THE RACIAL DIVISION OF GORDONIA, 1921-1930 Author(s): MARTIN LEGASSICK Reviewed work(s): Source: Kronos, No. 25, Pre-millennium issue (1998/1999), pp. 152-186 Published by: University of Western Cape Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41056432 . Accessed: 05/02/2012 17:01

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http://www.jstor.org THE RACIAL DIVISION OF GORDONIA, 1921-1930 MARTIN LEGASSICK Universityof the Western Cape

In 1921 a petitionsigned by 259 Bastermen fromGordonia was submittedto Parliament.1They asked Parliament"to restoreour previous rightsin the settlementof Gordonia" given by the Imperial governmentin "perpetual Erfpacht".A demandfor restitution of land,the petition became re-interpreted by successiveSouth African governments in line withpolicies of segregation.It catalysed,in fact,the racial division of the territory of Gordonia. In the Gordonia settlement,established in 1880, Basters had been grantedfarms along the northbank of the OrangeRiver from the Aughrabies Falls to the presentGroblershoop as well as in the interiorof the country. Subsequently,they had lost mostof thisland. Basterstold a Lands Department officialin 1921 theywere "finding it practicallyimpossible to findplaces where theycan pursuetheir calling, which is agriculturalfarming, and even whenthey do succeedin securingplaces wherethey can live,their form of tenureis very insecure...[causing] them a greatdeal of inconvenienceand financialloss."2 Moreovertheir tenancies were threatened, wrote the Rand Daily Mail, because "Europeans... more and more require theirland for theirown use."3 The petitionersblamed the loss of land on the government.Under the original regime,they claimed, land alienationwas prohibitedto personsnot registered as citizens(i.e. mainlyBasters). This was correct.4So faras theyknew, these rights had been ratifiedwhen Gordonia was annexedto BritishBechuanaland.5 But afterannexation farms were sold by public auction, including to people previouslyineligible. Because theirforefathers were even less educatedthan now,they did notpay attentionto thisviolation of theconditions. They trusted thatthe governmentwould defendthem. But havingnow seen the original documents,the petitionerswere amazed thatfarms were allowed to be sold. Even thosewho had sold theirproperty, they claimed, were surprised that they were neverwarned by officialswhen these transactions were registered.This seemedto showthat the former rules were no longerin operationdespite the fact

1. LDE 3953, 11106. (All archivaldocuments are in thePretoria archives unless otherwise indicated.) N. M. Theronand 258 others,"An den AchtbareLeden van hetParliament", Upington, Gordonia. It is dated,in typescript,"September 1919",with "May 1921" addedbelow it in writing.I am gratefulto ProfessorHenry Bredekamp for a translationof the document.It was submittedby the M.P. forPrieska and Gordonia,J.P. Coetzee (S.A.P.), who servedas M.P. before 1920 and was re-electedin February1921 to replaceJ.H. Conradie (N.P.) electedin March1920. IncidentallyConradie complainedin 1928 thathe had lostin 1921 (by 18 votesapparently) because of "Natives"building a damon theOrange riverbeing put on thevoters' roll!! (HAD, 20/3/1928,cols 2338-2359). 2. LDE 3953, 11 106, D. Liebenberg,Controller, Report, 27/5/1921 . 3. RandDaily Mail, 14/3/1923.In LDE 3953, 11 106 4. LDE 3953, 11 106. This,they claimed, was statedin Clause 6 ot the"Gordonia Settlement Deed . it is notclear wnat thisdocument was, thougha letterfrom the Private Secretary to theMinister of Lands to Coetzee,14/6/1921, states it is returningthe "Settlement of Gordonia"document. The documentis notpresent. 5. This was wheretheir error lay. FromApril 1889 theBritish Bechuanaland administration freed the market in land: see A.H.F. Duncan,Surveyor-General's report, 14/9/1889. BPP C5897, 1890,p. 31.

152 thatthere had beenno cancellationof therights by anyof thegovernments. The resultwas that"we, the originalinheritors, now have to roam aroundwithout property." Theyasked the government to recognisetheir original rights again, or, if thatwas impossible,to grantthem another settlement for agriculture and stock- farmingon the same conditions.They made thisrequest in theinterests of the colouredpeople, who, as an "in-betweenrace" ("een tusschenras") had an eye on thefuture and saw a greatdanger approaching which threatened to dropthem fromcivilisation. Because they could not compete with current white competition, theywould be forcedby poverty to degenerateback under the yoke of slavery.6 The inspirerof thispetition appears to have been NicholasTheron, an importantfigure in the CongregationalChurch. He was laterto become the supervisorof theMier settlement, established as a resultof thepetition. To have gatheredall thesesignatures from a widespreadarea at thistime was quite an achievement,probably only achievable through a church.In theGordonia district at thistime there were recorded as being856 urbanmale and 3148 ruralmale "coloureds".7The petitionwas thussigned by 6,5% of the colouredmen in Gordonia,or 8,3% of therural men in thearea. Significantly,and reflectingthe subordinateplace of womenat the time,it was not signedby any women.In 1907 therewere 138 colouredvoters and in 1909 126.8There are unlikelyto have been verymany more in 1921. The petitionwas thussigned by morethan doublethe number of voters. Of the214 signaturesstill existing with the petitition, there are some70 differentsurnames, prominent among them Beukes (14), Isaks (13), Van Rooi (12), Kotzee (11), Van Wyk(10), Feris and Cloete (9) and Jansenand Jacobs (8).9All these,save theJacobs, are namesof land-holdingfamilies of the 1880s - and othersuch names are also present.Some 32 farmsof residenceare given, withthe largest numbers of signatoriescoming from Kranskop (30), Vaalhoek (29), Hendriksputs(25), Bloemsmond(15), Vreede (15), Zovoorby(14) and Soutputs(12). Of thesefarms, significantly, Krantzkop (Mouton), Vaalhoek (van Wyk),Vreede (Visagie, Doraan, Clarke, Van Wyk),Bloemsmond (Beukes) and Zovoorby(Zwart) were still owned by Basters.10 In 1922 Basters told government officials that "there were approximately274 men who were desirousof obtainingagricultural land, and approximately200 requiringland forstock-raising".11 About half of these,in otherwords, signed the petition. The officialswere also told- in an indication of class distinctionsamong the coloureds - thatthere were "another800 men

6. LDE 3953 11 106. At thesame timeas thispetition, a morespecific letter was addressedto Coetzee from32 "coloured voters"from Keimoes, requesting that the government grant them Skanskop island in the OrangeRiver for irrigation purposes,as well as landat Rehobothin SouthWest Africa. It also requestedthat the SAP wouldsupport all motionsto abolishthe "colour line in theindustrial field". 32 Signatories,Keimoes, to J.Coetzee, M.P., 18/3/1921. I. ThirdCensus, May 1921,Part 1, Population, UG 15-1923. 8. JUS49, 25199/10.Magistrates Report, Upington, 1910. In 1907there were also 436 whitevoters and in 1909420. y. l^ljc jyjD, iiiwu. me peuuuiinas Ljy signatoriesminuieu on u ana a leuerregarding u reiersio zjy signatures: PrivateSecretary to Ministerof Lands to Coetzee,14/6/1921. 10. I am unsureof ownershipof Soutputsand Hendriksputs.In 1923 thepress reported about six Bastersas stillowning land: RandDaily Mail 14/3/1923;Cape Argus,9/3/1923. In 1930,according to an M.P., "therewas onlyone coloured ownerleft, a widowwoman, who could not sell, and shehad twolarge farms." Mr Faure,HAD, 23/1/1930,col 57. 11 . The latterowned, together, about 7000 headof large and 30,000head of smallstock.

153 who are lookedupon as labourersby them[the Basters], and forwhom it is not necessaryto make provisionfor land, eitherfor grazing or for agricultural development."12On bothBaster and white-ownedfarms, in fact,other Basters and colouredswere livingas tenants,apparently on a short-termbasis, though whatforms of payment were involved is unclear.13

Segregationand the 'coloureds' This petitionwas to evoke a quiteconsiderable response from successive South Africangovernments. It led in theend to the spatialdivision of Gordoniaalong linesof race.It resultedin theestablishment of "reserves",not for "natives" but for"coloureds". The historyof theestablishment of such"coloured reserves" in therural areas has notbeen highlighted in thehistoriography of SouthAfrica. It is unmentioned,for example, in J.S. Marais'sCape ColouredPeople (1939) and barelytouched on in GavinLewis's Betweenthe Wire and theWall (1987). The colouredreserves in Gordoniaare also unmentionedin thelast pre-1948survey of the coloureds,the Reportof theInter-departmental Committee on matters affectingColoured persons on Coloured Mission Stations, Reserves and Settlements.iAThis article is a smallcontribution towards redressing this. In 1923 the Rand Daily Mail argued,along the lines of the Baster petition,that the people of Upingtonhad a "special claim" to land. Originally grantedbecause of theirservices in "dislodging"the "Koranna and Bushmen", theland had been lost sincethe area had been annexedby theCape. "The titles of thefarms precluded alienation except to burghersof thesettlement, who were all coloured,and how theCape governmentallowed the transfer is a mystery."15 Ratherthan restore Gordonia to theBasters, however, governments conceived of thesolution in termsof theallocation in Gordoniaof 'reserves'for coloureds - ofthe racial division of the area, of segregation. Thus Denys Reitz, Ministerof Lands visitedGordonia late in 1921, "interviewedseveral deputations of the colouredtribe of 'Bastards' livingat Keimoesand in thevicinity" and told them that their request for the restitution of land was "unreasonable".16However, well beforethis, he had respondedto the petitionby writingthat "the time has come... when the Governmentmust determinewhether it will set apart land exclusively for their [bastards] occupationand cultivation."(My emphasis)17As theRand Daily Mail putit in 1923, "The Ministerof Lands is applyingon behalf of the Cape coloured communityin and aroundUpington a principleof theNatives' Land Actof 1913 - namely,that of creatingareas in whichnon-Europeans can own or occupy land."Segregation, in otherwords, was already,under the SAP government,the

12. LDE 3953, 11 106. Watermeyer et al, Report,15/1/1923. 13. See RandDaily Mail 14/3/1V2J;Lape Argus,yunvzô un ljjh wdj, i i iuo;. 14. UG 33-1947. 15. RandDaily Mail, 14/3/1923.See also Cape Argus,9/3/1923 16. Minute,Reitz(?), 15/1 1/1921 ; PS to Reitzto Coetzee,14/6/1921 ; Reitz to Administrator,South West Africa, 15/1 1/1921 (LDE 3953, 11 106). Also D. Reitz, No Outspan,pp. 46-7 fora mentionof his visitto theOrange River, with no mention ofthe Basters. 17. LDE 3953, 11106.Minute, 9/4/1921.

154 frameworkwithin which not only the "native question" but the "coloured question"was to be dealtwith.18 The Rand Daily Mail qualifiedits statementby addingthat coloureds "fall, so to speak,between two stools - thewhite man has his Land Boardand the native his reserve,but the Cape colouredman who wants to cultivatea patchof groundis assistedby nobody....the Prime Minister laid it downin his recentspeech on theNatives (Urban Areas) Bill thatthe segregation principle,however applicable to thenatives, did notfit the cases of thecoloured folk,for whom the whites have a specialresponsibility, and whomthey should carryalong with them in theirown civilisation.The Cape colouredclass, for the purpose of getting on to the land, are the worst off among the whole population."19The answer,however, was soughtin "reserves"for the coloureds - therebyin effectsegregating them, as well as strengtheningthe definition of "coloureds"as an "ethnicgroup". The "whiteman has his Land Board and thenative his reserve."In fact theexisting situation for coloureds was noteven that of a "freemarket" open to whiteand brown alike. The NativesLand Actprohibited black ownership of land overareas outsidedesignated "reserves". But brownpeople werealso hindered in theownership of land.Writing to thechairman of theOrange Free StateLand Board (responsiblefor land in the northernCape) in 1923, Reitz claimedthat "Europeansettlement was graduallyencroaching on whatfor generations have been thesphere of occupationof thenomad, and thelatter is now realisingthat therewill soon be no place forhim."20 After the First World War in particular whiteswere settlingislands in the Orange River,and governmentassisted settlementwas takingplace along the Kurumanriver near the Bechualand border.21"Permanent provision for the [coloured]community is necessary" statedanother document, "if the members are notto be graduallydispersed and ruined.The permanentand progressivesettlement by Europeansin areas which onlya decade or two ago wereconsidered uninhabitable by thewhite man has reducedthe sphere of movementof thisformerly nomadic community which is rapidlylosing the roving characteristics of thepast."22 But this"encroachment" by Europeanswas withthe assistance of thestate, in particularthrough the 1912 Land SettlementAct and theestablishment of theLand Bank. In securingland, wrotethe Cape Argus,the white man "will be askeda priceconsiderably below marketvalue, and be grantedthe easiest imaginable terms of payment,besides, probably,a cash advance to help him over his initialdifficulties."23 The OFS Land Board statedthat "as thelaw stands...there is no exclusiveright conferred

18. S. Dubow, Racial segregationand theorigins of apartheidin SouthAfrica, 39-40 wrongly,in myview, argues that it was notclear that segregation was "approved...policy" of thepre-1924 SAP government.He failsto makeany reference to Smuts'sclassic expositionof segregationin 1917: J.C. Smuts,"Problems in SouthAfrica", Journal of theAfrican Society,16, (1917). 19. RandDaily Mail 14/3/1923. 20. LDE 3953, 11 106, Reitz to Adams,9/3/1923. 21. V. vander Merwe, Pioniers van die dorsland(1941), Ch Vili ri. 22. LDE 3953, 11106, "ProposedReservation of a block of land in GordoniaDivision forthe settlementof coloured persons"(n.d., c May/June1923). 23. Lape Argus,9/3/1923; see also W.Macdonald,The Conquestof theDesert, 194-5. T. Keegan, Rural Transformations in IndustrializingSouth Africa (Johannesburg, 1986), 168-9 arguesthe Land SettlementAct was favouredby large landowners,thereby able to sell to the statewho would sell in turnto poorerwhites. Generally, researchers on rural SouthAfrica have paid littleattention to theLand Boardsor the1912 Land SettlementAct.

155 underthe Land SettlementAct 12 of 1912 in [favourof?] Europeans. No differentialtreatment is imposedby thelaw" - butit added,significantly "but inpractice there is." (My emphasis)24 In responseto a queryfrom Reitz, the Secretaryof the Land Board howeverclaimed that applications by Basters were considered: "We [theOFS Land Board]had a Section11 case - in whichtwo Bastards applied for assistance to purchasea farmnear Upington - as thepapers were not in orderwe had to refer themback. But my Board discussed the whole position re assistingBastards and we came to theunanimous conclusion that we as a Boardcould not refuse to inspect andreport and leave theacceptance or otherwiseof ourfinding in yourhands. We feltthat we wouldbe justifiedin assistingsuch people - moreespecially if they werevoters." In thiscase theLand Boardapparently deputed him to visitUpington andinterview the Baster applicants for land as soonas theirpapers were in order.25 In 1918 one C. J. Davids had raisedthe same questionwith the Land Board,claiming that "no man withBlack Blood in his vains [sic], nevermind how manyyears this may traceback, is not [sic] allowed to buy or possess a farm"on the Kurumanriver. "Furthermore any whiteman who is lawfully married[to a personwith 'Black Blood'?] is also debarred...This seems most absurdas these men are quite capable of buyingand payingfor a farmand workingthe same on a most progressiveplan. I understandthat several applicationshave been refusedfor the above reasonsand thereforeon behalfof myfriends and myselfI wishto ask if thisis thelaw of thecountry."26 He was assured by the Secretaryof Lands thatit was not the law....27however the practice,as theOFS Boardremarked, was certainlydifferent. Reitz raised with the Land Board whetherit would be possible to allocateland specificallyto colouredsunder the Land SettlementAct, since in theorythe Act did not "enable the Governmentto discriminatebetween one citizenand another,coloured or white".Therefore "To confineallotments to the colouredman would only be possible by a discriminationon the partof the Board as a policy.Government considers that some such provisionshould be made,for as thelaw stands,while Europeans and Nativesare providedfor, the 'Bastard'and theColoured man are leftin thecold."28 The Boardresponded that it had "no objectionto land being allottedto 'bastards'", but preferredthat "specialstatutory provision should be madefor the allotment of landto coloured peoplein orderto avoid adversecriticism." It arguedthat if "landin one area set apartfor bastards is gazettedunder the Land SettlementAct 1912,white people are sureto applyfor some of thefarms and it is quiteconceivable that for some farmsonly whitepeople may apply."29It preferred,in otherwords, statutory segregation.

