OMV Great South Basin Marine Discharge Consent

OMV Great South Basin Marine discharge consent

Submission Reference no: 203

Susan Mary Fitchett Submitter Type: Not specified Source: Email

Overall Notes:

Clause Do you intend to have a spokesperson who will act on your behalf (e.g. a lawyer or professional advisor)? Position No Notes

Clause You will receive information by email. Please indicate if you are unable to receive emails. Position I can receive emails and my email address is correct. Notes

Clause Do you wish to speak to your submission at the hearing? Position No I/we do not wish to speak to my/our submission at the hearing Notes

Clause What decision do you want the Decision-making Committee to make and why? Provide reasons in the box below. Position Refuse Notes I want the EPA to take a precautionary approach and refuse OMV GSB's application for the following reasons; 1. Our country has just passed into law the Zero Carbon Bill. At last the country is recognizing the climate crisis the world is facing. I believe the current climate crisis requires all oil exploration and development of fossil fuel reserves to come to an end as soon as possible. This application goes against the evidence of what is needed to save our planet from the worst climate change scenarios as outlined by the latest ICCP report. 2. I have recently visited both the Royal Albatross colony and the yellow eyed penguin colony in Otago. They are both threatened and/or endangered species, due to factors such as a warming ocean, reduced food sources and ocean pollution. The activities of OMV GSB would lead to the discharge of further toxic substances into the marine environment. This could further reduce the future sustainability of these iconic south island marine based birds. It is clear from several reports into global biodiversity and biodiversity in Aotearoa (Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment) that all the earth's non-human species face potential extinction and here in Aotearoa our unique bird life has a number of critically endangered species. 3. What do we want for our children and grandchildren. An inhabitable planet with only a small number of surviving species or a flourishing environment that has turned the 'doomsday' environmental clock back to a safe time. This is an ethical question which underlies the need for the EPA to refuse this application.

(DRAFT)

Reversing the Penguin Decline in New Zealand

F&B discussion document

Robinson Photo:Snares CrestedPenguins byRichard

Prepared by

Karen A Baird

(F & B/BirdLife International Marine Programme)

Summary & Key Recommendations

Penguins breeding in New Zealand have been significantly impacted by the arrival of humans. On land these impacts have included direct early exploitation for food by Maori, clearance of breeding habitat and introduction of mammalian predators. On-going human induced impacts include coastal development, visitor disturbance, predators and dogs.

In the marine environment penguins are very vulnerable to bycatch in fisheries especially set nets where yellow eyed penguins and little penguins have been captured over many years. Tawaki are also known to be caught, although the extent of the impact is not known due to very low observer coverage.

Expanding oil and gas exploration and increasing shipping traffic presents a real threat to penguins from oil spills. The Rena oil spill in 2011 showed that penguins are especially vulnerable to the impacts of oil spills. Plastics in the marine environment are an increasing concern for seabirds including penguins, especially little penguin.

Penguins are particularly influenced by environmental changes, compared with flying seabirds as they cannot range far from their nesting sites while foraging to feed their chicks. Consequently they are dependent on abundant food near their breeding colonies. All penguins in New Zealand seem to be strongly influenced by food abundance, with only the Snares penguin appearing to have a stable food supply.

Factors that influence food supply are not well understood but include marine habitat destruction such as from fishing trawlers and potential competition with commercial fisheries for food species. Natural fluctuations in the marine environment such as el Niño and la Niña, and increasingly the impacts of climate disruption on productivity of the oceans are known to be occurring in New Zealand.

Disease is increasingly seen as a major threat to depressed and stressed populations such as mainland yellow eyed penguin, but has rarely been investigated in other species.

Often the extent to which these factors, either individually or in combination, are affecting the overall populations of different penguin species is unknown.

Although each penguin species has its own specific characteristics and our level of understanding of the different factors affecting their populations is different there are many commonalities on a broad scale of these actual and potential impacts. The most pressing issue is predator control around the mainland of New Zealand and on the few remaining remote or large offshore islands that

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are not predator free. Penguins also need to be protected from the direct and indirect impacts of fishing activities.

This discussion document proposes the following key recommendations for penguin conservation and recovery:

1. The establishment of a Penguin Recovery Group, administered by the Department of Conservation that will facilitate a more coordinated and collaborative approach to conservation of all penguins.

2. Eradicate pigs and cats on the Auckland Islands (to protect Eastern rockhopper and yellow eyed penguin) and cats and rats from Stewart Island (to protect yellow eyed penguin and tawaki)

3. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures and contingency plans are in place for all penguin breeding islands in the subantarctic, including regular biosecurity monitoring.

4. Establishment of Marine Protected Areas around colonies identified as Important Bird Areas to restrict fisheries activity in foraging areas and reduce impacts from oil exploration and drilling around breeding and foraging habitat.

5. Use penguins as important examples of species at risk in New Zealand from climate change.

6. Support/promote regular surveys of all New Zealand penguin species to monitor population trends and success of conservation/recovery interventions.

Introduction.

This report has been prepared in response to BirdLife International Marine Programmes new global focus on penguins. New Zealand has six extant breeding penguins from a world total of 18 species (33% of penguin species), with all but one penguin species suffering population declines. The mainland population of the endemic genus yellow-eyed penguin has suffered significant declines in the last 2-3 years while the population trend on the subantarctic population is not known. Little penguins in New Zealand are likely to be two congeneric species (Australian and New Zealand) which will likely require the New Zealand little penguin’s conservation status to be elevated. Tawaki or Fiordland crested penguin lives in remote, difficult to access places so that population trend is difficult to ascertain. The catastrophic decline of the Eastern Rock hopper penguins around the southern hemisphere is well known and causes in New Zealand appear to be linked to oceanic warming and cooling periods affecting food supply. Erect crested penguin was recently extirpated from Campbell Island possibly due to impacts from mammals but also potentially from the same changes in the marine environment that are affecting rockhopper penguins. The only penguin probably not suffering declines (Snares crested penguin) is also the most range restricted (one island group) and hence vulnerable to other threats such as oil pollution and fisheries.

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This paper attempts to summarise what we know about the major issues affecting penguins in New Zealand and identify opportunities to initiate or contribute to penguin conservation projects in New Zealand. A list of priority projects is included as Appendix 1.

A number of penguin experts were kind enough to give me the benefit of their experience and knowledge to help me to prepare this report. I would like to thank everyone involved and to invite comments to this discussion document.

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Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes)

IUCN status: Endangered

NZ Threat Classification: Threatened-Nationally Vulnerable.

Yellow-eyed Penguin. Photo: Kim Westerskov

Background The endemic yellow-eyed penguin (YEP) is the largest penguin breeding on NZ mainland. Recent evidence suggests it replaced a similar Waitaha penguin on the mainland after it became extinct through harvesting around 1500 AD. It belongs to an endemic genus Megadyptes. YEPs breed on the southeast coast of the South Island, Stewart Island and adjacent islands and in the subantarctic on the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Pre-European, these penguins would have nested in coastal hardwood forest but habitat loss means that penguins also now nest in regenerating forest, rough pasture and on exposed cliffs. Recent research also suggests that the two populations on the mainland and subantarctic are genetically distinct (Boessenkool et al 2009 in MeClellan and Smith 2014), suggesting they should be managed as distinct management units. This has been used as the basis for the Commercial fisheries risk assessment processes, for example.

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Population Seddon (2013) puts the total population at around 1700 breeding pairs, with the majority in the subantarctic on the Auckland (520-570) (1989 estimate - Recovery Plan 2000, DOC) and Campbell Islands 1992 estimate (490-600). The South Island estimate is 600 pairs and around 180 on Stewart Island. However that latest estimates for YEPs on the mainland are around 150-170 pairs (YEP Trust – pers. comm.), after some major catastrophic events over the last couple of years. The Stewart Island population had been estimated at 220-400 pairs prior to 1994 however later surveys found only 178 active nests suggesting a decline. This is further supported by recent declines in nest numbers at particular sites including Codfish Island (part of Stewart Island group) from 61 nests in 2001-2002 to 39 nests in 2011.

Despite the problems associated with YEP population fluctuations on mainland New Zealand it has always been assumed that the subantarctic population is ‘safe’, supporting 60% of the population. Counts of birds at landing sites is the method used to estimate numbers, but lacks accuracy. Estimates of birds on Campbell Island for example were significantly less (41%) between 1988 and 1992, when the census was repeated, but recovery was detected in later censuses in 2008. This population is unstudied so causes of these observed changes are unknown. The Auckland Island census has not been repeated.

It appears likely that we do not know what the population trend for subantarctic penguins is due to problems associated with estimating the populations there including access and the need for an achievable repeatable methodology.

Threats on land Mainland populations.

Major causes of decline include:  Habitat loss and degradation,  predation from introduced predators,  disease  human disturbance,  heat stress and hypothermia

Predators include cats, ferrets and stoats mainly affecting chicks, while dogs are a threat to adults as well. Periodic disease outbreaks have also been an increasingly significant issue. Diptheritic stomatitis which causes oral lesions, results in reduced weights of chicks and death. It appears to reoccur every second season. Also Leucocytozoon a protazoal parasite of blood and organs was identified in 2005 and caused mortality on Stewart Island. It has also been detected on the Auckland Islands. Other diseases are also potentially an issue for YEPs such as avian malaria, the plasmodium is transported by Culex mosquitos which are becoming more widely distributed. In the subantarctic – on main Auckland Island pigs may also be a significant predator of penguins (Bruce Mckinlay pers comm).

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due to the presence of easily found YEPs on a reserve where access is unregulated. Most other sites in Otago where penguins could be seen in the wild without going on a tour have seen penguin numbers decline dramatically and Katiki is getting a reputation as the place to go. This means that nests close to walking tracks are vulnerable to disturbance and nest monitoring has shown these nests are the ones most likely to fail.

YEPs like all penguins are highly susceptible to heat stress. They have dense feathers which insulate them from cold water but this means that they suffer heat stress where there is lack of shelter from the sun. As most forest along their habitat has been removed, shelter is often hard to find for nest sites. Planting has been a focus of major effort by many groups including for example Southland F&B who have planted thousands of trees at Te Rere Reserve. However regenerating forest may still be insufficient to protect penguins from heat and nest shelters have also been built in some situations. A complicating factor which has been discovered recently is that the YEPs present on the mainland of NZ are likely to have arrived here relatively recently (500 years ago) once the endemic local race of the YEP died out from exploitation by Maori. (Nick Rawlence pers comm). This suggests that they may not have had sufficient time to adapt to NZ conditions so that deforestation and now global warming will exacerbate this.

Subantarctic Islands. Pig predation is known from Auckland Islands as YEP feathers have been found in pig faeces. Penguins would be most vulnerable when nesting and moulting when they cannot escape to the sea. The extent of the impact of pigs on the population is unknown, however given that the mainland population has declined so rapidly and management of issues at sea is very difficult, eradication of pigs on the Auckland Islands would seem to be a priority. Pigs also eat other seabirds such as white capped albatross.

Threats at sea. Major threats at sea include:  bycatch in commercial and recreational fisheries  indirect effects of fishing including destruction of habitat and competition  oil and gas drilling and threats from oil spills

In Commercial fisheries all known captures have been recorded from set netting, although trawling is also a potential risk to penguins. Poor observer coverage (0-3.4% since 2002; spatial coverage unknown) means that the rate of capture and hence impact of this is poorly known. The East Coast of the South Island fisheries for school shark, rig and moki are where YEPs are caught. Mainland YEPs are recorded as at moderate risk in the latest Dragonfly risk assessment (November 2015), with Annual Potential Fatalities estimated as 17-91, while the Potential Biological Removal (the level that can be removed from a population without causing it to decline) set at 113-231. However penguin numbers have crashed since this assessment was done and it is likely that risk will need to be reassessed in light of this. The impacts from recreational set nets are not well understood although a set net ban now occurs over parts of the Otago Harbour.

Indirect effects of fishing may also be contributing to impacts to YEPs. Seven species of fish make up the diet of YEPs – sprat, red cod, silverside, blue cod, ahuru, opal fish, and squid (Ellenberg et al, 2012). Red cod has been identified by Ellenberg et al as being of particular concern and requires more detailed assessment of potential mechanisms for competition. Decadal and other cyclic

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patterns such as el Nino/la Nina causing changes in the marine environment have also been shown to contribute to changes in foraging and breeding success. For example Van Heezik (in DOC, Threatened Species Recovery Plan) identified failure of quality food as a primary cause of the reduced reproductive success in 1985/86. Destruction of biogenic reef habitat associated with extensive oyster beds in Foveaux Strait has also been postulated as a cause for the reduction of number and size of associated benthic fish species important for YEP diet. The movement of this fishery closer to Stewart Island and YEP breeding areas on Stewart Island is associated with low prey diversity and availability affecting Stewart Island Anglem coast colonies and potentially causing the high chick mortality and starvation (Browne et al 2011).

A mass mortality event in (Otago) in early 2013 killed more than 70 adults. The toxic agent was never identified but may have been related to the sewerage outfall on the Peninsula. In December 2013 many chicks starved early in the season and many fledglings were in poor condition and unlikely to survive at sea. The numbers of penguins requiring rehabilitation increased to 329 across Otago. This has stretched resources to be able to cope with this influx. A Wildlife Veterinarian was employed temporarily to assist with this. In the last few years only a small number of juveniles and 2-year old penguins have been seen.

Penguins are especially vulnerable to the impacts of oil spills and oil exploration block offers on the south East Coast of the South Island and around Stewart Island are extensive and overlap with large areas of YEP foraging habitat. http://data.nzpam.govt.nz/permitwebmaps?commodity=petroleum

Predation by sea lions, fur seals and recently attacks by barracouta are known to occur. Barracouta have been observed in fish boil ups on the surface suggesting a mechanism for accidental interaction with YEPs, which caused a significant number of deaths and injuries last season.

Conservation The last DOC recovery plan was produced in 2000, and covers the period from 2000-2025 (http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/science-and-technical/TSRP35.pdf). DOC has recognised the need to update this strategy and is undertaking a two-stage process. First a ‘stock take’, which is a collaborative project by DOC, YEP Trust and Iwi, after which a revised strategy will be produced. Preliminary results from a questionnaire suggest:

 delivery objectives from the existing strategy have been variable  There are significant issues in the marine environment  Subantarctic genetic diversity is likely to be important

Recommendations will include the need for SMART objectives and that the strategy must deliver across the range of YEP.

Conservation efforts over the last 30+years have focused on land based threats – habitat loss and degradation and predation. It was assumed that reducing predation would lead to a reduction in extinction risk. Habitat restoration by community groups such as Forest & Bird, Penguin Rescue at Katiki Point and the Yellow Eyed Penguin Trust has been effective – for example prior to the recent crash in numbers at F&B’s Te Rere Reserve in Southland it supported around 80 birds. This site based work could potentially expand. Now that we know that YEP’s are likely to be poorly adapted to

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mainland conditions efforts to improve habitat could be increased by providing more cooling forest cover/ nest boxes as well as expanding predator control to areas not currently managed.

Although it is known that YEPs have been caught in set nets the inability to adequately quantify this has contributed to ineffectual engagement and management of this issue. Set net bans do occur along the coast of Otago where YEPs are breeding out to 5nm however this isn’t continuous and doesn’t effectively cover their foraging ranges.

The creation of the subantarctic marine reserve is likely to have benefits for the Auckland Island population as it will have reduced fishing pressure around the islands and potential for bycatch. This approach should be replicated around all IBAs for YEP’s.

Direct intervention has recently become the norm at many mainland YEP sites now due to the importance of each penguin (especially breeding adults) in the survival of the mainland population. Birds which are obviously struggling through the moult are also taken in for rehabilitation in some situations (Katiki Point Penguin Refuge Charitable Trust, 2015) All sites should now be doing intensive monitoring and rescue of penguins in need of assistance, however application of this approach appears controversial and so is inconsistent across their range in the South Island and there is an urgent need to clarify this situation. One site in North Otago at Katiki Point has had the highest breeding success across the South Island. The volunteer managers there attribute this to their intensive monitoring of each pair and on-going rehabilitation of birds that require assistance. This approach could be replicated elsewhere.

