No. 1 (13) 2018

ADAM MICKIEWICZ UNIVERSITY, POZNAŃ

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION

KULTURA – SPOŁECZEŃSTWO – EDUKACJA

No. 1 (13) 2018

POZNAŃ 2018 CULTURE-SOCIETY-EDUCATION Scientific journal published twice a year at the Faculty of Educational Studies of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

EDITORIAL BOARD Chief Editor – Agnieszka Cybal-Michalska Deputy Chief Editor – Jarema Drozdowicz Secretary – Bożena Kanclerz Assistant Secretary – Maria Mucha

Members – Małgorzata Grzywacz, Daria Hejwosz-Gromkowska, Agnieszka Gromkowska-Melosik, Witold Jakubowski, Bar- bara Jankowiak, Ewa Karmolińska-Jagodzik, Karolina Kuryś-Szyncel, Jerzy Luty, Zbyszko Melosik, Pavel Mühlpachr, Janice Mych-Wayne, Joanna Ostrouch-Kamińska, Magdalena Piorunek, Winfried Schubarth, Andreas Seidel, Dorota Smetanová, Kristin K. Stang, Lidia Suchanek, Waldemar Segiet, Cristina Maria Coimbra Vieira, Eva Zamojska, Alena Valisova, Agata Matysiak-Błaszczyk, Paulina Peret-Drążewska, Isidora Sáez Rosenkranz, Katarzyna Segiet, Katarzyna Waszyńska

SUBJECT EDITORS Agnieszka Cybal-Michalska (pedagogy of youth and culture) Jarema Drozdowicz (anthropology of education, cultural anthropology) Agnieszka Gromkowska-Melosik (multicultural education) Małgorzata Grzywacz (theory of culture) Daria Hejwosz-Gromkowska (general pedagogy, pedagogy of health) Barbara Jankowiak (pedagogy of health, social psychology) Witold Jakubowski (pedagogy of culture and media, andragogy) Ewa Karmolińska-Jagodzik (general pedagogy, pedagogy of youth) Karolina Kuryś-Szyncel (pedagogy of care and ubringing) Jerzy Luty (esthetics, philosophy of art) Agata Matysiak-Błaszczyk (social pedagogy, pedagogy penitentiary) Zbyszko Melosik (sociology of education, comparative pedagogy) Pavel Mühlpachr (special pedagogy, social pedagogy) Janice Myck-Wayne (special pedagogy) Joanna Ostrouch-Kamińska (sociology of education and family, social pedagogy) Magdalena Piorunek (pedagogy of labour, social pedagogy) Winfried Schubarth (theory of ubringing and socialization) Katarzyna Segiet (social pedagogy, child pedagogy) Waldemar Segiet (pedagogy of care and ubringing) Andreas Seidel (theory of ubringing and socialization) Dorota Smetanová (rehabilitation pedagogy) Kristin K. Stang (pedeutology) Lidia Suchanek (artistic education) Katarzyna Waszyńska (social psychology, healthe pedagogy) Alena Valisova (special pedagogy) Cristina Maria Coimbra Vieira (psychology of education, adult education) Eva Zamojska (general pedagogy, multicultural education)

LINGUISTIC EDITORS Katarzyna Kabacińska-Łuczak (Polish) Marianna Waters (English)

STATISTICAL EDITOR Mirosław Krzyśko

Tłumaczenie zawartości 4 numerów czasopisma „Kultura-Społeczeństwo-Edukacja” na język angielski i ich wydanie – zadanie finansowane w ramach umowy 792/P-DUN/2017 ze środków Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego przeznaczonych na działalność upowszechniającą naukę.

ISSN 2300-0422 Table of contents

Articles Małgorzata Grzywacz, Grażyna Miłkowska, Magdalena Piorunek, Lech Sałaciński, Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – Issues – Evaluation, Part 2 ��7 Kinga Kuszak, Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood ��29 Abraheem Abu – Ajaj, The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students in teacher training institutions in Israel ��45 Małgorzata Cywińska, Positive Reappraisal of Stressful Situations by Children of Younger School Age ��59 Waldemar Kmiecikowski, Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man ��67 Elanit Ayzik, The Properties of the Modern World and the Teacher’s Awareness ��79 Magdalena Kozula, Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge of educational migration in Poland ��87 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek, Education and migration – European experiences and dilemmas towards integration ��101 Ewa Sowa-Behtane, Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation representing the interests of persons with different cultures ��113 Angelika Figiel, Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw ��123 Patrycja Knast, Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies 139 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska, “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mir- ror of Social, Historical and Cultural Changes Exemplified by the “Wallander” Series by Henning Mankell ��149 Marlena Kaźmierska, Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students ��167 Łukasz Albański, The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood ��177 Joanna Kozielska, Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinions vs. educational-vocational choices with regard to the situation on the labour market ��195 Kamila Słupska, Activity of young people studying in their free time ��205 Aneta Judzińska, (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 225 Adel Ayada, The Breakthrough of Bedouin Women in Northern Israel – A Conflict Between Generations ��239 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga, The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. ��247 Jerzy Janiec, Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students ��267 4 Table of contents

Reports Jakub Karol Adamczewski, Report on the First International Scientific Symposium “Textile Art. Master and Disciple”, Lviv, 2-6 September 2017 ��283 Editorial information Articles

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Małgorzata Grzywacz Magdalena Piorunek University of Adam Mickiewicz University University of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań in Poznań Grażyna Miłkowska Lech Sałaciński University of Zielona Góra Teachers’ Improvement Center in ZIeliona Góra

Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland Changes – issues – evaluation Part 2

Keywords: higher education, de- Abstract: This report is a part of the results of the international gree system, studying process Po- project entitled “Studium in Osteuropa: Ausgewählte Aspekte land, European Union (Analysen, Befunde)” conducted in the years 2013-2015 under supervision of Prof. Wilfried Schubarth and Dr Andreas Seidl from the Potsdam University, Department of Education Science, and Prof. Karsten Speck from the University of Old- enburg, Germany. The project was conducted jointly by representatives of academic centres from Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland and Russia. Its general aim was a comparative analysis of the effects of implementation of Bologna Process directives into the higher education systems of the individual countries. The changes introduced into the higher education systems in the countries involved in the project were described and evaluated, discussed was in particular the problems of education of teachers at the university level. The following text is the result of the contribution of the Pol- ish group participating in the project. The report will be presented in two parts. The first part is focused on the macro- societal context of transformations in the higher education system in Poland. The implementation of selected aspects of Bologna Process directives is described and supplemented by empirical comments. The second part deals with selected aspects of university level education of teachers, followed by a polemic against the assumptions and execution of the target transformations of higher education system. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 7-27 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.1

8 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

Education of teachers in Poland

Until the year 2006, the education of teachers in Poland was characterised by great diversity: studies at a vocational higher school, supplementary master’s studies, a related master’s study course as well as paedagogical post-graduate studies following a professional qualification certificate. The education to become a teacher was provided at special teacher education facilities: teacher colleges, including those for foreign languages, teachers’ institutions, including those for preschoolers or for early primary school education as well as teachers, institutes for technical universities. Irrespective of this great variety of the Polish education system, schools were always dominated by volume by teachers with university degrees. In the year 1992, for instance, 58.2% of teachers had university degrees. This value increased sys- tematically year on year. In the year 2000, it was already 84.4%, reaching in 2009, at 97%, a value among the highest recorded in Europe (Białecki 2003). Such an increase of the number of teachers with university degrees must be seen in concert with the education requirements of the Polish society that increased symptomati- cally in this period that provided higher education facilities with a massive flow of prospective students and leading to a change in the employment and remuneration system of teachers. The tendency towards a reduction of the numbers of teachers with secondary education certificates as well as graduates of teacher institutes and colleges continued in the subsequent period. Presently, any teacher wishing to work in a school in Poland must provide proof of higher education facility graduation with paedagogical qualifications. This requirement is found in the provisions of laws on higher schools as well as the Polish act on the education system and in relevant regulations. The ordinance of the Polish Minister of Education and Higher education of June 13th, 2006., as a consequence of the obligations of the statement of Bologna as signed by Po- land, additionally contributes to important changes to this situation. As is the case for other study facilities, the principle was also introduced into the education of teachers, according to which a comprehensive higher education course is replaced with two-tiered education1. Thus, new standards of preparation for the profession of a teacher emerged. According to these standards, the education of teachers in Poland primarily takes place at higher education facilities, through a teachers’

1 Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 13 czerwca 2006r. w sprawie nazw kierunków studiów / Ordinance of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of June 13th, on the names of fields of study, Polish Journal of Laws of 2006, no. 121, item no. 838. Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 9 study course, within the scope of a vocational school study course concluded with a licentiate (bachelor’s degree) that initially foresaw two study course variants for teachers – a main course and an additional course – as well as within the scope of second-degree studies concluded with a master’s degree that may be concluded both for a single major, as well as for two (Osiński 2011). Important in this regard is the fact that teacher’s studied must include the following courses: professional education in preparation for teaching of the primary school course (so-called Module I), paedagogical education preparing for tasks related to upbringing and social paedagogy (Module II), education on the principles of teaching (Module III) as well as optional education preparing for the teaching of a second course (Module IV) and education in special education (Module V). The implementation of modules II and III foresee a total of at least three semesters. The education for module IV is obligatory for teacher students that would like to teach more than one subject, and module V must be completed by students that want to be able to teach a specific course in preschools as well as special and integration schools2. The requirements included in the individual teacher education modules contain very precise descriptions of the competences of future teachers. The most important of these are: 1) professional competences; 2) competences in the area of professional teaching; 3) psychological competences and competences in terms of upbringing, including support for the social development of the pupil; 4) diagnostic competences, primarily in the area of proper planning and organisation of paedagogical diagnoses and the evaluation of pupil performance; 5) methodical competences supporting the development of pupils with special education needs; 6) social competences, in particular aimed at improving interpersonal communication as well as verbal and non-verbal behaviour in education situations; 7) competences permitting the evaluation of one’s own education and skill level as well as the evaluation of the results of own work; 8) competences in the areas of vocal skills, work safety and hygiene;