24. LDE 3953, 11 106, Minute, OFS Land Board,23/4/1923. 25. LDE 3953, 11106,Adams to Reitz, 19/3/1923.He contrastedthe position with that in S.W.A. where"we cut out all applicationsfrom Bastards", firstly because it was feltthat they already had possessionof one of thebest areas in the territory(Rehoboth) and, secondly, because, unlike those in Gordonia,the Rehoboth Basters retained their "Captains and Headmen". 26. LDE 3953, 11 106 C.J.Davids, Ardath, Kuruman to Secretaryof Lands,29/8/191 8. 27. LDE3953, 11106,Sec ofLands to C.S.Davids, 19/9/1918;23/10/1918. 28. LDb jy^J, 11 luo, Keitzto Adams,y/j/ivzj. 29. LDE 3953,Minute, OFS Land Board,23/4/1923.

156 One PietBeukes born in 1907,recently told a storyabout 1921. "In 1921 Conroycame hereto Upingtonfor the first time... to Bloemsmond...the people came on horsebackand ox-wagonsand carts...There he gotall theBasters along theOrange River together. Then he madea proposal.He wouldgive land to them [Mier,Rietfontein, Louwbosch] if theypromised to say thatthey were coloureds andthen he wouldget them wine (at thattime they were not allowed wine)... But the Basters refused... So he called up Lucas Theron and Niklaas Theron [managementof the CongregationalChurch at the time,when therewas no preacher]and [Willem]Swartz and [Kroontjie]Scholtz and explainedhis planto themand askedthem to votefor his plan.Niklaas Theron and Lucas Therongot themost voters who sold out to himto admitthat they are coloureds...[Swartz andScholtz lost the vote.] [He madeNiklaas Theron president of the land] That is whywe are classifiedcoloured today. That is whyI am sayingthat the problems we are facedwith today are seeds whichConroy came to sow here.And those rootswent right through this Groot Rivier... When he lefthere the boere started withthis apartheid. They then refused to allow us, as Basters,to do horse-racing withthem. They refused to do targetshooting with us."30 Some factsare wrong here.Conroy was Ministerof Lands notin 1921 but underthe post- 1924 Pact government,and there is no evidencethat he visitedUpington. Reitz, however, as alreadymentioned, did visit in 1921.Niklaas Theron was responsiblefor the 1921 petition- andwas laterto administerthe 'reserve' established at Mier.The main pointof Beukes' story,however, is correct:that it was the governmentthat changed'Basters' into 'coloureds' - by offeringthem 'reserves' instead of the wholeof Gordonia. This is also theargument of this article.

Agriculturalistsand pastoralists In consideringthe allocationof 'reserves'the governmentmade a separation between"agriculturalists" and "pastoralists"."The colouredcommunity is partly agriculturaland partlypastoral. For theagricultural section - thosewho fora longperiod have ekedout a livingon theriver itself - a partialsolution may be foundin theallocation of a certainriver island area fortheir use.... But withthe pastoralsection, owning many thousands of stock,a differentsolution must be found."31After some searchingaround with different possibilities, this would resultin theallocation of Ecksteenskuilon theOrange River as an agricultural settlementand Mier in northernGordonia as a pastoralsettlement for coloured occupation.Let us look in turnat the possibilitiescanvassed for agricultural settlementand for pastoral settlement. Fromthe start,Reitz was "consideringthe possibilityof allocatingto them[the Basters] one of the CrownLand islandsin the OrangeRiver."32 Mr Liebenberg,Controller of Settlementsin theLands Department,was requestedto

30. Piet Beukes,interview by Ds. AubreyBeukes and MartinLegassick, 22/7/1993 and 19/7/1995.Insertions from 1995 interview. 3 1. LDE 3953, 11 106, Reitz to J.Adams, Chairman OFS Land Board,9/3/1923. jz. lije, JVDJ,11 luo, Mouseor Assembly,zwj/iyzi; had Debates,Vol 6.

157 visitthe area in 1921 to see whatcould be doneabout the situation.33 On 16 May he metwith Baster representatives in Keimoes,headed by WilliamDiergaard. Togetherwith them, he inspectedSkanskop island (800 morgen)and Cannon island(Blauwskop, 2000 morgen).The Bastersrejected Skanskop island because theydid notbelieve it wouldprovide grazing for their stock (goats and donkeys). While recognisingthat a colouredsettlement was needed,leading whites also objectedto Skanskopisland "because thisis situatedamong islands settled by Europeans".34The Basters were favourableto Cannon island. One Hendrik Swartz insisted,against the opinion of a governmentengineer, that it was irrigable.35Two otherleading whites argued, however, that Cannon Island was "toovaluable" to be allocatedto coloureds.36 Liebenbergleft it up to theDepartment of Lands to choosebetween the twoislands, as "thereare no otherlarge islands, which could be made available to carrynot less than 100 families". He (and the Upington magistrate) recommendedCannon island, both because it could accommodatemore families (300-350) and because it was "moreapart from the white people". Liebenberg also recommendeda "verystrict and veryclose supervision"of thesettlement, and urgedstrongly that a conditionof occupationbe "thatthey will not be allowed to transfertheir leases or theirright to the groundto any person, whosoever"(onthe grounds that they had alreadylost land in Gordonia"without theirrealisation of what theywere doing.") The Bastersundertook to build canalsthemselves, if they could procure cement and pipesfrom the government. Whilethey wanted allocations of 6 morgeneach, whites recommended 5 morgen on thegrounds that "the Bastards are notsufficiently persevering, and thatthey are too improvident,and that,if thearea be madetoo large,it is liableto lead to failure."37 In 1922 the governmentestablished a departmentalcommission to investigatethe general disposal of and the"best means of developing"the state- owned irrigableislands in the Orange River.Though it was the interestsof whitesthat were regarded as paramount,the commission was instructedto report also on thequestion of colouredpersons38. It made proposalson (a) theislands nearUpington from Vaalkoppies to Zwartkopand the government farm Kalksluit (b) theCannon islands group, which it regardedas a good irrigationsettlement forwhites (c) the Skanskop and Ram island group,which it claimed were irrigablefrom the alreadysettled Rooikop island (d) theislands at Aughrabies

33. LDE 3953, 11 106, Minute, 9/4/1921. 34. Thesewere Jan de Wetof Friersdale, Japie Lutz of "Brakpostisland , Mr Siepkerof Rooikop island, and 1obias Uerq. 35. HendrikSchwartz had been withthree other Schwartz's on Langklaasisland (in thelater Eksteenskuil settlement) since 1919. ArrieLouw, Getuienisom voor die Kommissievan Ondersoekvan KleurlingNedersettingsgebiede aan die Oranjerivierte lê. LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, See also Sergeant,SAP, to RM, Upington30/9/1920 Cape Archives(CA) (1/UPT6(3) 15/1/20/11) which claims that FJ. SchwartzSenior had beenon theisland since 1917 and his twosons Jan and FrederickJnr since 1919. HendrikSchwartz based his judgementof the irrigabilityof Cannon island on his experienceof constructingfurrows for Rooikop and BradwellIsland. CA 1/UPT6/1 19(1) forSchwartzes on Bradwell islandsee also HC Skipperet al to RM, Upington,23/6/1913; HJ Skipper to RM, Upington,23/9/1913 enclosing Flores Schwartz20/9/1913 statement; RM, Upingtonto Sec forLands 25/9/1913. 36. Thesewere Dr Borcherdsof Upington and FrankBiggs of Louisvale. 37. LDE 3953, 11 106, Report of D. Liebenberg,Controller, 27/5/1921 . 38. LDE 3953, 11 106, Private Secretary to Ministerof Lands to J.Coetzee, 6/7/1922; Cape Argus9/3/1923. See also Rand Daily Mail, (14/3/1923).

158 Falls (e) thegovernment farms Karos and Zwartkopand (f) farmsacquired "in connectionwith the extension of the Buchuberg irrigation scheme".39 The commission also made recommendationsregarding land for "Basters".40It recommendedthat "the islands in thesection of theriver between RooikopIsland and CannonIsland (thatis betweenthe farms Zovoorby on the NorthBank and Eksteenskuilon the South Bank), which are not already occupiedby Europeansshould be made availableand set aside forthese people. The riverat thispoint is approximatelythree to fourmiles wide and in that sectionthere are manyislands of varyingextent. A numberof theseare very rockyand unsuitablefor agriculturaldevelopment, but thereis also a very considerablenumber consisting entirely of arable land, the buildinglots for whichcould be surveyedon therocky islands, a largenumber of thelatter being above high flood level. The arable land could be cut up into holdings of approximatelythree morgen in extentand allottedto themin termsof [Land Settlement]Act 40 of 1895 (Cape)." It believed the arable land could be inexpensivelyirrigated, and thatno financialassistance was neededfor house- buildingor purchaseof stockor implements."This groupof islands was to become knownas the Eksteenskuilsettlement. In addition,the Commission recommendedthat the "islands on Rooipad above theAughrabies Falls" should also be allocatedto theBasters. "In selectingthese two sectionsof theRiver for thesettlement of theBastards, the Commission had in view thata centrewould be createdfrom which farm labour could be obtained."Here was the classic expressionof segregation,of 'labourreserves' providing partial subsistence for migrantlabour.41 They recommendedthese islands also on the basis of establishing"a clear line of demarcationbetween the Europeanand Coloured settlers."42 As regardsthe "pastoral reserve", the initial proposal, from J. Coetzee in parliament,was the allocationof a portionof land in the Rehobothdistrict of SouthWest Africa "for settlement purposes of colouredpeople in the North- Westerndistricts of theCape Province(usually known as Bastards)"as it was occupiedby "people fromthe same race". Reitz was favourableto this.43So, indeed,were the Basters led by NiklaasTheron, and as a resultof Reitz'svisit to Gordoniain 1921 werekeen to send a deputationto theRehoboth captain, Van

39. LDE 3953, 11106, "Recommendationsof the Commissionappointed to inspectand reportupon the OrangeRiver islands,and certainCrown Lands abuttingon theRiver" (n.d, 1923?) (a verytorn copy is in thisfile, marked 'original in file470', a filewhich could not be traced).In itsgeneral recommendations (for whites) it arguedthat irrigation facilities shouldbe providedbefore land was disposedof "otherwiseland will fallinto the hands of speculatorswho as hitherto willexploit 'poor whites' to obtaindevelopment of landat practicallyno cost". 40. The Cape Argus,9/3/1923 relates that, regarding the Basters, "They did notreport without having consulted European opinion.The whiteresidents of Prieskaand Gordoniaknow the local historyand feelthe reasonableness of assigningan area whereinthe coloured inhabitants may acquire land". 41. See H. Wolpe, "Capitalismand cheap labourpower in SouthAfrica: from segregation to apartheid",Economy and Society,1,4, 1972. 42. LDE 4892, 23426 Vol 2, "Rapportdeur Spesiale Komiteevan Ondersoek..."Appendix B, Verslagvan die Inter- departmenteleKomitee oor die Eksteenskuil-Kleurling-Nedersettings gebied, 1952 See also Watermeyerand Faure, Report,15/1/1923; "Recommendations of theCommssion...upon the Orange River islands" (LDE 3953. 11 106). 43. LDE 3953, 11 106, House ofAssembly, 29/3/1921 ; HAD Debates,Vol 6. 44. LDE 3953, 11 106, Reitz to Administrator,SWA, 15/11/1921 ; N.H.Theron to Ministerof Lands,8/1 1/1921 ; 10/11/1921 . LDE 2953, 11 106 The deputationwas to consistof Dr N.H.Theron,Christoffel van Wyk,and Johannes Klaasten. During his earliervisit, Liebenberg had also heardrepresentations regarding land in Rehobothfrom "men who specialisein stockfarming": Report of D. Liebenberg,Controller, 27/5/1921.

159 Wyk,to requestpermission to settle.44Thus afterhis visitReitz wroteto the Administratorof South West Africaproposing the move of the Basters to Rehoboth,and requestinghis views on the subject.45The Administratorwas opposed to the idea, and explained that he was at the time conducting negotiationswith the Rehoboth Basters "with the view to definingafresh their rightsin an agreementthe termsof whichwill be capable of executionand I shall thereforebe glad if all disturbingelements can at thepresent juncture be avoided".An increasein thesize of thesettlement, he argued,might "induce the Bastardsto assume an intractableattitude."46 In fact,the boot was turnedthe otherway. One of therecommendations of theCommission of Enquiryinto the June1922 Bondeiswarts revolt in SouthWest Africa was theestablishment of a new"reserve for Hottentots" in theGordonia district!47 Withthe idea of a settlementat Rehobothfailing, the next came fromthe 1922 Land Commission. Those of its members concerned with Baster settlement,went, aftera meetingwith UpingtonBasters on 14 October, accompaniedby JohannesVan Wyk,to inspectthe area "on theNorth bank of theriver, between the Aughrabies Falls and theborder of SouthWest Africa". This was thearea todayknown as Riemvasmaak(see below). Howeverafter the inspectionthey reported to a meetingof Bastersat Keimoesthat the area was unsuitablefor settlement.48 The commissionersthen suggested the Basters should considera "blockof land in theKalahari". The questionwas: whichpart of the Kalahari.At a meetingon 7 Decemberthe Basters rejected the idea of settlingon land along the Auop and Nossop rivers. (This was the area which would subsequentlybecome the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park).49Instead they proposedan area of about 146,000 morgenof land "recentlysurveyed to the Southof the KalahariGame Reserve."50Settlement there, the commissioners claimed,would requireGovernment to sinkboreholes, and even thenit could onlyaccommodate 36 of the 200 familiesneeding pastoral land. Nevertheless theysupported the Bastersand recommendedallocating this land to themin termsof theLand SettlementAct, on conditionthat it could notbe transferred withoutthe consent of government,and that "no squattingwill be allowed."51 Despite the Basters reservationsabout the area, Reitz wroteto the Chairmanof theOFS Land Boardstating that for the pastoral land for coloureds, "Governmentconsiders that the solution is to be foundin settingapart the Mier countrynorth of Rietfonteinand alongthe Nosop and Oup Riversfor allotment to themunder the Land SettlementAct", subject to theusual restrictions on alienation. He arguedthat "The average European is notlikely to castenvious eyes on thisarea at present"- so itwas all rightfor coloureds! He addedthat he thought"it would,

45. LDE 3953, 11 106, Reitz to Administrator,SWA, 15/11/1921. 46. LDE 3953, 11106 Administrator,SWA to Reitz,6/12/1921. Also Reitz to Theron,3/2/1922. There the matterwas dropped,although during 1922 therewas stillsome discussion of settlingthe Gordonia Basters in SouthWest Africa just northof the Orange River: see Coetzeeto Reitz,27/7/1922; Telegram, Boerlands to Coetzee,24/10/1922. 47. LDE 3953, 11 106, Report on BondelzwartsRising, UG 30-1922,para 136a; ActingSec torJN Arrairs to bee torLanes, 22/8/1923. 48. The chairpeopleof these two meetings were Pieter Hermanus and Willem Diergaardt 49. LDE 3953, 11 106 See themaps of the proposed area enclosedin Surveyor-Generalto Secretary for Lands, 5/5/1923, etc. 3U. The area is indicatedin a map attacnedto me repon:it oeginsnorm oi me iarmsaieenKamps ran, rvurrcesanu vicuc, andeast of Blaauw Pan andNorokei, well to thesouth and east of wherethe reserve was eventuallyestablished. 51. LDE 3953, 11 106, Watermeyer and Faure,Report, 15/1/1923.