Management of tourist impacts at key sites needs urgent attention. Katiki Point which now supports the largest number of breeding penguins on the mainland is being seriously impacted by unregulated tourists. Options include preventing public access altogether through a change in reserve status or suggesting Ngai Tahu who own some of the adjoining land develop a tourism venture which would regulate tourism onsite.

See Appendix 2 for a list of all the Important Bird Areas (IBA’s) triggered for YEPs.

Future Initiatives: Land based: 1. Planned eradications on the subantarctic islands – especially Auckland Island for cats and pigs and Stewart Island for cats and other predators would have positive benefits for yellow- eyed penguins (and Fiordland crested and erect crested penguin) as well as a number of other seabirds, land birds and flora. (Funding Required) 2. On-going site based predator control and habitat restoration by F&B Southland, YEP Trust and others. Only about 50% of sites are predator trapped. Protection of penguins from land based problems should be increased – e.g. planting for shade and/or establishment of more nest boxes. F&B Otago branch have recruited a part-time seabird person who will also contribute to work at Tautuku in Southland where YEPs are breeding. 3. Hands-on intensive management of penguins in trouble from lack of food, disease or injury will need to be expanded at least until the population appears to be increasing again. Options include: a. Support for a dedicated wildlife hospital in Dunedin. Currently short-term funding by YEP Trust over the YEP breeding season for a vet( Lisa Argilla) and vet nurses, (so

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that birds don’t have to be flown to North Island) and can get more immediate care to increase their chances of survival. http://yellow-eyedpenguin.org.nz/. b. Funding support for Katiki Point Reserve Charitable Trust where intensive monitoring and rehabilitation of penguins is achieving results. Three volunteers are working full time on this project and funding is needed for at least one full time manager and resources for their rehabilitation programme. (See attached Annual Report 2014/15) 4. Work with Katiki Point Charitable Trust and Ngai Tahu to find a solution to the issue of unregulated tourism. There is the potential for a successful tourism venture here where visitors could be controlled to prevent detrimental impacts to penguins while gaining a high quality visitor experience (advocacy through F&B). 5. Review NZ Threat Classification – currently different in NZ to IUCN

At Sea: 1. Creation of a network of MPAs covering penguin foraging areas as part of the SE Otago MPA Forum process would have benefits for penguins along the coast from Timaru to the Catlins. The concern is that to have significant benefit, reserves would need to be quite large and this is unlikely to be generally supported in the MPA forum process (Fergus Sutherland pers comm).

Advocacy by F&B and others will be required at a national and international level to achieve adequate representation of penguin habitats in marine reserves and marine protected areas.

2. Fisheries: Observer coverage or electronic monitoring (EM) is broadly needed on set net and trawl vessels operating in areas that overlap with YEPs foraging ranges throughout their range on mainland NZ and Stewart Island. 3. Development of a YEP Action Plan for fisheries as has been done for black petrel, including establishment of a working group.

Priority Research and monitoring needs: 1. Subantarctic population trend. This is a priority as the population appears to be crashing on the mainland we need to know what is happening in the major populations in the subs. Development of a robust and repeatable method is required – e.g. nest site counts and beach counts to evaluate the relationship between the two. Collaborate with DOC Southland on options for this. Funding support may be required 2. Stewart Island monitoring – select representative sites and monitor population changes over time using repeatable techniques. Anglem Coast and two offshore island sites (McClellan and Smith, 2014). Collaborate with DOC Southland on this. Funding support may to be required. 3. Development of a YEP monitoring database and maintenance and enhancement of the nest record data base. 4. Fisheries. Research into the indirect effect of fisheries on YEPS e.g. on Anglem Coast Stewart Island – chick starvation and disease and low prey diversity may be related to degradation of benthic foraging by oyster dredging. Also the strongly linear foraging habits of YEPs foraging

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off Otago Coast – following dredge marks? And the possibility of competition with red cod fisheries. (McClellan and Smith, 2014) 5. Diet – in relation to impact of fisheries but also in relation to natural or climate induced changes in the marine environment. Investigate food sources in different foraging ranges in relation to habitat disturbances and inter-annual variability. Mel Young (ex DOC) is doing a PHD on this and (4) - funding support for this would be welcome. DOC is supporting with some funds for tracking devices. 6. Disease. Investigate potential to develop vaccines for chick diseases – work with Sarah Saunderson to develop a project using links to UK (through BirdLife) on this issue.

References Browne, T.; Lalas, C.; Mattern, T.; Van Heezik, Y. 2011: Chick starvation in yellow-eyed penguins: Evidence for poor diet quality and selective provisioning of chicks from conventional diet analysis and stable isotopes. Austral Ecology 36: 99-108

By-catch of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in gillnets in New Zealand waters 1979- 1997 (Biological Conservation 93 (2000) 327-332.

Department of Conservation news http://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2015/hoiho-nest- numbers-hit-rock-bottom/

Ellenberg, Ursula & Mattern, Thomas. 2012 Yellow-eyed penguin – review of population information (CSP Contract Report: 4350 POP2011-08)

Forest & Bird (2015). New Zealand Seabirds: Sites on Land, Coastal Sites and Islands. The Royal Forest & Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand Forest & Bird (2014). New Zealand Seabirds: Sites at Sea, Seaward Extensions, Pelagic Areas. The Royal Forest & Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand. pp.

McClellen, R. and Smith, Des (2014). Review of Yellow-Eyed Penguin (Hoiho) Monitoring on Stewart Island/Rakiura

Penguin Rescue (Katiki Point Penguin Refuge Charitable Trust), Annual Report 2014/15 http://www.penguins.org.nz/

Richard, Y. & Abraham, E.R. (2015) Assessment of the risk of commercial fisheries to New Zealand seabirds, 2006-07 to 2012-13. New Zealand Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity Report 162, Ministry of Primary Industries

Seddon P.J. 2013: Yellow-eyed penguin. In Miskelly C.M. (Ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz.

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Tawaki – Fiordland Crested Penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus).

IUCN threat status: Vulnerable;

NZ Threat Classification: Nationally Endangered.

Tawaki, Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background Endemic to New Zealand, they are distributed around south western New Zealand and Stewart Island from Bruce Bay south including many sites in Fiordland, Solander Island, Codfish and Stewart Island and islets. They breed in small colonies mostly on inaccessible headlands and islets. Their range has become more restricted since human arrival. Their at sea distribution is poorly known. Some tracking has been done very recently by Thomas Mattern and co-workers on the Tawaki Project on females foraging for their chicks off Jackson Head on the West Coast. They travelled up to 100km away from their nests and stayed at sea for up to 3 days, diving to as much as 100m, suggesting poor foraging conditions, as this is likely to be at the limits of their capability. This was supported by observation of chicks starving. El Niño conditions may have contributed to conditions for Tawaki, but further research is needed to clarify what is going on. In comparison at Harrison Cove in Fiordland’s Milford Sound the situation was very different, with birds travelling a maximum of 10km, mostly within the fiord and mostly shallow diving. Nests containing 2 chicks were present which is unusual. Tawaki typically raise just one chick. It may not be coincidental that one whole side of Milford Sound is a marine reserve protecting the shallow fringing marine life.

Population A series of surveys were undertaken over their entire range in the 1990’s a total of 2,260 nests were found, but should be considered a minimum due to difficulty of finding nests and lack of effort around Stewart Island. No complete resurvey has ever been attempted. One population was monitored at Open Bay Islands which showed a 33% decline between 1988 and 1995. (Taylor, 2000). Robin Long surveyed the area between Cascade River and Martins Bay in 2014 and gave a minimum number of 870 breeding pairs suggesting at least 1000 breeding pairs are likely. This compares with the number counted by MacLean et al of around 150 pairs in 1994. This is unlikely to represent an increase (Robin Long, 2014). This result shows how important it is to know what you are looking for when surveying for Tawaki. Stewart Island is likely to host significant colonies that have not been surveyed (G. Gaskin pers comm.). It is likely that Tawaki have declined considerably in range and numbers and although the population trend is unknown it is likely to be declining, although this may be variable across their range.

Threats on land:  Predators  Human induced impacts including tourism

Introduced predators are likely to be the main land based threat; especially stoats which take eggs and chicks but may also attack adults. When breeding or moulting near habitation they are vulnerable to dogs and disturbance by humans. Access to some sites by tourists may be having an impact on some colonies. Monitoring of two sites on the West Coast, one where tourism visits are carefully managed (Murphy Beach) and one where tourists are not controlled (Munro Beach) are revealing (McSweeney, 2014). At Munro Beach the number of nests has dropped from 30 to 11 between 1990 and 2012, while at Murphy Beach the number have nests has risen from 30 to around 70 pairs. Wekas have been observed taking eggs and chicks at Open Bay Islands on the West Coast and on Solander Island, although the impacts of this has not been assessed. At Jackson Head which supports between 200 and 300 pairs there is currently no predator control and the area is also easily accessed by people and dogs. Tawaki are primarily distributed in regions of the country which are

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remote and still heavily forested, breeding in coastal forests, so are unlikely to be impacted by heat stress.

Threat at sea  Fisheries bycatch  Changes in the marine environment including climate disruption  Oil and gas development

Tawaki are at risk from fisheries bycatch, particularly set nets and inshore trawl nets. One bycaught Tawaki was recorded in a set net set for butterfish on the Stewart Island Snares Shelf in 2009. So set nets set near colonies would be a concern. Observer coverage in all set net fisheries is extremely low – generally less than 3% and as low as 0.3%. In 2009 it was 2.2% and spatial coverage of observers does not generally coincide with distribution of Tawaki. Tawaki are assessed as at low risk from fisheries with Annual Potential Fatalities assessed as 0-72 and PBR of 210-427. Changes in the marine environment such as El Nino events suggest climate change impacts are a potential concern, although further research is needed. Mattern et al are investigating breeding and foraging success across their range which will provide insights into these impacts. As for YEP, Tawaki are at risk from oil development around Stewart Island where prospecting permits cover vast areas offshore only excluding 12nm areas around islands. http://data.nzpam.govt.nz/permitwebmaps?commodity=petroleum

Conservation Compared with mainland YEPs Tawaki occur in more remote habitat away from humans so are potentially at less risk from interference over most of their range. However it also makes management of predator issues more difficult. Regular DOC 1080 pest control on the south west coastline occurs over a very limited area, north of Haast River. However, south of the Haast River most DOC 1080 operations do not extend to the seacoast, so that not all major Tawaki breeding areas are protected. (Gerry McSweeney July 27 2014). Lack of information on their population trend is a concern. Some Tawaki researchers consider population assessment is nearly impossible due to the difficulty of finding nests and differences between surveyors, however monitoring key colony sites across their range and recording presence absence at each other colony might be one approach.

There doesn’t seem to be any good data on the value of managing terrestrial predators for Tawaki and this should be a priority as it is something that can potentially be managed.

Research on differences in Tawaki foraging strategies and breeding success across their range began recently by Mattern and co-workers (Tawaki Project.) This project is struggling with financial support which is needed to complete the current research programme; investigating breeding success and foraging strategies across their range. Their ability to breed across a range of habitats suggests Tawaki may be able to withstand perturbations and changes in their marine environment more readily than YEPs. However we need a greater understanding of this.

See Appendix 2 for a list of IBAs triggered by Tawaki.

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Future Initiatives: 1. Encourage DOC and others to prioritise and support better management of tourism and people and dogs especially to sites such as Munro Beach and Jackson Head – investigate reserve status or seasonally limiting public access. 2. Support DOC’s aerial 1080 predator control in Fiordland including priority coastal sites for Tawaki, such as through the Battle for the Birds project to control stoats at key breeding sites (IBAs). 3. Support the eradication of mammalian predators from Stewart Island.

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. Develop an agreed survey methodology to monitor the distribution and number of Tawaki colonies (presence/absence) across their range and select some key (largest numbers) accessible sites to be monitored more intensively for nest numbers to determine population trend. Note: this must be done across their range (including Stewart Island) as there appears to be differing breeding success in different areas in the same year. Collaborate with DOC, BirdsNZ and others including Robin Long. Support for survey required, but needs a high level of expertise. 2. Support a student study of the impacts of stoats on Tawaki e.g. comparison of breeding success between a predator free island or predator managed site and unmanaged mainland site. 3. Investigate the issue of weka predation at Open Bay Islands - is this a problem?

4. Support work by Thomas Mattern et al on foraging and breeding success at 3 key study sites to understand impacts of changes in their marine environment including from climate disruption.

References G.D. McSweeney– 2014 Options for filming of Tawaki Fiordland Crested Penguin including nest sites at Jackson Head versus Murphy Beach South Westland – Pesca Productions/ NHK Japanese National TV August to December 2014

Ellenberg, U. 2013. Fiordland crested penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz

Robin Long 2014 Fiordland Crested Penguin/Tawaki (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus)Survey: Cascade River to Martins Bay, 2014

Tawaki Project http://www.tawaki-project.org/download/

Taylor, G.A. (2000) Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

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Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor)

IUCN classification: Least Concern

NZ Threat Classification: At risk; declining

Little penguin, Mokohinau Islands, Hauraki Gulf. Photo credit Steph Borrelle

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Background Little penguin are the smallest and most widespread penguin species in New Zealand. Until recently New Zealand and Australian little penguins were considered to be the same species albeit with subspecies assigned to northern New Zealand, Cook Strait, white-flippered (North Canterbury) and Chatham Islands. However work published in 2015 by Grosser et el using nuclear DNA to support previous mtDNA divergence strongly suggests that there are two congeneric taxa (‘Australia’ and ‘New Zealand’) which co-occur in southern New Zealand with low levels of hybridization. It is likely that the Australian little penguin expanded recently into New Zealand – in southeast Otago (less than 750 years ago).

This finding has implications for conservation of little penguins. If the New Zealand and Australian birds are each elevated to full species status the conservation status may also warrant reassessment.

Currently no IBAs for seabirds were triggered for little penguin, due to the lumping of NZ and Australian little penguins and also because subspecies are not separated as conservation units within the IBA assessment process. However they occur within a number of IBAs e.g. Oamaru Harbour has >1000 individuals and Motunau Island off Canterbury supports significant numbers of white- flippered penguin.

Map of distribution of Eudyptula penguins. Blue and red colours indicate previously-inferred ranges of New Zealand and Australian mitochondrial lineages, respectively. Lineage distributions in grey dashed areas are unknown. White circles mark sampling localities for the current study. Black lines indicate proximate samples pooled as a priori regional groupings to increase population sample size.(From Gosser et al)

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Population The global trend is one of decline, however there is an absence of long-term demographic data of the New Zealand situation. (Fleming, 2013). Dann (1994) found a large population of penguins along the Otago coast estimating a total population of around 9300 birds at 20 sites, while 7 sites were no longer used. At one site in Oamaru dogs were found to kill at least 34% of breeding birds. Now, many little penguin conservation groups around New Zealand are monitoring their local populations. Generally these sites are managed for impacts from humans, predators and dogs, so these populations are likely to be stable or even increasing.

Threats on land  Predation including from dogs  Coastal development

Predation by cats, dogs, ferrets and stoats. Human encroachment including new coastal development into breeding habitat and removal of penguins breeding under houses due to smell and noise. Many adults penguins are killed by cars on roads – e.g. around Wellington and West Coast of the South Island.

