the principles of faith inherent in mitzvot? Disputes about whether the practice of mitzvotes in Judaism is connected with the principles of the Judaism faith have been discussed by many scholars. Moses Mendelssohn defended the non-dogmatic nature of Judaism in his Jerusalem. Rather, he argued, the beliefs of Judaism, though revealed by God in Judaism, consist of universal truths applicable to all mankind. Rabbi Leopold Leo, in particular, took the opposite side and believed that Mendelssohn's theory went beyond its legitimate boundaries. The practice of the Act was undoubtedly based on the recognition of some fundamental principles, he argued, culminating in a belief in God and revelation, as well as the doctrine of divine justice. The first attempt to formulate Jewish principles of faith was Philo of Alexandria. He listed five articles: God is the rule; God is one; The world was created by God; Creation is one thing, and God's providence rules Creation. Faith in oral law Many rabbis were drawn into disputes with both Jews and non-Jews, and had to strengthen their faith against the attacks of modern philosophy, as well as against the growth of Christianity. Mishna (Sanhedrin Xi. 1) excludes from the world to come Epicureans and those who deny faith in the resurrection or in the divine origin of the Torah. Rabbi Akiva will also be seen as a hereterical reader of Sefarim Hetsonim - some extraneous scriptures that have not been canonized - as well as people who will heal through whispered formulas of . Abba Saul is appointed under suspicion of infidelity of those who pronounce the non-essential name of God. It is implied that the opposite doctrine can be considered Orthodox. On the other hand, Akiva himself states that commanding to love one's neighbor is a fundamental principle of the Torah; while Ben Asa assigns this distinction to the biblical verse: This is the book of generations of people. Hillel the Elder's determination in his interview with a new convert (Talmud, Sabbat 31a treatise) embodies in gold the rule one fundamental article of faith. A The 3rd century, Rabbi Simlay, traces the development of Jewish religious principles from Moses with his 613 mitzvot of prohibition and prohibition, through David, who, according to this rabbi, lists eleven; via Isaiah, with six; Mika, with three; Habakkuku, who simply but impressively sums up all religious faith in one phrase: The pious lives in his faith (Talmud, Mac., near the end). Since Jewish law dictates that death should be preferred to an act of idolatry, incest, wickedness or murder, the conclusion is clear that the relevant positive principles were considered to be the fundamental articles of Judaism. Faith in the medieval era Detailed constructions of articles of faith did not find favor in Judaism until the medieval era, when Jews were forced to defend their faith from both Islamic and Christian Inquisitions, disputes and polemics. The need to protect one's religion from attacks from other philosophies has prompted many Jewish leaders to define and articulate their beliefs. Emunot ve-Deot by Saadiya Gaon is an exposition of the basic principles of Judaism. They are listed as: The world was created by God; God is one and non-brown; belief in revelation (including the divine origin of tradition); man is called to righteousness and endowed with all the necessary qualities of mind and soul to avoid sin; Faith in reward and punishment; The soul is created pure; After death, he leaves the body; Faith in the resurrection; Messianic expectations, retribution and the final decision. Judas Halei tried in his Kuzari to define the basics of Judaism on a different basis. He rejects all calls for speculative grounds, rejecting the Method of Islamic Motekallamin. and traditions are both a source and a testament to true faith. From this point of view, the speculative reason is considered invulnerable because of its inherent inability to be objective in investigations with moral consequences. The 13 principles of Maimonides' faith 13 Principles of Faith are generalized: I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed Will Be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of all that has been created; He's one done, does, and will do all the things. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed, will be His Name, One, and that there is no unity in any way like Him, and that only He is our God, who was, is and will be. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed in His Name, has no body, and that He is free of all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison with Him at all. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed Will Be His Name, is the first and last. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, the Blessed One will be His Name, and only to Him to pray properly, and that it is wrong to pray to anyone but Him. I am with the perfect belief that all the words of the prophets are true. I believe with perfect faith that Moses' prophecy, the world to him, was true, and that he was the leader of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him. I believe with perfect faith that the whole Torah, which is now in our possession, is the same one that was given to Moses by our teacher, the world to him. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any other Torah from the Creator, the Blessed Name of Him. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed, Will Be His Name, knows all the deeds of men and all their thoughts, as written off: Who fashioned the hearts of all who comprehends all their actions (Psalms 33:15). I believe with the utter belief that the Creator, Blessed by His Name, rewards those who keep His commandments and punishes those who violate them. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and though he may be belated, nevertheless, I wait every day for his arrival. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a rebirth of the dead at a time when it will please the Creator, Blessed by his name, and His mention will be elevated forever and forever. -Maimonides (see Birnbaum in page 157) Rabbi Moses bin Maimon, better known as Maimonides or Rambam (1135-1204 AD), lived at a time when both Christianity and were developing active theology. Jewish scholars were often asked to testify to their faith by their counterparts in other religions. The 13 principles of Rambam's faith were formulated in his commentary on Mischa (Sandrine, Chapter 10). They were one of several pieces of theologians in the Middle Ages to create such a list. By then, Maimonides' Jewish learning and law centers had been dispersed geographically. Judaism no longer has a central authority that can give official approval to its principles of faith. The 13 principles of Maimonides were controversial when they were first proposed, prompting criticism from Crescaus and Joseph Albo. They have drawn criticism as minimizing the acceptance of the entire Torah (Rabbi S. Montpellier, Yad Rama, I. Alfaher, Rosh Amana). 13 principles were ignored by the predominantly Jewish community over the next few centuries. (Dogma in medieval Jewish thought, Menachem Kellner). Over time, two poetic rehashes of these principles (Ani Maamin and Igdal) were canonized in the collection. After all, the 13 principles of Maimonides' faith became the most common affirmation of faith. It is important to note that Maimonides, listing the above, added the following caveat: There is no difference between the biblical statement his wife was Mehitabel (Genesis 10.6), on the one hand, the unimportant verse, and Hear, O Israel, on the other - the important verse... who denies even such verses, thus denies God and shows contempt for his teachings more than any other skeptic, because he believes that the Torah can be divided into basic and inconsequential parts... The uniqueness of the 13 fundamental beliefs is that even the rejection of ignorance has put one outside of Judaism, while abandoning the rest of the Torah must be a conscious act to stamp one as an unbeliever. Others, such as Rabbi Joseph Albo and Raawad, criticized the Maimonids list as containing items that, while true, they felt did not put those who rejected them out of ignorance into the category of heresy. Many others criticized any such formulation as minimizing the recognition of the entire Torah. However, as noted, neither Maimonides nor his contemporaries viewed these principles as encompassing all Jewish beliefs, but rather as the main theological basis for the adoption of Judaism. Some modern Orthodox scholars pointed to clear inconsistencies in Maimonides' writings regarding the 13 principles of faith. After Maimonides, some of Maimonides' successors, from the 13th to the 15th century - Nahmanides, Abba Marie bin Moses, Simon ben zema Duran, Joseph Albo, Isaac Arama and Joseph Yaabez - narrowed their 13 articles down to three core beliefs: Faith in God; In Creation (or revelation); and in providence (or retribution). Others, such as Creskas and David bin Samuel Estella, talked about seven fundamental articles, emphasizing free will. On the other hand, David bin Yom-Tob ibn Bilia in his Yodot ha-Maskile (Basics of Thinking People) adds to 13 of the Maimonids 13 of their own – a number that Albo's contemporary also chose for his foundations; while Iedaya Penini listed at least 35 cardinal principles in the last chapter of his Behinat ha-Dat. Isaac Abarbanel, his Roche Amana, took the same attitude to maimonides credo. Defending Maimonides from Assad and Albo, he refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism, criticizing any formulation as minimizing the adoption of all 613 mitzvotes. Education This section does not refer to any sources. Please help improve this section by adding links to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to delete this message template) In the late 18th century, was gripped by a group of intellectual, social and political movements, together known as the Enlightenment. These movements promoted scientific thinking, freedom of thought and allowed people to question previously unshakable religious dogma. Like Christianity, Judaism has developed several responses to this unprecedented phenomenon. One response saw enlightenment as positive, while another saw it as negative. Enlightenment meant equality and freedom for many Jews in many countries, so it was felt it should be warmly welcomed. The scientific study of religious texts will allow people to study the history of Judaism. Some Jews believed that Judaism should accept modern secular thought and change in response to these ideas. Others, however, believed that the divine nature of Judaism precluded a change in any fundamental beliefs. While the modernist wing of Orthodox Judaism, led by rabbis such as Samson Raphael Hirsch, was open to changing times, it rejected any doubts about the traditional theological basis of Judaism. Historical-critical methods of research and new philosophy led to the formation of various non-Orthodox denominations, as well as Jewish secular movements. Main article: Holocaust theology Because of the magnitude of the Holocaust, many people once again considered the classic theological views on God's kindness and actions in the world. Some doubt that people can still have any faith after the Holocaust. Some theological answers to these questions are explored in holocaust theology. Principles of Faith in Modern Judaism of Orthodox Judaism Main Article: Orthodox Judaism - Beliefs of Orthodox Judaism considers itself in direct continuity with historical rabbinical Judaism. Therefore, as above, it accepts philosophical speculation and dogma assertions only to the extent that they exist and are compatible with the written and oral Tory system. In practice, Orthodox Judaism is making more and more efforts to fulfill the actual commandments. Dogma is considered to be self-understanding of the basis of Mitzvot's practice. As a result, there is no official statement of principles. Rather, all the language adopted by the leaders of the early Torah is considered possible. The 13 Principles of maimonids have been named by adherents as the most influential: they are often printed in prayer books, and in many congregations the hymn (Igdal), which includes them, is performed on Friday night. Main Article: Conservative Judaism and The Beliefs of Conservative Judaism developed in Europe and the United States in the late 1800s, how Jews reacted to the changes caused by the Jewish Enlightenment and . In many ways it was a reaction to what used to be like the excesses of the reform movement. For most of the movement's history, conservative Judaism deliberately avoided publishing systematic handouts of theology and faith; it was a deliberate attempt to unite a broad coalition. This concern became no problem after the leftist movement seceded in 1968 to form a reconstruction movement, and after the right separated in 1985 to form the Union of Traditional Judaism. In 1988, the Council of Conservative Judaism Leaders finally issued an official statement of faith: Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement on The Principles of Conservative She noted that a Jew should hold certain beliefs. However, the conservative rabbinate also notes that the Jewish community has never developed any mandatory catechism. Thus, Emet Ve-Emuna confirms faith in God and in God's revelation of the Torah to the Jews. However, it