160 givena watersupply by boring,maintain a fairlylarge population.52 The area is isolatedand withthe exceptionof a few farmsprivately owned and probably unoccupiedit ratherlends itselfto a Coloured settlement".53The Chairman respondedthat the land proposed by Reitz was "quiteunsuitable for such men... only Ranchersof largemeans could take up thatarea".54 Moreover, he claimed,the title to thisarea was in dispute:"some big firmsin PortElizabeth claiming to have acquiredthis land from David Philander", the Baster kaptyn of Rietfontein. Ignorantthat it had alreadybeen rejected,the Chairmansuggested the area todayknown as Riemvasmaak.With "a moderateexpenditure in cuttinga road through,the Block shouldbe ample and suitablefor the 200 Bastardsfor the nextdecade." He enclosed a reporton this area he had submittedto the 55 Orange Free State Land Board in 1917. "Somethingmust be done", he concluded"as we are graduallycutting up and allocatingareas overwhich they [the B asters]have had freerun since the time of David Philander."56Reitz pointedout thatthe Bastershad alreadyrejected this area and repeatedthe government'saim of a settlementalong the Auop and Nosop Rivers. "You are correctin sayingthere are old claimsto certainland," he added,"but there are notmany of them,and I have giveninstructions that these must be clearedup. The mineralconcession probably does notexist, but if it does, its termsare no barin anycase to colouredsettlement." He proposedthat the Lands Department startby 'gazetting'farms with boreholes on whichthere were no outstanding claimsso that"the coloured people should see somethingtangible being done for themat theearliest possible date."57 In theevent, on 18 June1923 parliamentresolved that 900,000 morgen of Crown land, "situatein the Mier countryin the Gordonia Division, be reservedfor the use and occupationof colouredpersons",58 that a commission appointedby theMinister of Lands shoulddetermine the area of thisrequired for settlingcoloureds presently resident in Gordonia,and thatthe "allocation of the remainingarea to othercoloured persons" would be subjectto the approvalof Parliament.59At thisstage this was stillmainly what was to becomethe Kalahari GemsbokNational Park.

52. The farmsin thisarea apparentlydid haveboreholes on them,from the time of theFirst World War: see R.D. Jacksonto A.H. Cornish-Bowden,12/1/1924 [LDE 3953, 11106] 53. LDE 3953, 11106,Reitz to Adams,9/3/1923. Cf Reitz to Adams 28/3/1923,where he adds "It is notheavy carrying countryand at thebest could onlymaintain a verysmall European population. It is cut offon theEast by the [SWA] Protectorateand geographicallyhas probablya good deal in commonwith the latter. Considering all thecircumstances theGovernment came to theconclusion that no betterarea could be setapart for the purposes of the coloured people." 54. LDE 3953, 11106,Adams to Reitz, 19/3/1923.He referredto a reporton thisarea by himselfand Mr Ritchie,dated 1915. 55. LDE 3953, 11106, "Extractfrom report dated 24/9/1917 submitted by Mr J. Adams to the OrangeFree State Land Board.". 56. LDE 3953, 11 106, Adams to Reitz,19/3/1923. 57. LDE 3953, 11 106, Reitz to Adams28/3/1923. 58. LDb 3953, 11 106, The resolutiondoes notspecify an Act in termsof whichthis settlement would be initiated.In May Reitzhad beencontemplating Act 15 of 1887: see Reitz,Minute, 2/5/1923. 59. LDE 3953, 11106, Resolution,Hof A 18/6/1923,Senate, 20/6/1923;"Proposed Reservation of a block of land in GordoniaDivision...." The area was 1,122,000morgen less 13 farmsof approximately200,000 morgen"which were grantedto Europeansby theVilander Chief prior to annexation."Apparently 3 of thesefarms had been granted,and on 10 no titleshad been issued:Surveyor General to Secretaryfor Lands, 5/5/1923. The governmentproposal was that"in anypermanent individual tenure that may be grantedthere still [sic] be a conditionto theeffect that the land shall not be alienatedor leasedto or occupiedby anyoneother than a colouredperson." A laterletter refers to 77 farms:R. J.Hunter, Controland Audit Office, to Secretaryfor Lands, 6/3/1926.

161 By this time Dr Abdurahman'sAfrican People's Organisationhad become involvedin the matter.Their conference on 3-7 April 1923 passed a resolutionasking inter alia that:"the Governmentbe asked to facilitatethe grantingof CrownLands to deservingColoured people in termsof thepromises alreadymade" and that"the Governmentbe urgedto facilitatethe proposed settlementof Colouredpeople on CrownLands and OrangeRiver Islands in the Districtof Gordonia."60At a subsequentmeeting with Reitz, Dr Abdurahman raised"whether labour colonies could notbe startedfor coloured people along the same lines as Kakamas", urgingthe "necessityfor places to which the colouredman could go whenhe finishedhis intermittentwork with farmers in a district."Reitz was cool on this,pointing out that Kakamas was controlledby the church,not the government,and adding that"the provisionof colonies for impoverishedEuropeans was a problemof equal if notgreater importance than coloniesfor coloured people". If theAPO caredto submita scheme,however, he wouldexamine it, but did nothold out muchhope of anythingbeing done. On the reservationof land, however,he was warmer.He said he intendedto put beforeparliament the questionof "settingapart the Mier countryfor coloured settlers,which would enable the Departmentto inserta clause restrictingthe transfersto colouredmen."61 He urgedDr Abdurahmanto testifyat the Select Committeeon CrownLands in May on thisquestion.62 Gavin Lewis writeshow "on theeve of thegeneral election, the SAP government...promised to set aside one millionmorgen for Coloured land settlement.But the land offeredwas situatedin thearid semi-desert of thenorth-western Cape."63 Reitz also toldthe APO delegationthat "it was intendedto set aparta certainarea of the Orange Riverislands for a colouredsettlement, but he did notindicate either where the areawas, or whatthe extent of the land was."64 This greater caution in thesecond case - where,as we have seen, withinthe departmentthere were already specificproposals - was presumablybecause the Orange River land was more attractiveto whites.However the differencein specificationwould affectthe futuredevelopment of 'colouredsettlement' in thedifferent areas involved. Since theOFS Land Boardhad stipulatedthat a furtherinspection of the land was necessarybefore northern Gordonia could be allocatedfor coloured settlement,65the Lands Departmentattempted to sendoff a commissionin 1923 to carryout thistask. This provedimpossible, however, since to be sureof a supplyof waterit would have had to proceedbetween June and August,and Treasuryapproval for funds was notforthcoming in time.66J. Coetzee, the M.P., frustratedlypointed to theinterest being taken in thematter "by the whole of the

60. LDE 3953, 11 106, M.J. Fredericks to Ministerof Lands, 12/4/1923. 61. LDE 3953, 11106, PS, Ministerot Lands to GeneralSecretary, AFU, lö/4/iyzj; Minute,z/d/ivzj; r. iNiser,^mei Clerk,Minute 3/5/1923. 62. LDE 3953, 11 106, Minute 2/5/1923; Secretary for Lands to Abdurahman,17/5/1923 The publishedreport of theSelect Committeeon CrownLands for1923 [SC 19-1923]mentions the reservation of landfor settlement of colouredpersons in Gordonia,but is too abbreviatedto containAbdurahman's evidence. 63. G.Lewis, Betweenthe Wire and theWall (Cape Town,1987), 90-1. His referencesare to A.P.O., 19/5/1923;23/6/1923. 64. LDE 3953, 11 106, F. Niser,Chief Clerk, Minute 3/5/1923. 65. LDE 3953, 11 106, See Reitzto Adams28/3/1923; Minute, OFS Land Board,23/4/1923: "The Boardis notprepared to seta specialarea apart for bastards until an inspectionhas beenmade. Messrs Adams and Ritchiedid notinspect the area Northof the Rietfontein and alongthe Auop andNosop Rivers." 66. See correspondence,1923, in LDE 3953, 11 106. Also correspondencein TES 5621 33/179.

162 colouredpeople throughoutthis [Cape] Province".Any delay,he maintained, couldcast doubt on thegovernment's bona fides,"and maymaterially affect the nextelection... from a politicalpoint of view we cannotafford to lose their support"67Moreover plans forthe despatchin July1924 of the commission (includinga representativeof theAPO)68 were cut acrossby thedissolution of parliamentin Aprilfor the general election. As an epitaphon theera of theSAP governmentwe mayquote from a Governmentsurveyor's impressions of theBasters at thistime: "Originally all of them,or theirfathers owned land but were too indolentor incompetentto farmit, besidesthey were very easily taken in, the result is mostof theirland, practically all, has passed intothe hand of Europeansand the Bastardsare in a bad way today.Most of themare too lazy to work,others think that by doingmanual labourthey are loweringthemselves to the statusof a Hottentot,very few are trustworthyor honest and no one will employone of themif he can helpit. They have no idea of businessbut imagine themselves very clever so are easilydone down.They have a rootedidea thatthe whole of Gordoniabelongs to themand thatthey have been done out of theirinheritance by the Whitesand thatthe Governmentis now tryingto forcethem into the Desert. They are all very simple,have not much faith in Europeans,are easilyled astray,have a verygood opinionof themselves,and are at presentbeing advised by NativeSealawyers and Agitatorswho are makingthem very discontented with the idea of being alloted withland in the Mier country,the finestranching country in South Africa."69

Riemvasmaak:I

Riemvasmaak,as we have seen,had been proposed- and rejected- as a site forpastoral settlement of coloureds.In fact,Riemvasmaak was alreadyoccupied - by "Hottentotsand Damaras".The idea of a land grantto Bastersstimulated FatherFages, Catholicpriest at Keimoes and mentorto thesepeople, to push forwardhis campaignfor Riemvasmaak to becomea "nativereserve". "We have recentlyseen in thepapers" he wrotein 1923 to Dr Loramof theNative Affairs Commission, "that the Government is goingto give land...to theBastards of theGordonia District. We rejoiceat thismeasure because these people were rapidlydrifting to miseryand to all its consequences.The only blackspot in thisgenerous and just policy is thatit is to be confinedsolely to the bastardssection... it appears thatthe Natives are to be excluded fromthis scheme. Now, Dear Dr Loram we have here Hottentotsand Damaras who deserveas well theattention of theGovernment... If theyhad a reserveallocated to themthey would form a verycontented, self-supporting and loyal sectionof the community.As it is todaythey have no home,they wander from farm to farm,the victimsof unscrupulouspeople and theywill soon be reducedto poverty.We have an exampleof how easilycontented these people are and how

67. LDE 3953, 11 106, Coetzee to Secretaryfor Lands, 26/7/1923; Coetzee to Reitz,26/7/1923. 68. LDE 3953, 11 106, PS, Min ofLands to GeneralSecretary, APO, 14/5/1924 69. LDE 3953, 11 106 R.D. Jacksonto A.H.Cornish-Bowden12/1/1924.

163 gratefulthey are when the Governmenttakes theminto consideration.This exampleare theseNatives at Riemvastmaak.Since theGovernment has allowed themto occupythe Farm and has reducedtheir grazing licenses, these people are perfectlycontented and happy...Adjoining this farm Riemvastmaak are other lots of Crownland, most unsuitable for white people owingto its mountainous and ruggednature. Could thisland notbe allotedas a NativeReserve where the Natives,like thecoloured (Bastards) people in thenew schemecould have their homesand keep a certainnumber of stockwhile the ablebodied would go about andwork[?]"70 Riemvasmaakhad been occupiedby Damaras since at leastthe turn of thecentury. Smith and Boezaiek,who researchedland claimsto Riemvasmaak forthe Legal Resources Centre,claim the "earliestwritten reference to the originalRiemvasmaakers" in a 1902 letterwhere the Gordonia magistrate states that"I am informedthere are waterholesall along theMolopo, and thatlarge numbersof Kaffirsand Bushmensquat there."71 The letter,in fact,is referring generallyto vacantCrown land in Gordonia,particularly in Ward7, northof Riemvasmaakwhich was in ward5. Moreover,while the Molopo passes through the Riemvasmaakfarms, "all along it" does not necessarilyrefer to thatpart. This is a flimsyattempt to conjureup a reference.More cogentis a 1903 letter fromthe Gordoniamagistrate describing Riemvasmaak as "an isolated area which has been occupied foryears by native and othersquatters."72 . This accordswith the oral evidencecollected by FatherZaby of occupationfrom beforethe turn of thecentury.73 It also accordswith contemporary evidence: that thereare "manyreferences to groupsof Damaras/Hottentotsin the South West cornerof Gordoniafrom 1903 whenthey became refugeesfrom South West Africahaving suffered heavy Germanoppression as a resultof the Hottentot rebellion[the Nama-Herero uprising in SouthWest Africa] in thearea."74 The magistrate's1903 letterwas in connectionwith an applicationfor thelease of Riemvasmaakby AndriesOberholzer, who had in factleased it in theearly 1890s. However, according to Smithand Boezaiek,"no recordsof such leases enteredinto during the first 24 yearsof colonialrule [i.e. between1885 and 1909] can be traced".75In 1909,they add, "certain land described as 'Lot No 1 DivisionGordonia' (whichcould be a referenceto Riemvasmaak)was leased to one de Villierswho laterceded his rightto one Botes.Botes failedto pay the annualrent, was charged,found guilty and thelease was cancelled."76In factthe area leased to P. J. Botes was Bokseputs,and one van Wykwas leasingAnnex

70. LDE 3953, 11 106, Father Fages to Dr Loram,16/7/1923. 71. CA 1/UPT5/3/2, Acting Civil Commissionerto theUnder Secretary for Agriculture, 3U/7/19O2, bmitn and BoezaieK, "Legal aspectsand statusof RiemvasmaakLand", pp. 4, Annexure4. No archivalreference is givenfor the letter. See, fora moreor less identicalstatement, O'Connell to Commissioner,Cape Police,Kimberley, 21/4/1898. 72. Civil Commissioner,Gordonia to Secretarytor Agriculture,IU/WIWjJ, H. i>mitnana l. ßozaieK, p. :>, /'nnexurej. Thoughthey give no reference,it is in factfrom LND 1/833. 73. FatherA. Zaby,"Die Riemvasmakers,geschiente und kultur einer gemeinscnatt , Namwiana,iv, i, ivöz. 74. SPP, "Submission",p. 4, referringto F. Cornell,The Glamour of Prospecting, 194, 300. 75. Smithand Bozaiek,p. 5. SurplusPeople's Project,"Submission to theCommission on Land Allocationon Denairor me communityof Riemvasmaak",p. 4 citesa letterfrom the Surveyor General to theSecretary for Agriculture, 18/12/1903 (notquoted, reproduced, or referenced)supporting the idea thefarms comprising the Riemvasmaak reserve were "Crown landwhich was unoccupiedby whitesettlers." 76. Smithand Boezaiek, p. 5.