2 Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 17 stycznia 2012 r. w sprawie standardów kształcenia przygotowującego do wykonywania zawodu nauczyciela / Ordinance of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of January 17th, 2012., on the standards of education in preparation for the profession of teacher, Polish Journal of Laws, Warsaw, February 6th, 2012, PDF. 10 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

9) language competences in accordance to the norms approved by the Council of Europe concerning at least advanced-level skills in at least one foreign language; 10) competences permitting the effective use of modern information technologies in the teaching process. During preparation ahead of execution of the position of teacher in Poland, as one can see, great importance is placed on the fact that future teachers should have as broad knowledge as possible in terms of education and psychology, developing these in the areas of their professional skills. It must be stressed that within the scope of educational preparation, particular value is placed on the skill to provide an interesting teaching experience and the individualisation of the learning process. The psychological and paedagogical part stresses the meaning of upbringing aid and care at the school as well as the necessity of organisation by the school and teachers of the community life. Anyone wishing to become a teacher in Poland is required to conclude practical training during their education. This vocational training, through direct contact with schools and pupils, should permit one to get to know the specifics of the organisation and functioning of schools as well as to methodically refine their professional skills. Practical training is included in modules II, III, IV and V. The length of the training differs for the individual modules: – Preparation in the field of psychology and education skills – 30 work hours, – Preparation in the field of teaching methods – 120 work hours, – Preparation in the field of teaching a further course – 60 work hours, – Preparation in the field of special education – 120 work hours3. It is obligatory for the first part of the training to serve the emergence of competences in the area of care and upbringing aid and to be completed in school day rooms, local centres as well as therapeutic pupil care centres. The second part serves the preparation of care for a group and the analysis of individual needs of pupils. It is only on the basis of these two levels of training that the third part, training teaching methods, may take place, in preparation to teach a specific subject. It is suggested to arrange one’s practical training not exclusively during times when one does not study, as the burden of students by higher education courses and the training doesn’t always permit reconcilia- tion with the principles of mobility and the free arrangement of one’s education (Osiński 2011).

3 Ibid. Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 11

The solution tried and tested by the faculty of humanities of the University of Zielona Góra can serve as an example of the organisation of practical teacher training within the scope of professional teacher education. Temporarily, two rules are in place concerning internships: The first, older rule, applies to students who have begun their studies before academic year 2012/2013, the second, new rules apply to students that commenced studying at a later date. The first rule foresees, over the entire study period of the first degree, two continuous four-week internships at a primary and a lower secondary school. This encompasses a total of 180 class hours. This includes 54 class hours that the student must conduct by themselves. The practical training at a primary school takes place following the second semester in September and spans 90 class hours, of which 25 are sit-in, observed hours (15 hours of the main course and 10 for the additional) and 27 that must be taught on one’s own within the scope of the main course. Internship at the lower secondary school also takes place in September, however only after the 2nd semester. This also spans 90 work hours, of which 20 hours are sit-in time (10 hours for the main and 10 hours for the secondary course) and 27 class hours that must be conducted by the student, 17 in the main and 10 in the secondary course. The second-degree study course includes an internship at a school above lower secondary school level, also taking place in September following the 2nd semester, and spanning a continuous period of two weeks with a total of 75 hours. During this period, the student must conclude the following: – sit-in during five hours for the main course as well as the performance of 10 class hours; – sit-in during 10 hours for the main and additional course (five each) as well as independent execution of 15 class hours, ten in the main course and five in the additional. The remaining internship time should be spent by the student, for instance, as follows: – participation in observation during breaks between classes; – studying documentation on teaching as well as the principles of documentation preparation (class register, education plan of the class, subdivision of the teaching material, evaluation tables and other documents); – getting to know the work of the head teacher, if possible through participation in parent-teacher meetings; – getting to know the work of the social paedagogue at the school; – getting to know the work of the paedagogical council and the parents’ council, if possible, through participation in meetings; 12 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

– getting to know the forms of extracurricular activities available at the school and the work of pupil organisations; – getting to know the work at and the contents of the school library4. The indicated practical training need not necessarily be concluded in Septem- ber, however in case of a different period, the student must file a relevant motion with the dean and get their consent. The year 2013 saw new rules for student practical training introduced. Consid- ered were in this regard all the directives of the ordinance of the Polish minister of science and higher education of 17.01.2012. on the education standards for the profession of teacher. According to these new rules, the first-degree studies at the faculty for humanities includes a teacher’s internship of 30 hours at a primary school as preparation for the main teaching course. It is similar with the second-degree studies. In this case, practical training also spans 30 hours, however, should be done at a lower secondary or further school. In both cases, the students are to conclude their practical training alongside lectures at the university. The internship should primarily serve the perfectioning of their sociopaedagogical and educational competences, especially in terms of individualised work with pupils and being able to lead a group. The teaching internship should span for the first and second-degree studies a total of 120 hours each. During first-degree studies, the practical training is conducted at a primary school, during the second-degree studies, at a lower secondary school or further education institution. The key goal is the collection of experience in the area of work as a paedagogue and education specialist, and the confrontation of the knowledge gained on education and methods with school reality5. In terms of topics, practical training involves the following: 1) getting to know the specifics of a school; 2) observation of the way classes are conducted, especially the various modes of work, of communication with pupils, their encouragement and disci- plining, the evaluation of the achieved results, the organisation of the dynamics and social atmosphere in class; 3) assisting and participation in planning and execution of a class; 4) performing the role of the teacher; 5) analysing and interpreting the observed or experienced paedagogical situations and events.

4 Regulamin przeprowadzania praktyk pedagogicznych na specjalizacji nauczycielskiej z dnia 18.03.2008 ze zmianami z dnia 27 01, i 17.03.2009 roku / Rules of execution of teacher internships in the teaching major of 18.03.2008 as amended on 27.01., and 17.03.2009, pdf. 5 Regulamin praktyk dydaktycznych na specjalizacji nauczycielskiej z dnia 12.02.2013 / Rules of execution of teacher internships in the teaching major of 12.02.2013., pdf. Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 13

Internship as teacher during first-degree studies takes place in two stages: – 30 sit-in and teaching hours in the 4th semester, alongside university lectures; – 90 hours (four weeks) in September in the 4th semester, of which 20 sit-in class hours and 25 hours of independent teaching. The students have at their disposal 50 hours to get to know the work of the school as a whole. During second-degree studies, internships take place at lower secondary schools, in the third semester alongside university lectures. They encompass a total of 60 sit-in and independent teaching hours. During the 4th semester, the students complete training of 60 hours at a selected facility further than lower secondary schools, e. g. at a general higher secondary school, technical school or vocational school. This spans both sit-in time as well as independent class teaching time. At this point, it must be noted that against the backdrop of the quoted ministe- rial regulation that prescribes in great detail the scope and framework of preparation ahead of executing the work of a teacher, the models of theoretical and practical education of future teachers are almost identical at all Polish higher education facilities executing this task. The cause for this is that, contrary to most European countries, in which higher education facilities are getting more and more autonomy, the education of teachers in Poland continues to be very strongly centralised. The models and modes of education are determined centrally, and the upper education facilities with teacher faculties are obligated to apply the curricula and contents prescribed by ministers. This is substantiated by the objective of guaranteeing a unified minimum volume of requirements set for future teachers. For this reason, the Polish ministry for science and higher education prescribes in the disclosed regulation the norms of teacher education, general requirements, areas of competences as well as obligatory groups of courses for future teachers, and the related minimum time according to the curricula, determining which institutions are permitted to educate teachers and in what ways.

Critical thoughts on the education of teachers in Poland

The process of implementation for the reform of Bologna concerning teacher education in Poland is already taking many years. If one would consider the first analyses based on practical experiences as well as the first reservations, the conclusion is that just like the old system, the new system had not done away with the issues that had been raised for years. The model of teacher education designed by the ministry of education continues to raise many doubt. The ministry had described, 14 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński from their position, goals, norms as well as requirements concerning volumes and time, for the individual stages and types of teacher education. Curricula for the education courses such as psychology, paedagogy and education science were described in detail. In addition, the general goals were described for the individual courses that complement teacher education such as voice projection, education law including the organisation and functioning of the education system, security as well as first aid, the ethics of the teacher, language culture, regional history and culture, art and art science. Prof. Anna Wiłkomirska stresses „that such a list of courses should be compiled by the teacher education facility depending on its abilities and the interests of students. To approach the matter in this way seems to be dubious solution. Due to the general formulations, it constitutes no form of aid for the authors of specific curricula. The contents thereof often raise material doubts, at times requiring clear opposition of academic teachers that perceive this as a limitation of their autonomy and as a vote of mistrust of their competences” (Wiłkomirska 2005). Of all the changes introduced in the last two decades of teacher education, especially within the scope of the Bologna process, the introduction of obligatory education in two courses during teachers’ studies caused the most doubts and criticism. Criticised were in particular the curricular norms the foresee the introduction of this course already for the first degree (the baccalaureate). The time frame of the first study course stages are thus found to be too narrow for the standards defined by the ministry (Osiński 2011). Hence, when the Polish ministry of science and higher education did away with this idea in the ordinance of 2012., the reception was good. The basic principle changed – and the achievement of graduation as teacher in two courses or subjects became optional. S. Włoch stresses, riding the wave of criticism of the changes introduced to the Polish teacher education that the education of teachers is dominated just like it used to be by hardly usable knowledge classified as if in drawers that is distributed across narrowly specialised fields. The lack of the connection between theory and practice remains in the new system just the way it was noticeable before. Across the entire period of education, reflections and competences in upbringing and communication of future teachers are still not sufficiently developed. Włoch believes that many young teachers – as indicated by their testimony – have enormous difficulties in feeling at home at schools and communicating with pupils, and they are unable to reach decisions, frequently not even having at their disposal the basics of theoretical and practical knowledge on upbringing (Włoch 2005). Such insufficient preparation of graduates for their educational work and activities related to upbringing in the school thus constitute a most fundamental issue. Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 15