also confirms the legitimacy of numerous interpretations of these issues. Atheism, trinitarian views on God and polytheism are excluded. All forms of relativism, as well as literalism and , are also rejected. It teaches that Jewish law is both valid and irreplaceable, but also takes a more open and flexible view of how the law has and should evolve than the Orthodox point of view. Reform Judaism Main article: Reform Judaism Reform Judaism has a number of official platforms, especially in the United States. The first platform was the Declaration of Principles of 1885 (The Pittsburgh Platform), a statement on the meeting of rabbinical reformers from across the United States on November 16-19, 1885. The next platform, the Judaism Reform Guidelines (The Columbus Platform), was published by the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) in 1937. CCAR rewrote its principles in 1976 with its Reform Judaism: Century Perspective and rewrote them again in the statement 1999 Principles for reform Judaism. While the initial draft statements of 1999 called on reforming Jews to consider reintroducing some traditional practices on a voluntary basis, later drafts removed most of those proposals. The final version is thus similar to the 1976 statement. According to CCAR, personal autonomy still takes precedence over these platforms; lay people should not accept all, or even any, beliefs stated in these platforms. The President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) Rabbi Simeon Maslin wrote a pamphlet on the reform of Judaism entitled What we believe in... What we do.... It says that if someone tries to answer these two questions authoritatively for all Jewish reformers, that person's answers must be false. Why? Because one of the guiding principles of Judaism reform is the autonomy of the individual. The Jewish reformer has the right to decide whether to join this particular faith or to this particular practice. The reform of Judaism confirms the fundamental principle of liberalism: that man will approach this body mitzvot and minhagim in the spirit of freedom and choice. Traditionally, Israel began with a disguise, a commandment engraved on the Tablets, which then became freedom. The Jewish reformer begins with a herbutt, a freedom to decide what will be disguise - engraved on the personal tablets of his life. (Bernard Martin, ed., Modern Reform of Jewish Thought, quadrangle books 1968.) In addition to there have been 42 affirmations of liberal Judaism in the UK since 1992, and older over zu einem programm f'r das liberale Judentum (1912) in , as well as others, emphasizing personal autonomy and continuing revelation. Reconstruction of Judaism Main article: Reconstructionist Judaism and the beliefs of the reconstructionist Judaism is an American denomination that is a naturalist of theology, developed by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan. This theology is a variant of the naturalism of John Dewey, who combined atheistic beliefs with religious terminology to build a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who have lost faith in traditional religion. Look id. 385; but see Kaplan on page 23, fn.62 (Most views of Kaplan... were formulated before he read Dewey or (William) James. Reconstruction says that God is neither personal nor . Rather, God is said to be the sum of all the natural processes that allow man to become self-recess. Rabbi Kaplan wrote that believing in God means taking for granted that it is the destiny of man to rise above the rough and eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society. Many Jewish reconstructionists reject and instead define themselves as religious naturalists. These views were criticized on the grounds that they were actually atheists, which was made acceptable only to Jews by rewriting the dictionary. A significant minority of reconstructionists refused to accept Kaplan's theology, and instead affirm theistic view of God. As in the reform of Judaism, reconstructionist Judaism believes that personal autonomy takes precedence over Jewish law and theology. He did not ask that its adherents hold any specific beliefs, nor did he ask that halah be accepted as normative. In 1986, the Rabbinical Reconstruction Association (RRA) and the Federation of Reconstruction Congregations (FRK) adopted the official Platform for Reconstruction (2 pages). This is not a binding statement of principles, but rather a consensus of current beliefs. FrC