THE FOUR ASSEMBLIES AND THERAVA.DA

Prof. Analayo

Introduction disciples is what distinguishes a Buddhist In this paper I examine two significant tradition from a tradition that is not Buddhist. developments in the tradition According to the Lakkha1Ja-sutta, also from the viewpoint of the canonical founq in the Digha-nikaya, the wheel-marks teaching that the four assemblies- , · on the soles of the Buddha's feet foretold bhikkhunis, male lay disciples, and female hjs destiny of being s�rr01.;mded by these lay disciples- are the necessary foundation four assemblies. (DN III 148). This makes for the Buddha's teaching to thrive. ThesP possession of four assemblies an integral, in two developments are the revival of lay fact indispensable, aspect of the Buddha's meditation and the revival of vhikkhuni ministry. A discourse in the AJJguttara­ ordination. nikaya highlights the rather unfortunate The Four Assemblies condition of being reborn in a "border

According to the Mahaparinibbiina-sutta country", which is a country where the four of the Digha-nikiiya, the Buddha proclaimed assemblies of Buddhist disciples cannot be that he would not pass away until he had found (AN IV 226). established members of each of the four The Mahiivacchagotta-sutta of the Majjhima assemblies in being "wise, well-trained, and -nikiiya reports that, on hearing that each of self-confident", vyattii vinztii visiiradii (DN 11 these four assemblies of Buddhist disciples 104). 1 This passage makes it unmistakably had reached various levels of awakening, the lt clear that an essential foundation for the wanderer Vacchagotta decided to join the Buddha's mission of teaching the ranks of the Buddhist monastic order (MN was that bhikkhus as well as bhikkhunzs, and I 491). This stands in contrast to numerous male as well as female lay disciples, are wise other occasions when he approached and well-trained, and that they are also self­ the Buddha or his disciples with various . confident. questions, without the resulting discussion The four assemblies come up again in inspiring him sufficiently to want to go the Piisadika-sutta of the same Digha-nikiiya, forth as a Buddhist monk2. The message which sets the Buddha's possession of four that emerges on comparing these passages assemblies of such wise and self-confident to the Mahiivacchagotta-sutta is that even disciples in contrast to other teaching detailed replies to his questions could not traditions under the leadership of someone achieve what was eventually accomplished who is not a fully awakened Buddha (DN through the inspiring example set by the Ill 125). In other words, having these four accomplishments attained by each of the assemblies of wise and self-confident four assemblies.

Prof. Analayo, Professor, Department of , University of Humburg, Humburg, .