164 Bokseputs.77They add thatin 1913 theSecretary of Lands approvedthe sale of theeastern part of Riemvasmaak."This land was apparentlypreviously leased. The sale howevernever took place, possiblybecause of thepresence of Black farmersand becauseit was contraryto theprovisions of theAnnexation Act of 1895."78Leases can also be foundin thearchives for 1912-13 for JJ. Oberholzer on Wagenbrandand M. andA. Lenhoffon Riemvasmaak.79In 1913 theSecretary of Lands wroteto theUpington magistrate assuming that in thatarea onlyLot 7 was occupied "beingthe only individualwho metwith success in searchfor water",and wantingto knowthe suitability for land settlementof Lots 1-6 and 8-13.80 Mattersbecome clearer in theaftermath of theFirst World War. A 1961 publication of the Catholic church,commemorating 50 years of work in Keimoes, claimed thatFather Fages, on a visit to Kakamas in 1923 met at Warmsandsome thirtyDamara families trekkingfrom "Damaraland" and broughtthem to the attentionof the Upingtonmagistrate who allocatedthem Riemvasmaakto live, on "a farmwhich became a reservefor them."81 That Riemvasmaakwas settledonly in 1923 is certainlyinaccurate, disproved both by the oral evidenceof settlementaround the turnof the century,and fromthe contemporaryarchives. Already in 1917 officialsof theOFS Land Board were reportingthat "Riemvastmaak is a kindof locationfor natives and we found about20 familiesresident there with their stock, etc."82 (In 1920 therewere 19 familiescomprising 145 people, of whom 29 were male adults.)83In 1920, moreover,the magistrate in Upingtonwrote that its inhabitants- "a numberof natives of the Damara tribe" - had been "paying grazing fees to the Governmentfor some years" and continuedthat "the only European person who evervisits these natives is thePriest in chargeof theRoman Catholic Mission at Keimoes" - i.e Father Fages.84Dawid Dawids, in fact, was baptised at

77. CA 1/UPT6/1 12(10), "[Lot l]The lot in questionconsists of certainpieces of land situatein Field CoraetcyNo 5... boundedon thenorth by thefarm Aries, on theNE by thefarm Narougas, on thesouth by theOR, on theeast by Crown Land (lot No 2) and on the west by GermanSWA" [Bokseputs]RM, Upington,to PJ Botes 31/10/1913;"[Lot 2] boundedon thenorth by thefarm Narougas, on theSE by theMolopo river,on theeast by Crownland (Lot No 3 - [Riemvasmaak])on thewest by Crownland (Lot No 1) and on thesouth by theOR". [AnnexBokseputs] RM, Upington, to WJNvan Wyk 31/10/1913. See also lease to WJ N. van Wykdated 27/10/1909 (CA 1/UPT7/3/3). 78. Smithand Boezaiek, p. 5. Theygive no referencefor this letter. 79. Oberholzer,lease dated 15/5/1912;Lenhoff, lease dated 15/5/1912in CA 1/UPT7/3/3. A minute,probably by the magistrate,claims that Riemvasmaak, as crownland, "was putup forlease by auctionin 1912 whileI was stationedat Gordonia...!cannot remember whether the farm was actuallyleased or not."Minute bv ?. 6/5/1921.NTS 2957. 99/305.. 80. CA 1/UPT6/1 19(21), Sec forLands to RM, Gordonia17/1 1/1913; The replywas thatthe land was someof thebest in theGordonia district, suitable for all kindsof stock.Captain, SAMP, to RM, Gordonia,22/12/1913. 81. R.K. Sending,Keimoes, Vyfiig Jaar, 191 1-1961 _ (Keimoes, 1961). 82. LDE 3953, 11106, J. Adamsto Reitz,19/3/1923, enclosing "Extract from report dated 24/9/1917 submitted by Mr J. Adamsto OFS Land Board."They recommended that the whole area - essentiallythe present reserve - be sold as 5 farms(valued at 21-a morgen)under Act 12 of 1912 and thatother provision be madefor the existing occupants "as by reasonof themountainous nature of thiscountry and thedifficulty of access it is impossibleto tracestock thefts and the familiesnow residentthere are suspectedof beingdishonest" Their recommendations covered the farms Riemvastmaak and Wagenbrand,and whatthey called lowerand upperWaterval. They statedthat the Irrigation Department required about1000 morgenof lowerWaterval around the Falls. Theydid notinspect the farms Bokseputs and AnnexBokseputs "as theseare mostdifficult of access and itwill be necessaryfor this inspection to be donefor the most part on foot." 83. NTS 2957, 99/305,Lieut, SAP District10, Upingtonto Magistrate,Upington, 14/5/1920. In October1922 therewere reportedto be 'fiftynatives' on thefarm. RM Upingtonto NAD 28/10/1922,Telegram, (NTS 2957,99/305). 84. NTS 2957, 99/305,RM, Upingtonto SNA, 17/5/1920.Handwritten notes record that the first occupation was in 1901; thatthe area was leasedby one Lenhoff[from 15/5/1912 for five (ten) years?], who offeredthe lease forthe last 2 years to Dawid Dawids forL67. [FatherHindley's notes from RC churchrecords. Surplus People's Project,p. 5.]

165 Riemvasmaakin 1916 accordingto the Keimoes register.85And the archives containa letterto theUpington magistrate from Fages regardingRiemvasmaak datedOctober 1920. Fages wroteon behalfof the inhabitantsof Riemvasmaak,who had "been therefor quite a numberof years",requesting more secure tenure than theirmonthly grazing license. This, he said, wouldpermit them to improvethe farmregarding water, and make provisions for schooling. They were, he insisted, "verylaw abiding.They cause no troubleby stockstealing or otherwise.They can all supportthemselves with their livestock and the male populationgoes downperiodically to Kakamasat harvesttime to workfor the colonists and to earnfood for themselves."86 In 1920 themagistrate wrote in similarvein to the Secretaryfor Native Affairsthat he wantedto visitRiemvasmaak and make "some suitablearrangement such as the appointmentof a headmanby whichI can keepmore or less in touchwith them" He fearedthat otherwise "the farmers in thevicinity may... accuse theGovernment of allowinga colonyof nativesto live on the borders of theirfarms without any supervisionwhatsoever." Riemvasmaak,he added"has beenreferred to by someas beinga nestof thieves butI mustadmit that since I have beenat thisstation no nativefrom that locality has been chargedwith any crime."87Thus began a strugglewith the Lands Departmentfor, essentially, the declaration of Riemvasmaakas a "reserve",that was to lastfor more than a decade. The immediateresponse of the Departmentof Lands to Fages was unfavourable.The land was to be disposedof underthe 1912 Land Settlement Act, and the only "in the meantime"did the Upingtonmagistrate only have authorityto issue grazinglicenses. "The departmentis notprepared to consider any applicationfrom the nativesfor a grantof theirfarm." The magistrate "shouldvisit the place and make it perfectlyclear to the nativesthat they are occupyingthe land on a purelytemporary basis and thatwhen the holdings are readyfor allotment they will be requiredto vacatethe land. I am informingthe Magistrate,that should he anticipateany difficultyin removingthe large numbersof personsat presenton the land,it would be advisablegradually to reducethe number of grazinglicenses, with a view to enablingthe natives to be absorbedin thecourse of time by the surrounding districts."88 Fages tookup thecudgels in reply.This instructionto themagistrate, he toldthe Secretary for Native Affairs, "has come notonly as a surprise,but also as a greatdisappointment to the natives who have always been underthe impressionthat, provided they behaved themselves and paid theirgrazing fees, theywould not be disturbed."What was to becomeof themwere they turned off theland? What was to becomeof thestock which they had "honestlygathered together"?He was confidentthat the inhabitants would support the proposals to

in 1917-18. to 85. Zaby,8. He adds thataccording to Donker,1961, Fages had alreadyvisited Riemvasmaak Zaby attempts reconcilethese facts on thebasis thataccording to oral tradition,Dawid Dawids leftRiemvasmaak during the First WorldWar, and that Fages metup withhim and encouragedhim to returnto Riemvasmaak. 86. NTS 2957,99/305 Fages to CivilCommissioner, Upington, 17/10/1920. 87. NTS 2957,99/305, Magistrate to SNA, 17/5/1920. 88. NTS 2957,99/305,Secretary for Lands to SNA, 20/12/1920.

166 place them under Government control and supervision89."The Farm RiemvastmaakI venture to say froma settlers'point of view is quiteunsuitable. Everybodywho knowsthe farm is of thesame opinion.It is verymountainous, wateris veryscarce, access to theplace is mostdifficult and thedistance from thenearest market great." He askedthat the decision be reconsidered. Fages also wantedthe history of the settlement looked into. "In justice to thenatives and so as notto give themreason to lose faithand confidencein the whiteman I would stronglyurge that before any furthersteps be taken,the question as to how the natives came to settle on this farmbe thoroughly investigated.They have been there for many years. Some ofthem are born on the Farm.It is quite possible thatyears back probablybefore Bechuanaland was annexedto Cape Colonyin 1895 theywere put there by theEuropean authorities and ifthat be thecase and theyare now turnedadrift, the effect can onlybe one which will prejudice the native mind against the white man which is a contingencywe cannotto [sic] stronglyguard against."90 Following this up, in 1921 an unnamedofficial, probably a formermagistrate in thearea, minuted to the Lands Department:"I am not able to findany informationin regardto nativeson 'Riemvastmaak'nor do I thinkit likelythat any exists. The nativeson thefarm can hardlybe said to forma regular'settlement'; they are onlyin reality licensedsquatters." He added,however, "If it is takenup by settlersI presumeat anyrate that some supply of local nativelabour would be requiredwhich would absorba considerablenumber of the present residents."91 The 1921 visit by Denys Reitz to Gordonia secured a reprievefor Riemvasmaak'sinhabitants. After it, the Secretary for Lands was compelledto reportto theSecretary for Native Affairs that the minister had decided"that the farmin questionshould not be alienatedfor the present but thatthe natives at presentresiding there should be allowedto remainand grazetheir stock over the farm".Reitz had also decided thatthe grazing fees paid should be "very substantiallyreduced", and be "merely nominal." "It must of course be understoodthat the above decisionsonly refer to thenatives who are on thefarm andthat no freshnatives will be allowedto enteron theland and enjoythe same privileges."92The grazingfees were dulybrought down from1/- per head for largestock and 5/-per 100 small stocka monthto Id per head forlarge stock and II- per 100 smallstock.93 It does seem howeverthat areas of the presentRiemvasmaak reserve were leased as grazingfarms (not sold) to whitefarmers at this time.Thus AnnexBokseputs was leased to one Burgerfor a year fromJune 1922. One Mostertleased Wagenbrandbetween April 1924 and 1926.94One "Buizenhout"

89. Made bythe former magistrate, who was nowat Grootfonteinin SWA. yu. ma ¿vìi, yy/JUD,ratner images to SNA, nd,received 25/4/1921. There is no evidencethat the inhabitants were "put thereby the European authorities" either before or after1895. 91. NTS 2957,99/305 Minute by ?, 6/5/1921. 92. NTS 2957,99/305, Sec forLands to SNA, 8/12/1921. 93. NTS 2957,99/305, RM, Upingtonto NAD, 28/10/1922,Telegram. "Natives are not at presentbeing pressed for payment theypay when they can. 94. See Smithand Bozaiek, 6, who comment:"Riemvasmakers state thatwhite farmers never actually settledon Riemvasmaakland and neveractually farmed there on a permanentbasis. They merelyused the land forseasonal grazing."From Sergeant, SAP to DistrictCommandant Police, 28/6/1923(NTS 2939 19/305)it would appearBurger was stillleasing in 1923.

167 (Bezuidenhout?)was also apparentlyleasing a portionof Riemvasmaakin 1923. This was pointedout by one J.M.Mouton,a "bastardDamara" ,95 (living then on a farmin SWA) whohad beenrefused the lease ofthe same land, being told both by the magistrateand the Secretaryof Lands thatthey could not "as the Governmentwanted it. I was satisfiedwith the reply until I visitedthe farm in March last when I saw that the farmhad been given to a farmernamed Buizenhoutor some such name.That is mycomplaint against the Government givingwhite people the preference."96 More interestingis thecase of one A. Marsh,who in 1923 is claimedto have been leasingBokseputs (Lot 1) since 1919, and was accusedby thesame J.M.Mouton of illegallysubletting this land, and wrongfullyimpounding cattle belongingto indigeouspeople.97 Marsh, who was marriedto a "Damara"woman, also apparentlyran a store.98Requested for comments by theSecretary of Native Affairs,the magistrate took Marsh's side. He pointedout thatsix "Hottentots" had been imprisonedin Marchfor assaulting Marsh and rescuingtheir cattle.99 Interestinglyenough, the police differed in theirassessment. Marsh was "thelast man to be giventhe lease of Block 1", as he had threeconvictions for hotel- breaking,theft and supplyingliquor to natives";he was "indirectlythe cause of all the trouble".100The magistratein the end recommendedtermination of Marsh'slease, butthe Lands Department,on purelyracist grounds, decided not to do so: "Mr Marshis not muchmore to blame forthe troubleswhich have arisenthan the wandering coloured men, and the latter may become considerably worseif the only white man in thoseparts, who is in a positionto keepa moreor less constanteye on them,is turnedout."101 Pursuingthe concession granted by Reitz,Fages in 1922 wroteto C.T. Loramof theNative Affairs Commission, to whomhe had apparentlyspoken whenthe NAC had visitedGordonia in 1921.102 He wrote,it shouldbe noted, regarding"the Coloured people of our GordoniaDistrict"! The inhabitantsof Riemvasmaakhad now becometransmuted from "Damaras" to "Coloureds"- and wereto become"Natives" for Fages in 1923. "By yourpersonal inspection of locationsand by the severalevidences given in frontof yourcommission," wroteFages, "you saw in whata poorplight these people are and you came to the conclusionthat something should be done forthem without further delay. Their mindswould thusbe pacifiedin seeing thatour governmentis quite preparedto improvetheir condition." The people of Riemvastmaak,he stated, were"an interestinggroup, hardworking, honest, industrious and tryingto make an honourableliving", and moreover"they remained loyal throughthe late Bondelzwartsrebellion though being constantly pressed to join in the revolt."

95. NTS 2939 19/305,Commandant, SA Police to RM, Upington,5/7/1923. 96. NTS 2939 19/305,Statement by J.M.Mouton,Heriadaibes, 19/6/1923; also SNA to Secretaryfor Lands, 31/3/1922; 5/5/1922. 97. NTS 2939 19/305,J. Mouton, "Keirakbes , ¿blilWU. 98. On Marsh see also Smithand Bozaiek, p. 6; Piet Beukes, interviewby Ds. AubreyBeukes and MartinLegassick, 22/7/1993. 99. NTS 2939 19/305,RM, Upingtonto SNA, 15/5/1923. 100. NTS 2939 19/305,Commandant, SAP, to RM, Upington,5/7/1923; Sergeant to Commandant,28/6/1923. 101. RM, Upingtonto SNA, 5/7/1923;Sec forLands to RM, Upington,18/9/1923. 102. No recordcan be foundof this visit in NAC files.It is notclear if it was at thesame time as Reitz's visitor not.

