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A Review of Consumer Embarrassment As a Public and Private Emotion

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A Review of Consumer Embarrassment As a Public and Private Emotion A Review of Consumer Embarrassment as a Public and Private Emotion Aradhna Krishna Kelly B. Herd University of Michigan University of Connecticut Nilufer€ Z. Aydınoglu Kocß University Invited and Accepted by Deborah Roedder John, Editor Whether the result of mispronouncing a fancy brand name, miscalculating a tip, purchasing a sensitive pro- duct, or stumbling into a product display, embarrassment is an important part of the consumer landscape. Embarrassment has traditionally been considered a social emotion, one that can only be experienced in public. In this paper, we offer a comprehensive review of consumer embarrassment and consider situations in which embarrassment can affect consumer behavior in both public and private contexts. We define embarrassment using this broader conceptualization and outline the transgressions that might trigger embarrassment in con- sumption contexts. We also discuss the diverse implications of embarrassment for consumer behavior, and review the strategies that both consumers and practitioners can use to mitigate embarrassment and its nega- tive consequences. We hope this framework will stimulate new research on consumer embarrassment in both public and private contexts. Keywords embarrassment; emotion; coping; appraisal; self-consciousness Introduction left open! They do not notice you and you quickly run back to your room. You know what they were doing, but Imagine you are walking through a crowded upscale bar. you have never seen it before. You feel uncomfortable You do not see the few steps going down and you trip and hide under the covers. and fall, dropping the martini in your hand. As people In all the examples above, you would likely feel approach you to help, you quickly get up and walk back embarrassed. But, what is “embarrassment?” toward the bar, blushing and looking down. Embarrassment has typically been defined as a Picture the following: as you are about to leave work social emotion whereby one feels an aversive state after a long day, you exit your cubicle, only to look of abashment and chagrin associated with down and realize that your fly is wide open; not only unwanted mishaps or social predicaments (Goff- that, but the tip of your white shirt is clearly sticking man, 1955; Miller, 1995; Modigliani, 1968). The first out of your pants. Fortunately, by now the office is two examples above are consistent with this defini- deserted. But, you still feel mortified as you think of the tion. In example 1, the embarrassment stems from many co-workers who could have noticed it under other others seeing you fall—you are clumsy and there is circumstances. a public scene; in example 2, you imagine all of the Visualize yourself as an 8-year-old waking up in the co-workers who might have seen your fly open middle of the night. You are on your way to the bath- and felt too uncomfortable to say anything. How- room. You glance in the direction of your parents’ bed- ever, in example 3, no one sees your transgression room, only to see them having sex – the door has been and you do not imagine them doing so. Impor- tantly, you do not necessarily imagine anyone Received 9 January 2018; accepted 5 December 2018 — Available online 17 December 2018 judging you the negative feelings come from you All authors contributed equally to this research. judging yourself. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to The idea that embarrassment can also be a pri- Aradhna Krishna, Stephen M. Ross School of Business, Univer- sity of Michigan, 701 Tappan St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1234, vate emotion, and be experienced without a real or USA or Kelly B. Herd, School of Business, University of Con- necticut, 2100 Hillside Road, U1041, Storrs, CT 06269, USA or Nilufer€ Z. Aydınoglu, College of Administrative Sciences and _ Economics, Kocß University, Rumelifeneri Yolu, Sarıyer, Istanbul, © 2018 Society for Consumer Psychology 34450, Turkey. Electronic mail may be sent to aradhna@ All rights reserved. 