The Maha Bodhi 1113 In sum, there can be little doubt that the The same Etadagga-vagga of the Pali discourses consider the four assemblies Anguttara-nikiiya also presents the female to be of fundamental importance for the lay disciples Uttarii and Sii.miivatfas foremost thriving of the Buddha's dispensation, the in meditation or in the practice of loving siisana. Their coming into being is seen as an kindness, metta (AN I 26). An example integral aspect of the Buddha's mission and for a male lay disciple accomplished in forms a distinctive mark of the is Pessa in the Kandaraka-suttaI tradition. This in turnimplies that any living who in front of the Buddha describes Buddhist tradition that orients itself on the his practice of the four establishments of , satipafthiina (MN I 340). Other values enshrined in the Pali canon needs lay practitioners proficient in satipatfhiina to ensure that these four assemblies are in are Siriva<;i<;iha and Manad!nna, mentioned existence, and that each of these assemblies · in the Sarttyutta-nikiiya (SN V .177f). The has the opportunity to develop wisdom, to Citta even confutes the leader train themselves well, and in this way to of the Jains by proclaiming his expertise in become self-confident. attaining the four absorptions, jhana (SN Central for the development of wisdom IV 298). This discourse shows him to have and a way of training oneself in such a indeed become wise and self-confident, to way as to become self-confident would the extent of successfully confronting the of course be the practice of meditation. leader of the Jains in a debate situation. The canonical sources in fact repeatedly Lay Meditation refer to accomplished meditators not only In later Theraviida tradition, the among bhikkhus, but also among bhikkhunls involvement of lay disciples in mindfulness as well as Jay disciples. The Etadagga­ practice or the cultivation of absorption vagga of the Anguttara-nikiiya presents appears to have gradually diminished in various named bhikkhunis as foremost in favour of a stronger emphasis on ritual meditation, as well as in the attainments activities and the practice of supporting that result from meditation, such as the the monastic community through offerings quick gaining of direct knowledge, the and services. The revival of large scale lay divine eye, recollection of past lives, and meditation practice during the twentieth supernormal powers (AN I 25). Needless century, in particular the cultivation of to say, the fact that, for example, bhikkhuni insight, vipassanii, appears to have been in Uppalavm:z�Jii is foremost in supernormal considerable part inspired by the activities powers implies that other bhikkhunis also of the Ledi Sayiidaw in Myanmar.3 In had such abilities, albeit not to the high particular the approach to the cultivation of degree to which these had been mastered vipassanii taught by the Mahiisi Sayiidaw has by Uppalava�JIJii . There can be little doubt spread far and wide, becoming a formative that the ancient bhikkhunfs were reckoned to influence in the revival of lay meditation in have been highly accomplished meditators. the Theraviida tradition.

TheMaha Bodhi 1114 The vipassana teachings by the Mahiisi in spite of initial resistance by traditional did not meet with undivided bhikkhus, has been successful and resulted approval from the outset. Some traditional in a range of beneficial effects. Although bhikkhus in were concerned that not all of the modem applications of the method he taught did not conform mindfulness conform to the set of values to the canonical scriptures. For them this that inform traditional Buddhist practice, raised doubts about the potential of this there can be no doubt about the overall style of meditation to lead to genuine forms positive repercussions of thi� development. . of realization.4 In spite of such criticism, Equipped with the possibility to cultivate however, the insight meditation as taught meditative insight,. lay disciples of the by the Mahasi Sayadaw continued to spread Theravada tradition are nowadays able to throughout Asia, including Sri Lanka itsc!f, cultivate wisdom and self-confidence in a andeventually also reached the West. In the manner that would not have been possible United States the Insight Meditation Society in the past, when they had little or even no in Massachusetts, originally founded in access to meditation instructions. 1975 by , Joseph Goldstein, The Loss of bhikkhunf Ordination and Jack Komfield, has bten continually In addition to the loss of regular lay courses and instructions in the meditation practice, in the course of history cultivation of liberating insight and has the Theravada tradition also lost its bhikkhunf become a central force in the spread of ordination . Introduced during vipassaniimeditation in the West. the reign of king Asoka to Sri Lanka by Among the many thousands of Sanghamitta and a group of bhikkhunfsfrom practitioners who have attended a , at some point in the early eleventh retreat at the Insight Meditation Society century the bhikkhuni order appears to in Massachusetts was Jon Kabat-Zinn. have come to an end. This seems to have Experiencing for himself the benefits of happened during a time of warfare and mindfulness practice led him to the intuition inner turmoil that had forced many of the to promote its use in a hospital setting. bhikkhus to leave the country. According to Starting at the Stress Reduction Clinic at our present state of knowledge, at that time the University of Massachusetts Medical the order of bhikkhunfs in India had already School, this intuition became the starting become extinct and no living bhikkhunz point for the well-known Mindfulness­ tradition appears to have been in existence Based Stress Reduction.5 By now, interest in other Theravada countries7• in and practice of mindfulness has spread Before its eventual demise, in the early from its clinical use to a range of other fifth century the bhikkhunz ordination areas in secular society and is slowly about lineage had been transmitted from Sri Lanka to become an integral part of daily life for to China (T L 939c). In the eighth century, many US citizens.6 however, the Chinese emperor apparently Inthis way the revival of lay meditation, imposed the use of the Dharmaguptaka