Threats at sea  Fisheries interactions – set nets and drag nets  Oil spills and oil and gas development  Climate disruption  plastics

Set nets are a threat to little penguins and they are known to be caught, e.g. around Motunau Island. Drag nets have been reported to be a problem in some locations e.g. Caroline Bay in Timaru (Fraser Ross, Timaru Penguins, pers comm). Oil spills are a significant potential threat as birds nest in areas with high shipping volumes e.g. Auckland, Whangarei and Tauranga – e.g. Rena oil spill in 2011 in the Bay of Plenty (see photo above of rehabilitating little penguins). Increasing frequency of storm events due to climate disruption during breeding can be a problem for little penguins making it difficult for them to feed and reducing adult survival (Agnew et al 2015). Threats may exist to feeding habitat from future port development in Wellington Harbour (Susan Waugh Te Papa Tongarewa, pers comm). Large wrecks occur occasionally in northern beaches and could be associated with periods when they can’t feed or could be due to die-offs of prey or plastic ingestion or unknown disease agents. As the most widespread penguin and often close association with major human populations such as Auckland, little penguins may be increasingly at risk from plastic ingestion and entanglement; however this has not been investigated. The author personally necropsied a little penguin whose intestinal tract was completely full of polystyrene balls.

Conservation Little penguins respond well to predator control and provision of nest boxes to provide safe nesting sites and there are many community groups undertaking this work. For example Caroline Bay in Timaru where the group Timaru Penguins are managing visitor impacts to the site; Oamaru Blue Penguins which has been monitoring an increasing penguin population while managing impacts from predators and visitors since 1993 (Agnew et al 2014); Others include: Places for Penguins in Wellington, North Canterbury sites including Motunau Island, Harris Bay, Flea Bay and Boulder Bay,

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Pilots Beach on Otago Harbour. Also, Matiu Somes Island in Wellington Harbour and Motuihe and Tiritiri Matangi Islands in the Hauraki Gulf which are predator free. Sites outside of where management of human induced threats is occurring are likely to be declining (Agnew et al 2016). The West Coast Penguin Trust for example, is attempting to manager human induced threats such as from dogs and traffic, however census data indicate an ongoing decline. (Kerry-Jane Wilson pers comm)

Future Initiatives 1. Taxonomic revision of New Zealand and Australian Little Penguins is needed followed by a review of their conservation status. This may also enable a re-evaluation of little penguin colonies and designation of some as IBA’s 2. The number of sites around New Zealand where little penguins are managed could be increased. This would include predator control and regulation of dogs; provision of nest boxes, local set net bans around penguin colonies and protection from development. A template could be developed building on the experience of all groups undertaking this work so that new projects would have all the information they need. Mapping colonies around New Zealand as part of a national survey would help provide the information on where to start and could be combined with a national populations survey. 3. Birds should be collected after wrecks and necropsied to find out causes of death. (collaborate with Birds NZ beach patrol scheme and university researchers).

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. We need long term trend data – undertake a repeat of the P Dann surveys from Waitaki to Nugget Point (at least) and potentially a full national survey which could be done as a joint F&B/Birds NZ and others, project. Repeating Danns surveys would only give us information on the population trend along the stretch of coast where the Australian birds coexist with the New Zealand birds. It appears that the Australian birds have a greater capacity for recovery after storm events as they can double clutch in good conditions. NZ birds apparently do not do this (Philippa Agnew pers comm). This suggest and wider national survey is required.

References Agnew, P., Lalas, C., Wright, J., and Dawson, S. (2016) Annual variation in recruitment and age- specific survival of Little Penguins, Eudyptula minor

Agnew, P., Lalas, C., Wright, J., and Dawson, S. (2015) Variation in breeding success and survival of little penguins Eudyptula minor in response to environmental variation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol. 541:219-229

Grosser S.; Burridge C.P.; Peucker A.J.; Waters J.M. (2015) Coalescent Modelling Suggests Recent Secondary-Contact of Cryptic Penguin Species. PLoS ONE 10(12): e0144966. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144966

Flemming, S.A. 2013. Little penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz

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Kaikoura Ocean Research Institute http://www.kori.org.nz/#!projects

Matiu Somes Island Charitable Trust http://www.matiusomestrust.org.nz/news/little-penguin- korora/

Taylor, G.A. (2000) Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part B, Non-Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 17. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Places for Penguins http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/places-for-penguins

Timaru Penguins http://timarupenguins.co.nz/

Tiritiri Matangi Island Supporters Trust http://www.tiritirimatangi.org.nz/littlebluepenguin

West Coast Penguin Trust http://www.bluepenguin.org.nz/

The White-flippered Penguin http://www.penguin.org.nz/

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Eastern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes filholi)

IUCN classification: Vulnerable;

New Zealand Threat Classification: Nationally Critical

Eastern Rockhopper Penguin, Antipodes Island. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background The Eastern rockhopper penguin breeds on the NZ subantarctic islands (Campbell and Antipodes Islands) as well as Macquarie Island and in the Indian Ocean. It is genetically distinct from the two closely related western (or southern) rockhopper penguins which breed on islands around South America and the Falkland Islands, and Moseley’s or northern rockhopper penguin which breeds on a few temperate islands in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Overall they have a broad circumpolar distribution. Large-scale population declines occurred at many breeding sites across their range in the 20th century, and has accelerated in recent decades.

Population There was a dramatic decline of the Campbell Island population which held the largest population of eastern rockhopper penguins in NZ. It crashed by an estimated 94% between 1942 and 1985 from 800,000 to 51,500 breeding pairs, apparently due to warm ocean temperatures causing inadequate food supply. A 2012 estimate put the breeding population at 33,239 breeding pairs a further 21.8% decrease from the 1984 estimate of 42,528. However it appears this recent population decline occurred primarily between 1984 and 1996 and subsequently the population has increased on Campbell Island. (Morrison et al, 2015) The Antipodes Islands population appears to have suffered recent declines (39%, 1242 to 885) between 1995 and 2011, and previously outnumbered erect- crested penguins there. (Hiscock ,2013). On Macquarie Island, the population is estimated by the Australian Antarctic Division to be between 100,000 and 500,000, but a census is required to establish the trend. Globally these trends are mirrored in other populations of rockhopper, such as the western rockhopper on the Falkland Islands which declined by 91% between the 1930’s and 2001.

Threats on land  Predators including pigs and cats on Auckland Islands  Climate disruption increasing damaging storm events  Disease?

Only mice are present on the Antipodes, soon to be eradicated, but pigs, feral cats and mice are present on Auckland Island which are likely to be a concern. Campbell Island is now free of mammalian pests - removal of sheep and rats will also have had a positive effect on the rockhoppers by reducing colony interference and predation of chicks. In January 2014 an extreme weather event occurred at the Antipodes Islands, resulting in 20% of the islands land area being affected by landslides (Hiscock and Chilvers, in press). Previous landslides are evident and the extent which these may have contributed to the previous decline in penguins is unknown. Investigation by Hiscock and Chilvers showed where rockhopper colonies were affected by landslides there was a 3.4% decrease in nests, while unaffected sites showed a small increase possibly reflecting migration to these sites. Rockhoppers are also more likely to have been directly impacted by the landslides with adults also present attending chicks. The impacts on chicks won’t be known for several years.

Natural predation of chicks by skua and giant petrel occurs on Campbell Island.

Avian diseases such as cholera and malaria may be a problem in some seasons and may increase due to global warming.

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Threats at sea  Changes in the marine environment (SST) affecting food supply  Potential competition with fisheries

Population declines on Campbell Island appear to be linked to warm periods while they increased during cool periods. This suggests once the current cooling period ends and warming resumes population declines will continue. (Morrison et al, 2015). This could be related to prey availability and there is evidence of changes in ocean productivity and fundamental changes in food webs and hence food availability from changes observed in δ13C in feathers from 1861 (Hilton, et al 2006)

Natural predation by sea lions and fur seals may affect some colonies on Campbell Island.

Rockhopper penguins could be vulnerable to being caught in trawl nests but there is no evidence that this is occurring. Competition for food, such as with the southern blue whiting fishery may be a potential threat, particularly as this species may also be subjected to fluctuations as a result of environmental perturbations.

Conservation Issues Land based impacts have been reduced on Campbell Island with removal of sheep and rats, however pigs and cats are a threat to penguins on Auckland Island. There is little that can be done directly in relation to changes in food supply abundance (mostly southern blue whiting) as a result of SST, however the potential impacts of competition with fisheries may need to be investigated. It will be important to continue regular monitoring of the population at Campbell Island using the photo count methodology outlined in Morrison’s paper, repeated at 5-year intervals, and on Antipodes Island using methodology set out by DOC (Hiscock, 2013)

There appears to be a need to establish regular monitoring on Macquarie Island to determine trend. (Liaise with BirdLife Australia)

This penguin is a good candidate for monitoring on-going changes in the marine environment and for climate change advocacy.

Taxonomy of rockhopper penguins needs revision. The IUCN currently does not accept them as separate from western (or southern) which breed at the Falklands and South America.

Future Initiatives 1. Removal of cats and pigs from Auckland Islands. 2. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures including pest contingency plans to ensure no new animal pests reach their breeding islands. 3. Ensure oil and gas development does not threaten their breeding islands and foraging areas. 4. Climate change advocacy - this penguin is a good poster bird for impacts from climate disruption e.g. increasing frequency and strength of storm events causing slips on the Antipodes Islands and reduction in prey availability from ocean warming.

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Priority Research and Monitoring needs 1. Investigate the potential impact of fisheries competition in the southern blue whiting fishery 2. On-going regular monitoring of rock hopper penguin on Campbell Island (5-yearly photo count method and Antipodes Islands (DOC nest count methodology) 3. Research on population dynamics and diet 4. Presence and impact of disease. 5. Taxanomic review

References Australian Antarctic Division http://www.antarctica.gov.au/aboutantarctica/wildlife/animals/penguins/rockhopper-penguins

Hilton GM, Thompson DR, Sagar PM, Cuthbert RJ, Cherel Y, Bury SJ 2006. A stable isotopic investigation into the causes of decline in a sub-Antarctic predator, the rockhopper penguin Eudyptes chrysocome. Global Change Biology 12: 611–625

Hiscock J.A.; Chilvers B.L. 2014, Declining eastern rockhopper and erect-crested penguins on the Antipodes Islands, New Zealand. N Z J Ecol 38(1):124–131

Hiscock J. 2013. Monitoring penguins in the Antipodes Island Group, Methods and baseline data. DOC Technical Series 37

IUCN redlist http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22735250/0

Morrison, K. W.; Battley, P. F.; Sagar, P. M. & Thompson, D. R. (2015) Population dynamics of Eastern Rockhopper Penguins on Campbell Island in relation to sea surface temperature 1942-2012: current warming hiatus pauses a long-term decline. Polar Biol 38:163-177.

Taylor, G.A. (2000) Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

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Erect Crested Penguin (Eudyptes sclateri)

IUCN Endangered

NZ threat classification At Risk -Declining.

Erect Crested Penguin pair, Bounty Islands. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background This endemic penguin is one of 4 crested penguins that breed in New Zealand; It now mainly breeds on the Antipodes and Bounty Islands (99%), also a few pairs on Campbell Island and previously on the South Island mainland at Taiaroa Head. It can occasionally be found moulting around the South Island. These penguins only come to land to breed and moult and have a bizarre breeding system with a very large second egg which is 80% larger than the first egg, although this has been little studied. On the Antipodes Islands, eastern rock hopper penguins breed on the margins of the erect- crested colonies. The winter distribution at sea is largely unknown.

This is probably the least studied penguin in New Zealand.

Population 115,000 pairs were estimated on the Bounty Island in 1978. A subsequent estimate in 1997 suggested there were just 27,956 pairs, however there are problems with direct comparisons due to different base maps for estimating suitable nesting habitat (Taylor, 2000). On the Antipodes the population in 1978 was thought to be the similar to the Bounty Islands, but surveys in 1995 indicated a population of 52,081 nests (=pairs) (Hiscock and Chilvers, 2014). Comparison of photos taken of sites show obvious contraction in colony areas, at some sites. A further survey of the Antipodes Islands in 2011 counted 34,226 nests and established baseline methods for future counts. These numbers suggest a 23% decrease between 1995 and 2012, although combining the erect-crested and rockhopper counts Hiscock and Chilvers suggest there has been a combined decrease in both populations on the Antipodes by 74% since 1978. In 2014 Hiscock and Chilvers (in press) returned to the Antipodes to investigate the impact of landslides caused by a major storm event in January of that year. They found that there had been a further 10.1-11.7% decrease since 2011, in erect crested penguin nests, although this appears to be more of a reflection of the on-going decline than the impact from the landslides. However Hiscock and Chilvers suggest that the direct impacts on chicks present in the colony when landslides occurred will not be felt for more than six years when that cohort would be expected to start breeding and is likely to have a significant long-term impact on the population.

Threats  Climate disruption including storm induced landslides  Oil and gas development, oil spills  Potentially indirect effects from fisheries.

There are no mammalian predators on the Bounty Islands and mice will be eradicated from the Antipodes this winter. Feral cats, sheep and cattle and Norway rats, are all now eradicated from Campbell Island and are likely to have had an effect on the population of erect crested penguins. Changes in ocean temperatures which affected the Eastern rock hopper may also have contributed to population declines in this species. Previous landslides are evident and the extent which these may have contributed to the previous decline in penguins is unknown. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. There is no evidence that any birds are caught in fisheries, however indirect impacts have not been investigated. Oil spills near their colonies would be potentially disastrous.

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Conservation Actions Conservation work around erect-crested penguins requires further information on the threats facing them. There is very little information on the biology of this bird, population dynamics and distribution at sea. It appears likely that declines due to changes in the marine environment that affected rock hopper may also have affected erect-crested penguins but further research is required.

Future Initiatives 1. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures including pest contingency plans to ensure no new animal pests reach their breeding islands. 2. Ensure oil and gas development does not threaten their breeding islands and foraging areas

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. Regular monitoring of populations on both island groups is required to determine on-going population trend. 2. Surveys of other subantarctic islands are needed to check if erect crested penguins are still nesting there – Disappointment, Campbell and Auckland Island. (mid-October – mid- November)Is the population of Campbell Island recovering? 3. A wide range of research questions remain including diet, distribution at sea, breeding biology and population dynamics as well as potential for fisheries impacts. We need to more about what factors are driving their decline.

References Hiscock, J. (2013). Monitoring penguins in the Antipodes Island Group, methods and baseline data. DOC technical series 37.

Taylor, G.A. (2000) Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

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Snares Crested Penguin (Eudyptes robustus)

IUNC Status: VU

NZ Threat Classification: Naturally Uncommon

Background. One of 4 crested penguins that breed in New Zealand; it has the most restricted breeding range of all the crested penguins. It is endemic to the 300ha Snares Island Group, with moulting birds being found as far north as Cook Strait. Morphologically distinct butgenetic differences between erect-crested penguins and tawaki have long been argued but Mattern (2012) considers the major feature isolating these species is that Tawaki start breeding in Austral winter 2 months earlier than Snares penguins so it would be impossible for them to interbreed. During breeding foraging is focused on the passage between the Snares Islands and Stewart Island to the north (Mattern, 2012). The group may harbour a cryptic species as one small population on the Western Chain islets breed 6 weeks later than other birds (Miskelley, 2013).

Population. Around 31,000 pairs breed on North East and Broughton Islands, and a few hundred on Toru and Rima Islets in the Western Chain (Miskelly, 2013). The population is recorded as apparently stable based on repeat counts between 2001, 2009 and 2012. There have been no significant changes in their diet since 1880 suggesting stable prey availability and hence stable population (Mattern et al, 2009) especially compared with other crested penguins.

Threats.

On Land:

 Biosecurity breach and invasion by predators such as Norway rat.  Climate disruption. Potential storm damage to breeding habitat from increasing strength and frequency of storms

The islands where they breed are predator free however biosecurity is always a concern for these remote and precious islands, particularly at risk from fishing vessels anchored nearby.