To this must be added the doubts concerning the period, volume and quality of the internships. The educational practical training should form an integral constituent component of every kind of vocational education, hence, an amendment of the teacher education programme is made up of it, and it should naturally be connected to the school reality (Osiński 2011). Hence, voiced have been comments that each internship should be preceded by a course of lectures in psychology, paedagogy and specialist education. This, however, is not the rule in curricula of teacher education in many universities in Poland. The new model of teacher education of Poland is furthermore burdened by the accusation that the proportions between obligatory and optional classes for students are shattered, especially in the first stage of education, e. g. the first degree, baccalaureate studies. Hence, suggestions are beginning to be heeded to that education of teachers should be constructed differently, meaning – vocational education mainly in the first stage of studies (baccalaureate), and paedagogical preparation in conjunction with special vocational education at the second stage (master’s). According to such suggestions, the future teacher would receive their graduation diploma in the selected professional field following the first-degree studies as well as their professional master’s title in the field of paedagogy teacher following the second-degree studies (Osiński 2011). Hence, in order to obtain the required qualifications, a five-year study cycle would be necessary. First empirical observations concerning the results of the teacher education model introduced in Poland according to the Bologna process indicate in addition that the preparation ahead of the position of teacher often does not fulfil in practice the standards described in the regulation of the ministry. The information collected in the year 2004 by the Polish institute of public opinion from teachers and headmasters have shown that higher education facilities do not arrange practical education correctly (Wiłkomirska 2005). During studies, it is mainly professional knowledge in the taught field that is being conveyed, with methodical and paedagogical as well as psychological preparation remaining insufficient. The majority of those surveyed (61.7%) evaluated professional knowledge as very good or good, with vocational and practical preparation as insufficient and weak. The teachers confirmed that in course of their education the skills that they required for their work in schools were lacking. The contents of the psychologically-aimed courses were overly „theoretical” and did not reflect, contrary to expectations, the dependence and interrelations between the natural development of pupils and the processes of upbringing and education. As a result, young teachers had difficulty applying their knowledge when working with pupils. It was difficult for them to master specific challenges, including e. g. recognising the needs of pupils and the 16 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński individualisation of requirements, correctly planning, implementing, organising, controlling and evaluating processes of upbringing, as well as working with parents. It was stressed that the theoretical knowledge attained during the university lectures and exercises was not utilised during the practical education at the schools. Preparation ahead of work at a school is negatively evaluated by the surveyed headmasters. In their views, the young teachers are not up to the task of handling issues of upbringing when working with pupils (55% of responses), have weak methodical education (33%), lack knowledge of the law on education (19.2%), have difficulty applying the knowledge gained during studies to their school activity (30 %) (conf. Wiłkomirska 2005). The surveyed indicated that the reason for this is the lack of a system of selection for the profession of teacher, the very varied level of teacher education between individual higher schools as well as the weakly constructed individual curricula. It is also noted that on course of vocational preparation, deontological issues of teachers, meaning, questions of ethical norms as well as the factors governing the moral value of activities of teachers, remain untouched. The surveyed indicated the need to restructure the teacher education system in many areas, and to improve it: – Stressed is the essence of increasing the volume of practical teacher training (31.6% of answers) and the class hours independently conducted by future teachers (50%). – Required are altered principles of selection of candidate teachers (27.7% of headmaster responses). – Indications have been made that „too many institutions deal with the education of teachers, this education is done in a manner that is varied and not always solid and robust, with the result being an excessive number of insuf- ficiently educated teachers”. In this regard, experts suggest the introduction of a system of evaluation of the quality of teacher education through accreditation of study courses and the awarding of rights to educate teachers exclusively to large, renowned higher education facilities. – Attention is turned to the inconsistent concept of the fusion of practical training with professional and paedagogical education. The expansion of the volume of time and the restructuring of internships is considered to be paramount, with differentiation in terms of the type of school, which the future teacher is preparing to work at. – The statement has been made that higher schools ascribe only mediocre importance to a comprehensive general education, especially in areas such as personal culture, paedagogical culture, own development, transgression, Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 17

decision readiness, problem solving, coping with with issues of upbringing and education, the keenness to make decisions and awareness of responsibility. Stressed is also the fact that teachers are only able to find their way around the social and political reality with great difficulty, and that education courses for teachers often convey knowledge being limited use in a world of ever-changing values and modes of living. The report of the Polish Supreme Audit Office also contains remarks on teacher education6. In it one may read that „in course of the introduction of new curricula, schools weren’t provided with any support to solve issues of upbringing and education. The offer in therms of upbringing was not aimed at making the school comprehensive, but at making teachers participate in selected forms of further education. Moreover, school headmasters did not use the qualifications attained by the teachers within the scope of various forms of continued education and training” (Tabaszewska 2012). This means that continued and further education of teachers cannot be characterised as planned and being in accordance with the needs of the school, at least when it comes to professional advancement, against the backdrop of own interests of teachers or due to the offers of teacher continued education facilities, and – not in the least – due to the prices paid for training, studies or courses. For all these reasons, the notion is represented that in this area closer cooperation would be required by higher education facilities with lower-level education institutions. Poland has neither certificates nor exams that would govern the admission to the profession of teacher. The student becomes a teacher with graduation from their studies and when they attain their first (baccalaureate) or second (master) diploma. Thus, three years are sufficient to become a fully-qualified teacher. Uni- versities usually do not have any special requirements of candidates for teachers. In addition, no studies are made that would determine the suitability of a particular person for the profession of teacher. The sole condition of achieving a position at a school remains, just as in the past, the graduation diploma following a relevant higher education facility study course.

6 Planned inspection named Organisation and financing of education and vocational training of teachers (no. P/11/073), encompassing academic years 2009/2010 and 2010/2011. The inspectors visited 62 facilities in all, including the ministry of education, eight public further education facilities subordinate to voivodeship local governments, 23 administrative bodies and 23 public schools. The purpose of the Chamber was the evaluation of organisation and results of teacher education and further training as well as the correct use of the public resources provided for this purpose. (http:// www.bibliotekako.pl/news.aid,1945,_Czy_nowy_system_doskonalenia_nauczycieli_sprosta_ wyzwaniom_stawianym_szkole_.html). 18 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

Each year, a large group of people formally qualified to teach leaves higher education facilities. This volume is more than sufficient for the needs of the education system concerning new teachers. The reality of the job market puts the teacher who only has a baccalaureate diploma in a situation that is becoming more and more difficult when it comes to finding employment. In this regard, one may not forget that no ministries (education, science and higher education) encompasses the needs of the education system. No statistics are kept concerning persons with teacher qualifications. It is for this reason that nobody actually knows how many people permitted to teach actually graduate from higher education facilities. For the education system, the teacher only ‘arises’ when they take the position of a teacher at a school, while the group functioning outside of the education system having formal qualifications to teach remains „unnoticed“. Presently, there are approx. 660 thousand teachers professionally teaching, this is more than 10% of all teachers in Europe. Even if the number of teacher positions in the recent years has dropped, however, the number of pupils has been dropping considerably more quickly. This in turn leads to a proportional increase of the number of employed teachers. Irrespective of this, the number of pupils per teacher in Poland is one of the lowest in Europe. The feminisation of the profession constitutes an issue, as is the case in most countries. 81% of all teachers in Poland are women. It must be added, however, that men much more often than women hold managing positions in education. The professional group of Polish teachers is growing older, the average age is increasing. It must be stated in this regard that until the year 2008, the average age of a Polish teacher at retirement was markedly lower as was the case of representatives of other professions. The remuneration of a Polish teacher remains a point of annoyance. If one would consider the absolute volume of remuneration in the „group of specialists”, then teachers make much less money than representatives of other professions. However, the Polish teacher works the least at school when compared to their colleagues from other European countries. 18 class hours as part of the so-called al- lotted time is the lowest value in the European Union. The legal provisions altered with the reform of the year 1998 were supposed to create a mechanism of motivation so that the teachers would invest „in themselves” to improve their qualifications, expand their knowledge and amend their professional skills, whereby experienced persons would support those beginning their careers in the art of paedagogy. In Poland, as was already stated, the teacher studies graduate – as compared to other European countries – is considered to be a completely educated teacher able to perform their tasks as part of the full Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 19 work time. Hence, new laws officially introduce into school practice a system of professional advancement. The promotions of teachers are accordingly based on four position categories, between which there are relative and large differences in remuneration. These are: – nauczyciel stażysta („Beginner teacher”); – nauczyciel kontraktowy („Contract teacher”); – nauczyciel mianowany („Appointed teacher”); – nauczyciel dyplomowany („Certified teacher”)7. Presently, the remark is often made that the promotion and remuneration system introduced as part of the reform of the education system does not actually fulfil its tasks. The case here concerns a „reversed pyramid” of professional advancement, as the highest promotion level is achieved relatively early considering the entire professional career. More than half of all teachers in Poland have already reached their highest professional level, meaning that the achievement of this objective does not constitute any further motivation to continued professional development. This in turn influences the result of one’s work. The paedagogical education of teachers seems to be that particular area of educational reality that is most strongly opposed to reforms despite attempts at qualitative changes. This fact is certainly related to the deeply rooted long-term tradition of academic-level education at higher education facilities. This tradition, through care for autonomy, reinforces the structural and programme patten of functioning of universities. One of the most important postulations, and at the same time one of the key demands of academic circles has for years been the independence of scientific thought. However, this frequently-praised independence leads to hermetic isolation of universities from the dynamically-changing reality that surrounds them. And the case is not rarely that this separation of science is a phenomenon influencing universities – and teacher education – negatively. The result is a frequently-emerging abyss between practice, with schools being an example thereof, and theory, the embodiment of which are, according to general opinion, exclusively higher schools and academic circles. Naturally, in conjunction with academic structures aimed in such a way at permanence, one comes across the notion of a „state within a state”. The world of science is a world that functions according to its own laws and feels best when retreated to its own space. It permits no outside interference, however, seldom