168 This loyalty,he added, "was broughtabout because the Governmenthad just allowedthem to stayon theFarm though without any assurancefor any future provisionshould they ever be requiredto leave the farm,and because their grazinglicenses had been brought down to theirreach." This proved, he asserted, that"our natives are notthe creatures whose standardcannot be raisedas some irresponsiblepeople would like to makethem out to be, butare, on thecontrary, quiteamenable to thewhite man's rule and to remainingloyal to it." Whathe wantedwas forthe government "to go a stepfurther and to set aside thisCrown land FarmRiemvastmaak together with other adjacent Crown land as a native reserveand organizeit as such.A headmancould be placed overthese natives whowould be responsiblefor their good behaviourand forkeeping squatters out of it. Missionarywork could be done amongstthem by erectingschool and churchand thusrender them still more useful citizens of theland... This would eliminatetheir present precariousness of tenure....Everyone acquainted with the positionand thenature of theseFarms knows that they are notsuitable for white habitationsor settlementsyet these poor people wouldbe quitesatisfied with it. By not being too farfrom the River settlements,the youngerpeople of this suggestedReserve would be a good supplyof labourfor the settlers while they would have a place where to graze their stock and where to settle their families."103Here again was theclassic idea of the"labour reserve" - to provide subsistencefor the families of migrantworkers. Loram endorsed the idea in a letterto theSecretary for Native Affairs and added:"Incidentally it wouldassist Uppington[sic],Prieska and other towns by drawingoff redundant natives."104 Thereis some evidencethat the populationof the Riemvasmaakarea became augmentedaround 1922. Those imprisonedin 1923, claimed the magistrate,were illegal inhabitantsof (Lot 2) and Riemvasmaak:"coloured people (mostlyHottentots of a verydegenerate type)". The magistrateclaimed thatthey were "a truculentlot"; in July1922 five had been chargedwith vagrancy,stock theft, and resistingthe police.105 The police addedthat the 1922 arreststook place afterthe Bondelswarts rebellion and wereof Hottentotswho "weresquatting on Block 2, buthad been wanderingabout between S.W.Africa and Block 2, Gordonia";106two of thesewere among those arrested in 1923. All these"Hottentots" they claimed, had now removedfrom Block 2. On theother hand,the police stated,"The Natives on Block No 3, Riemfasmaak,are law abidingon thewhole and up to thepresent there are no complaintsagainst these natives."107This suggeststhat the "Damara" inhabitantswho had been there since the turnof the centurybecame supplemented,perhaps with new immigrantsfrom South West Africa after the Bondelswartsrebellion. This is

103. NTS 2957,99/305, Fages to Loram,6/10/1922. Both the past and presentmagistrates of Gordoniafavoured this plan, he claimed.This would eliminatetheir present precariousness of tenure."They would like to make improvementson it speciallyto dig wellsas thewater is veryscarce.'They had beengiven permission to do so, butdenied the possibility of compensationif required to leave. 104. NTS 2957,99/305 Loram to Sec, NAffairsComm, 7/10/1922. 105. NTS 2939 19/305RM, Upingtonto SNA, 15/5/1923. 106. NTS 2939 19/305,Shortly after the rebellion, the police received reports that "strange natives were wandering about the mouthof the Bak River,which is theboundary line of S.W.Africaand Gordonia,and thatthey were stealing stock": Sub- Inspector,SAP to Commandant,6/6/1923. 107. NTS 2939 19/305,Sub-Inspector, SAP to Commandant,6/6/1923.

169 supportedby Mouton'srequest that "the Government give the coloured the same privilege as regardsgrazing fees as enjoyed by the Damaras on the farm Riemvasmaak.The presenttariff being too high."108 As we have seen,Fages renewedhis plea to Loramin 1923. In Julythat yearthe Secretary of NAC toldLoram that the Native Affairs department had decidedthat the questionof a Nativereserve in Gordoniashould "stand over until the Dept of Native Affairshas ascertained what action the Lands Departmentwas takingin regardto theirscheme of colouredsettlement".109 And in Augustthe Acting Secretary for Native Affairs wrote to the Departmentof Lands arguingthat "if so largean area as 900,000morgen is beingreserved... it shouldbe sufficientnot only for the coloured population (i.e. personsof mixed descent) but also for Hottentotsand Damaras as well and it would seem unnecessaryto have two separatereserves for the accommodationof coloured personson the one hand and Hottentotsand Damaras, to whomthe bastard populationare doubtless closely akin, on theother."110

Ecksteenskuil

Underthe new Pact government,a resolution was passedon 3 Septemberby the House of Assembly(and 5 Septemberby the Senate) regardingsettlement at Ecksteenskuil:"The reservationfor use by colouredsand the grantto persons recommendedby themagistrate, assisted by two farmowners nominated by the government,to rentfor a periodof tenyears, subject to such conditionsas the governmentmight fix, of theislands in theOrange river, between Rooikop and Cannon islands (i.e. between the farmsZovoorby on the northbank and Eksteenskuilon thesouth bank), which must not be occupiedby whites."111This wouldappear to have coveredthe following islands: Geelbosch, James (Long), Langklaas,Rhebok, Skaap, Smal, Vygebosch, Melkbos, Steenberg, Donker, Klip, Paarde,Pietsmal, Piet Rooi (subsequentlywashed away), Hongerhoogte - and possiblyalso Smit,Hanekom, Meyer, Bella Vista,George, Inkbosch and Droebos.112 At Kakamas, Keimoes and Friersdalecultivation was alreadytaking place on islands aroundthe turnof the century.Bradwell, Foster and Elim islands were opened up also around 1900. A syndicatewas establishedon Rooikopisland around 1907-10 by AbrahamLenhoff, Wilhelm Frank and Anton

108. NTS 2939 19/305,J. M. Mouton,Statement, 19/6/1923. 109. Sec NAC to Loram,30/7/1923 [Smith and Bozaiek,7 and Annexure6.] It refersto a letterfrom Loram of 24/7/1923 forwardingFages's letterof 16/7/1923(LDE 3953, 11106) Note thatthe Departmentof Public Works,[Letter of 1/10/1992]is wrongto claim Riemvasmaakwas "set aside fornative occupation in 1923" [Smithand Bozaiek,,9]. Equally Smithand Bozaiekare wrongthat "Riemvasmaak land was setaside forthe inhabitants in the1920s", 9. 110. LDE 3953, 11106,Acting SNA to Secretaryfor Lands, 22/8/1923.The Secretary of Lands repliedthat there would be insnectionof the area in 1924: Sec forLands to SNA. 17/10/1923. 111. LDE 4892, 23426 Vol 2, Verslag...oordie EksteenskuilKleurling Nedersettingsgebied, (1952), 9. "De uithoudingvoor gebruikdoor kleurlingenen die toekenningaan personendoor de Magistraataanbevolen, bijgestaan door twee plaatselikegrondbezitters door de Regeringte wordenbenoemd, van hurenvoor een tydperkvan tienjaar, onderworpen aan zulkevoorwaarden als de Regeringmöge vaststellen, van de eilandenin de Oranjerivier,afdelings tussen Rooikop en CannonEilanden (d.i tussende plaatsenZOVOORBY op de noordoeveren EKSTEENSKUIL op de zuidoever) welkenog niet door blanken geokkupeerd worden.". 112. CA 1/UPT6/3/15/1/20/3, PR, Dept of Lands to AJ Coetzee,Basters Eiland Komm,PK Rooikopisland, nd, received RM, Upington,21/12/1936; Interview with Dawid Andrewby Cecil Prinslooand MartinLegassick, born 1916, Lang island,23/1 1/1995.

170 Siepker,who leased to poor whites;and not long afterM. Gadd (on Bradwell island) and Collett(on Fosterisland) began producinglucerne for the ostrich industry.Collett bought Foster island afterthe FirstWorld War and Bradwell islandwas boughtby a syndicateincluding Lenhoff and Frank.Brakbos island was openedup by Lenhoffand JapieLutz between1911 and 1920. Afterthe FirstWorld War another prominent island farmer and ownerwas HJ. Skipperof Gras island.By 1928, it is reported,there were 25 privatelyowned and built canalsbetween Upington and Kakamas.113 Coloureds(and whites)were also alreadyin occupationof some of the islandsdesignated for coloureds by the 1923 resolution.Settlement had been authorisedby the Minister of Lands duringthe First World War, provided settlers weregiven permission by theUpington magistrate.114 Perhaps the first coloureds on the islandsto irrigatewere Dawid Oranje and Dirk,Niklaas and Johannes Louw, who occupiedPiet Smal islandin 1913. This was possiblebecause the Rooikopisland syndicate had alreadyin 1906 builta canal fromwhich land on Piet Smal island could be irrigated.These paid a thirdof theirharvest to the Rooikop island syndicate.Two whiteswere also on the island at thattime, namelyDawid Engelbrechtand Willem Hanekom.115Langklaas island was occupied in 1917 (or 1919) by one ArrieLouw togetherwith Frederick Snr, FrederikJnr, Jacobus and Hendrik Schwartz. Initially this was without authorisation,but theyobtained permission in 1921. Some of thempaid L3 a yearfor 6 morgenof land, and someL2/10/0 for 5 morgen.116 Therewas morecoloured occupation of theseislands in theearly 1920s. JohannesVisagie and his son settledKlip islandin 1920.117Frans Basson was apparentlyon Langklaasisland from May 1920, Hendrikvan Wykgot a lease there in July 1921, Jan Williams in March 1922, and Flores Abrams in September1922.118 It appearsthat some of these paid rentin kindto H.J.Skipper, whoforwarded the cash rentto theUpington magistrate.119 Floris Schwartz had a lease on Smal island from1921 and Zedokus Feris and C.J. Schwartzfrom

113. M. Legassick,"Development of the Orange River islands"(Unpublished paper, 1998). 114. LDE 4892, 23426 Vol 2, Verslag...oordie EksteenskuilKleurling Nedersettingsgebied, (1952), 6-7. 115. LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, Willem Gous, Getuienis [aan] Kommissie van Ondersoek van Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede. 116. CA 1/UPT6(3) 15/1/20/11;LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, ArrieLouw, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan KleurlingNedersettingsgebiede, Sergeant, SAP to RM, Upington,1/9/1920; RM, Upingtonto NCO, SAP, Keimoes 4/9/1920;H.J. Skipper to RM, Upington,18/9/1920; Sergeant, SAP to RM, Upington,30/9/1920; RM, Upingtonto H.J. Skipper15/[10]/1920; Sergeant, SAP to RM, Upington14/1/1921; Contract of agreementFJ Schwartzand J Schwartz 9/12/1920;Jan Swartz, 21/3/1921; RM, Upingtonto NCO, SAP, Keimoes,24/3/1921; Sergeant, SAP to RM, Upington 24/5/1921;Contract Arrie Louw 3/5/1921. 117. LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1, JohannesVisagie Jr, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede . 118. CA 1/UPT6(3) 15/1/20/11,H.J. Skipperto NCO, SAP, Keimoes, 16/4/1921;Franz Basson, Contractof agreement, 3/5/1921;HJ. Skipperto NCO, SAP, Keimoes 14/7/1921;H. van Wyk,Contract of agreement,27/7/1921; H.J. Skipper to NCO, SAP, Keimoes24/9/1921; J Williams,Contract of agreement,28/3/1922; H.J.Skipper to NCO, SAP, Keimoes, 19/8/1922;F. Abrams,Contract of agreement,1/9/1922. 119. CA 1/UPT6(3) 15/1/20/11,RM, Upingtonto NCO, SAP, Keimoes,24/3/1924; H.J. Skipper to NCO, SAP, Keimoes, 26/3/1924;H.J.Skipper to RM, Upington8/2/1928.

171 1922.120William Maasdorp applied for a lease on Melkboschkopisland, west of andadjoining Klip island,in May 1922,though it is unclearif it was granted.121 To establisha livingon theislands was hardwork. Arrie Louw described itin evidenceto a Commissionin 1952: "we firstbuilt a littledam from branches and dug a canal to lead wateronto the land for irrigation. The islandwas terribly bushy,and to get ontoit we had to swimthrough a numberof small streams becausethere were no bridgesor roads.We had a verydifficult task to clearparts of theisland of bushesand trees.Digging the trees made us sweatand causedus manyheadaches. On thecleared and levelledpart we madea gardenfirst where we plantedmealies and pumpkins.After that we dug outthe bushes and treesbit bybit and levelled the cleared parts to sow wheaton it. "WhenI settledon thisisland, I had onlya spade,an old axe, a borrowed ploughand fouroxen (ownedby WillemGouws and MatthysLouw) and two goats.With only these implements I began to workthe land and bring water to it. It wentvery hard for us andon manydays we hadno foodbesides goats 'milk, but thisdid notcause us to giveup. We had to dig thecanal and workon theground forone or twodays in theweek and forthe remaining days we wentto workfor whitesto get food forourselves and our families.It tookus abouta monthto completea canalof about 1 100 yardslong from the little dam to thegarden land. "In 1920 we bought5 bags of limefrom the late Jan Delie and replaced the dam of brancheswith a stoneand lime dam. In thatyear I had about 1 _ morgenof landcleared and levelled. On thatpiece of landI wonmy first harvest ofwheat. I got25 bags."122 JohannesVisagie told the same Commission:"I and my oldestbrother weremy father's only help and because my fatherwas physicallytoo weak to workthe land, us two had to bear thebrunt of it.... No-one had lived on the islandpreviously and everythingwas wasteand derelict.We did notknow where to startwith digging out bushes and trees and also howto beginto workthe land. The groundwas badlywashed away because it was the'path' of the Orange river. To make a beginningin such a place undersuch conditionswas a taskwhich causedus sleeplessnights and headaches.We had to stopthe work several times to go and workfor food among the farmers, and thenreturn to drudgeand sweat on theland. This stateof affairslasted for a considerabletime... "Afterwe had a respectablebit of groundlevelled, the big problemof how to bringit underirrigation cropped up. In thebeginning we gotsuperfluous waterfrom Mr Nurickof Ecksteenskuiland it was naturallyinsufficient towater theground properly. It tooktoil and sweatto bringwater to theirrigable land."123 ZedokusFeris testified that: "When I came and settledon Smal island,I had 20 goats,2 donkeys,2 cows and an old spade.... The island was terribly

120. CA 1/UPT6/4/15/1/20/25, Floris Willem Martinus Swartz [Schwartz], Contract of agreement,22/3/1921 [damaged]; HJ Skipperto NCO, SAP, Keimoes28/4/1922; Z.B. Feris,Contract of agreement,19/5/1922. C.J. Schwartz,Contract of agreement,20/5/1922. See ZedokusFeris, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan Kleurling. Nedersettingsgebiede,(LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1) whoclaimed that both his andF. Schwartz'slease datefrom 1922. 121. CA 1/UPT6/4/15/1/20/18, H.J. Skipper to NCO, SAP, Keimoes13/5/1922. 122. LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1,Arrie Louw, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede. 123. LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, JohannesVisagie Jr, Getuienis [aan] Kommissie van Ondersoek van Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede.