At Sea:

 Changes in the marine environment from climate disruption  Potential for fisheries interactions from trawling e.g. Barracouta trawl on the Snares shelf where the birds forage.  Potential for indirect effects of fisheries  Oil and gas development/oil spills

Threats include changes in oceanic conditions resulting from climate change, potential competition with squid fisheries and potential bycatch in trawl nets as there is no marine protection around the Snares Islands. Oil and gas development in the region could be a major risk to this range restricted species.

Conservation Actions:

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Unlike all the other subantarctic Islands in NZ there is no marine protection around the Snares Islands that limits human activity. Fishing vessels anchoring close to the islands also present a risk from a biosecurity point of view.

Future Initiatives:

1. Prevent oil drilling around the Snares Islands and on the great South Basin. 2. Advocate for marine protection around the Snares Islands to protect major foraging habitat during the breeding season and potentially reduce biosecurity risk from fishing vessels.

Priority Research and Monitoring needs:

3. Repeat counts of Snares penguins every 5-10 years. 4. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures and contingency plans are in place to ensure no new animal pests reach these islands (work with DOC Southland) 5. Biosecurity monitoring for invasive mammals every 5 years.

References.

Miskelly, C.M. 2013. Snares crested penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online http://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/snares-crested-penguin

Mattern, T., D. M. Houston, C. Lalas, A. N. Setiawan, and L. S. Davis. 2009. Diet composition, continuity in prey availability and marine habitat: Keystones to population stability in the Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus). Emu 109:204–13.

Mattern, T. 2012. Snares Penguin Eudyptes robustus. In: García Borboroglu, P. G. and Boersma P. D. (eds), Biology and Conservation of the World’s penguins, University of Washington Press, Seattle U.S.A.

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Conclusions and recommendations

Table 1 below summarises the key factors influencing penguin populations in New Zealand.

Predators on both the mainland of New Zealand (stoats, ferrets, feral cats and dogs) and on major islands – Stewart Island and Auckland Island continue to affect four out of six species of penguins. At least three possibly four penguins are directly affected by fisheries interactions although the extent of the impacts is unknown while there is strong evidence that yellow eyed penguin habitat is affected by fisheries and competition may be occurring for food as well.

Human induced impacts such as from tourism, encroachment into habitat and pollution directly affect three species and could potentially affect the other three. There is already some evidence of climate change impacts altering food availability and also contributing to storm events that cause large scale deaths. Extreme weather events are likely to intensify, therefore adding urgency to the need to reduce other stressors that we can more easily control.

Many organisations are involved in penguin conservation but there is a need for conservation measures to be coordinated and integrated such is through the establishment of a Penguin Recovery Group. This would be a multi species recovery group much like the multi species Kiwi Recovery Group that is a DOC and conservation community partnership.

Detailed recommendations are outlined in Appendix 1.

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Species Population Predation Fisheries Fisheries Human Disease Climate Taxa Cons Trends Direct Indirect Interference/ change status Status habitat quality/ IUCN pollution including NZ plastics YEPs Major decline Auckland Islands Set nets, Competition Tourism e.g. Katiki Point, Adults and Food X EN on mainland. (pigs, cats), trawling? for food, heat stress chicks availability VU (review?) Subantarctic? Stewart Island biogenic pollution? especially (cats, rats), habitat loss Oil pollution risk Mainland (stoats, from trawling Dogs? ferrets, rats, cats, dogs?)

Tawaki Probable Mainland (stoats, Set nets, ? Tourism e.g. Munro’s ?unknown Food X VU decline? cats) & trawling? Beach availability? EN Stewart Island Oil pollution risk (cats,rats) Little P Probable Mainland (stoats, Set nets, drag ? Human ?possibly Increasing NZ & LC decline? cats, dogs) nets, other? encroachment/coastal frequency of Australian At risk - development; dogs & cars storm events declining Oil pollution risk Dogs plastics

Rock- NZ decline Auckland Islands ? Southern Biosecurity risk ? possibly Warming Southern & VU Hopper Macquarie? (pigs and cats?) blue whiting Oil pollution risk and cooling Eastern Nationally fishery? impact on separated? Critical food Climate storm induced landslides (Antipodes) Erect Decline X ? ? Biosecurity risk ? Climate X EN Crested Oil pollution risk storm At risk - induced declining landslides (Antipodes) Snares Stable X Trawl Snares ? Biosecurity risk ? ? unknown X VU Crested shelf ? Oil pollution risk At Risk - Naturally Uncommon Table 1. Factors influencing penguin populations in New Zealand. X = unlikely. ? unknown/not investigated.

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Appendix 1. Priority Conservation Projects for Penguins

For all penguins:

Support a part time penguin coordinator position in F&B (0.5 FTE) to manage and implement penguin projects including being part of the Penguin Recovery Group and liaise with the penguin conservation and research community.

YEPs

Projects F&B and BirdLife and other partners could support or promote for funding

1. Support for increased first aid and intensive rehabilitation by: a. Support for a full-time vet and vet nurse and resourcing for wildlife hospital in Dunedin to support rehabilitation centres at Katiki and Penguin Place and elsewhere. b. provide support for a full-time residential ranger position at Katiki Point and scientist (2 positions total) and resources 2. Support research on diet and indirect effects of fishing on YEP habitat and climate induced changes to the marine environment (Mel Young PHd project) 3. Investigate the potential to develop vaccines for chick diseases – work with Sarah Saunderson and through BirdLife in Cambridge to enhance links with researchers in the UK on this. 4. Work with DOC Southland to support and enhance the subantarctic YEP monitoring programme and nest site counts for population trend and monitoring for the Stewart Island population through representative sites

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

5. Increased predator control, nest protection from solar radiation at key YEP sites around the South Island. Could focus support for F&B sites such as Te Rere, but should also investigate increased monitoring of nesting success. 6. Work with Katiki Point Charitable Trust and Ngai Tahu to find a solution to the issue of unregulated tourism. There is the potential for a successful tourism venture here where visitors could be controlled to prevent detrimental impacts to penguins while gaining a high quality visitor experience. (advocacy through F&B) 7. Review NZ Threat Classification – currently different in NZ to IUCN 8. Advocate for large MPAs around Otago Peninsula and the Catlins through the SE Otago MPA Forum process initially and once publicly notified nationally and internationally. 9. Require increased observer coverage and potentially EM monitoring on 100% of set net vessels throughout YEP foraging range.

Tawaki

Projects F&B and BirdLife and other partners could support or promote for funding

1. Develop an agreed survey methodology to monitor the distribution and number of Tawaki colonies (presence/absence) across their range and select some key (largest numbers)

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accessible sites to be monitored more intensively for nest numbers to determine population trend. 2. Support DOC’s aerial 1080 predator control in Fiordland but prioritising coastal sites for Tawaki, such as through the Battle for the Birds project to control stoats at key breeding sites (IBAs). (Core DOC work but is additional funds needed for DOC?) 3. Support a study (student?) investigating the differences in breeding success between predator managed populations (stoats) and non-predator managed populations. 4. Support key work by Thomas Mattern et al on foraging and breeding success at 3 key study sites

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

5. Investigate the issue of weka predation at Open Bay Islands - is this a problem? 6. Encourage DOC and others to prioritise and support better management of tourism and people and dogs especially to sites such as Munro Beach and Jackson Head and investigate reserve status or seasonally limiting public access.

Little Penguin

Projects F&B and BirdLife and other partners could support or promote for funding

1. Conduct a full National survey and mapping of little penguin colonies jointly with BirdsNZ and others. 2. Establish a project to monitor the causes of death of little penguins through collection of beach wrecks for necropsy working with Birds NZ beach patrol scheme and university researchers.

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

3. The number of sites around New Zealand where little penguins are managed could be increased. This would include predator control and regulation of dogs; provision of nest boxes, local set net bans around penguin colonies and protection from development. Use ‘Places for Penguins’ as a model for F&B branches but also work collaboratively with Oamaru Blue Penguin Trust, West Coast Penguin Group and others to develop a template. Oversight of this project would be through additional 0.5FTE penguin position based in F&B. 4. Support the taxanomic revision of New Zealand and Australian little penguins and review of their conservation status 5. F&B to advocate for set net closures around penguin colonies especially once a national colony and population survey is complete.

Rock hopper Penguin

Projects F&B and BirdLife and other partners could support or promote for funding

1. Removal of cats and pigs from Auckland Islands

2. Support studies of this penguin:

i. population dynamics, diet and distribution at sea and

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ii. potential competition with the Southern Blue Whiting fishery

3. Taxonomic review

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

6. Climate change – use this penguin especially as a poster penguin for climate change in NZ. 7. Advocate to BirdLife Australia around supporting regular monitoring of the population trend on Macquarie Island. 8. Support on-going regular monitoring of rock hopper penguin on Campbell Island (5-yearly photo count method and Antipodes Islands (DOC nest count methodology) Should be core funded through DOC?

Erect Crested Penguin

Projects F&B and BirdLife and other partners could support or promote for funding

1. Continue baseline 5 yearly surveys of Bounty and Antipodes Islands to monitor populations. Core funded through DOC? 2. Surveys of other subantarctic islands are needed to check if erect crested penguins are still nesting there – Disappointment, Campbell and Auckland Island. (mid-October – mid- November)Is the population of Campbell Island recovering? 3. Basic research questions – diet, distribution at sea, breeding biology and population dynamics. Possible PHd projects.

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

4. Advocate against oil drilling near Antipodes and Bounties islands.

Snares Crested Penguin

Projects F&B could promote/support/fund through branches or national office fundraising

1. Support repeat counts of Snares penguin every 5-10 years to monitor population trend. (DOC core funding?) 2. Advocate against oil drilling around the Snares Islands and in the great South Basin 3. Advocate for an MPA around the Snares Islands

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Appendix 2. IBAs for Penguins in New Zealand

Yellow Eyed Penguins

There are 18 land sites identified as IBAs which are triggered by YEPs and 7 seaward extensions. These are:

NZ060 Banks Peninsula

NZ083 Moeraki Katiki Point; NZ M011 North Otago

NA084 Aramoana Otago Harbour

NZ086 Otago Peninsula; NZ M012 Dunedin Coast

NZ096 Catlins; NZ M013 South Otago

NZ M014 Southern South Island

NZ113 Raratoka Centre Island, Foceaux Strait

NZ114 Ruapuke; NZ M015 Rakiura

NZ117 Whenua Hou Codfish Island

NZ118 Northern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ119 North Coast Rakiura

NZ120 Paterson Inlet The Neck, Rakiura

NZ121 Port Adventure, Rakiura

NZ122 Port Pegasus, Rakiura

NZ123 Southern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ137 Enderby Group, Auckland Islands NZ Subantarctic

NZ138 Main Auckland Island; NZ M018 and M019 Auckland Islands

NZ140 Adams Island

NZ141 Campbell Islands; NZ M20 and M21 Campbell Islands

Tawaki

There are 24 land sites identified as IBAs which are triggered by Tawaki and three seaward extensions. These are:

NZ073 Heretaniwha Point Waterfall Creek, West Coast

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NZ074 Whakapohai, West Coast

NZ075 Open Bay Islands, West Coast

NZ076 Jackson Head, West Coast

NZ077 Cascade, West Coast

NZ078 Hope River, West Coast

NZ079 Awarua Point, West Coast

NZ080 Martins Bay, Fiordland West Coast

NZ081 Yates Point, Fiordland West Coast

NZ096 Catlins, Otago Southland

NZ106 Milford Sound Piopiotahi, Fiordland

NZ107 George Sound, Fiordland

NZ108 Charles Sound, Fiordland

NZ109 Doubtful Sound, Fiordland

NZ 110 Breaksea Sound, Fiordland

NZ111 Dusky Sound, Wet Jacket Arm

NZ112 Chalky Preservation Inlets, Fiordland

NZ116 Solander Islands, Foveaux

NZ117 Whenua Hou, Codfish Island, Rakiura

NZ118 Northern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ119 North Coast Rakiura

NZ121 Port Adventure, Rakiura

NZ122 Port Pegasus, Rakiura

NZ123 Southern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

And three Seward extensions.

M014 Southern South Island

M015 Rakiura

M016 Fiordland-West Coast South Island (South)

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Eastern Rockhopper Penguin.

There are 4 land IBAs triggered by Eastern rockhopper penguins they are:

NZ134 Antipodes Islands

NZ138 Main Auckland Island

NZ140 Adams Island, NZ Subantarctic

NZ141 Campbell Islands

And 5 Seward extensions:

M018 Auckland Islands

M019 Auckland Islands

M20 Campbell Islands

M21 Campbell Islands

M22 Antipodes

Snares Crested Penguin

The Snares Islands trigger 2 IBAs for Snares penguin:

NZ135 Snares (eastern islands)

NZ136 Western Chain , Snares Islands

And a seaward extension:

M017 Snares

Erect Crested Penguins.

There are three land IBAs triggered for Erect Crested Penguins

NZ133 Bounty Islands, NZ Subantarctic

NZ134 Antipodes Islands

NZ141 Campbell Islands

And three seaward extensions:

NZM22 Antipodes

NZM23 Bounty Islands

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NZM24 Bounty

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Reversing the Penguin Decline in New Zealand

F&B discussion document

Robinson Photo:Snares CrestedPenguins byRichard

Prepared by

Karen A Baird

(Forest & Bird/BirdLife International Marine Programme)

(July, 2016)

Summary & Key Recommendations

Expanding oil and gas exploration and increasing shipping traffic presents a real threat to penguins from oil spills. The Rena oil spill in 2011 showed that penguins are especially vulnerable to the impacts of oil spills. Plastics (including micro plastics) in the marine environment are an increasing concern for seabirds including penguins, especially little penguin.

Factors that influence food supply are not well understood but include marine habitat destruction such as from fishing trawlers and potential competition with commercial fisheries for food species. Natural fluctuations in the marine environment such as El Niño and La Niña, and increasingly the impacts of climate disruption on productivity of the oceans are known to be occurring in New Zealand.

Disease is increasingly seen as a major threat to depressed and stressed populations such as mainland yellow-eyed penguin, but has rarely been investigated in other species.

Often the extent to which these factors, either individually or in combination, are affecting the overall populations of different penguin species is unknown.

This discussion document proposes the following key recommendations for penguin conservation and recovery:

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1. The establishment of a Penguin Recovery Group, administered by the Department of Conservation that will facilitate a more coordinated and collaborative approach to conservation of all penguins.

2. Eradicate pigs, mice and cats on the Auckland Island (to protect eastern rockhopper and yellow-eyed penguins) and cats and rats from Stewart Island (to protect yellow-eyed penguin and tawaki)

3. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures and contingency plans are in place for all penguin breeding islands in the subantarctic, including regular biosecurity monitoring.

4. Establishment of Marine Protected Areas around colonies, at a minimum in areas identified as Important Bird Areas (MIBAs) to restrict fisheries activity in foraging areas and reduce impacts from oil exploration and drilling around breeding and foraging habitat.

5. Use penguins as important examples of species at risk in New Zealand from climate change.

6. Support/promote regular surveys of all New Zealand penguin species to monitor population trends and success of conservation/recovery interventions.

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Introduction.

This report has been prepared in response to BirdLife International Marine Programmes new global focus on penguins. New Zealand has six extant breeding penguins from a world total of 19 species (32% of penguin species), with all but one penguin species suffering population declines. The mainland population of the endemic genus yellow-eyed penguin has suffered significant declines in the last 2-3 years while the population trend on the subantarctic population is not known. Little penguins in New Zealand may prove to be two congeneric species (one shared with Australia) which will likely require the New Zealand little penguin’s conservation status to be elevated. Tawaki, or Fiordland crested penguin, lives in remote, difficult to access places so that population trend is difficult to ascertain. The catastrophic decline of the three species of rockhopper penguins around the southern hemisphere is well known; causes in New Zealand appear to be linked to oceanic warming and cooling periods affecting food supply. Erect-crested penguins recently disappeared as a breeding species from Campbell Island possibly due to impacts from mammals but also potentially from the same changes in the marine environment that are affecting rockhopper penguins. The only penguin probably not suffering declines (Snares crested penguin) is also the most range restricted (one island group) and hence vulnerable to other threats such as oil pollution and fisheries.