7 Rozporządzenie MEN z dnia 01.03.2013r.w sprawie uzyskiwania stopni awansu zawodowego przez nauczycieli – Verordnung des Ministeriums für Volksbildung vom 01.03.2013 zur Erlangung beruflicher Beförderungsstufen durch Lehrer, poz. 393. 20 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński also attempts interventions directed to the outside. A valuable scientific thought born within a university much more often than nont remains for ever within its walls. There arise periodic and relentless attempts at reaching to the outside with a progressive idea or a specific practical solution (through increasing numbers of publications, symposia and conferences), however, such activities seem to have limited influence. Conferences and symposia are almost exclusively meeting of representatives of so-called „scientific circles” and the published papers only rarely reach those (practitioners) who would be best suited as their recipients. To conclude, it should be stressed that a material condition for high-quality education of teachers in Poland would be an increase of financial resources for their robust theoretical and practical vocational preparation. In addition, a return to the institution of practical schools, as places where one is able to attain professional and vocational skills, that had proven itself in the past, should be considered. Per- haps one should look to other countries to find interesting solutions, for instance, Germany, where a graduation certificate is not the same as the right to exercise a profession? One only gains such a right having concluded a trial employment period at a school and a test attempted and passed before a state commission. The takeover of such a solution might possibly lead to a stronger selection of teacher studies candidates, an improvement of education quality and at the same time to an improvement in the societal status of the profession of the teacher.

Discussion, critical remarks

In the process of implementation of changes to the higher education system, each stage heard (and hears) critical voices and doubts concerning the correctness of certain basics as well as the effects of continued implementation thereof. Further- more, it must be stressed that the indicated controversial standpoints and remarks are selective (subjective selection and emphasis) and yet universal, e. g. they apply to the entire higher education system in our country and also apply to the education of teachers as it constitutes a subsystem of the higher education system described and analysed here. As evaluations, opinions and thoughts were presented concerning the education of teachers within the scope of earlier musings as well, only general thoughts will be included here. I will quote here some selected statements: “The Bologna Process opened the way to separation of teaching from research and led to an explosion on the education market, it commercialised, privatised and commodified higher education. This process is an unprecedented attempt at Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 21 unification of great systems of national education, and brings with itself a threat – the worst part of it all – of a suicide of higher schools. Nobody thinking right could believe that a three-year vocational higher school following studies is higher education, or even believe that two-year studies would be equivalent to five- or six- year master’s studies that were the case hitherto” (Kwieciński 2006: 42-43). “The introduction and implementation of changes in the European higher school area caused many controversies, and ever louder criticism was related to the crises seen in the world, the results of which were reductions of financial resources provided to education and science. Would Polish universities be able to reach the ranks of the ten best universities, the budgets of which exceed by many orders of magnitude the maintenance costs of all Polish universities put together?” (Hejnicka-Bezwińska 2011:18-19). A report by Ernst & Young and partially a report from the chancellor conference indicate the weaknesses of the Polish higher education system that can be seen based on research concerning the social diagnosis. The formulated conclusions are, among others, its dispersion and weakness (the number of peripheral higher schools without full rights to award scientific titles, the teachers employed at many locations, the number of which did not translate to the increasing numbers of students). This was also amended by lacking financial resources by the state and limited financing of research and teaching, the breakdown of research, demographic changes that already led to reduced numbers of students. The situation of Polish students and their education caused no direct improvement of their changes on the job market. In addition, Polish science is also presented (conf. http://www.krasp.org.pl/pl/strategia/strategia; http://www.nauka.gov.pl/finansowanie/fundusze-europejskie/program-operacyj- ny-kapital-ludzki/projekty-systemowe/strategia-rozwoju-sw-do-roku-2020, http:// www.frp.org.pl/?page=strategia, Malec 2011). The introduction of the basics of the European higher education area caused and still causes ambivalent reactions of academia in Poland (the education market is attempting to challenge some of these weaknesses, conf. Piorunek / Werner 2011, Piorunek / Werner 2013, Piorunek 2012). • The Commercialisation of the education market leads to a separation of research and teaching (conf. Kwieciński 2006). Specifically in cultural sciences (Poland prefers the term humanities) the interest of potential sponsors is not raised any more. Direct, tangible and immediate results are expected that are directly related to the economy. • The introduction of the staged system instead of the five-year cycle frequently caused a false understanding of mobility. What follows is studying other fields in the first (bachelor’s) and second (master’s) degrees. The former five- 22 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

year study cycle was replaced by a tree- or two-year study cycle in a field. This is the cause that the relevant level of knowledge is not reached and that competences are not attained – giving rise to shortcomings. • Higher education (according to research) does not prepare for the job market (increasing unemployment among higher school graduates). Important are the “fields of study not adapted to the needs of the economy and the job market, and their limitations of quotas of places (Higher education facilities enjoy relative autonomy when it comes to designing their study offer – MP.). Not considered is also the fact, how many graduates are taken off the job market. A range of graduates are generated that are not prepared for any job at all (cultural and social sciences, among others)” (Szafraniec 2011); • The knowledge and competences obtained during studies do not correspond to requirements at the workplace (old knowledge, too much theory, lack of order, theory and practice not related to each other, (...) too few soft (social) competences (conf. Szafraniec 2011); • Lack of clarity of the education offer of a higher school and school that often formulate market-oriented promises without redeeming them. Certificates and diplomas of other higher education facilities are considered of lower value (they are “easier” to attain). • Very strong increase of the ambitions of the younger generation achieving higher education following so-called education fashion (without any sort of selection; sufficient are multiple matriculations and then permanent cor- respondence to minimised requirements). At the same time, may courses are studied alongside one another, with simultaneous employment. Youths attain many competences, but these are very superficial. “Everything and nothing” is studied. Intellectual potential is dispersed. The extensive ambitions are not accompanied by real competences that could then be utilised by the job market. • In practice, there is no possibility of actual, real measurement of the readiness of students (both with respect to theory and practice) that would be appropriate to compare the time before the introduction of the Bologna system (lacking is ‘hard’ data for real comparison of the time following the transformation to the time before the transformation). It is difficult to determine whether the enormous work of academia to introduce this change was at all profitable. The notion cannot be excluded that the changes were only seeming and that the “regulation” of the system can only be seen in the area of documentation, having attained no real influence on common practices in higher school life. Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 23

The driving forces behind studying in Poland are unemployment and the demographic low. The inability to find a job following graduation from a general secondary school leads to something that is referred to in Erikson’s theory as a psychosocial moratorium. The decision to start one’s adult life is delayed, one remains with the parents, and they have to support their children. Young Poles study despite the fact that they are of the opinion that a graduation diploma does not constitute a guarantee of employment (Sendrowicz 2014); one studies but to study, with the aim of gaining broad knowledge; this is supported by the present demographic developments. Higher education facilities fight over candidates, taking anyone that can present a certificate of maturity. There is no selection process, not even during studies, because higher education facilities are interested in popularising their own master’s title. The quality of higher school education raises more and more doubts. Companies also indicate this. Competition and rivalry among universities have led to a situation, in which one could achieve a higher school degree that provides no guarantee of the quality of education. We are dealing with a surplus of higher schools, excessive students and graduates of so-called “cheap” fields, for which one only needs a building and teachers (historical sciences, social sciences, law) and lack of workplaces. Higher education facilities attract candidates, offer interesting education, without comparing these to the situation on the regional job market. The pressure applies frequently to traditional fields, their areas and costs, without any adaptation to the changing reality. An important priority in terms of any increases of education quality and the adaptation of the education offer to the job market is research of the professional biographies of graduates. This is governed by a statutory obligation (Polish Act of March 18th, 2011, amending the act on higher education, the act on scientific titles and titles in the arts and on amendments to certain acts of law (Pl. Ustawa o zmianie ustawy Prawo o szkolnictwie wyższym, ustawy o stopniach naukowych i tytule naukowym oraz o stopniach i tytule sztuki oraz o zmianie niektórych innych ustaw)). It requires an analysis of the professional careers of graduates. The authors of the report on these issues that was conducted based on relevant research (conf. Bartel / Góralczyk – Modzelewska 2012) were able to prove that such processes can only be executed in Poland with great difficulty, because: – proven standards of research of graduate biographies are lacking, permitting no comparisons between higher education facilities, – the use of such data and implementation of results is limited primarily by smaller higher schools that often have no access to modern technologies, and the data collection procedures cannot be implemented by distributed survey recipients, 24 Małgorzata Grzywacz, Magdalena Piorunek, Grażyna Miłkowska, Lech Sałaciński