172 bushyand in some places almostimpenetrable. We two builta littledam of stonesand lime in one of thelittle streams.... It tookseveral months to dig the canal of about 5000 yardsfrom the littledam to the irrigableland. We had sometimesto discontinuedigging the canal to go andwork for food for ourselves and ourfamilies... I slaughteredall mycows and goatswhile I was workingon thecanal and theland... In 1924 I had clearedand levelledabout 1 _ morgenof land....There I plantedmealies, pumpkin and watermelon.In 1923 I had myfirst wheatharvest.... It gave me 5 lhbags."124 Once parliamentpassed theresolution, two (and, later,three) Keimoes landownerswere appointed to assistthe Upington magistrate to place coloured settlersand set up a Committeeof Management.The magistratewas given authorityto cancelall temporaryleases from1 March1925. At first,3 morgenof landwere alloted; this was laterincreased to 6 morgen.When it was discovered thatthere were 17 whitelandowners on theseislands, Parliament modified the conditionsof occupation to allowthem to remain.125 Withthe resolution, more coloureds settled. Willem Gous and Hendrik Beukes obtained contractsfor land on Rhebok island in January1924.126 BernardusFeris settled on Smal islandin 1925,Jan Schwartz on Jamesisland in 1925,Adriaan van Wykon Geelbosisland in 1926,and Dirkvan Eden,Adriaan Gouws and Albertvan Wyk on Vyebos island in 1927.127According to the Ministerof Lands, there were some 30 colouredfamilies settled at Ecksteenskuil by 1930,but this may well be an underestimate.128As well as clearingthe ground and buildingcanals, theybuilt, in the 1930s and 1940s, roads, bridges,and schools,all at theirown expense.In 1930 whitesprotested at attemptedtransfer of a holdingon Smit island by a whiteto a colourednamed Barend Tities, claimingthat his contractforbade this. They were told that the property was in thecoloured settlement.129 The settlement,like all theislands, was hitby floodsin 1925 and 1934, as well as droughts.Residents later described the setbacks that this caused. "The floodsof 1925 devastatedthe land terriblywith the consequence that we had to startagain, suffer hardship and hungerto restorethe land to a useablecondition. Afterthis flood we each gota loan of L10 froma certainMr WillemMoolman, who livedat thattime at Raaswater,so thatwe couldwork the land. We paid the amountback in paymentsat the same timeas our rent...Because of thenation- wide droughtin 1933 we won no harveston thisisland.... In 1934 the Orange

124. LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, Zedokus Feris, Getuienis [aan] Kommissie van Ondersoek van Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede. 125. LDE 4892, 23426 Vol 2, _Verslag.. .oor die EksteenskuilKleurling Nedersettingsgebied, (1952), 9-10. Parliamentpassed thesemeasures on 13 and 15 May 1925. 126. CA 1/UPT6/4/15/1/20/15, RM, Upingtonto HJSkipper, 18/1/1924; LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1, WillemGous, Getuienis [aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede . 127. LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1, BernardusFeris, Jan Schwartz, Willem van Wyk,Dirk van Eden, Getuienis[aan] Kommissie van Ondersoekvan KleurlingNedersettingsgebiede. Dirk van Eden mentionedthat he gotthe contract after three whites failedon theisland. See also Pattersonto RM, Upington,5/5/1923; 9/7/1923; RM, Upingtonto Sec forLands 6/12/1929 [CA 1/UPT6/3/15/1/20/5]: Hanekom and Van Wykgave up on the islandbefore 1923; one Meyerleft the island in 1924,and one de Klerkwith a temporarylease leftin 1927 "whenit was requiredfor coloured settlement purposes". 128. HAD, 23/1/1930,col 55. In July1927 theIrrigation Commission inspected Skanskop island to see if it was suitablefor Bastersettlement, but considered it undesirablebecause it wouldform "a wedgebetween the European inhabitants of Neilersdrift,Brakbos island and Keimoes."(UG 7-1929,p. 23). 129. CA 1/UPT6/4/15/1/20/16,13 settlers of Smitisland to RM, Upington16/4/1930; RM, Upingtonto Secretaryfor Lands, 13/6/1930.

173 riveragain spilledits banks and damagedthe crops and the land.... It caused difficultiesto restorethe land. Afterthe floods we got mealies, wheat and mealie-mealrations from the government.For thiswe latergot bills fromthe government.I paid mybill abouta yearlater. The toiland troubleto restorethe land was dreadful,but withcourage, patience and perseverancewe devoted ourselvesto thetask and achieved wonders."130 "The 1925 floodseriously damaged the land and I had to sweatand toil to restoreit. Afterthe flood Mr Nurickrefused to give us his superfluouswater and we werethus obliged immediately to make an attemptto get waterout of one ofthe little streams."131 "At thattime [1925] the governmentmade L300 available for the occupantsof allotmentson the Settlementto restorethe destroyed ground, but we used themoney to restoreour water... [In 1934] thedam we had madein the riverby Lang islandbroke and was sweptaway by the water."132 The mainunhappiness among inhabitants of thesettlement was withthe limitedten-year tenure they were granted. The APO conferencein April 1925, forexample, resolved that: "the Governmentbe approachedwith a view to grantingfixity of tenureto Colouredpeople occupyingcertain islands in the Orange River."133Only in March 1948 was Ecksteenskuilproclaimed as a permanentcoloured settlement - of 1400 morgenand 4 islandgroups - under Act 7 of 1946.134By 1956 therewere more than 80 familieson 2-6 morgenplots, payingrentals of 10/-a yearfor irrigable land and 1/-a yearfor building plots.135 (Todaythere are some 119 families,each owningabout 3 hectares.)136Even then, purchaseof the land was not allowed, and when residentswere allowed to purchase,they could not get titledeeds. As David Andrew,who had been on Smal island since 1925, explained: "the ten years expired in 1935, as we reckoned.Then the governmentsaid to us, 'No, there'sa provingtime of five years.We mustfirst see who qualifiesfor the groundand who doesn't.'And whenthe five years were up, thewar broke out. Then the government said 'We can'tstand and bother with this land now.' Thenone foundthe settlers, the adults wentto thewar, and theirsons wentlike locuststo thewar. Because theyhad to see to it thatno-one could come to takeour land. And it is quietuntil now. Just a bit heartbreaking.Now theland is actuallyon thebasis of sale, you can buy it now...there are thosewho have paid forthe land. But we sit and waitfor title deeds..We havea grondbrief.You can'ttake that to thebank and get a loan."137

130. LDE 4891, 23426,vol 1, ArieLouw, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan KleurlingNedersettingsgebiede. Also WillemGous in ibid. 131. Lut 4»yi, Z.54ZÖ,voi i, jonannesvisagie, uetuienis¿aanj kommissievan unaersoeicvan e^ieuriing Nedersettingsgebiede. 132. LDE 4891, 23426, vol 1, Zedokus Feris, Getuienis[aan] Kommissievan Ondersoekvan Kleurling Nedersettingsgebiede. 133. Cape Times,15/4/1925; (LDE 3953, 11 106). 134. LDE 4892, 23426 Vol 2, Verslag...oor die EksteenskuilKleurling Nedersettingsgebied, (1952), 10. On 15 March(H of A) and 26 March(Senate). 135. J.Brauer, Cape Times,18/2/1956. Brauer was wrongto characteriseall theseas "descendantsoí thosewho helpedto buildthe irrigation furrow near Upington." 136. Interviewof Cornelius Kok by MartinLegassick, 24/1 1/1995 137. Interviewwith Dawid Andrew,23/1 1/95

174 Mier

As regards the 'pastoral'settlementin northernGordonia, the 1924 Pact governmentwas soon underpressure, both from J. Coetzee (who had lostin the electionto thePact candidate,J. H. Conradie),and fromthe APO. Bothwanted to knowwhen the Commission would be sentto inspectthe area, as requiredby the1923 resolution.138In 1924 Coetzeewas reassuredby theSecretary for Lands that"I have not hustledmatters because it was too late forthis year. [The Minister]is goinginto the matter during the recess."139 In theevent, no further actionwas takenuntil 1926.140 The Pact governmentstressed that the northernGordonia settlement should notjust be forthe coloureds of Gordonia.The segregationist- as opposedto restitutionist- elements of thesettlement were thereby accentuated. Section (c) of the resolutionpassed in 1923, whichread thatafter Gordonia colouredshad had land allotted,the allocationof theremaining area "to other coloured persons shall fromtime to time be subject to the approval of Parliament",was thereforeamended in 1926 by Parliamentto read thatsuch allocationcould be made (withoutpermission of Parliament)to "such other colouredpersons throughout the Union who maybe foundat varioustimes to be in needof land".141 Ratherthan working with the APO as the SAP governmenthad done, moreover,the Pact governmentcultivated the more conservativeAfrican NationalBond.142 On 14 April 1926 the Ministermet a deputationheaded by W.H. Le Grange,its chairman.They asked about assistancefor Coloureds to acquireland underLand Settlementschemes, and "all informationrelating to the...Crown Lands in theGordonia District; promised by thelate Governmentto the ColouredCommunity, for Land settlement"They wantedimmediate steps takento startirrigation and boring works there, as well as theappointment of the commissionto investigatethe "pros and cons" of sucha landsettlement.143 On theLand SettlementAct the Ministerreplied, disingenuously, that "therewas no distinctiondrawn in the Act betweenEuropeans and coloured people. The coloured membersof the community,provided they held the qualificationsunder the Act and providedthey had the necessarycapital to undertakefarming, were entitled equally with Europeans to makeapplication in termsof theAct... the approval of applicationswas primarilyin thehands of the Land Boardsbut, if and whenapplications were submitted by colouredmembers of thecommunity they would be referredto and dealtwith by theBoards in the

138. LDE 3953, 11106, Coetzeeto Secretaryfor Lands, 17/8/1924. He also askedwhether the Government intend to open up theOrange river Islands (presumably for white settlement). For the APO, see Cape Times,15/4/1925. 139. LDE 3953, 11 106 Secretaryfor Lands to Coetzee,1/9/1924. He added "We are busyon theOrange River islands at the moment". 140. This was partlybecause the governmentwas waiting for the appointmentof a new, fifth,Land Board, with responsibilitiesfor Marico, Rustenburg, Lichtenburg, Ventersdorp, Klerksdorp, Christiana, Wolmaranstad, Bloemhof in theTransvaal and the Cape northof the Orange River. For itsappointment see GovernmentGazette 18/9/1925 No 1573. 141. Resolution,passée DyMot a zz/4/iyzo;senate iy/5/iyzò.see also Minute,zy/wiyzD in LDfc,5V55, 1 1 luo. 14Z. AMB,"Report ot Committeeon Lands . 143. LDE 3953, 11106,"ANB, "Reportof Committeeon Lands",Rev A.A.Petersen,chairman. They also raisedthe issue of theMalay location in Johannesburgand proposed the cutting up of desertedmine land into small holdings for coloureds.

175 ordinaryway."144 The APO had already exposed Pact governmentpolicy regardingland settlement. At the1925 APO conferenceitwas reportedthat at two meetingswith the Secretary for Labour the preferential settlement of poorwhites on theland had been discussed."'We will deal withthe Coloured people later' was whatthey were told." The conferencehad resolved that government be asked to provideland forthe settlementof "competentcoloured agriculturalists" assistedthrough the Land Bank"on thesame basis as Europeanfarmers."145 Regardingthe northern Gordonia settlement, the Minister told the ANB thatfurther extensive boring would be neededbefore much of theland would be habitable146,and promiseda commission,which at least one memberof the coloured communitywould be asked to "accompany". He emphasisedhis intentionto make the settlementavailable forall "membersof the coloured community,and not for any particular section of them, such as theUpington men alone." He added thatbecause the Mier settlementwas intendedto meetthe reasonableneeds of coloureds,"the coloured community could notwell expect to have theirapplications considered in otherpurely European areas" - rather contradictinghis earlier remarks on theLand SettlementAct!147 The commissionin factwas constitutedsoon after, arrived in Upingtonin July1926, and travelled all theway through northern Gordonia to Union'sEnd. It consistedof Mr Liebenberg,chairman of theTransvaal Land Board,Dr du Toit,a governmentgeologist, R.D. Jackson,government land surveyor, "a representative of theCape Provincefor the coloureds", Le Grange,and "one fromUpington for thebastard community", by nameJohannes Klaasten.148 Liebenberg and Du Toit submitteda joint report,while Le Grangeand Claasens submittedseparate reports.Liebenberg and Du Toit'sreport was largelytechnical, on theavailability of waterand the prospectsfor stock-raising and agriculture.It recommended stringentprohibitions on theability to transferland to whites.And it concluded: "Takingthe position in generalwe considerthe country to be eminentlysuitable forstock raising, but whether the coloured community is themost desirable settler forthe area is a pointwhich only time can prove,as it is doubtfulwhether they would feel theirresponsibility sufficiently to employonly the best farming methodsand therebyguard againstdeterioration of the veld."149While this appearedto cast aspersionson coloureds,it was in factthe firstof a seriesof opinionson the area theysurveyed which would resultin the shiftingof the pastoralcoloured settlement from the (subsequent) Kalahari Gemsbok area to the areafurther south around Rietfontein.

144. LDE 3953, 11 106, H. d.P, "Memo",n.d, c. 14/4/1926. 145 .Cape Times,15/4/1925 (in LDE 3953). 146. LDE 3953, 11106, At thetime there were apparently 16 bore holes on theOup river,including at Boksputs,KijKij, Sekwatsand Kameelsleep:R.D. Jacksonto A.H. Cornish-Bowden,12/1/1924. 147. LDE 3953, 11106, H.d.P., "Memo". The ANB delegationhad also asked aboutgovernment support for coloureds to acquireland in urbanareas for small holdings "on theeasy paymentsystem". The Ministerrejected this on thegrounds thatit was notdone forwhites. The questionof locationsfor coloureds separate from those of "natives",not on the originallist of ANB issues, was also discussed: see Ministerof Lands to Administratorof Transvaal,20/4/1926; Administratorto Minister ©f Lands, 24/4/1926. 148. Cape Times,22/7/1926 (LDE 3953, 11106). This articleincludes a historyof the BritishBechuanaland Concession Courtin Mier,mentions that Sir David Graaffowns one or twofarms in thearea, and providesan etymologyof theword 'Mier',meaning lake, not ant. 149. LDE 3953, 11 106, Part II, Reportof D.P. Liebenbergand A.L. du Toit.Submitted in August?(See Directorof Irrigation to Secretaryfor Lands, 1/9/1926 LDE 3953, 11 106).

176 Le Grange'sreport was muchmore explicit on thisquestion. The area theyhad inspected,he wrote, could "be made available forstockfarming if sufficientwater should be boredfor by theGovernment for the benefit of stock and domestic use". But he had reservations.Settling coloureds there,he believed,would be impossible"before there has been madeprovision for proper settlements...where the colouredpopulation could come togetherand from whichsettlement any person who has becomeefficient can of courseapply for a farm....it won't be advisablefor the Government to allow peopleto scatteron the land as thereare always personswho have no abilityto attaina farm."He proposedthe farm Kameelsleep for such a centralsettlement, cut up in 1 morgen erven,and also thefarm Rietfontein: "although it has beenrepresented to me that the RhenishMissionary Society has appliedfor the titleof Rietfontein."150(In factthe Rhenish Mission Society had had a missionat Rietfonteinsince 1885, and had been grantedthe farmshortly after that). "I am of opinionthat by grantingsuch application to thesaid Societya soundscheme would be prevented frommaking a successof thesettlement of thecoloured population on Mierland. For thesimple reason that there is thefinest opportunity at Rietfonteinto build up a splendidsettlement water being plentiful and there could beautiful irrigation worksbe made,but not only this. Such a centralplace couldbe madevery useful forbusiness purposes, as a cattle-marketetc." Considering it "mostundesirable" for"our whitepopulation" to takeup farms,he wantedthe governmentto get back thosealready taken up (Sekwats,Oikolk, Kijkij), including one ownedby SirDavid Graaff.151 JohannesKlaasten submitted two versions of his report.In thefirst, after notingthe types of bushand watersupply, and commentingon thesuitability of theland for cattle farming, he drew"the attention of theGovernment to thefirst spotwhere a watersupply can be obtained.Such spotto be madeby Government theCentral or principalstation from where if possible irrigation can takeplace. I recommendto have theprincipal station made in sucha way thatthe small man can also participateand I can assureyou such a schemewill be a success. In connectionwith such a land settlementon thatextensive piece of groundit is my opinionthat how closer the settlementso mucheasier, more convenientand cheaperthe development of theland as wouldbe thecase whenthe settlers were scatteredthereon. There will be moredevelopment when there is a place of rest, theweakest man will look forwardtowards the future with ambition."152 These were the same points thatLe Grange was making.Klaasten concluded by - pointingout that the land between Twee Rivieren,the Ouop and Nosop what is todaythe Kalahari Gemsbok National Park - was "stilla wildernessor nearly

150. LDE 3953, 11 106, On thisrepresentation see Minuteto Ministerof Lands 26/8/1926."Mr Le Grangecalled to see you. Is proposingthat Government should hand over farm Rietfontein... I told him that I thoughtthat the Berlin Mission or the RhenishMission had rightsover this ground, but I was uncertain." IDI. LDfc,J^DJ, 1 1 lUö, fart n, Keportrrom Mr w.u. Le orange . ine Airucaansoriginai rrom wnicn mis is iransiaieais in LDE 3953, 11106, Partii. Submittedin W. H. Le Grangeto Ministerof Lands, 12/10/1926,delayed by gettingthe approvalof the Gordonia representative. See ibidand Le Grangeto Ministerof Lands 12/8/1926. 1DZ. LDb 3953, 11 lUò, Fart n, m a secondversion ne madeclearer mat allowing me poorman to nave a snarem irrigation would "lay the basis forthe conservationof the whole settlementof Coloureds.":"Raport van JohannesKlaassen, Upington",21/3/1927. 1 am gratefulto Suzie Newton-Kingfor translation of the Dutch/ Afrikaans of thesecond report.