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Yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes)

IUCN status: Endangered

NZ Threat Classification: Threatened-Nationally Vulnerable.

Yellow-eyed Penguin. Photo: Kim Westerskov

Background The endemic yellow-eyed penguin (YEP) is the largest penguin breeding on the New Zealand mainland. Recent evidence suggests that it replaced a similar ‘Waitaha’ penguin on the mainland after it became extinct through harvesting around 1500 AD. It belongs to an endemic genus Megadyptes. YEPs breed on the southeast coast of the South Island, Stewart Island and adjacent islands and in the subantarctic on the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Preferred nesting habitat for YEPs is in coastal hardwood forest and other dense coastal vegetation, but habitat loss means that they also now nest in regenerating forest, in rough pasture and on exposed cliffs. Recent research also suggests that the two populations on the mainland and subantarctic are genetically distinct (Boessenkool et al. 2009 in McClellan and Smith 2014), suggesting they should be managed as distinct management units. This approach has been used as the basis for the Commercial fisheries risk assessment processes, for example.

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Population Seddon (2013) puts the total population at around 1700 breeding pairs, with the majority in the subantarctic on the Auckland Islands (520-570) (1989 estimate - Recovery Plan 2000, DOC), and on Campbell Islands (1992 estimate, 490-600). The South Island population was formerly estimated to be 600 pairs plus about 180 pairs on Stewart Island. However that latest estimates for YEPs on the mainland are around 250 pairs (D. Houston – pers. comm. 27/5/16), although just 206 nest were monitored during the 2015/1016 breeding season (DOC, 2016) after some catastrophic events over the last couple of years. The Stewart Island population was estimated to be 220-400 pairs prior to 1994 however later surveys found only 178 active nests, suggesting a decline. This is further supported by recent declines in nest numbers at particular sites including Codfish Island (part of Stewart Island group) from 61 nests in 2001-2002 to 35 nests in 2015.

Despite the problems associated with YEP population fluctuations on mainland New Zealand it has always been assumed that the subantarctic population is ‘safe’, supporting 60% of the population. Nest counts are the method used for determining yellow-eyed penguin numbers on both the mainland and Stewart Island. It is not feasible to undertake these in the subantarctic due to the large number of landing sites, the logistics of getting to the sites and the very dense vegetation which slows the search and reduces the detection rate.

Counts of birds at landing sites has been used to estimate numbers in the subantarctic, however these show great variability depending on the time of year undertaken, the duration of the counts and the nature of the breeding season. Estimates of birds on Campbell Island for example were significantly less (41%) between 1988 and 1992, when the census was repeated, but recovery was detected in later censuses in 2008. This population is relatively unstudied and so causes of these observed changes are unknown. The Auckland Island census has not been repeated.

We are currently unable to accurately determine the population or trend for the subantarctic populations due to the lack of an accurate, repeatable and achievable methodology.

Threats on land Mainland populations.

Major causes of decline include:  Habitat loss and degradation,  Losses from introduced predators,  Disease,  Human disturbance,  Heat stress

Predators include cats, ferrets and stoats that mainly affect chicks, while dogs are a threat to both chicks and adults as well. Periodic disease outbreaks have also been an increasingly significant issue. Diptheritic stomatitis which causes oral lesions that impede swallowing and cause respiratory problems and results in reduced weights of chicks and death. It is caused by bacterium Corynebacterium amycolatum but there may also be a viral triggering agent. It appears to reoccur every second season. Also Leucocytozoon a protazoal parasite of blood and organs, was identified in 2005 and caused mortality on Stewart Island. It has also been detected on the Auckland Islands.

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Other diseases are also potentially an issue for YEPs such as avian malaria; the plasmodium is transported by Culex mosquitos which are becoming more widely distributed. In the subantarctic – on main Auckland Island pigs may also be a significant predator of penguins, and feral cats may prey on chicks. (Bruce Mckinlay pers comm).

Tourism is also having an impact on penguins; Unregulated tourism has been shown to have impacts on reducing breeding success. (Penguin Rescue, Annual Report 2014/15) This is a particular concern at Katiki Point Wildlife Management Reserve in North Otago where visitor numbers have burgeoned due to the presence of easily found YEPs on a reserve where access is unregulated. Most other sites in Otago where penguins could be seen in the wild without going on a tour have seen penguin numbers decline dramatically and Katiki is gaining a reputation as the place to go. This means that nests close to walking tracks are vulnerable to disturbance and nest monitoring has shown these nests are the ones most likely to fail.

YEPs like all penguins are highly susceptible to heat stress. They have dense feathers which insulate them from cold water but this means that they suffer heat stress where there is lack of shelter from the sun. As most forest along their habitat has been removed, shelter is often hard to find for nest sites. Planting has been a focus of major effort by many groups including for example Southland Forest &Bird, who have planted thousands of trees at Te Rere Reserve. However regenerating forest may still be insufficient to protect penguins from heat, and nest shelters have also been built in some situations. A complicating factor which has been discovered recently is that the YEPs present on the mainland of NZ are likely to have arrived here relatively recently (500 years ago) once the congeneric Waitaha penguin died out due to hunting by Maori. (Boessenkool, S. 2009). Therefore they may not have had sufficient time to warmer mainland conditions and so deforestation and now global warming may exacerbate this.

Subantarctic islands. Pig predation is known from Auckland Island as YEP feathers have been found in pig faeces. Penguins would be most vulnerable when nesting and moulting when they cannot escape to the sea. The extent of the impact of pigs on the population is unknown, however given that the mainland population has declined so rapidly and management of issues at sea is very difficult, eradication of pigs on Auckland Island would seem to be a priority. Pigs also eat other seabirds on their nests, notably white capped albatross, and many other species would benefit from their eradication.

Yellow-eyed penguins are largely benthic foragers (Mattern, 2007), feeding near the sea floor in depths of up to 100m. In commercial fisheries all known captures that have been recorded are from benthic set netting, although trawling is also a potential risk to penguins. Poor observer coverage (0- 3.4% since 2002; spatial coverage unknown) means that the rate of capture and hence impact of this is poorly known. The East Coast of the South Island fisheries for school shark, rig and moki are where YEPs are caught. Mainland YEPs are recorded as at moderate risk in the latest Dragonfly Science Ltd

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risk assessment (November 2015), with Annual Potential Fatalities (APF) estimated as 17-91, while the Potential Biological Removal (PBR) (the level that can be removed from a population without causing it to decline) set at 113-231. However penguin numbers have crashed since this assessment was completed and it is likely that risk will need to be reassessed in light of this. The impacts from recreational set nets are not well understood although a set net ban is now applied over parts of the Otago Harbour.

Indirect effects of fishing may also be contributing to impacts to YEPs. Seven species of fish make up most of the diet of YEPs – sprat, red cod, silverside, blue cod, ahuru, opal fish, and squid (Ellenberg et al. 2012). Red cod has been identified by Ellenberg et al. as being of particular concern and requires more detailed assessment of potential mechanisms for competition. Decadal and other cyclic patterns such as El Nino/La Nina causing changes in the marine environment have also been shown to contribute to changes in foraging and breeding success. For example van Heezik (in DOC, Threatened Species Recovery Plan) identified failure of quality food as a primary cause of the reduced reproductive success in 1985/86. Destruction of biogenic reef habitat associated with extensive oyster beds in Foveaux Strait has also been postulated as a cause for the reduction of number and size of associated benthic fish species important for YEP diet. The movement of this fishery closer to Stewart Island and YEP breeding areas on Stewart Island is associated with low prey diversity and availability affecting Stewart Island Anglem coast colonies, and potentially causing the high chick mortality and starvation (Browne et al 2011).

A mass mortality event in Otago in early 2013 killed more than 70 adults. The toxic agent was never identified but may have been related to a sewage outfall on Otago Peninsula. In December 2013 many chicks starved early in the season and many fledglings were in poor condition and so unlikely to survive at sea. The numbers of penguins requiring rehabilitation increased to 329 across Otago. This has stretched resources of wildlife care agencies, who struggled to cope with the influx. In 2015/16 a wildlife veterinarian was employed for six weeks to assist. In the last few years only a small number of juveniles and 2-year old penguins have been seen.

Penguins are especially vulnerable to the impacts of oil spills. Oil exploration block offers on the south-east coast of the South Island and around Stewart Island are extensive and overlap with large areas of YEP foraging habitat. http://data.nzpam.govt.nz/permitwebmaps?commodity=petroleum

Predation by sea lions, sharks and attacks by barracouta are known to occur. Barracouta have been observed in fish boil ups on the surface suggesting a mechanism for accidental interaction with YEPs, which caused a significant number of deaths and injuries last season.

 delivery objectives from the existing strategy have been variable  There are significant issues in the marine environment  Subantarctic genetic diversity is likely to be important

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Conservation efforts over the last 30+years have focused on land-based threats – habitat loss, degradation and predation. It was assumed that reducing predation would lead to a reduction in extinction risk. Habitat restoration by community groups such as Forest & Bird, Penguin Rescue at Katiki Point and the Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust has been effective – for example prior to the recent crash in numbers at F&B’s Te Rere Reserve in Southland it supported around 80 birds. This site- based work could potentially be expanded. Now that we know that YEP’s are likely to be poorly adapted to mainland conditions efforts to improve habitat could be increased by providing more cooling forest cover/ nest boxes as well as expanding predator control to areas not currently managed.

Although it is known that YEPs have been caught in set nets the inability to adequately quantify this has contributed to ineffectual engagement and management of this issue. Set net bans do occur along the coast of Otago where YEPs are breeding out to 4nautical miles, set up to protect Hectors dolphins; however this does not include Otago Harbour where set nets are allowed. (Min Fish, 2008)

The creation of the subantarctic marine reserve is likely to have benefits for the Auckland Island population as it will have reduced the fishing pressure around the islands and will also have reduced the potential for bycatch. This approach should be replicated around all IBAs for YEP’s.

Intensive management including rehabilitation and enhanced trapping has recently become the norm at some mainland YEP sites now due to the importance of each penguin (especially breeding adults) in the survival of the mainland population. Evidence assessing the effectiveness of species recovery treatments comparing trapping of predators, re-vegetation and intensive management suggest that only intensive management is effective and can increase the YEP population by 9% (Busch and Cullen, 2009). Birds which are obviously struggling through the moult have also taken in for rehabilitation in some situations (Penguin Rescue, 2015) All sites should now be doing intensive monitoring and rescue of penguins in need of assistance, however application of this approach is not universally accepted so is inconsistently applied across their range in the South Island. There is an urgent need to identify effective management approaches and to communicate these to all stakeholders. Penguin Rescue has attributed high breeding success and a long-term increase in nest numbers at Moeraki to the creation of nesting habitat, rehabilitation of compromised penguins and comprehensive monitoring of the population. This approach could be replicated elsewhere.

Management of tourist impacts at key sites needs urgent attention. Katiki Point which now supports the largest number of breeding penguins on the mainland but is being impacted by unregulated tourists. Options include preventing public access altogether through a change in reserve status or or supporting the development of a regulated tourism venture on adjacent land.

See Appendix 2 for a list of all the Important Bird Areas (IBA’s) triggered for YEPs.

Future Initiatives: Land based: 1. Planned eradications on the subantarctic islands – especially Auckland Island for cats, mice and pigs and Stewart Island for cats and other predators would have positive benefits for yellow-eyed penguins (and also Fiordland crested and erect crested penguin) as well as a

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number of other seabirds, land birds and flora. DOC is currently undertaking a feasibility study. 2. On-going site-based predator control and habitat restoration by F&B Southland, YEP Trust and others. Only about 50% of sites are predator trapped. Protection of penguins from land- based problems should be increased – e.g. planting for shade and/or establishment of more nest boxes. F&B Otago branch have recruited a part-time seabird person who will also contribute to work at Tautuku in Southland where YEPs are breeding. 3. Hands-on intensive management of penguins in trouble from lack of food, disease or injury will need to be expanded at least until the population appears to be increasing again. Options include: a. Support for a dedicated wildlife hospital in Dunedin. A full-time vet and vet nurse, (so that birds don’t have to be flown to North Island) and can get more immediate care to increase their chances of survival. http://yellow-eyedpenguin.org.nz/. b. Funding support for Penguin Rescue where intensive management of penguins is achieving results. Three volunteers are working full time on this project. Funding for a full time manager plus resources for their rehabilitation programme would be beneficial. (See attached Annual Report 2014/15) 4. Work with Penguin Rescue and with Ngai Tahu to find a solution to the issue of unregulated tourism. There is the potential for a successful tourism venture here where visitors could be controlled to prevent detrimental impacts to penguins while gaining a high quality visitor experience (advocacy through F&B).

Advocacy by F&B and others will be required at a national and international level to achieve adequate representation of penguin habitats in marine reserves and marine protected areas.

2. Fisheries a) Observer coverage or electronic monitoring (EM) is broadly needed on set net and trawl vessels operating in areas that overlap with YEPs foraging ranges throughout their range on mainland NZ and Stewart Island. b) Development of a YEP Action Plan for fisheries as has been done for black petrel, including establishment of a working group.

Priority Research and monitoring needs: 1. All breeding locations on the mainland need to be monitored regularly during the year. 2. Subantarctic population trend. This is a priority as the population has crashed on the mainland and we urgently need to know what is happening in the major populations in the subantarctic islands. Development of a robust and repeatable method is required – e.g. nest site counts and beach counts to evaluate the relationship between the two. Collaborate with

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DOC Southland and Birds New Zealand on various options for this. Funding support may be required. 3. Stewart Island monitoring – select representative sites and monitor population changes over time using repeatable techniques. Anglem coast and two offshore island sites (McClellan and Smith, 2014). Collaborate with DOC Southland on this. Funding support may to be required. 4. Development of a YEP monitoring database and maintenance and enhancement of the nest record data base. Collaborate with Birds New Zealand on this. 5. Fisheries. Research into the indirect effect of fisheries on YEPs e.g. on Anglem coast, Stewart Island – chick starvation and disease and low prey diversity may be related to degradation of benthic foraging by oyster dredging. Also the strongly linear foraging habits of YEPs foraging off Otago Coast – following dredge marks? And there is the possibility of competition with red cod fisheries. (McClellan and Smith, 2014) 6. Diet – in relation to impact of fisheries but also in relation to natural or climate induced changes in the marine environment. Investigate food sources in different foraging ranges in relation to habitat disturbances and inter-annual variability. DOC is partially supporting a PhD on this and (4). Further funding support for this would be welcome. DOC is supporting with some funds for tracking devices. 7. Diet studies are also required for the subantarctic birds about which we currently have no information at all. 8. Disease. a. Investigate potential to develop vaccines for chick diseases – work with Sarah Saunderson to develop a project using links to UK (through BirdLife) on this issue. b. investigate the potential to develop a single-dose antibiotic for treatment of young chicks

References Busch, J., Cullen, R. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of yellow-eyed penguin recovery. 2009. Ecological Economics 68, 762-776

Boessenkool, S., Austin, J.J., Worthy, T.H., Scofield, P., Cooper, A.,Seddon, P.J., Waters, J.M., 2009. Relict or colonizer? Extinction and range expansion of penguins in southern New Zealand. Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 276(1658), pp.815–821.

Browne, T., Lalas, C., Mattern, T., van Heezik, Y. 2011: Chick starvation in yellow-eyed penguins: evidence for poor diet quality and selective provisioning of chicks from conventional diet analysis and stable isotopes. Austral Ecology 36: 99-108 Darby, J.T. & Dawson S.M., 2001. By-catch of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) in gillnets in New Zealand waters 1979-1997 Biological Conservation, 93, Issue 3, 327-332.

Darby, J. T. (2003). The yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Stewart and Codfish Islands. Notornis, 50(3), 148- 154.