TheMaha Bodhi IllS on all monastics in his realm (T L travel on public transport, but are expected 11 In 793c) . The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya is the to pay for such services themselves. legal code of one of the different Buddhist contrastshould bhikkhus accordingto the Vinaya 12 traditions that developed after the Buddha's regulationsnot possess handle or money. demise, similar in this respect to the Comparable nun traditions in Myanmar Theravada tradition and its legal code, the are the thila shins and in Sri Lanka the dasasil Pali Vinaya. The respective Vinaya texts, in miitas.n In spite of some local differences, spite of considerable similarities, show these share. with the mae chis the basic several differences. For one, the overall problem of being situated in an ambiv�lent number of rules for bhikkhun"is differs.8 In position between laity and monastics. There addition, the ritual procedure as well as the can be little doubt that lack of recognition markers required to establish the boundary of their monastic status continues to be a for the location to be used for ordination problem. This in turnmakes it rather difficult also differ.9 From a strictly legal point, even for them to live up to the expectation voiced though the ordination lineage received in the Mahtiparinibbiina-sutta as cited earlier. by the Chinese in the fifth century was The Revival of bhikkhuni Ordination Theravada, since about the eighth cenh1ry it has become a different lineage, basing its Attempts to revive the bhikkhunz legal procedures on a different legal code. ordination lineage have a long history, with two relatively recent attempts taking The Eight or Ten Precept Nuns place in 1988 at Los Angeles and 1996 at Lacking an order of bhikkhunis, the . These attempts involved receiving wish of women in Theravada countries ordination from Chinese bhik�u1Ji5 or to live a celibate life under the guidance Korean bhik�us and therefore in the Vinaya of the teachings of the Buddha has found lineage of the Dharmaguptaka tradition. its expression in the form of taking eight An emblematic expression of the problem or ten precepts. The tradition with the of gaining general recognition in the case of longest history in this respect appears to both these ordinations is the circumstance be the mae chis in : who shave off that the candidates were asked to put on their hair and wear white, a colour that in Dharmaguptaka-style robes, which are traditional Theravada countries is worn usually grey-coloured and involve the by laity on religious observance days and wearing of a sort of trousers. Whereas never worn by bhikkhus.10 The dress in a it is natural for Chinese and Korean way signals the ambiguous position of mae bhik�us and bhik�u7J.is to expect candidates chis in between laity and monastics, evident for higher ordination to wear such robes, also in other respects. The ordination of in the eyes of traditional Theravadins this mae chis is considered a secular event and is easily perceived as an act of conversion they continue to use their lay name after to the . In fact participants of the ordination. Unlike bhikkhus, mae chis do 1988 and 1996 ordinations have at times not receive free medical treatment or free been maligned for "putting on trousers",