177 so and that the settlerswill have to fightwild animals", and hoped for governmentassistance in this.153 In Augustone J.P.Bergmann, of Louwbosch(near Rietfontein) strongly supportedthe idea of a settlementat Rietfontein.He wroteto the Ministerof Lands, sayingthat unfortunately he was not at home when the commission visited.It was impossiblein his view to conceiveof a "basterkolonie" between theNosob andAup rivers.The waterin therivers was at a depthof 200 feet,and poorpeople could notafford the necessary boreholes. He suggestedinstead that aroundthe mission which owned the farmsRietfontein, Skepkol and Kalkputs therewas enoughland "to settlethousands of Basterfamilies and give thema chanceto makea living.The wateris almostabove theground in certainplaces. The landis amongthe most fertile that I have known,and Sannaspoortis almost a naturaldam." It wouldcost aboutL5000 to improveit. The land whichcould be irrigatedfrom it was 10-15,000morgen, of so good a qualitythat erf s of 6 morgenwould give thechance of a firstclass living.He himselfsold fruitand vegetablesto Upington."Nou ja Meneer,here is a blockof 90 thousandmorgen whichwould be just theright place to makea reserve...Give me thechance (if you thinkwell of thematter) to get a writtenoption from all theowners before one wakesup sleepingdogs." He could buythe land todayat a low price(for a smallcommission) and save thegovernment money. He recommendedtaking the surveyorJackson's advice.154 He wroteagain in October:"Since I wroteto you it appearsthat the Basters are of the same opinionthat they must get theland at Rietfontein"and offered to do thework on thedam wall.155 Replyingto Bergmanon 12 November,the Under-Secretaryof Lands explainedthe parliamentary constraints the Minister was workingunder - he had been "confined"to theland between the Aub and Nossop riversand did not havethe power to considerthe founding of a Bastercolony in theneighbourhood of Rietfontein.156However the previous day theidea of a Rietfonteinsettlement had got supportfrom the WesternLand Board. Having read merelythe Liebenbergand du Toitreport, it decidedthat: "it would be difficultto establisha successfulsettlement for the colouredpeople betweenthe Auhoop and Nosop riversbecause it is all loose sandveld, and there is thedanger that with too many stockat thewater holes, it wouldeventually return to beinga howlingdesert. It is advisableto investigatethe land and thepossibility of irrigationworks in the neighbourhoodof Rietfonteinwith an eye on thefounding of a colonyfor the Bastercommunity in thatarea, even if necessaryin connectionwith the land betweenthe Auhoop and Nosop rivers."157A minute to theMinister of Lands in thesame monthdrew attention not only to thereports of thecommission, but to the WesternLand Board decisionand to Bergmann'sletters and asked "what

153. "Reportfrom Johannes Klaassen", translation from Dutch/Afrikaans original, both in LDE 3953, 11106,part II. This versionis signed"N.H. Theron,Secretary". 154 T.DR 3953. 111 06. Partii. J.P.Bergman to Ministerof Lands. 2/8/1926. 155. J.P.Bergman to Ministerof Lands,26/10/1926. 156. LDE 3953, 11 106, Part II, Under-Secretaryof Landsto JPBergmann, PK Mier,12/1 1/1926. 157. LDE 3953, 11 106, Part II, WestelikeLand Raad,resolution, 11/1 1/1926

178 actionyou wish takennow". It added thatthe Rietfontein mission was outside thearea authorisedby parliament.158 Thoughit is notreflected in materialin thearchives, things had swungin favourof thearea aroundRietfontein. In 1929 thechairman of theLand Board and the Under-Secretaryof Lands were asked to inspect this land and recommendedit. The Ministerapproved the recommendationand five farms were bought:73,000 morgenfor £13,000.159 In 1929 the Coloured Persons SettlementAreas (Cape) Bill (No 33) was in fact tabled to confirmthe settlement.It was readfor the first time, but its second reading was cutacross by theelection of thatyear.160 It was introducedagain in 1930 by theMinister of Lands. Reviewingthe historyof the proposal for a pastoralsettlement, the Ministermade clear thatthe report of thecommission of 1926 had been "very disappointing". The area originally proposed by parliament"was quite unsuitable,inasmuch as the grass...will be troddenup by the stock,and there was practicallyno possibilityof gettingwater." The commission,he added,had suggestedthat "I should tryto get hold of an area southof the Rietfontein MissionStation, which will be suitablefor the purpose": he omittedto say which of thecommissioners had in factsuggested this. This had beendone. The area of 450,000 morgenembraced about 50 farms(30 CrownLand). Therewere five adjacent farmsowned by coloureds which it was proposedto attachto the 'reserve'."This area is easilyseparable from the farms occupied by Europeans." Provisionwas madefor its extension, upon approval of Parliament.He proposed a boardof control,and electionof a local committeeby thepeople themselves. The occupantsshould not have ownershiprights: "it would not be in thepeople's interests.We know fromexperience that they then lose the farmsthrough Europeansbuying them up. These verypeople nearlyall had farmsalong the OrangeRiver, and theyadmit that by easy credit,and thesupply of drink,they have been ruined."The boardwould be able to cancel rightof occupation;but rightof occupationcould be inheritedfor children or dependants.There would be no tradingwithout permission, and no liquorcould be sold or imported.It was an experimenthe added."If it succeeds,other areas can also be proclaimed...by virtueof theresolution of Parliament,and provisionis also made thatcoloured peoplefrom other areas can also applyto be included."161 The principaldebate was on thequestion of segregation.In the second readingdebate, Heaton Nicholls,member for Zululand (and in the 1930s an ardentsegregationist so faras 'natives'were concerned)162pointed out thatthe Bill represented"an entirelynew departurein our legislationin regardto land settlement",in comparisonwith the 1912 Land SettlementAct or the 1913

158. LDE 3953, 11 106, Part II, Minuteto theMinister, 23/1 1/1926. 159. Ministerof Lands,HAD, 23/1/1930,cols 55-7; Faure,col 57. This is dealtwith in file 14972 of theLands department records,which I couldnot trace in thearchives. 160. HAD, 1929,cols 1379,1811. 161. Ministerof Lands,HAD, 23/1/1930,cols 55-7. The ColouredPersons Settlement Act, ino 5 oi iv^u, is aeaii wiinin me 14098of the Lands Department records, which I couldnot trace in thearchives. 162. See forexample S. Marks, The Ambiguitiesof Dependence in SouthAfrica: Class, Nationalismand the State in Twentieth-CenturyNatal, (Johannesburg, 1986).

179 Natives Land Act. "Here, in this Bill, we are establishingsegregation for colouredpeople... we are takingpower under this Bill, by simpleresolution of thisParliament to set up colouredareas all over theCape... it mayprofoundly affectthe policy of the future... we mayapply it to othercoloured people in Natal tomorrow."On the thirdreading he moved for the deletion of the clauses allowingthe extension of the settlement'sboundaries and theestablishment of othersettlements in theCape merelyby resolutionof parliament:he believedan Act of parliamentwas required.On thebasis of a resolution,the House "might adopt a principlewithout adequate discussion,and set up segregationin the Cape, whichseems to me eminentlyundesirable without a fulldiscussion." "The colouredpeople in the Union", he added, "have theirrights under the Land SettlementActs... and standequally with Europeans in applyingfor land... There is no doubtthat the Minister could in carryingout theresolutions of the select committeehave broughtthis settlement under the ordinary Land SettlementAct, buthe could notset up machinery,especially applicable to thecoloured people. He has chosento have thisBill, and I approveof thatentirely... but he should have leftit there...We shallhave gotinto recognizing three forms of segregation - black,white and coloured.Since thequestion of theterritorial segregation of the races has been one of the burningtopics of our public life, it seems undesirableto bringin anotherform until we knowwhat we aredoing."163 His amendmentwas opposedby Faure,member for Hottentots Holland, whoargued that there were "many ordinary and respectable coloured people in the Cape Provincewho also wantland." Faure added that it was "all verywell forthe hon. memberfor Zululand to say thatthe coloured people can also obtainland underthe Land SettlementAct, but he knows well thatif a Europeanand a colouredperson want the same piece of groundthat the former will get it." It was also opposedby Stals,who claimedthat Nichols wanted to provideland notfor colouredpeople, but only for a "groupof colouredpeople" in Gordonia:"if it is rightfor Gordonia, it is rightalso forthe other parts in theCape Province"."The idea ofcoloured segregation seems to be a sortof nightmare with the hon member forZululand. It maybe thatthe hon. member feels strongly about it, but I think thatthere is absolutelyno dangerin it.Any properly thinking statesman knows that such a policy will not be possible in South Africaat all." The guaranteeof requiringa parliamentary resolution meant there was no needto bothernow about furthersegregation. The Ministerof Lands also rejectedthe amendmentand assuredthat "as faras I am concernedit is notthe policy of theGovernment to establishcoloured settlements all overthe Cape Province.We havealready several smallcoloured settlements, and it may be necessaryto haveanother."164 Parliament wouldcontrol the matter. In theend, Heaton Nicholls withdrew the amendment.165 Therewere a varietyof othercomments. Mr Faure,who had inspected theland, believed that only Baster stock farmers would move there,unless the storagedam at Sannah'sPoort was improved."If the Governmentdoes that,I

163. H.Nicholls,HAD, 23/1/1930,cols 59-60; 6/2/1930,cols 498-9. 164. LDE 3953, 11 106, Part II, A petitionfrom coloureds in theKuruman district wanting government to buyland for them therewas turneddown around this time because of the Mier settlement. 165. HAD, 6/2/30,cols 500-502.

180 thinkthe 'Bastards' along the Orange River and on theislands might be induced to go there,as thereis excellentland forthem to cultivate.They have been unjustlytreated and exploited,and we willthus get better control over them". Mr Stals welcomedthe bill as doingsomething for the coloured people when things had alreadybeen done forthe European and thenative. He hopedthat the Bill wouldalso includethe Griqua, enabling them to becomelandowners again. He appreciatedthe proposed regulations, as one did notwant to establish"a kindof Tom Tiddler'sground for the colouredperson." He thoughtthere should be warinesson how it affectedthe labourquestion. Mr Krige commentedon the extentof theMinister's power under the regulations, and hopedthat the settlers wouldeventually get titles to land and becomemembers of theboard of control. "As to theGordonia settlement, the people there owned the land in daysgone by, butthrough no faultof theirown theylost the title to theirland."Mr Van Coller wantedthe inhabitants to electtwo of theirown people to theboard of control- whichwas rejectedby theMinister on thegrounds that white settlements had no suchprovision.166 Van Coller also feltthat government should make provision for housing,and warnedthat "serious trouble" might come regardingcommunal grazingrights and the use ofwater.167 In May 1930 parliamentpassed a resolutionrescinding that of June1923 andreserving "for the purposes of the Mier Coloured Persons Settlement Area" 25 farmsin northernGordonia.168 They did not includeRietfontein or Schepkolk. Theyrepresented less thanone thirdof thearea that had beenruled by theBaster DirkVilander in theninteenth century and annexed by British Bechualand in 1891 (additionalterritory of Vilander'swas in GermanSouth West Africa). Vilander's rulehad also extendedover the area thatbecame the Kalahari Gemsbok Park, as wellas thearea to thesouth of the new Mier settlement. Some farms were added to theMier settlement in 1934and 1939,and in 1968Rietfontein and Schepkolk were incorporatedinto it.169 According to a studyby the SurplusPeople's Project,in 1990there still existed tensions between the original Baster inhabitants of the area, and"coloureds" who had movedto thearea since1930. The Bastershave become the"underdogs" relative to manyof the "coloureds" who are wealthier.170

Riemvasmaak:II

In 1925, underthe Pact Government,the Department of Lands renewedto the Native AffairsDepartment the demandfor the removalof the inhabitantsof Riemvasmaak(now estimatedat 80 to 100 "Nativefamilies") so that"the farms

166. In committeeFaure moved thatthe Ministerbe empoweredto add settlersto the board, in orderto "restorethe confidenceof thebastard towards the white man". He gave examplesof currentlywell-off Basters. One, forexample, had died recentlyat Keimoesworth LI 5,000; another,Gordon Breytenbach, owned 600 head of cattleand 2000 sheep. "Theyare a littlerace by themselves,with a languageof their own." This was agreed.HAD, 3/2/1930,col 354. 167. HAD, 23/1/1930,cols 57-63. 168. LDE 3953, 11106, File II, The farmswere LekkerDraai, Kykwas,Januaries Kop, Kakochap,Ogenas, Kooi Hoop, Rolletjes,Kaa Straat,Tonsip, Brand Duin, SimonsPan, Haakschein,Rooipan, Pulai, Loretto,Sebobogas, Witstraat, Langkaa,Tween Dabas, Dwangas,De Stoelle,Haakschein Vley, Louw Bosch,Groot Mier, Klein Mier No 1: Resolution ofHouse of Assembly20/5/1930. 169. SurplusPeople Project, "If one can live,all mustlive": a reporton past,present and alternativeland use in theMier RuralReserve in theNorthern Cape, 12-13. 170. SPP, "Ifone can live...", 17-21.