– lacking or insufficient cooperation between education facilities, the job market, local governments and employees, – very limited interest of employers in the activities that are not related to one’s economic role, – lack of experience of higher education facilities in the execution of such research and analyses, – such research being considered unnecessary by some higher schools, – higher schools refuse to provide access to the collected data, – students are not encouraged to participate in such research and to see its importance (Bartel / Góralczyk – Modzelewska 2012). Study programmes offered at present are overloaded with theoretical knowledge, there are too few practically-oriented courses. In the end, the graduate achieve very broad knowledge without being able to practically use it. Lacking professional experience contributes to employers only employing graduates reluc- tantly. “The fact is interesting that the majority of companies and future employees have no interest at all in cooperating with universities. The purpose would be to amend this theoretical aspect with practical ideas or to conduct interpersonal training. However, students expect to receive from the school extensive competences that cannot be developed there” (Bartel / Góralczyk – Modzelewska 2012). The analyses of employment and of the professional situation of graduates in conjunction with the evaluation of their competences on the job market should serve better evaluation of study curricula, work and improvement of study courses and their expansion. It would also lead to improved quality of study curricula. Presently, work is ongoing on a national system, some schools are performing their own analyses and take into account experiences from abroad (Germany, the UK, France). The disclosed report stresses that the “recommendations concerning career supervision are considered to be something forced and unnecessary. It is done without will – and the consequences are: lacking deep analyses and the lack of will to integrate the attained data to make education at higher schools more effective and more efficient, which would contribute to the entire system” (Bartel / Góral- czyk – Modzelewska 2012). According to Łukasz Kaczmarek (2012) one could conclude that “the reform of higher schools was already introduced, but it did not bring about any improvement in the financial basis of the system. Save for superficial changes (change of employment contracts of scientific and teaching personnel into so-called “junk contracts”). One’s scientific career also became more “transparent”, so that young scientists do not know any more the criteria they have to fulfil. Strengthened was the role of the boss in the base units and the parametrisation of higher schools Thoughts on the higher education system in Poland. Changes – issues – evaluation. Part 2 25 is conducted quantitatively according to the rules described in Warsaw. Studies are financed quantitatively. On-line discussions (forums) note that the reform of higher education is yet to come about. Suggestions are made that one should tell young people that universities are not the right places for people that do not want to work. Science needs to be separated from universities to enable young people to decide, depending on their talents, whether they want to join science in the truest sense of the word, or choose a course of studies agreed upon with potential employers. The current situation is not supportive of higher education facilities at all. In actuality, nobody seems to be interested in it – education facilities strive to get as many students as possible, because their existence depends on them, the government praises itself for high student counts, and the candidates that may attain a graduation diploma with sometimes very low requirements.

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Kinga Kuszak Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood

Keywords: childhood, happiness, Abstract: children’s life in the 21st century, The article tackles the issue of the contemporary child- images of childhood, lifestyles of hood. The author notes that in search of a happy child- contemporary family hood, the essence of childhood is often lost. Instead of a genuinely careless and happy childhood, the reality created for today’s children is full of appearances. In her discussion of the subject, the author refers to a selected approach to happiness. She also identifies, based on Janusz Czapiński’s proposal, the difference between happiness and feeling happy. She points to the fact that 21st-century life is an endless chase after the future, lacking the opportunity to focus on here and now. Childhood too is treated as a race towards adulthood. In the course of her argument, the author identifies and describes selected styles of creating a happy childhood: an abundant childhood, an active childhood, a childhood in the limelight, a boundless childhood, a childhood among people. Concluding her argument, the author proposes that instead of chasing happiness and creating the appearances of a happy childhood for children, it might be better to simply slow down the pace of life when possible and value the present. After all, “sharing the joy of life is the essence of a satisfying child-parent relationship.” The author also discusses the role of the teacher as a person supporting the parents in their parenting roles. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 29-44 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.2

30 Kinga Kuszak

Introduction

We live longer but less precisely and in shorter sentences. We travel faster, farther, more often, but bring back slides instead of memories.

Wisława Szymborska, “Nonreading”

Like many observers of contemporary life, the poet recognises that constant change, the resulting lack of time and haste, consumption and the desire for easy and fast entertainment, have dominated human life today. They take part in the constant risk that has made life unpredictable. Anthony Giddens stresses that the concept of control has also become devalued, as “change does not consistently conform either to human expectation or to human control.” The inability to control events increases the feeling of uncertainty. Urlich Beck adds that the risk incurred by contemporary humanity is due to the fact that each individual is encouraged to be independent and to be highly individualised, and on the other hand, they are limited in the process of individual action, which causes a sense of discomfort and frustration. In Beck’s opinion, “in advanced modernity individualisation takes place under the general conditions of a societalising process that makes individual autonomisations increasingly impossible. The individual is indeed removed from traditional commitments and support relationships, but exchanges them for the constraints of existence in the labour market and as a consumer, with the stan- dardisations and controls they contain. [...] [There are] secondary agencies and institutions, which stamp the biography of the individual and make that person dependent upon fashions, social policy, economic cycles and markets, contrary to the image of individual control which establishes itself in consciousness.” In such a reality, the model of a child’s functioning and the image of a happy childhood have also changed.

Selected approaches to happiness

From the beginning of human thought, happiness has been considered one of the ideals of life, and the search for its essence can be found in the works of philosophers since ancient times. Analysing the rich literature on this issue and referring to common knowledge, one can say, after Janusz Czapiński, that “we Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 31 can say about happiness the same as St Augustine wrote about time: ‘What then is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.’ The concept of happiness is similar to the concepts of art, language, game, science. It cannot be defined in a classic way, because [...] it contains a whole family of meanings without one common distinctive element. Regardless of the objective difficulty of describing what is meant by “happiness,” people have been trying, as Wilhelm von Humboldt put it, “in order to reflect, the spirit must in its progressive activity stand still for a blink, to gather what was just represented into a unity and in this manner to posit it as an object against itself.” The human effort to define happiness requires an understanding that the different ways of presenting it “have their own historical dimension, are surrounded by realities, and therefore cannot be transferred faithfully to other, distant times.” According to Zbigniew Tatarkiewicz, there are four main approaches to happiness: • happiness as a favourable random circumstance, in other words a favourable set of events, the luck of the draw, • happiness as intense joy, a state of bliss or intoxication, • happiness as the possession of the highest goods, • happiness as satisfaction with life. The author emphasises that “this quadrupling is an abundant source of tur- bidity in our thoughts of happiness, because four terms denoted as one tend to permeate each other in consciousness and produce a single concept with indefinite content [...] And even if philosophers accept only one of them, and eliminate the others, the average person will retain the tendency to use one word to describe these four different things.” He then notes that total, complete and constant happiness is almost never attained. Therefore, one should always distinguish between the ideal of a happy life (the theoretical concept of happiness – K.K.) from the real sense of happiness that every individual experience or can experience. Ta- tarkiewicz recognises that humans are not able to experience happiness without interruption, because they “cannot constantly think about their life.” It is also not possible to constantly experience pleasure, because “pleasure that lasts becomes sorrow.” He proposes the following definition of happiness: “happiness is a lasting, complete and justified satisfaction with life,” “justified” that is, not based on illusion, but on reality. J.R. Averill and T.A. More, analysing the essence of happiness, describe it in four dimensions, as shown in Table 1. 32 Kinga Kuszak

Table 1. Dimensions of happiness

Degree of objectivity Activation level Subjective (well-being) high Joy Low Satisfaction Source: Averill J. R., More J. R. 2005, p. 832

The first dimension consists of sensations and is located on a continuum from low activity states – satisfaction, mental balance, peace of mind, to high activity states – joy, excitement, ecstasy. The second dimension, that is, the degree of objectivity, is connected with the determination of the emotional state on the basis of internal (subjective) or external (objective) criteria. It is worth emphasising, as the authors do, that “although satisfaction and joy differ in the level of activation, both of these emotions inevitably have a subjective component.” Ac- cording to J.R. Averill and J.R. More, happiness should be identified with eudai- monia, so it is a short-term state and manifests itself in a certain type of behaviour. Happiness is about being involved in activities that are important for the individual, even if one has to endure temporary inconveniences and overcome difficulties during their implementation. It can be said, then, that happiness is an aspiration to something important, subjectively or objectively valuable. Ma- ria Szyszkowska also follows this path, emphasising that “the pursuit of higher values, the unwavering and directed [...] human energy, the joy of fight, and the pursuit of an objective unattainable in its full dimension – the goal in which humanity is expressed first of all. Along this path, we can experience happiness, which increases our willingness to persevere in the chosen direction, regardless of any adversities.” As the author points out, the condition for achieving a sense of happiness is, on the one hand, an expectation of it, and on the other hand, the goal of the activities. Happiness can only be achieved if the individual is able to find support within themselves. M. Szyszkowska also notes that “lasting happiness is connected with a difficult path of internal development, which is closely connected with moving towards values exceeding the current dimension of existence. Pursuing utilitarian goals, one experiences at most pleasure, never happiness. [...] Happiness is intertwined with action with positive mobilisation towards the realisation of values.” Importantly, “happiness can be experienced when one rejects the world fixed in notions, because one grasps what is dynamic in the surrounding reality [...] Happiness is an experience, so it dies when it is put into words.” Other authors: Sonja Lytubomirsky, Ken Sheldon and Da- Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 33 vid Schakade not only attempted to “put into words” what is contained in the concept of “happiness,” but also proposed the following formula (happiness formula):

H = S + C + V

The level of happiness (H) experienced by people is, in their opinion, determined by the biologically conditioned potential range of the feeling of happiness (S), as well as conditions in life (C) and voluntary activities (V). “V” is, as J. Hadit emphasises, conscious, intentional actions that shape our attitude of acceptance and weaken our emotional attachment to the outside world. An important element of happiness is the internal motivation to be happy. According to Janusz Czapiński, there are three dimensions of happiness, which include: – the will to live, – general mental well-being, – partial satisfaction. The author distinguishes between two concepts: “happiness” and “sense of happiness.” In his opinion, happiness is “a positive attitude towards the goals with which a person identifies themselves, which give meaning to their life,” and this sense of happiness “has the character of a conscious assessment of one’s own life. These experiences and judgements can change much more easily under the influence of various circumstances than the core of happiness.” From these definitions and approaches chosen for the purpose of this paper, it follows that happiness is related to an inner sense of well-being, which is the result of the possibilities an individual has to achieve real, personal (not imposed from outside) goals stemming from recognised values. Taking this approach to happiness as the starting point, in the further part of the study I will attempt to analyse images of happy childhood (often created or inspired by media reports) functioning in the social consciousness.

Models or appearances of a happy childhood?