Department of Conservation news http://www.doc.govt.nz/news/media-releases/2015/hoiho-nest-numbers-hit-rock- bottom/

Department of Conservation, 2016. Yellow-eyed Penguin/Hoiho season update 10.

Ellenberg, Ursula & Mattern, Thomas. 2012 Yellow-eyed penguin – review of population information (CSP Contract Report: 4350 POP2011-08)

Forest & Bird (2015). New Zealand Seabirds: Sites on Land, Coastal Sites and Islands. The Royal Forest & Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand

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Forest & Bird (2014). New Zealand Seabirds: Sites at Sea, Seaward Extensions, Pelagic Areas. The Royal Forest & Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand. pp.

van Heezik, Y. M. (1991). A comparison of Yellow-eyed penguin growth rates across fifty years: Richdale revisited. Notornis, 38(2), 117-123.

Kinsky, F. C. (1961). Sooty Shearwater, young Yellow-eyed Penguins, adult Yellow-eyed Penguin [photos only]. Notornis, 9(6), 246-248

Lalas, C., Jones, P.R., Jones, J. 1999. The design and use of a nest box for yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes – A response to a conservation need. Marine Ornithology 27: 199-204

Lalas, C., Ratz, H., McEwan, K., McConkey, S. D. 2007. Predation by New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) as a threat to the viability of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) at Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. Biological Conservation 135 (2007) 235-246

McKay, R., Lalas, C., McKay, D., McKonkey, S. 1999. Nest-site selection by Yellow-eyed Penguins Megadyptes antipodes on grazed farmland. Marine Ornithology 27: 29-35

Mattern, T. et al., 2007. Consistent foraging routes and benthic foraging behaviour in yellow-eyed penguins. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 343, pp.295–306.

Ministry of Fisheries, 2008. Recreational set net prohibitions for Hector’s dolphins. (New Zealand Government pamphlet)

McClellan, R. &Smith, Des (2014). Review of Yellow-Eyed Penguin (Hoiho) Monitoring on Stewart Island/Rakiura. Wildlands Contract Report No. 3386 for Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust.

Penguin Rescue (Katiki Point Penguin Refuge Charitable Trust), Annual Report 2014/15 http://www.penguins.org.nz/

Moore, P. J., Notman, P. R., & Yeates, G. W. (1992). Population estimates of Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Campbell and Auckland Islands 1987-90. Notornis, 39(1), 1-15.

Moore, P. J. (2001). Historical records of yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) in southern New Zealand. Notornis, 48(3), 145-156.

Moore, P. J., & Moffat, R. D. (1992). Predation of Yellow-eyed Penguin by Hooker's sea lion. Notornis, 39(1), 68-69

O'Leary, F., & Kinsky, F. C. (1961). Grey-faced Petrel, Sooty shearwater, yellow-eyed penguin [photos only]. Notornis, 9(7), 245-248

Roberts, C. L., & Roberts, S. L. (1973). Survival rate of Yellow-eyed Penguin eggs and chicks on the Otago Peninsula. Notornis, 20(1), 1-5.

Seddon, P. (1989). Copulation in the Yellow-eyed Penguin. Notornis, 36(1), 50-51.

Seddon P.J. 2013: Yellow-eyed penguin. In Miskelly C.M. (Ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz.

Schuster, K., & Darby, J. T. (2000). Observations on the chick-rearing strategy of yellow-eyed penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) on Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. Notornis, 47(3), 141-147.

Schweigman, I., & Darby, J. T.. (1997). Predation of Yellow-eyed Penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) on mainland New Zealand by Hooker's sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri). Notornis, 44(4), 265-266

Tunnicliife, G. A. (1979). Homing behaviour in the Yellow-eyed Penguin. Notornis, 26(3), 287-288.

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Tawaki – Fiordland crested penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus).

IUCN threat status: Vulnerable;

NZ Threat Classification: Nationally Endangered.

Tawaki, Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background Endemic to New Zealand, tawaki are distributed around south-western New Zealand and Stewart Island from Bruce Bay south including many sites in Fiordland, Solander Island, Codfish and Stewart Island and islets. They breed in small colonies mostly on inaccessible headlands and islets. Their range has become more restricted since human arrival. Their at sea distribution is poorly known. Some tracking has been done very recently by Thomas Mattern and co-workers on the Tawaki Project on females foraging for their chicks off Jackson Head on the West Coast. They are known to travel up to 100km away from their nests and to stayed at sea for up to 3 days, diving to as much as 100m, suggesting poor foraging conditions, as this is likely to be at the limits of their diving capability. This was supported by observation of chicks starving. El Niño conditions may have contributed to poor foraging conditions for tawaki, but further research is needed to clarify what is going on. In comparison, at Harrison Cove in Fiordland’s Milford Sound the situation was very different, with birds travelling a maximum of 10km, mostly within the fiord and the birds were mostly shallow diving. Nests containing 2 chicks were present which is unusual. Tawaki typically raise just one chick. It may not be coincidental that one whole side of Milford Sound is a marine reserve protecting the shallow fringing marine life.

Population A series of surveys was undertaken over their entire range in the 1990’s where a total of 2,260 nests were found, but this should be considered a minimum due to difficulty of finding nests and lack of effort around Stewart Island. No complete resurvey has ever been attempted. One population was monitored at Open Bay Islands which showed a 33% decline between 1988 and 1995.(Taylor, 2000). Robin Long surveyed the area between Cascade River and Martins Bay in 2014 and gave a minimum number of 870 breeding pairs suggesting at least 1000 breeding pairs are likely. This compares with the number counted by McLean et al. of around 150 pairs in 1994. This is unlikely to represent an increase (Long, 2014). This result shows how important it is to know what you are looking for when surveying for Tawaki. Stewart Island is likely to host significant colonies that have not been surveyed (C. Gaskin pers. comm.). It is likely that Tawaki have declined considerably in range and numbers, based on historic population counts (Ellenberg, U. 2013) and although the population trend is unknown it is currently thought to be declining, although this may be variable across their range.

Threats on land:  Predators  Human induced impacts including tourism

Introduced predators are likely to be the main land-based threat; especially stoats which take eggs and chicks but may also attack adults. When breeding or moulting near habitation they are vulnerable to dogs and disturbance by humans. Access to some sites by tourists may be having an impact on some colonies. Monitoring of two sites on the West Coast, one where tourism visits are carefully managed (Murphy Beach) and one where tourists are not controlled (Munro Beach) are revealing (McSweeney, 2014). At Munro Beach the number of nests has dropped from 30 to 11 between 1990 and 2012, while at Murphy Beach the number have nests has risen from 30 to around 70 pairs. Weka have been observed taking eggs and chicks at Open Bay Islands on the West Coast and on Solander Island, although the impacts of this has not been assessed. At Jackson Head which supports between 200 and 300 pairs there is currently no predator control and the area is also easily

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accessed by people and dogs. Tawaki are primarily distributed in regions of the country which are remote and still heavily forested, breeding in coastal forests, so are unlikely to be impacted by heat stress.

Threat at sea  Fisheries bycatch  Changes in the marine environment including climate disruption  Oil and gas development

Tawaki are at risk from fisheries bycatch, particularly set nets and inshore trawl nets. One bycaught tawaki was recorded in a set net set for butterfish on the Stewart Island Snares Shelf in 2009 and so nets set near colonies would be a concern. Observer coverage in all set net fisheries is extremely low – generally less than 3% and as low as 0.3%. In 2009 it was 2.2% and spatial coverage of observers did not coincide with distribution of tawaki. Tawaki are assessed as at low risk from fisheries with Annual Potential Fatalities (APF) assessed as 0-72 and Potential Biological Removal (PBR) of 210-427. Changes in the marine environment such as El Niño events suggest climate change impacts are a potential concern, although further research is needed. Mattern et al. are investigating breeding and foraging success across their range which will provide insights into these impacts. As for YEP, tawaki are at risk from oil development around Stewart Island where prospecting permits cover vast areas offshore only excluding 12 nm areas around islands. http://data.nzpam.govt.nz/permitwebmaps?commodity=petroleum

Conservation Compared with mainland YEPs, tawaki occur in more remote habitat away from humans and so are potentially at less risk from interference over most of their range. However it also makes management of predator issues more difficult. Regular DOC 1080 pest control on the south-west coastline occurs over a very limited area, north of Haast River. However, south of the Haast River most DOC 1080 operations do not extend to the seacoast, and so few tawaki breeding areas are protected. (Gerry McSweeney July 27 2014). Lack of information on population trends is a concern. Some tawaki researchers consider population assessment is nearly impossible due to the difficulty of finding nests and differences in methods applied between surveyors, however monitoring key colony sites across their range and recording presence and absence at each other colony might be one approach.

There doesn’t seem to be any good data on the value of managing terrestrial predators for tawaki and this should be a priority as it is something that can potentially be managed.

Research on differences in tawaki foraging strategies and breeding success across their range began recently by Mattern and co-workers (Tawaki Project) Funding support is needed to complete the current research programme; investigating breeding success and foraging strategies across their range. Their ability to breed across a range of habitats suggests tawaki may be able to withstand perturbations and changes in their marine environment more readily than YEPs. However we need a greater understanding of this.

See Appendix 2 for a list of IBAs triggered by tawaki.

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Future Initiatives: 1. Encourage DOC and other stakeholders to prioritise and support better management of tourism and people and dogs especially to sites such as Munro Beach and Jackson Head – investigate reserve status or seasonally limiting public access. 2. Support DOC’s aerial 1080 predator control operations in Fiordland, including priority coastal sites for tawaki, for examples through the “Battle for the Birds” project to control stoats at key breeding sites (IBAs). 3. Support the eradication of mammalian predators from Stewart Island.

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. Develop an agreed survey methodology to monitor the distribution and number of tawaki colonies (presence/absence) across their range and select some key (largest numbers) accessible sites to be monitored more intensively for nest numbers to determine population trend. Note: this must be done across their range (including Stewart Island) as there appears to be differing breeding success in different areas in the same year. Collaborate with DOC, Birds New Zealand and others, including Robin Long. Support for surveys are required, but needs considerable technical and practical expertise. 2. Support a student study of the impacts of stoats on tawaki e.g. comparison of breeding success between a predator free island, or predator controlled mainland and an unmanaged mainland site. 3. Investigate the issue of weka predation at Open Bay Islands and Solander Island - is this a problem?

4. Support work by Thomas Mattern et al. on foraging and breeding success at 3 key study sites to understand impacts of changes in their marine environment including from climate disruption. Collaborate with Birds New Zealand on this topic.

References

G.D. McSweeney– 2014 Options for filming of tawaki Fiordland crested penguin including nest sites at Jackson Head versus Murphy Beach South Westland – Pesca Productions/ NHK Japanese National TV August to December 2014

Ellenberg, U. 2013. Fiordland crested penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz

Long, R. 2014. Fiordland crested penguin/tawaki (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus)Survey: Cascade River to Martins Bay, 2014

McLean, I. G., & Russ, R. B. 1991. The Fiordland crested penguin survey, stage I: Doubtful to Milford Sounds. Notornis, 38(3), 183-190.

McLean, I. G. 1990. Chick expulsion by a Fiordland crested penguin. Notornis, 37(3-4), 181-182.

McLean, I. G. 2000. Breeding success, brood reduction and the timing of breeding in the Fiordland crested penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus). Notornis, 47(1), 57-60.

McLean, I. G., Abel, M., Challies, C. N., Heppelthwaite, S., Lyall, J., & Russ, R. B. (1997). The Fiordland crested penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus) survey, stage V: mainland coastline, Bruce Bay to Yates Point. Notornis, 44(1), 37-47.

McLean, I. G., Studholme, B. J. S., & Russ, R. B. 1993. The Fiordland crested penguin survey, stage III: Breaksea Island, Chalky and Preservation Inlets. Notornis, 40(2), 85-94.

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Murie, J. O., Davis, L. S., & McLean, I. G. 1991. Identifying the sex of Fiordland crested penguins by morphometric characters. Notornis, 38(3), 233-238.

Russ, R. B., McLean, I. G., & Studholme, B. J. S. 1992. The Fiordland crested penguin survey, stage II: Dusky and Breaksea Sounds. Notornis, 39(2), 113-118.

Studholme, B. J. S., Russ, R. B., & McLean, I. G. 1994. The Fiordland crested penguin survey: stage IV, Stewart and offshore islands and Solander Island. Notornis, 41(2), 133-143.

Tawaki Project http://www.tawaki-project.org/download/

Taylor, G.A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Young, M. J., Pullar, C. R., & McKinlay, B. 2015. Breeding attempts by Fiordland crested penguins/tawaki (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus) on the Otago Coast. Notornis, 62(2), 102-104. van Heezik, Y. M. 1989. Diet of the Fiordland crested penguin during the post-guard phase of chick growth. Notornis, 36(2), 151-156.

Wheeler, R. W. 1982. Fiordland crested penguin. Notornis, 29(3), 236.

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Little penguin (Eudyptula minor)

IUCN classification: Least Concern

NZ Threat Classification: At risk; declining

Little penguin, Mokohinau Islands, Hauraki Gulf. Photo credit Steph Borrelle

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Background Little penguin are the smallest and most widespread penguin species in New Zealand. Until recently New Zealand and Australian little penguins were considered to separate subspecies of the same species. However work published in 2015 by Grosser et al. using nuclear DNA to support previous mtDNA divergence strongly suggests that there are two congeneric taxa (‘Australia’ and ‘New Zealand’) which occur in southern New Zealand with low levels of hybridisation. Otago birds appear to be Australian birds, however where the boundary occurs is not known. It is likely that the Australian little penguin expanded recently into New Zealand – in southeast Otago (less than 750 years ago) (Grosser, 2016).

Although genetic differentiation is not significant white-flippered penguins from Canterbury are clearly morphologically different and are restricted to a small range so there are concerns for their survival.

Map of distribution of Eudyptula penguins. Blue and red colours indicate previously-inferred ranges of New Zealand and Australian mitochondrial lineages, respectively. Lineage distributions in grey dashed areas are unknown. White circles mark sampling localities. Black lines indicate proximate samples pooled as a priori regional groupings to increase population sample size.(From Gosser et al. 2015) 19 | P a g e

Population The global trend is one of decline, however there is an absence of long-term demographic data of the New Zealand situation. (Fleming, 2013). Dann (1994) found a large population of penguins along the Otago coast estimating a total population of around 9300 birds at 20 sites, while 7 sites were no longer being used. At one site in Oamaru dogs were found to kill at least 34% of breeding birds. Now, many little penguin conservation groups around New Zealand are monitoring their local populations. Generally these sites are managed for impacts from humans, predators and dogs, so these populations are likely to be stable or even increasing.

Threats on land  Predation including from dogs  Coastal development and habitat fragmentation  Disturbance  Road kill

Threats at sea  Fisheries interactions – set nets and drag nets  Oil spills and oil and gas development  Climate disruption  Plastics including microplastics

Set nets are a threat to little penguins and they are known to be caught, e.g. around Motunau Island. Drag nets have been reported to be a problem in some locations e.g. Caroline Bay in Timaru (Fraser Ross, Timaru Penguins, pers. comm.). Oil spills are a significant potential threat where birds nest in areas with high shipping volumes e.g. Auckland, Whangarei, Tauranga and Wellington – e.g. Rena oil spill in 2011 in the Bay of Plenty. Increasing frequency of storm events due to climate disruption during breeding can be a problem for little penguins making it difficult for them to feed and reducing adult survival (Agnew et al. 2015). Threats may exist to feeding habitat from future port development in Wellington Harbour (Susan Waugh Te Papa Tongarewa, pers. comm.). Large wrecks occur occasionally in northern beaches and could be associated with periods when they can’t feed or could be due to die-offs of prey or plastic ingestion or unknown disease agents. As the most widespread penguin and often close association with major human populations such as Auckland, little penguins may be increasingly at risk from plastic ingestion and entanglement; however this has not been investigated. The author has personally necropsied a little penguin whose intestinal tract was completely full of polystyrene balls.