The Maha Bodhi 11 16 something that in the �eravada tradition is ordination on seen as incompatible with monastic status. through acceptance of eight "principles to Another problem is the administration be respected", garudhamma (Vin II255). The of the bodhisattoa precepts that usually sixth of these eight principles stipulates that forms the last step in a higher ordination the ordination of a female candidate is to be given by Dharmaguptaka monastics. Even given by both orders, that is, by bhikkhus though the bodhisatta path is recognized in and bhikkhunis. Theravada Buddhism as a viable option, Next Mahapajapati Got�uni asked how those ordained in 1988 and 1996 have to proceed in relation to her followers, who been considered as having now become also wished to be ordained. At this pomt adherents of the Mahayana, instead of in the history provided in the Pall Vinaya, being recognized as Theravada bhikkhunis. only Mahapajapati Gotami had become a These negative repercussions would bhikkhunl. This made it impossible for her have informed preparations for another to form an order of bhikkhunis that could ordination held in 1998 in Bodhgaya with collaborate with an order of bhikkhus, as the collaboration of Chinese bhiktjUJ:!IS, sfipulated in the sixth garudhamma. In at which the candidates were allowed reply to her query on how to proceed in to dress in traditional Theravada robes this situation, the Buddha is on record for and the ordination ceremony was done authorizing the giving of ordination to in cooperation with Theravada bhikkhus. female candidates by bhikkhus on their own, The Theravada candidates also made a that is, without the collaboration of an order point of not participating in the taking of bhikkhunis (Vin II 257). of bodhisattoa precepts, but only took The Vinaya continues with two more part in the procedures that were strictly regulations that were promulgated after an concerned with ordination. 14 In addition, order of bhikkhunis had come into existence. the Sri Lankan participantsin the Bodhgaya The first regulation originates in relation to ordination subsequently received another a set of questions of a somewhat personal ordination administered only by Theravada and intimate nature that a candidate is bhikkhus. Thisis of considerable importance to be asked in order to ascertain if she is for the claim to legal validity of the 1998 eligible for ordination. In order to avoid ordinations. embarrassment when having to reply to Theravada Legal Requirements such questions in the presence of bhikkhus, Evaluating how the ordination conferred according to this regulation the female in 1998 could satisfy legal requirements candidate should be asked such questions bhikkhunis according to Theravada standards requires by only (Vin II 271). After having gone through the questioning and other a brief excursion into the evolution of bhikkhuni ordination reported in the aspects of the ordination ceremony by an Cullavagga of the Pali Vinaya. This evolution order of bhikkhunis, the candidate should begins with the Buddha conferring then approach an order of bhikkhus to