The current discourse on childhood emphasises that a child “is described as a developmental entity rooted in culture and history [...]. It is assumed that childhood is socially constructed, and therefore not naturally given, but is shaped in important ways by its historical and cultural context.” Observing the reality in which contemporary children function, one cannot help but notice Danuta Wa- 34 Kinga Kuszak loszek’s observation that contemporary childhood is being “manipulated on an unprecedented scale. Everything for advertising, for profit, for popularity. The most dangerous are the attitudes of many parents and educators who agree to such manipulation.” Childhood is treated as a stage of human life in which a person becomes, only in the future will they be valuable members of society, so it is possible to interfere in its course. In the public consciousness there is a current belief that young people develop “from an imperfect, incomplete individual, by means of various factors [...] they become more and more “mature and developed.” Thus, childhood is the starting point for a better (and sometimes worse) life in adulthood. It is seen as a stage in which an investment is made in the subsequent lives of individuals. The consequence of this is that childhood is “accelerated” and the period of childhood is shortened, or even replaced with a fast adulthood, which manifests itself, for example, in the sphere of behaviour, dress, designates once typical of the older age group, sexuality, liberal customs, access to pathology, drug addiction, violence, banditry. As J.Z. Górnikiewicz stresses, “adolescents are rapidly penetrating the reality that until recently was restricted to adults, and the whole process is strongly catalysed by overwhelming new media, especially the Internet.” After all, childhood is supposed to be a good springboard for a happy life in adulthood. For this to happen, it must be “a time of special work on oneself and on behalf of the years to come in terms of career/ stabilisation.” For we live in the culture of “only one time” – the future time, “the past time is treated as a place of contemptible relics, and the present time as a starting point for the future.” In addition, the role of a happy childhood is also highlighted. It is impossible not to agree with Helena Izdebska, who notes that “the desire to ensure the happiness of children rises in many families (also in the media – K.K.) to the level of the most important issues, and with a very arbitrary interpretation of what it would mean, it generally produces negative results and, contrary to desires, impoverishes the process of upbringing.” We live in a time of compulsion to be happy and compulsion to have a happy childhood. I will therefore analyse the five semblances of a happy childhood that emerge from the analysis of the lifestyles of children and their parents, which have been identified for this study: – an abundant childhood, – an active childhood, – a childhood in the limelight, – a boundless childhood, – a childhood among people. Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 35

An abundant childhood

Robert Frank noted that contemporary people lose a lot of valuable energy in pursuing goals that only seem to bring happiness. One such objective is to ensure the abundance of material goods, which of course involves constant consumption. This thesis is further developed by Zygmunt Bauman, who emphasises that people who practice a consumerist (abundant – K.K.) way of life have above all a longing for the appropriation, possession and collection of objects, valued for their comfort and/or social respect, which they grant their owners. As the aforementioned author goes on to write, consumerism links the vision of happiness not so much with satisfying needs, but with the ever-increasing number and intensification of desires requiring immediate consumption and hasty replacement of objects which are supposed to satisfy those desires. We are therefore faced with a vicious circle of needs and desires, as new needs require new goods, and new goods require new needs and desires. In such a situation, material goods and goods age faster, which requires their immediate disposal and replacement with newer ones. Many valued things quickly lose their charm and splendour, “it may turn out that before the owner had a chance to enjoy them, they are suitable only for a rubbish dump.” Zygmunt Bauman adds that “one of the most important consequences of identifying happiness with the purchase of goods that bring happiness is postponing the hope that the pursuit of happiness will one day end. [...] Cunningly shifting dreams of happiness from a vision of a full and fully satisfying life to tracking the means necessary to achieve it, the markets make sure that the search never ends. The tracked objects change at a dizzying speed. Both the trackers themselves and their zealous mentors and guides are aware that if the search is to be successful, the items that are sought must quickly go out of use, lose their lustre, appeal and seduce power. We must be able to part with them without regret when it comes to replacing them with other, “newer and better” products, sentenced in advance to a similar fate. Happiness in the form of an anticipated state of bliss to come after a purchase is imperceptibly replaced by the state of acquisition that precedes it, an act full of joyful expectations, imbued with pure and impeccable, because not yet disappointed, hope. Children are included in this spiral of chasing after happiness, understood as abundance. Every day, dozens of advertisements are directed to them for products necessary, if not essential, for their happiness. They distort the image of a happy childhood by building a world that functions “on the principle of closed circulation,” in which games and product advertisements are presented, and the prizes are media artefacts that become synonymous with happiness un- 36 Kinga Kuszak derstood as the possession of subsequent goods. Mariusz Jędrzejko and Karolina Karolczak-Wawrzała note that the variety of offers addressed to children means that “to be somewhere, to see someone, to participate in something, to have something becomes not only an internal need, but also a result of external pressure.” Children who are encouraged, or even forced, to chase after more products, certain ways of consumption that are being offered to them in an increasingly attractive form, are becoming members of a community that Zygmunt Bauman called a swarm. Swarms are not burdened by concern for survival, rituals characteristic for groups, because swarms come together, split apart and gather again because of various occasions caused by always changing interests, attracted by ever new, usually moving targets. Such a goal is for children to have another, new toy, an object which will soon be replaced by a new, more attractive one. Children form a swarm around it, their only purpose to show that they each have one. The children who make up the swarm around the toy do not form a team focused on achieving a specific goal together, but are, as Z. Bauman put it, “the sum of parts, or a collection of self-driving elements, compounded by ‘mechanical solidarity’, expressed in the reproduction of the same patterns of behaviour (each child plays with their own toy as was suggested in a film or in an advertising spot” – K. K.). The swarm resembles a sequence of Warhol’s repeated paintings in which none is the original.” What is worse, every child wants to be in this swarm, because the swarm gives a temporary illusion of belonging. Unlike groups, “swarms do not know separatists or rebels – at most they find ‘deserters’, the ‘klutzes’ and ‘lost sheep’, who, outside of the swarm, are exposed to frustration, loss, feeling of lack of fulfilment, and thus they experience a lack of happiness.

Active childhood

Jonathan Haidit notes that contemporary humans constantly pose themselves new tasks and face external challenges, which in turn are supposed to make them happy. The author develops this idea as follows: “We dream of promotion, of getting into a prestigious school, or of successfully completing a major project. We work without respite, imagining how happy we would be if we managed to achieve this goal. Then we achieve it and – if we are lucky enough – we experience the euphoria that lasts for an hour or (at best, several hours), especially if the success came unexpectedly and if we found out about it in one moment. In most cases, however, we do not experience euphoria at all. When success seems more and more probable, and the crowning event only confirms what we have started to Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 37 expect, we experience a feeling of relief and pleasure connected with the fulfilment of the task. In such circumstances, our first thought is rarely “Hurrah! Fantastic!” and much more often: “OK. What is my next task?” In this observation, we can hear the conviction that it is difficult for contemporary people to feel the joy of what is happening and what they are experiencing at a given moment in their lives, because something is constantly pushing them forward. It is a desire to gain more, better, faster, to gain – in a rush, with a great effort – new, ephemeral goals. Intensive activity is typical of the “best quality” model of childhood. This model is dominated by the belief that a childhood in which one invests, which is intensely lived, is happier. The child’s day, week, month and school year are tightly filled with meticulously planned activities. There is no time or place for stopping and being bored, children are brought up “in the cultural matrix of a constant search, testing their talents and interests.” B. Smolińska-Theiss notes that “the traditional category of ‘free time’ does not reflect the complexity of the whole phenomenon related to educational plans and activities [...].” There are many of them, they tightly fill the days of many children. Every moment of inactivity causes a feeling of discomfort in the child and their loved ones, and as a consequence, the invention and creation of new activities. The life of contemporary humans is dominated by the category of “optimally used time.” According to Sue Palmer, it means randomly created hours spent with a child during which both the child and the adult have an obligation to be in good mood. However, their excess, as well as the overload of duties and tasks, causes tiredness and a sense of lack of free time, which affects both children and their parents. Instead of happiness, “the rush for achievement, constant action, the race with time, takes away the child’s childhood, which, once lost, will never return.”

Childhood in the limelight

Currently, the model of childhood in the limelight is popular and often uncritically implemented, and the presence of the child in the media is identified with their success and happiness. Many parents believe that by participating in the media, a child “touches” a better world and has the opportunity to meet popular and influential people. In fact, however, during participation in popular television programmes, the child is placed in the role of a jester, which is supposed to entertain and amuse the childish and immature adults gathered around them. It is cast as a “graceful creature,” a “sweet child, a sweetie, a doughnut to be eaten”, a sweet Elf – “sensitive and not resistant to reality, clumsy and in this awkwardness funny, 38 Kinga Kuszak moving.” the adults that surround the child are people who care about their own “eternal youth” – in fact infantile, lost in a pre-figure culture. They are based on eternally young fools and all-knowing experts speaking on every possible subject. Most of them, as S. Palmer emphasises, “gained fame and wealth mainly due to being eccentric and egocentric.” In their expert roles, they encourage children to compete and race for the best possible places in successive instalments of the show in a not very sophisticated, often even primitive way. The child is supposed to meet the expectations of adults who want to have a good time. The child’s task is to play a role as described in the script, and their behaviour, a statement contrary to the expectations of the adult audience, evokes a grimace of dissatisfaction on the faces of the audience and unfriendly, confusing comments, which are illustrated in the following dialogue:

Host: What is a bribe? Girl: Is it an instrument? Host: But what kind? A more financial or musical one? Girl: Musical

Lack of reaction from the audience and jury. The host quickly moves on to the next question. In this example, the child acted contrary to expectations, and its statement does not correspond to the convention of amusing adults by showing how children expose the “hidden parts” of the adult world. The child was supposed to be funny, and their statements should put adults – parents (guardians) – in morally ambiguous situations, expose family secrets, then an adult audience would have reasons for satisfaction, and the child protagonist of the programme would be rewarded with applause and positive comments, such as:

Girl: A curse is when my mom gets upset, she curses. Jurors: Bravo! One of the jurors: Something out of real life at last!