Conservation Little penguins respond well to predator control and provision of nest boxes to provide safe nesting sites; there are many community groups undertaking this work. For example Caroline Bay in Timaru where the group ‘Timaru Penguins’ are managing visitor impacts to the site and ‘Oamaru Blue Penguins’ which has been monitoring an increasing penguin population while managing impacts

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from predators and visitors since 1993 (Agnew et al. 2014). Others include: Places for Penguins in Wellington, North Canterbury sites including Motunau Island, Harris Bay, Flea Bay and Boulder Bay, Pilots Beach on Otago Harbour. Also, Matiu/Somes Island in Wellington Harbour and Motuihe and Tiritiri Matangi Islands in the Hauraki Gulf which are predator free. Sites outside of where management of human induced threats is occurring are likely to be declining (Agnew et al. 2016). The West Coast Penguin Trust for example, is attempting to manager human induced threats such as from dogs and traffic, however census data indicate an ongoing decline. (Kerry-Jane Wilson pers. comm.).

More information is also needed on the impacts of a colonising species of blue penguin – where the boundary between the two species occurs and also whether the coloniser is spreading in NZ which may have implications for the NZ endemic species.

Future Initiatives 1. Taxonomic revision of New Zealand and Australian little penguins is needed followed by a review of their conservation status. This may also enable a re-evaluation of little penguin colonies and designation of some as IBA’s 2. The number of sites around New Zealand where little penguins are managed could be increased. This would include predator control and regulation of dogs; provision of nest boxes, local set net bans around penguin colonies and protection from development. A template could be developed building on the experience of all groups undertaking this work so that new projects would have all the information they need. Mapping colonies around New Zealand as part of a national survey would help provide the information on where to start and could be combined with a national populations survey. 3. Birds should be collected after wrecks and necropsied to find out causes of death. (collaborate with the Birds New Zealand Beach Patrol Scheme and with university researchers).

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. Long term trend data are required – undertake a repeat of the P. Dann surveys from Waitaki to Nugget Point (at least) and potentially a full national survey which could be done as a joint F&B/Birds New Zealand and others. Repeating Danns surveys would only give us information on the population trend along the stretch of coast where the Australian birds coexist with the New Zealand birds. It appears that the Australian birds have a greater capacity for recovery after storm events as they can double clutch in good conditions. NZ birds apparently do not do this (Philippa Agnew pers. comm.). This suggests that a wider national survey is required. 2. We also need to find out more about the relationship between the Australian and NZ species could the Australian birds be more successful and hence overtake the NZ birds?

References

Agnew, P., Lalas, C., Wright, J., and Dawson, S. 2016. Annual variation in recruitment and age-specific survival of little penguins, Eudyptula minor. Emu, CSIRO Publishing.

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Agnew, P., Lalas, C., Wright, J., and Dawson, S. 2015. Variation in breeding success and survival of little penguins Eudyptula minor in response to environmental variation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol. 541: 219-229.

Banks, J. C., Mitchell, A. D., Waas, J. R., & Paterson, A. M. 2002. An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence within the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) complex. Notornis, 49(1), 29-38.

Brager, S., & Stanley, S. 1999. Near-shore distribution and seasonal abundance of white-flippered penguins (Eudyptula minor albosignata) at Banks Peninsula, New Zealand. Notornis, 46(3), 365-372.

Crockett, D. E., & Kearns, M. P. 1975. Northern little blue penguin mortality in Northland. Notornis, 22(1), 69-72.

Dann, P. 1994. The abundance, breeding distribution and nest sites of blue penguins in Otago, New Zealand. Notornis, 41(3), 157-166.

Flemming, S.A. 2013. Little penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online. www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz

Fraser, M. M., & Lalas, C. 2004. Seasonal variation in the diet of blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) at Oamaru, New Zealand. Notornis, 51(1), 7-15.

Grosser, S., Burridge C.P., Peucker A.J., Waters J.M. 2015. Coalescent modelling suggests recent secondary-contact of cryptic penguin species. PLoS ONE 10(12): e0144966. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144966

Grosser, S., Rawlence, N.J., Anderson, C. N. K., Smith, I. W. G., Scofield, R.P. and Waters J.M., 2016. Invader or resident? Ancient-DNA reveals rapid species turnover in New Zealand little penguins. Royal Society Publishing http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/

Hawke, D. J., Clark, J. M., & Challies, C. N. 2005. Verification of seabird contributions to Australasian harrier diet at Motunau Island, North Canterbury, using stable isotope analysis. Notornis, 52(3), 158-162.

Hocken, A. G. 1997. Plumage and bill morphology variations in a population of the blue penguin (Eudyptula minor). Notornis, 44(4), 259-263.

Kaikoura Ocean Research Institute http://www.kori.org.nz/#!projects

Matiu Somes Island Charitable Trust http://www.matiusomestrust.org.nz/news/little-penguin-korora/

Notman, P. R. 1985. Blue penguin attacked by fur seal. Notornis, 32(3), 260

Roberts, T. M. 1951. Little blue penguin feeding. Notornis, 4(6), 164-164.

Secker, H. L. (1951). Flipper pattern of little blue penguin in Cook Strait. Notornis, 4(6), 145-145.

Taylor, G.A. 2000.Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part B, Non-threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 17. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Places for Penguins http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/places-for-penguins

Tennyson, A. J. D., & Millener, P. R. 1994. Bird extinctions and fossil bones from Mangere Island, Chatham Islands. Notornis, 41(sup), 165-178.

The White-flippered Penguin http://www.penguin.org.nz/

Timaru Penguins http://timarupenguins.co.nz/

Tiritiri Matangi Island Supporters Trust http://www.tiritirimatangi.org.nz/littlebluepenguin

West Coast Penguin Trust http://www.bluepenguin.org.nz/

Winter, S. J. A. 2000. Number and distribution of blue penguin (Eudyptula minor) nests in the Mount Maunganui area, Bay of Plenty. Notornis, 47(3), 160-162.

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Eastern rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes filholi)

IUCN classification: Vulnerable;

New Zealand Threat Classification: Nationally Critical

Eastern rockhopper penguin, Antipodes Island. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background The eastern rockhopper penguin breeds on the NZ subantarctic islands (Campbell, Auckland and Antipodes Islands) as well as Macquarie Island and also in the southern Indian Ocean. It is genetically distinct from the closely related western rockhopper penguin (E. chrysocome) which breed on islands around South America and the Falkland Islands, and Moseley’s or northern rockhopper penguin (E. moseleyi) which breeds on a few temperate islands in the South Atlantic and southern Indian Oceans. Large-scale population declines for all three rockhopper penguins occurred at many breeding sites across their range in the 20th century, and has accelerated in recent decades.

Population There has been a dramatic decline of the Campbell Island population, which held the largest New Zealand population of eastern rockhopper penguins. It crashed by an estimated 94% between 1942 and 1985 from 800,000 to 51,500 breeding pairs, apparently due to warm ocean temperatures causing inadequate food supply. A 2012 estimate put the breeding population at 33,239 breeding pairs, a further 21.8% decrease from the 1984 estimate of 42,528. However, it appears this recent population decline occurred primarily between 1984 and 1996 and subsequently the population has increased on Campbell Island.(Morrison et al. 2015). The Antipodes Islands population also appears to have suffered recent declines (39%, 1242 to 885) between 1995 and 2011. Evidence from photos taken in the 1950s suggest that rockhopper penguins previously outnumbered erect-crested penguins on Antipodes Islands (Hiscock, 2013). On Macquarie Island, the population is estimated by the Australian Antarctic Division to be between 100,000 and 500,000, but a census is required to establish the trend. Globally these trends are mirrored in other populations of rockhopper, such as the western rockhopper on the Falkland Islands which declined by 91% between the 1930’s and 2001.

Threats on land  Predators including pigs and cats on Auckland Islands  Climate disruption increasing damaging storm events  Disease?

Only mice are present on the Antipodes (eradication attempt underway June-July 2016) but pigs, feral cats and mice are present on Auckland Island which are likely to be a concern. Campbell Island is now free of mammalian pests - removal of sheep, cats and rats will also have had a positive effect on the rockhopper penguins there by reducing colony interference and predation of chicks. In January 2014 an extreme weather event occurred at the Antipodes Islands, resulting in 20% of the islands’ land area being affected by landslides (Hiscock and Chilvers, in press). Previous landslides are evident and the extent to which these may have contributed to the previous decline in penguins is unknown. Investigation by Hiscock and Chilvers showed where rockhopper colonies were affected by landslides there was a 3.4% decrease in nests, while unaffected sites showed a small increase possibly reflecting migration to these sites. Rockhopper penguins were more likely to have been directly impacted by the landslides than erect-crested penguins, with adults attending chicks in January. The impacts on chicks won’t be known for several years.

Natural predation of chicks by subantarctic skuas, northern giant petrels and New Zealand sea lions occurs on Campbell Island.

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Avian diseases such as cholera and malaria may be a problem in some seasons and may increase due to global warming.

Threats at sea  Changes in the marine environment (SST) affecting food supply near breeding colonies  Potential competition with fisheries

Population declines on Campbell Island appear to be linked to warm periods, while the population increased during cool periods. This suggests once the current cooling period ends and warming resumes population declines will continue. (Morrison et al. 2015). This could be related to prey availability, and there is evidence of changes in ocean productivity and fundamental changes in food webs and hence food availability from changes observed in δ13C in feathers from 1861 (Hilton, et al. 2006)

Natural predation by sea lions and fur seals may affect some colonies on Campbell Island.

Rockhopper penguins could be vulnerable to being caught in trawl nests but there is no evidence that this is occurring. Competition for food, such as with the southern blue whiting fishery may be a potential threat, particularly as this fish species may also be subjected to fluctuations as a result of environmental perturbations.

Conservation Issues Land based impacts have been reduced on Campbell Island with removal of sheep and rats, plus cats dying out, however pigs and cats remain a threat to penguins on Auckland Island. There is little that can be done directly in relation to changes in food supply abundance (mostly southern blue whiting) as a result of changes in SST, however the potential impacts of competition with fisheries may need to be investigated. It will be important to continue regular monitoring of the population at Campbell Island using the photo count methodology outlined in Morrison’s paper, repeated at 5-year intervals, and on Antipodes Island using methodology set out by Hiscock, 2013.

There appears to be a need to establish regular monitoring on Macquarie Island to determine trend. (Liaise with BirdLife Australia)

This penguin is a good candidate for monitoring on-going changes in the marine environment and for climate change advocacy.

Studies on virtually every aspect of this penguin in NZ are needed – diet, distribution of penguins at sea and population dynamics. Recent work has been completed on the distribution of this penguin at sea, however results have yet to be published (David Thompson, pers. comm.) Information on distribution during non-breeding is important to understand potential threats throughout their life history.

Taxonomy of rockhopper penguins needs revision. The IUCN currently does not accept eastern rockhopper penguin as separate from western rockhopper penguin, which breed at the Falklands and South America, lumping them both together as southern rockhopper penguin.

Future Initiatives 1. Removal of cats and pigs from Auckland Island.

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2. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures including pest contingency plans to ensure no new animal pests reach their breeding islands. 3. Ensure oil and gas development does not threaten their breeding islands and foraging areas. 4. Climate change advocacy - this penguin is a good poster bird for impacts from climate disruption e.g. increasing frequency and strength of storm events causing slips on the Antipodes Islands and reduction in prey availability from ocean warming.

Priority Research and Monitoring needs 1. Investigate the potential impact of fisheries competition in the southern blue whiting fishery 2. On-going regular monitoring of rock hopper penguin on Campbell Island (5-yearly photo count method) and Antipodes Islands (DOC nest count methodology) 3. Research on population dynamics and diet 4. Presence and impact of disease. 5. Taxonomic review.

Birds New Zealand may be able to contribute towards some research and monitoring efforts.

References

Australian Antarctic Division http://www.antarctica.gov.au/aboutantarctica/wildlife/animals/penguins/rockhopper- penguins

Hiscock J.A.& Chilvers B.L. 2014. Declining eastern rockhopper and erect-crested penguins on the Antipodes Islands, New Zealand. N Z J Ecol 38(1):124–131

Hiscock J. 2013. Monitoring penguins in the Antipodes Island group, methods and baseline data. DOC Technical Series 37

IUCN redlist http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22735250/0

Morrison, K. W.; Battley, P. F.; Sagar, P. M. & Thompson, D. R. (2015) Population dynamics of eastern rockhopper penguins on Campbell Island in relation to sea surface temperature 1942-2012: current warming hiatus pauses a long-term decline. Polar Biol 38:163-177.

Sagar, P. M., Murdoch, R., Sagar, M. W., & Thompson, D. R. 2005. Rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome filholi) foraging at Antipodes Islands. Notornis, 52(2), 75-80.

Taylor, G.A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Tennyson, A. J. D. (1994). An eastern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome filholi) at the Chatham Islands. Notornis, 41(sup), 38-38.

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Erect-crested Penguin (Eudyptes sclateri)

IUCN Endangered

NZ threat classification At Risk -Declining.

Erect-crested penguin pair, Bounty Islands. Photo: Hadoram Shirihai

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Background This endemic penguin is one of four crested penguins that breed in New Zealand; it now breeds only on the Antipodes and Bounty Islands. Previously a few pairs bred on Campbell Island Disappointment Island (Auckland Islands) and a pair attempted to breed on the South Island mainland at Otago Peninsula. It can occasionally be found moulting on the east coast of the South Island. These penguins only come to land to breed and moult and have a bizarre breeding system with a very large second egg which is 80% larger than the first egg, although this has been little studied. On the Antipodes Islands, eastern rockhopper penguins breed on the margins of the erect- crested colonies. The winter distribution at sea is largely unknown.

This is the least studied penguin in New Zealand.

Population 115,000 pairs were estimated on the Bounty Island in 1978. A subsequent estimate in 1997 suggested there were just 27,956 pairs, however there are problems with direct comparisons due to different base maps for estimating suitable nesting habitat (Taylor, 2000). On the Antipodes the population in 1978 was thought to be the similar to the Bounty Islands, but surveys in 1995 indicated a population of 52,081 nests (=pairs) (Hiscock and Chilvers, 2014). Comparison of photos taken of sites show an obvious contraction in colony area at some sites. A further survey of the Antipodes Islands in 2011 counted 34,226 nests and established baseline methods for future counts. These numbers suggest a 23% decrease between 1995 and 2012, although combining the erect-crested and rockhopper penguin counts Hiscock and Chilvers suggest there has been a combined decrease in both populations on the Antipodes by 74% since 1978. In 2014, Hiscock and Chilvers (in press) returned to the Antipodes to investigate the impact of landslides caused by a major storm event in January of that year. They found that there had been a further 10.1-11.7% decrease since 2011, in erect-crested penguin nests, although this appears to be more of a reflection of the on-going decline than the impact from the landslides. However Hiscock and Chilvers suggest that the direct impacts on chicks present in the colony when landslides occurred will not be felt for more than six years when that cohort would be expected to start breeding and is likely to have a significant long-term impact on the population.

Threats  Climate disruption including storm induced landslides  Oil and gas development, oil spills  Potentially indirect effects from fisheries.

There are no mammalian predators on the Bounty Islands and mice should be eradicated from the Antipodes this winter. Feral cats, sheep and cattle and Norway rats, have all been eradicated (or died out) on Campbell Island, but the erect-crested penguin disappeared as a breeding species over the previous half century, and has not returned. Changes in ocean temperatures which affected the eastern rockhopper penguin may also have contributed to population declines in this species. Previous landslides are evident on Antipodes Island, and the extent which these may have contributed to the decline in penguins is unknown. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. There is no evidence that any birds are caught in fisheries, however indirect impacts have not been investigated. Oil spills near their colonies would be potentially disastrous.