The Maha Bodhi 1117 complete the ordination. This conclusion overlooks the fact that the authorization for bhikkhus to give Another regulation concerns a situation ordination on their own was given in a when the candidate cannot approach an different situation, compared to the later order of bhikkhus to complete the ordination regulations. According to its narrative because of some impending danger that context, the authorization was given makes it risky to travel. Insuch a situation, a precisely in order to enable bhikkhunf messenger can act on behalf of the candidate ordination in a situation where an order of and in this way the ordination in front of bhikkhuni.s is not in existence. In contrast, the order of bhikkhus can be completed (Vin the subsequent rules are meant to deal with II 277). a situation where an order 0� bhikkhunis When evaluating these four different is in existence. In such a·setting, the order regulations it needs to be kept in mind of bhikkhunis should first perform their that, according to a basic legal principle, part, including the posing of the various the last rule on a particular issue is the one questions regarding the suitability of the that is valid and which needs to be taken candidate, and afterwards the order of into account. It is not possible for different bhikkhus will perform their part. If it is not rules on the same issue to be in existence possible for the candidate to approach the simultaneously, as one would be at a loss as order of bhikkhus, a messenger can act on to which rule to follow. A simple illustrat;on behalf of the candidate. These two rules is the setting of a speed limit for a particular refer to a situation in which an order of road. Even if at a time in the past a faster bhikkhunis is in existence and is able to take speed limit was in existence, when driving its part in an ordination procedure. The on this road now one needs to take into authorization for bhikkhus to ordain on their account the current speed limit. If one is own, in contrast, refers to a situation where stopped by the police for speeding, it is not an order of bhikkhunis is not inexistence. possible to get away by arguing that one These two basically different situations had decided to follow the previous speed could be compared to speed limits set up limit. This has been rendered invalid by the for different roads. It does not matter if the current one, which is the one to be observed. speed limit for another road has been set This basic legal principle has been up more recently than the speed limit for applied to the history of bhikkhuni ordination the road on which one intends to drive. in the Pali Vinaya, leading to the conclusion However recent it may be, it still refers to that, since the Buddha's authorization of a different road. For the road on which giving ordination to female candidates one intends to drive, only the speed limit by bhikkhus only has been followed by set up for this road is relevant. In the same subsequent regulations, it is no longer valid. way, close inspection of the Pali Vinaya On this interpretation, once an order of shows that it does allow for a revival of bhikkhunis has become extinct, the bhikkhus bhikkhuni ordination by bhikkhus alone, as on their own are unable to revive it.15 the permission given by the Buddha has not The Maha Bodhi 1118 been rendered invalid by other regulations no bhikkhuni order capable of conferring that regulate a fundamentally different ordination is in existence. For exactly situation.16 this situation the Buddha is on record for having given the authorization that bhikkhus Successful Revival can confer ordination on their own. From The Bodhgaya ordination held in 1998 this perspective, then, the first ordination has met with considerably more success conferred by the Chinese bhik�u1J.iS will be than its predecessors. In addition to the of no legal consequence, �ut the second careful design of the ordination procedure ordination given by Theravada bhikkhus in order to make it appear as Theravada ensures that the candidates nevertheless did as possible, its legal appeal rests on the receive a legally valid ordination according combination of two ordination procedures. · to Theravada standards. One is the ordination conferred by the Chinese bhik�u1J.IS. For those who see it The solution reached through the as valid to reconnect in this way to what combination of two ordinations adopted in after all is an ordination lineage that sterns 1998, as well as the fact that the candidates from Sri Lanka, the first ordination can be at the Bodhgaya ordination were allowed to considered acceptable. The subsequent wear Theravada robes, etc., seem to be chief ordination given by Theravada bhikkhus factors for the present success of the revival on their own then assumes the character of the bhikkhunf order. This has by now been of a procedure known in the Theravada well established in Sri Lanka and, in spite tradition as dafhikamma, "making strong". of continued resistance by some bhikkhus, This is a formal act through which rnonastics has met with much appreciation from the ordained elsewhere can be granted laity.18 The lineage created by the Bodhgaya recognition by the monastic community of ordinations has also been successfully which they wish to be part.17 transmitted to Thailand, where the number of bhikkhunzs is steadily increasing. Whereas If ordination given by Dharrnaguptaka Myanrnar spearheaded the revival of lay bhik�urzzs is considered invalid, however, meditation in the twentieth century, in the then the situation becomes similar to revival of bhikkhunz ordination Sri Lanka that described in the Pali Vinaya, namely has taken the lead, followed by Thailand.

Conclusion The significance of the revival of lay meditation in the twentieth century has that they initially met with considerable its counterpart in the revival of bhikkhunz opposition from some bhikkhus, who were ordination that is becoming a prominent under the impression that these revivals feature of the early twenty-first century. Both do not conform to the canonical scriptures. result in improving the full participation of Such opposition has been particularly all four assemblies in modem Theravada strong in the case of the revival of bhikkhunZ: Buddhism. Both also share the circumstance ordination, where legal concerns naturally

The Maha Bodhi 11 19 have a much greater impact than in the case the Pali canon form the foundation for the of meditation practice. Nevertheless, in both Buddha's teaching. This will hopefully cases such opposition keeps diminishing, enable each of these four assemblies, be allowing each process its natural unfolding. they bhikkhus or bhikkhun'fs, male or female lay disciples, to become "wise, well-trained, In this way, these two remarkable and self-confident'' and thereby to live developments promise to result in the full up to the expectation held according to resurrection in the Theravada tradition the Mahiiparinibbana-sutf:a by the Buddha of the four assemblies that according to himself.