Situations in the limelight also stimulate antagonistic relationships between children and motivate them to take shortcuts, in a morally ambiguous way. Watch- ing these shows, it is impossible not to agree with Dorota Zawadzka, who comments on the participation of children in one of the programmes with the following words “in Mali Giganci it suddenly turns out that you have no talent, that someone who does something completely different and in an objectively weak way is by some miracle better than you. It’s like Russian roulette. How will your child understand it? The no longer concerns the authors of the programme.” The au- Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 39 thor of the blog describes the situation of violation of a child’s dignity, an important element of the broader psychological well-being of an individual. Heliodor Muszyński noted that “humans, as they grow up in society, assimilate a certain standard of respect, which people give to every representative of their own species. In other words, every individual in the course of social life discovers that a person, simply because they are a human being, has the right to respect for their person.” As a result of such experiences, children discover something completely different – you are respected when you manage to put someone down, to humili- ate a competitor, or when you say or do something that makes viewers laugh. Such situations also distort the essence of competition, making it a rivalry without rules. The point is to win at all costs.

A boundless childhood

The belief that the condition of a happy childhood is freedom and a lack of restrictions is based on the assumption that “children are not passive players in social structures and processes, but actively contribute to the creation and definition of their own social world.” In adults’ recollections of their happy childhoods, the categories that appear in the statements are: freedom from duties and worries, love of their loved ones, the possibility of spending time in free, unrestricted activity, in any place and in any way adopted by the child. Images of free childhood can be found in the excellent descriptions of free play in the novels of Astrid Lind- gren, such as The Children of Noisy Village or The Children on Troublemaker Street. I would like to cite a fragment from the latter:

The other day Jonas and I were playing pirates and Lotta wouldn’t leave us alone. So Jonas asked her: “Don’t you know what to do when you play pirates?” “You stand on the table and jump and you are a pirate,” Lotta said. “But there is a much better way,” Jonas told her. “You lie on the floor under your bed and you hold still.” “Why?” Lotta wanted to know. “You just lie there pretending that you’re a pirate and you keep on saying over and over, ‘More food, more food, more food.’ That’s what pirates do,” said Jonas. Lotta believer this is what pirates do. She crawled under her bed and said, “More food, more food, more food,” over and over again. Jonas and I climbed up on our table and sailed away on the sea while Lotta stayed under her bed saying “More food.” It was almost more fun watching Lotta than playing pirates. […] 40 Kinga Kuszak

Sometimes we play hospital. Jonas is the doctor, I am the nurse, and Lotta is a sick child lying in her bed. “But I don’t want to lie in my bed,” Lotta said the last time we asked her to be the sick child. “I want to be the doctor and stick a spoon into Mia Maria’s throat.” “You can’t be the doctor,” Jonas said, “because you can’t write a description.” “What can’t I write?” Lotta asked. “A description is what the doctor writes. It tells you how to take care of sick children,” said Jonas. Jonas can print and he hasn’t even started school yet. He can read, too. Jonas and I got Lotta to lie down in bed and be a sick child. “How do you feel, my little girl?” Jonas asked. […] “I have to give her a needle,” he said. Once when Jonas was sick the doctor gave him a needle so he would get well again and that’s why he wanted to give Lotta a needle. Jonas picked up a darning needle which we made believe was the kind the doctor used. But Lotta didn’t want a needle. She kicked and screamed: “Don’t put a needle in me!” […] “I still don’t want a needle,” Lotta howled. That almost stopped us from playing hospital. “Well, I’m going to write out a description anyway,” said Jonas. He sat down at the table and wrote with a crayon on a piece of paper. He printed it in block letters, but I still couldn’t read it. Jonas and I think it’s fun to play hospital. But Lotta doesn’t think so.

According to Astrid Lindgren, a children’s game is a time filled with imagining and creating reality according to what the child knows and is able to present in their mind about this reality. Imagining, for example, that they have received a letter from a mysterious sender who had hidden their treasure on an island, the child would have to act as a treasure hunter, so they would have to follow the rules of searching for a treasure. It is necessary to obtain accessories necessary to undertake treasure hunting activities. They must meet the criteria for treasure hunting. Roles must therefore be assigned to items and objects and rules must be laid down for how they are to be used. In so doing, the child uses their knowledge and experience. They take up and perform the game as they know it and are able. In playing, the child transforms what they can see and observe in their surroundings by choosing those elements that allow them to play according to the adopted rule(s). Unfortunately, today’s children only have the opportunity to engage in activities that only seem to be free play; in fact, the style of play has changed dramati- cally, certainly it cannot be said to be free and unrestricted. The youngest children function in the environment of objects invented for them by adults, objects called modern, interactive toys. In fact, these items are not really for fun, but need to be activated by pressing a button. Many of them can be easily destroyed, damaged or lost during the manipulation undertaken by the child. Therefore, when play- Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 41 ing with them, they have to be careful and follow instructions. They cannot show their ingenuity and creativity, they cannot play as they wish. It can only reproduce movements, situations designed by those who know how to tie a child to a particular brand, as expressed in the following description advertising a popular toy: Every year, Christmas edition Barbie’s outfit surprises with its unusual cut and perfection of every detail. A stylish hairstyle, evening make-up and beautiful accessories emphasise the elegant and festive style. This is a great event for the collectors of the iconic Barbie doll. For 27 years now, the Christmas edition of Barbie has been appearing before Christmas and delighting with its outfit [...] This year’s model of the Christmas Barbie is the quintessence of Christmas inspirations. The ruby-silver dress with bell-shaped cascades of ruffles looks perfect on both commercially available dolls: the light-skinned blonde and the dark-skinned brunette. Instead of running around and exploring the surroundings of the house, climbing trees and wading in puddles, the contemporary child has been locked up in a room and given toys imitating a luxurious, glazed and unreal world (e.g. Barbie as a bride, the pink Barbie car, the pink Barbie wardrobe, pink hair styling instruments, artificial Barbie hair, etc.). Looking at such toys and children’s attempts to play with them, it is impossible not to agree with Bronisława Dymara, who says that it is necessary to “bring back the element and joy of fun,” that these appearances of fun should be replaced with authentic play bringing joy and experience important for future life.

A childhood among people

Many educators and psychologists studying social relations find that an individual’s sense of happiness is connected with rich and diverse social contacts. A contemporary child operates in many social spaces and has the opportunity to establish a number of relationships with other people at home, in a kindergarten (school), in the neighbourhood, in a shop, in a backyard, during extracurricular activities, in a sports club. However, exposing individualism and satisfying individual needs and aspirations in the world means that other people are perceived as competitors and rivals to be treated with cautious and even mistrust. Therefore, most of the social contacts that are undertaken by people in the 21st century are fleeting meetings during which the youngest generation learns the principles of, among others, “civil inattention.” As Anthony Giddens writes, “Civil inattention is not the same as ignoring another person. Each individual indicates recognition of the other person’s presence, but avoids any gesture that might be taken as too 42 Kinga Kuszak intrusive.” A. Giddens continues, “Our lives are organised around the repetition of similar patterns of behaviour from day to day, week to week, month to month, and year to year.”. By observing and imitating one’s loved ones, receiving information from them about the desired reactions in a given situation, one learns to be among people so as not to enter into relations. It should be added that the majority of contemporary human relations (also those of a child) are transient, fast, short, and also indirect (on the Internet, by e-mail, etc.). Most children live in a world of unrealistic contact with other people, and their representative is a 9-year-old described by S. Palmer, who during the conversation “proudly presented his ‘virtual world’ – a bedroom where there was a TV set, a DVD player, a computer, a game console [...]. That’s where he spent most of his time after class.” When the author asked where the child’s parents were while he spent time in the virtual world, she received the following answer: “Dad watches matches on TV, and mom... mom is probably checking her e-mail.” Multimedia was designed to facilitate and improve interpersonal contacts and communication, meanwhile studies clearly show that children who have free access to television, computers and mobile phones, who are highly active on social virtual networks spend less time establishing direct social relationships with their peers, which in turn is reflected in a sense of lack of happiness and alienation. And yet, it has been known for a long time that real-time, face-to-face relationships with other people are crucial for an individual’s sense of happiness. For example, S. Pinker stresses that “the social bonds we create determine our level of satisfaction with life, cognitive ability and resistance to infections and chronic diseases.”

Summary

Summarising my reflections, I would like to recall the words of Zygmunt Bauman, who described the world around us and the people operating within it and noted that “you can give your loved ones expensive gifts to reward them for the time you could spend with them, but did not spend with them, for all the conversations you did not have and for the complete or almost complete lack of more convincing signs of our interest, compassion and care. But neither the excellent taste of res- taurant dishes nor the high-priced brand labels attached to the gifts purchased in a store match the value of the happiness that could be brought by those goods the lack or shortage of which is thus intended to be compensated. Nothing can replace our shared presence at the table, with food prepared together with a view to their shared consumption, nothing can replace the time that someone important to us Children in search of happiness. Appearances of a happy childhood 43 will devote to patiently and attentively listen to our most intimate thoughts, hopes, fears, nothing can replace the authentic evidence of loving attention, dedication, and care. Since not all goods necessary to achieve a ‘subjective sense of happiness’ can be reduced to a common denominator (and this applies especially to material goods), they escape attempts at quantitative balancing.” Instead of chasing happiness and creating the appearance of a happy childhood for children, it may be better to simply slow down the pace of life and nurture the moments that last, because “sharing the joy of life is the essence of a satisfying relationship between a child and a parent.” Perhaps in this context it is worth considering the role of the teacher – the person supporting the parent in their parental role. Perhaps it is time for the teacher to give up the role of the guardian holding the child and their loved ones accountable for carrying out the next school task, “spurring” a spiral of chase after success measured by the results of tests and rankings, and to get closer to the child and their parents, so that together they can experience important and less important moments which are, after all, unique.