1057-7408/2019/1532-7663 umich.edu or [email protected] or [email protected]. DOI: 10.1002/jcpy.1086 2 Krishna et al. imagined audience, has only recently begun to We first outline what embarrassment is and how receive attention in psychology and consumer it operates. We posit that in order for embarrass- behavior research (Babcock, 1988; Higuchi & ment to ensue, a transgression (that violates socially Fukada, 2002; Krishna, Herd, & Aydinoglu, 2015). accepted conventions or personal codes of conduct) This paper provides a review of consumer embar- occurs in a public or private context, and is then rassment, considering both the public and private appraised by others or by oneself. We highlight perspectives, with the goal of stimulating research common transgressions that cause embarrassment on embarrassment in the consumer context. We in general, and more specifically in consumption next discuss the overall conceptual framework that contexts. Some of these transgressions have will structure this review. received extensive consideration in previous Embarrassment is widespread and can impact research, but many have not. consumers in a multitude of ways. The vast major- Our conceptual framework also considers how ity of research emphasizes consumer embarrass- embarrassment—both felt and anticipated—can be ment in a public context. While the private view measured and differentiated from related emotions has received much less academic attention, it can such as shame and guilt. We also acknowledge and be equally detrimental, particularly in relation to review individual differences that may moderate consumer behavior. To establish this standpoint, we embarrassment and its downstream consequences. provide an integrated review of consumer embar- Our framework then highlights the diverse implica- rassment, using the framework outlined in Figure 1. tions of embarrassment for consumer behavior, evi- In doing so, we hope to improve our understanding denced by the various coping strategies that of what consumer embarrassment is, how it can be consumers use to manage or prevent embarrass- measured, and how it can most effectively be man- ment and its negative consequences, as well as aged—both by consumers and marketers. While practitioner interventions that aid in this coping. much of consumer embarrassment research consid- Finally, we offer suggestions for future research. ers a single trigger or a specific way to manage Throughout the review, we emphasize important embarrassment, we hope that our framework will similarities between public and private embarrass- encourage future research to examine multiple ele- ment as well as ways in which they diverge. Our ments of embarrassment, and their complex and framework highlights that embarrassment— multi-faceted relationships. whether occurring in a public or private context— Defining embarrassment (A broader view) Measuring embarrassment Coping with embarrassment Social context • in public • in private Embarassment Consumer Transgression • Felt and anticipated embarrassment responses • • Related emotions General triggers • Behavioral • (shame, guilt, anxiety, regret) Consumption context • Cognitive/Attitudinal triggers Appraisal Moderators of • Marketer Other-Appraisal embarrassment General • Self-Appraisal interventions • Embarrassability (that aid in coping) • Other individual differences (e.g., gender, self-construal, familiarity) Figure 1. Overall conceptual framework. A Review of Consumer Embarrassment 3 may arise due to self- or other-appraisal, can be embarrassment, defines embarrassment as an emo- measured via self-reports, and may result in similar tional reaction to “unintentional and undesired physiological manifestations (e.g., blushing). Many social predicaments or transgressions” (Edelmann, transgressions that cause embarrassment, such as 1985, p. 223). The key element of this definition is tripping or misremembering a name, result in the that individuals are concerned with how others will same emotional experience whether in a public or perceive and appraise them (Edelmann, 1985; Sch- private context. However, public and private lenker & Leary, 1982). Research on consumer embarrassment may also diverge in important embarrassment predominantly follows this public ways, such as in subsequent consumer responses to account, requiring the observation and evaluation embarrassing transgressions. For example, while of real or imagined audiences in order to occur embarrassment often causes a desire to flee a situa- (e.g., Dahl, Manchanda, & Argo, 2001; Lau-Gesk & tion, particularly in a public context, such an inten- Drolet, 2008). tion may offer no reprieve when embarrassment Based on this public view of embarrassment, occurs in private and is due to one’s self-appraisal researchers have developed several models to (Krishna et al., 2015). explain its effect. Building off of Erving Goffman’s We next discuss how embarrassment has been early research in sociology (1955), the dramaturgic defined in the literature, and offer our own broader model suggests embarrassment occurs when people definition that considers embarrassment across pub- are unable to sustain a certain image in order to lic and private contexts and as a result of other- attain desired impressions (Parrott, Sabini, & Silver, and self-appraisal. 1988; Sabini, Siepmann, Stein, & Meyerowitz, 2000). Shakespeare’s famous line “All the world’s a stage” is often used to describe Goffman’s theory (Joosse, 2012). In front of others, we may be uncertain of Defining Embarrassment (A Broader View) how to behave or
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