181 Riemvastmaak,Wagenbrand and Waterval"could be divided into five and disposedof (to whites)under the 1912 Land SettlementAct. As a sop, it was added that"a small extentof land" in theRichtersveld in Namaqualandmight become available for disposal by the Government."In such an event it is proposedto makesome of it availablefor occupation by certainNatives many of whomare at presentsquatting in theneighbourhood of PortNolloth and O'okiep and it is suggestedthat, if difficultyis experiencedby yourDepartment in findingland forthe RiemvastmaakNatives, they might also be moved to the Richtersveldarea."171 Once morethis initiated conflict between the NAD and the Departmentof Lands, a typeof inter-bureaucraticconflict identified by several studentsof this period.172 Whenthis was reportedto him by the NAD, the Upingtonmagistrate responded:"If thesenatives are removedto theRichtersveld area, in whatway are theygoing to be employed,or how will theyearn a livelihood?"Some of them,he added, had "been on these farmsfor years, and the majorityare employedon theKakamas Labour Colony. They are notallowed to keep stockat Kakamas,and use thesefarms for that purpose, paying the grazing fees. I must say thatconsidering the number of nativesabout, there appears to be verylittle stocktheft, but it is possiblethat it maygo undetected."He suggestedthat they couldbe accomodatedon Block No 1 [AnnexBokseputs].173 The NAD repliedto the Departmentof Lands, ssupportingthe magistrate'sanalysis and proposals. The Departmentof Lands repliedthat they were not prepared to reserveAnnex Bokseputs"for Natives."174 In an internalNAD communicationforwarding this correspondence to the Secretaryfor Native Affairsit was pointedout thatthe inhabitantsof Riemvasmaakwere "apparently, strictly speaking, not Natives, but Damaras and Hottentots".Therefore, it was implied,it would be more appropriatefor the Departmentof Lands than the NAD to issue instructionsto the Upington magistratefor theirremoval.175 Herbst, the Secretaryfor Native Affairs, previouslyan AssistantMagistrate at Rietfontein,then wrote a strongletter to theDepartment of Lands on behalfof his Minister,hoping that the inhabitants of Riemvasmaakwould not "be deprivedof the privilege."of leasing grazing. "These colouredpeople have been drivenfrom pillar to postin thepast and the factthat they have for years been left undisturbed affords proof of thebarrenness of thearea. They have been allowedgrazing rights for their stock, and theyhave themselvesfound useful employment upon the Kakamas settlement. If theylose theuse of 'Riemvastmaak'no alternativeprovision can be made so faras this Departmentis aware.They will thenalmost inevitably lose theirstock, and with

171. NTS 2957,99/305, Acting Under Secretary for Lands to SNA, 26/10/1926. 172. See, forexample, S. Dubow, Racial Segregationand theorigins of apartheidin SouthAfrica, 1919-19JO, especially PartII. One of thetasks set by David Duncan, The Mills of God: thestate and Africanlabour in SouthAfrica, 1918- 1948, (Johannesburg,1995) is to studythe "tension between the repressive and welfarefunctions of labourregulation andbetween the departments which applied them", 3-4. 173. NTS 2957, 99/305, KM, Upingtonto SNA, 27/11/1925;SNA to KM, Upington,29/10/1925. lhe magistrateclaimed that"3 nativeswith families" were livingon Watervaland "26 nativeswith families" on Riemvasmaak,making 182 peoplein total. 174. NTS 2957,99/305, SNA to Sec forLands, 4/12/1925; Sec forLands to SNA, 19/1/1926. 175. NTS 2957,99/305, NAD to SNA 27/1/1926.

182 it theiramenability, and degenerateinto stock thieves and marauders,while the Kakamas settlementwill lose theirlabour which these people furnish.The countryis knownto me and is useless forwhite settlement, and it is probable thatthe sum of therentals already collected from these coloured people amounts to more than the value of the land. In the Minister's opinion it would be undesirableand hardlyhumane to send themto the Richtersveldwhere they wouldhave no meansof subsistence,and wouldrun serious risks at thehands of thepresent inhabitants of thatarea." He suggestedthat removing their grazing rightsat Riemvastmaakwould be inexpedientat leastuntil "the establishment of the Coloured Settlementsin the Mier country."176Thus - thoughall their dealingsthus far had beenwith the Native Affairs Department - theinhabitants ofRiemvasmaak were redefined by Herbst as "coloureds". The Departmentof Lands was putin a quandary.They wrote back to the NAD that"if the people squattingon thesefarms are colouredpeople... they will be allowed to remainthere until provision can be made forthem in the Mier country."If, on the otherhand, they were "Natives,Mr Grobler[Minister of Lands] desiresthat your department should make provision for them elsewhere in orderthat Riemvastmaak and Watervalmay be utilisedfor land settlement purposes."177The NAD dulyenquired of theGordonia magistrate "whether the personsresiding on thefarms in questionare colouredpersons as distinctfrom Nativesof Bantu origin"and receivedthe (ambiguous)reply that "The non- Europeanpersons residing on thefarm Riemvastmaak are all Damarasand those residingon Watervalare Hottentots."178 The Lands Departmentinterpreted this to meanthat the inhabitants were "colouredpeople (rather than Natives)" and pursuedthe possibility - originally raisedby the Gordoniamagistrate - of removingthem to AnnexBokseputs. Theyexplained the need for this in terms,firstly, of the"considerable pressure" broughtto bear on theirDepartment "to release Riemvastmaak,Waterval and Wagenbrandfor white settlement", and, secondly, because "the proposed scheme forsettling people in theMier country is unlikelyto materialisefor some years to come". (In fact,it was a merethree years away). On AnnexBokseputs, they added,the inhabitants would "be just as nearif notnearer Kakamas" and would "also have theopportunity of findingemployment with the white settlers" who were allocatedthe farms.They wroteto the NAD that"It is presumed...your Departmentis notparticularly interested, but should there be anyremarks which you would care to offerin regardto theproposal it would be esteemedif you wouldbe so good as to place themon record."179Both the Gordonia magistrate andthe SNA raisedno objectionsto theseproposals.180

176. NTS 2957,99/305, Herbst to Sec forLands, 2/2/1926. 177. NTS 2957,99/305, Sec forLands to SNA, 18/8/1926referring to an (untraced)minute of 19/6/1926. 178. NTS 2957,99/305, SNA to Magistrate,Upington, 21/8/1926; Magistrate, Upington to SNA 3/9/1926. 179. NTS 2957, 99/305, Sec forLands to SNA 30/3/1927referring to an (untraced)minuteof 9/9/1926;Sec forLands to SNA, 3/5/1926referring to an (untraced)minute of 7/4/1926. 180. NTS 2957, 99/305, SNA to RM, Upington12/5/1927; RM, Upingtonto SNA 20/5/1927;SNA to Sec forLands, 27/5/1927;also SNA to Min ofJustice, 23/7/1927.

183 Despite all this,however, the inhabitantsof Riemvasmaakwere not removed,nor the farms allocated to whitesettlers. The nextmention of thearea discoveredin the archives is a letterfrom the Gordonia magistrateto the Secretaryfor Mines and Industryin November1932, regardingthe working of mineralson Riemvasmaakand adjoiningfarms.181 He wrotethat "Recently I was asked by the Secretaryfor Lands for an expressionof an opinion as to the disposalof thisblock of land. I urgedthat as thisland was useless forfarming purposes,it be madeavailable for native occupation.... As a farmingproposition thewhole concern would have an outsidevalue of L3000 and would,at most,be able to accommodate3 to 4 settlers....The land all along the OrangeRiver is beingvery rapidly developed and manyEuropean farmers are alreadysettled there,and theirnumbers will steadilyincrease in the nextfew years.A large numberof nativelabourers will be requiredby themfor certain periods of the year,when ploughing and harvestingoperations are in progress.These labourers will notbe permanentlyemployed and mustof necessityhave an area available where theirfamilies could reside and the few head of stock theymay be possessed of may graze." Once again, there was the proposal that the Riemvasmaakarea becomea 'reserve'- thistime, however, for "natives".182 In February1934, moreover, he wrotethat he had "beeninformed that the Hon the Ministerof Lands has approvedof thesefarms being reserved from alienation andplaced at thedisposal of the NAD foruse byNatives."183 Accordingto theSurveyor-General's office in 1993,they were informed by the Departmentof Lands on 16 November 1933 "thatthe Ministerhad approvedthe reservation of thecomponent farms Bokseputs, annex Bokseputs, Riemvasmaakand Wagenbrand, thus placing the area at thedisposal of theNAD foruse by natives."184However in May 1934 theNAD statedquite clearly that "the farms in question have not yet been formallyreserved as Native locations."185In 1936 theNAD repeatedthis: "It is proposed,when a suitable opportunityarrives, to includethem in thescheduled areas underAct No 27 of 1913. This will requirea special Act of Parliament."186In June 1937, however, the NAD wroteto the Gordonia magistratethat Riemvasmaak, Bokseputs, AnnexBokseputs and Wagenbrand"and otherland in the same category"had vestedin the SouthAfrican Native Trust under Section 6(1) (a) of the Native Trustand Land Actof 1936,which states that "there shall be vestedin theTrust., .all stateowned land whichhas been reservedor set aside forthe occupation of blacks."187Yet in August1937 theNAD statedthat the farms had notyet been

181. Accordingto researchby theSurplus People's Project,however, there is a recordof a letterfrom Father Fages to the Secretaryfor Lands, 22/8/1929 applying for permission for a colouredschool at Keimoes.Approval was givenin 1930. Smithand Bozaiek, 7; SPP, "RiemvasmaakReference List" (From Tim Hoffman). 182. NTS 6887, 226/319Part III, RM, Upingtonto Secretaryfor Mines and Industry,8/1 1/1932. See also RM, Upingtonto Inspectorfor Mines and Industry,Bloemfontein, 12/2/1934. 183. NTS 6887,226/319 Part 111, KM, Upingtonto inspectortor Mines ana industry,tsioemrontein, iz/z/1^4. 184. SurveyorGeneral, 22/6/1993, Smith and Bozaiek,7-8, Annexure12; SurveyorGeneral, Minute C 1848/1,18/1 1/1933, SPP, "RiemvasmaakReference List" (From Tim Hoffman). 185. NTS 6887,226/319 Part III, SNA to Secretaryfor Mines and Industry,14/5/1934. Also SMI to SNA 11/5/1934. 186. NTS 688/,zzò/319 Part ill, Secretarylor Minesana industryto òjna, zd/o/i^o; mna to òmi ^u/o/ivjo. 187. NTS 6887, 226/319Part III, SNA to RM, Upington19/6/1937. Also SMI to SNA 9/6/1937;SNA to SMI 19/6/1937. Theyreferred the magistrate to theprovisions of section23, 24 and 43 of thisAct and regulations66-9 publishedunder governmentnotice 494 of 2 April1937. Also Smithand Bozaiek,8.

184 reservedas 'nativelocations'!!188 Against this we have theclaim made in 1940 by JacobBooyse, supportedby the Gordoniamagistrate, that "Ek is voorman van die NaturelleReserwe sedert 1930."189 In 1949 he amendedthis to 1934 - althoughmore recent testimony suggests he was appointedonly after the death of Dawid Dawids on 12 January1940.190 According to the magistrateof Kakamasin 1973 a "temporaryreserve" known as "BokvasmaakNative Reserve 498" was declaredin 1934, to accomodatepeople untilthe 1936 nativeland legislationwas completed.191 Smith and Bozaiek claim that the NAD took over control and administrationofRiemvasmaak from the Department of Lands in theearly 1930s. They referto lettersfrom the Departmentof Public Worksand the Surveyor General in the 1990s, however,which state thatRiemvasmaak was never proclaimedas a "reserve"in theGovernment Gazette. Theyconclude "it is not entirelyclear whether formal reservation took place, and if so, when."192To this theSurplus People's Project report adds that "while the area fell under the Dept of Nativeaffairs and S.A. DevelopmentTrust, it was not officiallyproclaimed a reservepossibly because of complicationsarising from prospecting claims in the area whichwas believedto be richin a numberof differentminerals"193 It is true thatthe Department of Mines wroteto theNAD in March1934, stating that the farmspossessed large mineral possibilities and if theywere to be reservedfor nativesthey would "by virtueof theprovisions of Section40 of Act No 16 of 1907 (Cape) automaticallybecome closed to prospectingwithout the consent of theGovernor-General" and thereforethe question of reservingthe land for native occupationshould be leftin abeyance forthe present.194The NAD however repliedthat it was "notanticipated... that the location of theseNatives on these farmsneed interfere with any mining that may become necessary. The area is an extensiveone andthere are not many Natives to be accommodated."195 Despiteall theseuncertainties, by the 1930s forall intentsand purposes Riemvasmaakhad become a "nativereserve".

Conclusion

The racialdivision of Gordoniawas triggeredby theB asterpetition presented to parliamentin 1921. Demanding restitutionof the whole of theirland in Gordonia,the Basters were fobbed off by theoffer of two "colouredreserves". Not onlywas thisestablishment of reservesfor coloureds thus far unprecedented in theUnion of SouthAfrica. The factthat "reserves" and segregationwere the

188. NTS 6887,226/319 Part III, SNA to SMI 21/8/1937. 189. NTS 12,31/1, Jakob Booysen to SNA 22/8/1940;Magistrate, Upington to SNA 30/9/1940. 190. NTS 12, 31/1,J. Booysen to Ministerol NativeAtlairs 12/3/1949; Asst RM, Kakamasto RM, Upington22/3/1958. See also SPP, Submission...,9, andphoto of Dawid Dawids grave. iyi. Lape limes, 12/10/1973,SFF, Submission...,p. 7. 192. SurveyorGeneral, 22/6/1993; Dept Public Works, 1/10/1992 in Smithand Bozaiek, 8-9. 193. SPP, Submission...,p. 6. 194. NTS 6887,226/319 Part III, Sec forMines to SNA, 14/3/1934. 195. NTS 6887, 226/319Part III, SNA to SMI 21/3/1934.They added thatno otherland was availablefor them and the Ministerwas veryanxious to securethem a restingplace on propertieswhere they have been residentfor a verylarge numberof yearspast. "Theywill possiblybe of use as labouron the developmentof any minesthat may come into being."

185 modelfollowed confirms that the SouthAfrican Party government had adopted the policyof segregation.Segregation was, in otherwords, the creationof the Smuts-Bothagovernment. The post-1924 Hertzoggovernment merely elaborated on thispolicy. Moreover, the "reserves"were conceivedof as providingfor the familiesof migrantworkers, thus performing the functionof sustainingcheap labouraccorded to them(as mentionedabove) in theargument made by Harold Wolpe. Ironically,the main questioningof this extensionof the policy of segregationto the colouredswas by the arch-segregationistHeaton Nicholls in parliamentarydebate in 1930. Simultaneouslywith serving an economicfunction, the establishment of reservesperformed a political, social and ideological function.Territorial definitiongave shape to "colouredidentity". Through being offered segregated reserves- it is the insightof Piet Beukes - the Basters were made into "coloureds".They were turned from a self-definedpeople, as theyhad becomeby thelate nineteenth century, into second-class subjects of the South African state. Thus Ecksteenskuil(from 1923) and Mier (from1930) wereestablished as "colouredsettlements". The apartheidgovernment hardened their definition, and transferredthem to administrationby theDepartment for Coloured Affairs in the 1950s. Withthe racial division of Gordonia on these lines, the area of Riemvasmaakalso becameimplicated. Riemvasmaak was occupiedby "Damaras and Hottentots".An unequaldiscourse took place betweenthese and the South Africangovernment as to whetherthey should be definedas "coloureds" or "natives". In Namaqualand southof the Orange (in South Africa) so-called "Hottentots"were regarded as "coloureds".In Namaqualandnorth of theOrange (South-Africanadministered South West Africa) they were regarded as "natives". The inhabitantsof Riemvasmaakof coursesought to manouevreto gainthe most favourablesituation. Eventually, though ambiguously, Riemvasmaak became definedas a "nativereserve" in the1930s. The peopleof Riemvasmaak (by nowincluding Xhosa also) wereforcibly relocatedby theSouth African government in 1973 (and theirland restoredonly in 1995). Many issues sprangup in theEcksteenskuil and Mier settlementsalso underapartheid rule which remainas yet unresolved.Hopefully this article providessomething of a backgroundframework within which the problems of all thesepeoples can be workedout.

186