Notes and References urces 1. References to Pali so here and elsewhere 6. A detailed study ofthe spread of mindfulness are to the PTS edition, references to Chinese in the USA has rectlntly been published by sources are to the Taisho edition. I am Wilson, Jeff. Mindful America, The Mutual indebted to Adam Clarke and Mike Running Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and for commenting on a draft version of this re paper. American Cultu . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. 2. Cf. MN I 481, MN I 483, SN IV 391, SN IV 395, SN IV398, SN IV 400,AN I 160, as well as the 7. See Skilling, Peter. "A Note on the History of Vacchagotta-saTfzyutta, SN ill 257ff. the Bhikkhuni-scu:tgha (II): The Order of Nuns after the Parinirvfu)a". The World Fellowship 3. For a detailed study see Braun,. Erik, T11eBirth of of Buddhists Review, 1993, 30. pp.4 & 3l.l:pp. Insight, Meditation,Modem Buddhism & TheBum� 29-49. MtmkLedi Sayadaw,: University of Chicago Press,2013. 8. .Fora comparativesurvey of the differentes cod of rul forbhikkhunfs see Chatsumam. A 4. A survey of the main arguments has been es Kabilsingh, ComparativeStudy of BhikkhuniPtiJ:!i nwkkha. Delhi: provided by Bond, G.D. The Buddhist Revival Chaukhambha1984. Orientalia, in Sri Lanka, Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response, Columbia: University of South 9. See Chung, Jin-il. andKieffer-Piilz, Petra. "The Carolina Press, 1988 pp. 162-171; the actual karmavacanas for the Determination of s'ima exchange has been documented in I

The Maha Bodhi 11 20 12. Vin IU 237. Phra. The Buddhist Discipline in Relation to Bhikkhunis, Questions and Answers, Moore, R. 13. On the thila, shin e.g., Kawanami, Hiroko. (tra), 2013. http://www.buddhistteachings. see, Renunciation and Empowerment of org/the-buddhist-discipline-in-relation-to­ Buddhist Nuns in Myanmar-Burma, Building bhikkhunis, p. 58ff. a Community of Female Faithful, Leiden: Brill, 2013. On the dasasil mata see Salgado, 16. See in more detail Analayo, bhikkhu. "The Nirmala S. Buddhist Nuns and Gendered Legality of Bhikkhuru Ordination", journal of Practice, In Search of the Female Renunciant, , 2013. 20: pp. 310-333; Analayo, New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. For bhikkhu. "On the Bhikkhuru Ordination further publications see Analayo 2013 (as in Controversy", Sri Limka 'International Journal the previous note). of Buddhist Studies, 2014. 3: pp. 1-20; and Analayo, bhikkhu. . "The Cullavagga .. on 14. For an account of the 1998 ordination see bhikkhuni Ordination" (forthcoming). Li, Yuchen. "Ordination, Legitimacy and Sisterhood. The InternationalFull Ordination 17. On this option see Ki.effe.r-Piilz, Petra. Ceremony in Bodhgaya", in Innovative "Presuppositions for a Valid Ordination Br�ddlrist Women: Swimming Against the Stream, with Respect to the Restoration of the Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. (ed.), Richmond, Bhiknunl Ordination in the MUiasarvastivada Surrey, UK: Curzon, 2000, pp.168-198 Tradltio'n", in Dignity & Discipline, The Evolving Role of , Mohr, 15. This position is taken, for example, by T. and Tsedroen J. (ed.), Boston: Wisdom, bhikkhu, Thanissaro. The Buddhist Monastic 2010. pp. 217-225, see especially note 16. Code li, The Khandaka Rules Translated & Explained by �Jhanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey 18. See the report by Mrozik, Susanne. "'We DeGra/f), Revised Edition. California: Metta Love Our Nuns': Affective Dimensions of Forest Monastery, 2013. (originally published the Sri Lankan Bhikkhuru Revival", Journal of 2001), p. 449£. A more detailed exposition Buddhist Ethics, 2014. 21: pp. 57-95. of this position can be found in Payutto,

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The Maha Bodhi 11 21 ISSN: 0025 0406

THE MAHA BODHI

2559 B.E. VOL.122, MAY 2015 (25591h Buddha Jayanti Issue)

Editor-in-Chief: Sri Hemendu Bikash Chowdhury

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Maha Bodhi Society of India

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