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Conservation Actions Conservation work around erect-crested penguins requires further information on the threats facing them. There is very little information on the biology of this bird, population dynamics and distribution at sea. It appears likely that declines due to changes in the marine environment that affected rockhopper penguins may also have affected erect-crested penguins but further research is required.

Priority research and monitoring needs 1. Regular monitoring of populations on both island groups is required to determine on-going population trend. 2. Surveys of other subantarctic islands are needed to check if erect-crested penguins return or are still nesting there – Disappointment, Campbell and Auckland Island. (mid-October – mid- November) 3. A wide range of research questions remain including diet, distribution at sea, breeding biology and population dynamics as well as potential for fisheries impacts. We need to know more about what factors are driving their decline.

Birds New Zealand might be able to contribute towards some research and monitoring efforts.

References

Hiscock, J. 2013. Monitoring penguins in the Antipodes Island group, methods and baseline data. DOC technical series 37.

Taylor, G.A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A, Threatened seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional publication 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

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Snares crested penguin (Eudyptes robustus)

IUNC Status: VU

NZ Threat Classification: Naturally Uncommon

Background. One of four crested penguins that breed in New Zealand; it has the most restricted breeding range of all species of crested penguins. It is endemic to the 300ha Snares Island group, with moulting birds occasionally found at the Chatham Islands and on the New Zealand mainland. During breeding foraging is focused on the area between the Snares Islands and Stewart Island to the north (Mattern, 2012). The group may harbour a cryptic species as the small population on the Western Chain islets breeds 6 weeks later the main population. (Miskelly, 2013).

Population. Around 31,000 pairs breed on North East and Broughton Islands, and a few hundred on Toru and Rima Islets in the Western Chain (Miskelly, 2013). The population is recorded as apparently stable based on repeat counts between 1986, 2001, 2009 and 2012 (Hiscock &Chilvers, 2016). There have been no significant changes in their diet since 1880 suggesting stable prey availability and hence stable population (Mattern et al. 2009) especially compared with other crested penguins.

Threats. On Land:

 Biosecurity breach and invasion by predators such as rats.  Climate disruption. Potential storm damage to breeding habitat from increasing strength and frequency of storms

The islands where they breed are predator-free however biosecurity is always a concern for these remote and precious islands, particularly at risk from fishing vessels anchored nearby.

At Sea:

 Changes in the marine environment from climate disruption  Potential for fisheries interactions from trawling e.g. barracouta trawl on the Snares shelf where the birds forage.  Potential for indirect effects of fisheries  Oil and gas development/oil spills

Conservation Actions: Unlike all the other subantarctic Islands in NZ there is no marine protection around the Snares Islands that limits human activity. Fishing vessels anchoring close to the islands also present a risk from a biosecurity point of view.

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Future Initiatives: 1. Prevent oil drilling around the Snares Islands and on the great South Basin. 2. Advocate for marine protection around the Snares Islands to protect major foraging habitat during the breeding season and potentially reduce biosecurity risk from fishing vessels.

Priority Research and Monitoring needs: 3. Repeat counts of Snares penguins every 5-10 years. 4. Ensure adequate biosecurity measures and contingency plans are in place to ensure no new animal pests reach these islands (work with DOC Southland) 5. Biosecurity monitoring for invasive mammals every 5 years.

Birds New Zealand might be able to contribute towards some research and monitoring efforts.

References.

Hiscock, J.A. & Chilvers, B.L., 2016. Snares crested penguins Eudyptes robustus population estimates 2000 – 2013. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(1), pp.1–6. Available at:.

Lamey, T. C. (1990). Snares crested penguin in the Falkland Islands. Notornis, 37(1), 78-78.

Mattern, T., Houston, D. M. Lalas, C. Setiawan, A. N. and Davis, L. S.2009. Diet composition, continuity in prey availability and marine habitat: keystones to population stability in the Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus). Emu 109:204–13.

Mattern, T. 2012. Snares penguin Eudyptes robustus. In: García Borboroglu, P. G. and Boersma P. D. (eds), Biology and conservation of the world’s penguins, University of Washington Press, Seattle U.S.A.

Miskelly, C. M., & Bell, M. (2004). An unusual influx of Snares crested penguins (Eudyptes robustus) on the Chatham Islands, with a review of other crested penguin records from the islands. Notornis, 51(4), 235-237.

Miskelly, C. M., Crossland, A. C., Sagar, P. M., Saville, I., Tennyson, A. J. D., & Bell, E. A.. (2013). Vagrant and extra-limital bird records accepted by the OSNZ Records Appraisal Committee 2011-2012. Notornis, 60(4), 296-306.

Miskelly, C.M. 2013. Snares crested penguin. In Miskelly, C.M. (ed.) New Zealand Birds Online http://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/snares-crested-penguin

Morrison, K. W., & Sagar, P. M. (2014). First record of interbreeding between a Snares crested (Eudyptes robustus) and erect-crested penguin (I). Notornis, 61(2), 109-112.

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Conclusions and recommendations

Table 1 below summarises the key factors influencing penguin populations in New Zealand.

Predators on both the mainland of New Zealand (stoats, ferrets, feral cats and dogs) and on major islands – Stewart Island and Auckland Island continue to affect four out of six species of penguins. At least three possibly four penguins are directly affected by fisheries interactions although the extent of the impacts is unknown while there is strong evidence that yellow-eyed penguin habitat is affected by fisheries, and competition may be occurring for food as well.

Human induced impacts such as uncontrolled tourism, encroachment into habitat and pollution directly affect three species and could potentially affect the other three. There is already some evidence of climate change impacts altering food availability and also contributing to storm events that cause large scale deaths. Extreme weather events are likely to intensify, therefore adding urgency to the need to reduce other stressors that we can more easily control.

Many organisations are involved in penguin conservation but there is a need for conservation measures to be coordinated and integrated such is through the establishment of a Penguin Recovery Group. This would be a multi-species recovery group much like the multi-species Kiwi Recovery Group that is a DOC and conservation community partnership.

Detailed recommendations are outlined in Appendix 1.

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Species Population Predation Fisheries Fisheries Human Disease Climate Taxa Cons Trends Direct Indirect Interference/ change status Status habitat quality/ IUCN pollution including NZ plastics YEPs Major decline Auckland Islands Set nets, Competition Tourism e.g. Katiki Point, Adults and Food X EN on mainland. (pigs, mice, cats), trawling? for food, heat stress chicks availability VU (review?) Subantarctic? Stewart Island biogenic pollution? especially (cats, rats), habitat loss Oil pollution risk Mainland (stoats, from trawling Dogs? ferrets, rats, cats, dogs?)

Tawaki Probable Mainland (stoats, Set nets, ? Tourism e.g. Munro’s ?unknown Food X VU decline? cats) & trawling? Beach availability? EN Stewart Island Oil pollution risk (cats, rats) Little p Probable Mainland (stoats, Set nets, drag ? Human ?possibly Increasing NZ & LC decline? cats, dogs) nets, other? encroachment/coastal frequency of Australian At risk - development; dogs & cars storm events declining Oil pollution risk Dogs plastics

Rock- NZ decline Auckland Islands ? Southern Biosecurity risk ? possibly Warming Southern & VU hopper Macquarie? (pigs and cats?) blue whiting Oil pollution risk and cooling Eastern Nationally fishery? impact on separated? Critical food Climate storm induced landslides (Antipodes) Erect - Decline X ? ? Biosecurity risk ? Climate X EN crested Oil pollution risk storm At risk - induced declining landslides (Antipodes) Snares Stable X Trawl Snares ? Biosecurity risk ? ? unknown X VU crested shelf ? Oil pollution risk At Risk - Naturally Uncommon Table 1. Factors influencing penguin populations in New Zealand. X = unlikely. ? unknown/not investigated.

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Appendix 1. Priority Conservation Projects for Penguins

For all penguins:

Establish a penguin coordinator/marine IBA position in F&B to manage and implement penguin projects including being part of the proposed Penguin Recovery Group and liaise with the penguin conservation and research community.

Cooperate with Birds New Zealand in respect of specific biological research and population monitoring activities.

YEPs

1. Support for increased first aid and intensive rehabilitation by: a. Provide for a full-time vet and vet nurse and adequate resourcing for a wildlife hospital in Dunedin to support rehabilitation centres at Katiki and Penguin Place and elsewhere. b. Providing for a full-time residential ranger position at Katiki Point and scientist (2 positions total) and funding resources 2. Support research on diet and indirect effects of fishing on YEP habitat and climate induced changes to the marine environment (Mel Young, PhD project) 3. Investigate the potential to develop vaccines for chick diseases – work with Sarah Saunderson and through BirdLife in Cambridge to enhance links with researchers in the UK on this. 4. Work with DOC Southland and Birds New Zealand to support and enhance the subantarctic YEP monitoring programme and nest site counts for population trend and monitoring for the Stewart Island population at representative sites 5. Increased predator control, nest protection from solar radiation at key YEP sites on the South Island mainland. Could focus support for F&B sites such as Te Rere, but should also investigate increased monitoring of nesting success. 6. Work with Penguin Rescue and Ngai Tahu to find a solution to the issue of unregulated tourism. There is the potential for a successful tourism venture here where visitors could be controlled to prevent detrimental impacts to penguins while gaining a high quality visitor experience. (advocacy through F&B) 7. Review NZ Threat Classification – currently different in NZ to IUCN 8. Advocate for large MPAs around Otago Peninsula and the Catlins through the SE Otago MPA Forum process initially and once publicly notified nationally and internationally. 9. Require increased observer coverage and potentially EM monitoring on 100% of set net vessels throughout YEP foraging range.

Tawaki

1. Develop an agreed survey methodology to monitor the distribution and number of Tawaki colonies (presence/absence) across their range and select some key (largest numbers) accessible sites to be monitored more intensively for nest numbers to determine population trend.

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2. Support DOC’s aerial 1080 predator control in Fiordland but prioritising coastal sites for Tawaki, such as through the Battle for the Birds project to control stoats at key breeding sites (IBAs). (Core DOC work but is additional funds needed for DOC?) 3. Support a study (student?) investigating the differences in breeding success between predator managed populations (stoats) and non-predator managed populations. 4. Support key work by Thomas Mattern et al on foraging and breeding success at 3 key study sites 5. Investigate the issue of weka predation at Open Bay Islands and Solander Island- is this a problem? 6. Encourage DOC and others to prioritise and support better management of tourism and people and dogs especially to sites such as Munro Beach and Jackson Head and investigate reserve status or seasonally limiting public access.

Little Penguin

1. Conduct a full National survey and mapping of little penguin colonies jointly with Birds New Zealand and others stakeholders. 2. Establish a project to monitor the causes of death of little penguins through collection of beach wrecks for necropsy working with Birds New Zealand beach patrol scheme and university researchers. 3. The number of sites around New Zealand where little penguins are managed could be increased. This would include predator control and regulation of dogs; provision of nest boxes, local set net bans around penguin colonies and protection from development. Use ‘Places for Penguins’ as a model for F&B branches but also work collaboratively with Oamaru Blue Penguin Trust, West Coast Penguin Group and others to develop a template. Oversight of this project would be through the penguin position based in F&B. 4. Support the taxonomic revision of New Zealand and Australian little penguins and review of their conservation status 5. F&B to advocate for set net closures around penguin colonies especially once a national colony and population survey is complete.

Easter Rockhopper Penguin

1. Removal of cats and pigs from Auckland Islands

2. Support studies of this penguin:

i. population dynamics, diet and distribution at sea and

ii. potential competition with the Southern Blue Whiting fishery

3. Taxonomic review

4. Climate change – use this penguin especially as a poster penguin for climate change in NZ. 5. Advocate to BirdLife Australia around supporting regular monitoring of the population trend on Macquarie Island.

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6. Support on-going regular monitoring of rock hopper penguin on Campbell Island (5-yearly photo count method and Antipodes Islands (DOC nest count methodology) Should be core funded through DOC?

Erect-crested Penguin

1. Continue baseline 5 yearly surveys of Bounty and Antipodes Islands to monitor populations. Core funded through DOC? 2. Surveys of other subantarctic islands are needed to check if erect-crested penguins are still nesting there or have returned – Disappointment, Campbell and Auckland Island. (mid- October – mid-November) 3. Basic research questions – diet, distribution at sea, breeding biology and population dynamics. Possible PhD projects. 4. Advocate against oil drilling near Antipodes and Bounties islands.

Snares Crested Penguin

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Appendix 2. IBAs for Penguins in New Zealand

Yellow-eyed Penguins

There are 18 land sites identified as IBAs which are triggered by YEPs and 7 seaward extensions. These are:

NZ060 Banks Peninsula

NZ083 Moeraki Katiki Point; NZ M011 North Otago

NA084 Aramoana Otago Harbour

NZ086 Otago Peninsula; NZ M012 Dunedin Coast

NZ096 Catlins; NZ M013 South Otago

NZ M014 Southern South Island

NZ113 Raratoka Centre Island, Foveaux Strait

NZ114 Ruapuke; NZ M015 Rakiura

NZ117 Whenua Hou Codfish Island

NZ118 Northern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ119 North Coast Rakiura

NZ120 Paterson Inlet The Neck, Rakiura

NZ121 Port Adventure, Rakiura

NZ122 Port Pegasus, Rakiura

NZ123 Southern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ137 Enderby Group, Auckland Islands NZ Subantarctic

NZ138 Main Auckland Island; NZ M018 and M019 Auckland Islands

NZ140 Adams Island

NZ141 Campbell Islands; NZ M20 and M21 Campbell Islands

Tawaki

There are 24 land sites identified as IBAs which are triggered by Tawaki and three seaward extensions. These are:

NZ073 Heretaniwha Point Waterfall Creek, West Coast

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NZ074 Whakapohai, West Coast

NZ075 Open Bay Islands, West Coast

NZ076 Jackson Head, West Coast

NZ077 Cascade, West Coast

NZ078 Hope River, West Coast

NZ079 Awarua Point, West Coast

NZ080 Martins Bay, Fiordland West Coast

NZ081 Yates Point, Fiordland West Coast

NZ096 Catlins, Otago Southland

NZ106 Milford Sound Piopiotahi, Fiordland

NZ107 George Sound, Fiordland

NZ108 Charles Sound, Fiordland

NZ109 Doubtful Sound, Fiordland

NZ 110 Breaksea Sound, Fiordland

NZ111 Dusky Sound, Wet Jacket Arm

NZ112 Chalky and Preservation Inlets, Fiordland

NZ116 Solander Islands, Foveaux

NZ117 Whenua Hou, Codfish Island, Rakiura

NZ118 Northern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

NZ119 North Coast Rakiura

NZ121 Port Adventure, Rakiura

NZ122 Port Pegasus, Rakiura

NZ123 Southern Titi Muttonbird Islands, Rakiura

And three seaward extensions.

M014 Southern South Island

M015 Rakiura

M016 Fiordland-West Coast South Island (South)

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Eastern Rockhopper Penguin.

There are 4 land IBAs triggered by Eastern rockhopper penguins they are:

NZ134 Antipodes Islands

NZ138 Main Auckland Island

NZ140 Adams Island, NZ Subantarctic

NZ141 Campbell Islands

And 5 seaward extensions:

M018 Auckland Islands

M019 Auckland Islands

M20 Campbell Islands

M21 Campbell Islands

M22 Antipodes

Snares Crested Penguin

The Snares Islands trigger 2 IBAs for Snares penguin:

NZ135 Snares (eastern islands)

NZ136 Western Chain - Snares Islands

And a seaward extension:

M017 Snares

Erect-crested Penguins.

There are three land IBAs triggered for Erect Crested Penguins

NZ133 Bounty Islands, NZ Subantarctic

NZ134 Antipodes Islands

NZ141 Campbell Islands

And three seaward extensions:

NZM22 Antipodes

NZM23 Bounty Islands

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NZM24 Bounty Islands

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