Bulletin, September 1986, Pages D, E. The highlights of the platform will say that Judaism is the result of natural human development. There is no divine intervention. Judaism is a developing religious civilization. It encourages zionism and aliyah (immigration to Israel). The rest can make decisions, not just rabbis. The Torah was not inspired by God; it comes only from the social and historical development of the Jewish people. All classical views of God are rejected. God is redefined as the sum of natural forces or processes that allow humanity to gain self-realization and moral improvement. The idea that God chose the Jewish people for any purpose, in any case, is morally untenable, because anyone who has such beliefs implies the superiority of an elected community and from others. This puts the Jewish reconstructionists at odds with all the other Jews seem to be accused of other Jews to be racist. Non-Reconstructionist Jews strongly reject the accusation. Although res-construction Judaism does not require its members to adhere to any particular dogma, the reconstructionist movement actively rejects or marginalizes certain beliefs professed by other branches of Judaism, including many (if not all) of the 13 principles. For example, Rabbi Kaplan abandoned the traditional Jewish understanding of messianism. His God could not suspend the natural order and thus could not send a divine agent from David's house to bring miraculous redemption. Rather, in accordance with the principles of the naturalist-reconstructionist, Kaplan firmly believed that in the long run, the world would be perfected, but only as a result of the joint efforts of mankind for generations. (Id. in 57) Similarly, Reconstructionism rejects the 13th principle of the resurrection of the dead, which, according to Kaplan, belonged to a supernatural worldview rejected by contemporaries. (Id. at 58.) Thus, the Prayer Book of the Reconstructionist on Saturday erases all references to the messianic figure, and the daily Amida replaces the traditional blessing of the rebirth of the dead by blessing God , who in love remembers your beings to life. (Id. at 57-59.) References : b Emunah a b c Louis Jacobs, Chapter 2: The Unity of God in Jewish Theology (1973). Berman's house. Deut 6:4-9 - Arie Kaplan, Handbook of Jewish Thought (1979). e Maznaim: page 9. Jewish theology and process thought (by Sandra B. Lubarski and David Ray Griffin). SANI Press, 1996. How old is the universe? How old is the universe?, NASA; Phil Plate, Universe 13.82 billion years (March 21, 2013), Slate and Norbert Max Samuelson, Revelation and God of Israel (2002). Cambridge University Press: page 126. Angel, Mark (1995). Leon Klenitsky and Jeffrey Igoder ISBN 0809135825. Maimonides, a guide to bewilderment, translated by Chaim Menachem Rabin (Hackett, 1995). Dan Con-Sherbok, Judaism: History, Faith and Practice (2003). Psychology Press: page 359. Louis Jacobs, Chapter 6: Eternity in Jewish Theology (1973). Berman's House: 81-93. b c Clark M. Williamson, Guest in the : Church Theology After the Holocaust (1993). Westminster John Knox Press: page 210-215. a b c Louis Jacobs, Chapter 5: Almighty and Omnience in Jewish Theology (1973). Berman's House: 76-77. a b Samuel S. Cohon. What we Jews believe (1931). Union of American Jewish Congregations. a b c d e Edward Kessler, What Do Jews Believe?: Customs and Culture of Modern Judaism (2007). Bloomsbury Publishing: page 42-44. Morris N. Kerzer, What a Jew is (1996). Simon and Schuster: 15-16. Joseph Teleshkin, Jewish Literacy: Important things to know about the Jewish religion, its people, and its history (Revised Edition) (2008). HarperCollins: page 472. - page 164 - Ronald H. Isaacs, guide of each person on Jewish philosophy and philosophers (1999). Jason Aronson: 50-51. Meir Bar-Illan, Prayers of the Jews to angels and other mediators in the first centuries AD in the Saints and role models in Judaism and Christianity (by Schwartz and Marcel Poorthuis), page 79-95. and b Peter A. Pettit, The Jewish Bible in the Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations (2005). Eds. Edward Kessler and Neil Wenborn. Cambridge University Press. a b Christopher Hugh Partridge, Introduction to (2005). Fortress Press: page 283-286. b Jakob Neusner, Talmud: What it is and what it says (2006). Rowman and Littlefield. a b Adin Steinsaltz, Chapter 1: What is the Talmud? in the Basic Talmud (2006). Main books: page 3-9. Sarna, Jonathan D. (2004). American Judaism: History. New Haven and : Yale University Press Office. page 246. a b c Determinism, in the Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (Ad. Adele Berlin, Oxford University Publishing House, 2011), p. 210. Louis Jacobs, Jewish Theology (Behrman House, 1973), p. 79. Alan Brill, Thinking of God: The Mystic of Rabbi zadok Lublin (KTAV Publishing, 2002), page 134. Ronald L. Eisenberg, What the Rabbis Said: 250 Themes from the Talmud (2010). ABC-CLIO: page 311-313. a b c Edward Kessler, Original Sin in the Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations (e.g. Edward Kessler and Neil Wenborn, Cambridge University Press, 2005) 323-324. Alpert (2011). Judaism, reconstructionist. Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and . Cambridge University Press. page 346. a b Mark Angel, Afterlife in the Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Dialogue (1995). Eds. Leon Klenicki and Jeffrey Wigoder. Paulist Press: 3-5. a b c Eugene B. Borowitz, Naomi Patz, Chapter 19: Our Hope for the Messianic Age in Explaining the Reform of Judaism (1985). Berman's house. David Birnbaum, Jews, Church and Civilization, Volume III (Millennium Education Fund 2005) - Kellner, Menachem Mark (2006-01-01). Should a Jew believe in anything? Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. ISBN 9781904113386. Shapiro, Mark B. (2004-01-01). The limits of Orthodox theology: thirteen principles of Maimonides are overrated. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. Hammer, Reuven (2010). Judaism as a mitzvot system. Conservative Judaism. 61 (3): 12–25. doi:10.1353/coj.2010.0022. ISSN 1947-4717. Declaration of Principles - Pittsburgh Platform. Central Conference of American Rabbis. 1885. Received 2012-05-21. The guidelines for the reform of Judaism - The Columbus Platform. Central Conference of American Rabbis. 1937. Extracted Reform of Judaism: a century-old perspective. Central Conference of American Rabbis. 1976. Received 2012-05-21. Statement on the principles of Judaism reform. Central Conference of American Rabbis. 1999. Received 2012-05-21. Mordechai M. Kaplan, Judaism as a Civilization: To the Reconstruction of American-Jewish Life (MacMillan Company 1934), reissued by the Jewish Society of Publications 2010. a b Eric Kaplan, From Ideology to Liturgy: The Restoration of and American Liberal Judaism (Jewish Union College Press 2002) Further reading Blech, Benjamin Understanding Judaism: The Basics of the Cause and Creed by Jason Aronson; 1992, ISBN 0-87668-291-3. Bleih, D. David, With Perfect Faith: The Basics of the Jewish Faith, Ktav Publishing House, Inc.; 1983. ISBN 0-87068-452-3 Boteach, Shmuel, Wisdom, Understanding and Knowledge: Basic Concepts of Saidic Thought by Jason Aronson; 1995. Paperback. ISBN 0-87668-557-2 Dorff, Elliot N. and Louis E. Newman (eds.) Contemporary Jewish Theology: Reader, Oxford University Press; 1998. ISBN 0-19-511467-1. Dorff, Elliot N. Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors of Our Descendants (Revised Edition) United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, 1996 Platform for Reconstructionism, FRC Bulletin, September 1986 Fox, Marvin Interpretation maimonides, Univ. Chicago Press. 1990 Robert Gordis (ed.) Emet Ve-Emuna: Statement on the Principles of Conservative Judaism JTS, and United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, 1988 Julius Guttmann, Judaism, Philosophy, Translated by David Silverman, JPS, 1964 Jacobs, Louis, Principles of Jewish Faith: Analytical Study, 1964. The Principles of Maimonides: The Basics of the Jewish Faith, in the Anthology of Arie Kaplan, Volume I, Mesora Publications 1994 Kaplan, Mordechai M., Judaism as Civilization, Reconstruction Press, New York. 1935. Jewish Society of Publications; 1994 Kellner, Menachem, Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Oxford University Publishing House, 1986. Maslin, Simeon J., Melvin Merians and Alexander M. Schindler, What We Believe... What do we do...: Pocket Guide to Jewish Reform, UAS Press, 1998 Shapiro, Mark B., Maimonides Thirteen Principles: The Last Word in Jewish Theology? In the Torah U-Maddah Journal, Tom. 4, 1993, University. Shapiro, Mark B., Borders of Orthodox Theology: Thirteen Principles of Maimonides Are Overrated, Littman Library of Jewish Civilization; 2004, ISBN 1-874774-90-0. Extracted from the maimonides 13 principles of faith in hebrew. 13 principles of faith written by maimonides

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