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Abraheem Abu–Ajaj The Kaye Academic College of Education, Beer-Sheva, Israel

The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students in teacher training institutions in Israel

Keywords: Bedouins, female stu- Abstract: The issue of the process of integration and ab- dents, college, education, aca- sorption of Arab Bedouin female students in teacher demia. training institutions in Israel constitutes a significant yet critical chapter in the course of forming the personal and professional identity of the prospective teacher. The main purpose of this article is to describe the difficulties experienced by Arab Bedouin female students during the process of their social and educational integration and absorption in teacher training institutions. Also, to deal with the differences between Arab and Jewish teacher training institutions. Furthermore, to what extent the cultural encounter is perceived by the students that would enable them to have social and educational integration. The study involved 200 Bedouin Arab female students living in the Negev and learning in four teacher-training colleges in Israel; Kaye College ofEducation, Achva College, Sakhnin College for teacher training and Al-Qasmi Col- lege. The students answered a questionnaire that was written for this study. The findings of the study indicated many difficulties in the process of absorbing and integrating Arab Bedouin students in various teacher-training institutions in the country. Not to mention, language difficulties experienced by them with regard to reading articles and writing papers, not in their native tongue. The multicultural encounter between the different genders also poses a great difficulty in addition to the age difference between Arab and Jewish students. Furthermore, the policy of the Israeli academic institutions does not fully represent the Arab culture and in the interaction between the academic and administrative staff and the Arab Bedouin students.

Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp.45-57 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.3

46 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj

Introduction

The present research emerges from a personal experience and a personal vision as a professional person in the academic community. Particularly, difficulties faced by Arab students in the Negev, and especially the female students from different social and cultural backgrounds. In academia, the term “integration” is especially used for marginalized and weak populations in society. The integration of Bedouin Arab female students in academia in Israel can be attributed to the following four- fold model of acculturation used by (Berry, 2003): A. integration: occurs when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin. Integration leads to, and is often synonymous with biculturalism;b. Assimilation: occurs when individuals adopt the cultural norms of a dominant or host culture, over their original culture; c. Separation: occurs when individuals reject the dominant or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin. Separation is often facilitated by immigration to ethnic enclaves; d: Marginalization: occurs when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture (Gathon, 2011) The teaching profession is considered a profession with high demand and high probability of acceptance in the eyes of Bedouin Arab girls who have completed high school. Also, due to thecultural and societal pressure that sees great importance for girls to choose the teaching profession over other occupations, in order to preserve tribal and family values and norms. In recent years, the Bedouin Arab students have been going through a process of social and scholastic integration in relation to the cultural change in teacher training institutions in particular and in academia in general, accompanied by serious concerns and difficulties, especially in the first year (Abu-Ajaj, 2017).The teaching profession is considered as one of the most important means among Arab Bedouin students in the context of personal and professional development (Abu-Ajaj, 2017; Eghbaria, 2013).

The Status of Women in Arab Bedouin Society

The Bedouins in the Negev are a unique group that is culturally, historically, socially and politically distinct from Arab society in the State of Israel (Kaplan, Ashur and Al-Sayed, 2014). In the last century, Arab women were always being exposed to various forms of autonomy suppression regarding social and sexual status. One of the reasons for the oppression of the Arab Bedouin woman in the Negev stems from the tribal status and the masculine power that dominates the clan or family, The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students 47 which receives this support according to customs, norms and patterns of life. The Arab Bedouin society in the Negev is characterized as a conservative society as they follow a different pattern of life from the entire Arab society in the country (Abu rabia-Queder, 2006). The cultural, social, and religious prohibition is strongly rooted in the norms and patterns of life of various strata in Bedouin society in the Negev, especially in the tribes and clans still living in the unrecognized villages in the Negev. The status of the girl and the woman in Bedouin society is considered to be controversial among Bedouin society, which severely constrains her from various interactions in the norms of civic life. Therefore, they are usually super- vised by parents, siblings and relatives (Abu-Baker, 2002). In the last decade, there has been a change in the status and lifestyle of Bedouin Arab women in the Negev in light of the transition to permanent settlements, modernization and exposure to the way of life of Jewish society in the South. This change paved the way for girls and women to become independent and to establish their own way of life by acquiring a profession for living in higher education institutions in a country that gives them a clear and constitutional freedom according to the accepted norms of tribes and clans. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in the rate of education in Israel, similar to Western societies advocating the principle of equal opportunities for students of different ethnic backgrounds, socio-economic status and also supporting their integration into society and opening the doors for the education to them (The Higher Education Council, 2016). Since the mid-1990s, there was a significant increase in numbers among Bedouin girls studying in teacher training colleges, particularly in the Kaye College of Education and the Achva College because of their proximity to the Arab Bedouin students’ place of residence. The main difference began with the increase in the proportion of Bedouin Arab students in institutions of higher education, alongside the process of modernization in Arab Bedouin society, which gives high priority to high school graduates to join the circle of academia in Israel and abroad. This change is due to the cultural encounter with Jewish society and the transition to permanent communities, and the belief that women can be a significant factor in the socioeconomic development of Bedouin society in the Negev. The data and encounters with Arab Bedouin students in higher education institutions should be treated uniquely because of the special considerations needed for the demographic, social and social characteristics of the society. Since 2001, there has been a significant increase in the achievements of high school students in Arab Bedouin schools in the Negev. The rate of entitlement to matriculation examinations (Bagrut) that entitles admission to institutions of higher education 48 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj

(universities, colleges) has increased among the Bedouins from 12% in 2001 to 20% in 2014. However, despite the increase in the number of matriculation exam- inees among the Bedouins, the number is still lower than those in the Arab sector (34%) and the Jewish sector (50%). On the one side, there was an increase in entitlement to a matriculation certificate among Arab Bedouin girls, from 20% in 2000 to 40% in 2014. However, on the other side, there was a declineamong boys entitled to a matriculation certificate1. Between 2001 and 2014, there was a significant drop in the dropout rate among Bedouin girls from high schools, from 42% in 2001 to 31% in 2014. The decrease in the dropout rate as well as the increase in the numbers of girls eligible for the matriculation exams, led to an increase in the number of girls joining the academic faculties in Israel. Between 2008 and 2014, the number of Bedouin Arab students increased from 1313 students, 710 female students (54%) and 603 male students (46%) to 2822 students in 2014, of which 1861 female students (66%).An increase of 12% among female Bedouin students compared with 961 male students (34%), a 10% drop in the number of male students from Bedouin society2. The continuing increase in the number of Arab Bedouin students in institutions of higher education, especially in teacher training institutions, indicates a decrease in the dropout rate among Bedouin girls and an increase in the percentage of those entitled to matriculation certificates. Also, despite the obstacles and barriers that the institutions of higher education placed in the face of all Arab students, especially passing the Psychometric Test, there was an increase in the number of Arab Bedouin students in academia (Nawahid, 2013). However, in recent years there has been a significant improvement in the rate of Arab Bedouin girls who are accepted to studies in institutions of higher education, and especially to teacher training colleges in Israel. Mustafa (2007) notes that the reasons for the improvement in the number of Arab Bedouin students in institutions of higher education in different specialties stem from two principles: the social motive that sees the integration of Bedouin Arab girls in academia will lead to the socio-economic prosperity and personal motivation of the Bedouin students who wish to integrate and promote their status in the Arab Bedouin society in the Negev. For years, the Council for Higher Education has been involved in the integration and absorption of marginalized and weak populations in Israeli society in institutions of higher education in Israel, in view of the great influx of high

1 Central Bureau of Statistics, Localities and Population in Israel in 2014. 2 The Bedouin in Israel – Facts and Figures, Myers Joint – Brookdale, February 2016. The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students 49 school graduates from Western Israel to study in institutions of higher education abroad (Arar and Haj-Yehia, 2010). Numerous studies have been conducted on the absorption and integration of Arab students in academia (Yasser, 2008; Mustafa, 2007; Arar and Abu Asbah, 2007). Therefore, we have recently witnessed a change in the institutional and social perception of the absorption of Arab Bedouin students into institutions of higher education in Israel. In the eyes of many of the Arab female Bedouin students, academia represents a significant breakthrough in promoting the status of the Bedouin girl in Arab Bedouin society, especially in the labor market, and for full equality in opportunities. The different social and cultural background that the Arab Bedouin female students in the Negev derive from should be a source of support from the side of the institutions of higher education, especially the colleges of education. Cul- tural diversity and support is a significant starting point for these students who are exposed for the first time to a new cultural difference that affects the learning process ( Hurtado & Gurin, 2002). The issue of absorption and integration of Bedouin female Arab students in academia has not yet received a sufficient research attention (Abu-Rabia-Queder, 2008) in terms of integration and the use of concepts and also in terms of entry, adjustment, persistence and dropping out, after the first year or change in specialization or subject of study. Many concerns and fears accompany the process of admission and entry of Bedouin Arab female students into the higher education system. Their main fear stems from failing academic due to not being psychologically prepared for academia. This is the result of the enormous pressure caused by schools and also due to the matriculation exams (Bagrut), which requires significant effort in order to attain eligibility.

Research Methodology

The purpose of the study The present study aims to examine the degree of integration, social and academic absorption of Arab Bedouin female students in teacher training institutions in a unique and pioneering manner3

3 The study focused on four teacher training institutions in Israel: Kaye College, Achva, Al- Qasemi and Sakhnin 50 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj

Research Hypotheses 1. There will be a statistically significant difference in the process of absorption and integration of Arab Bedouin female students in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) and Jewish teachers’ training colleges (Kay, Achva). 2. There will be a statistically significant difference in the assessment of Arab Bedouin female students in the academic and social climate in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) and Jewish teacher training colleges (Kay, Achva). 3. There will be a statistically significant difference in the level of assistance and support of Arab teacher training institutions (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) and among the Jewish teacher training institutions (Kay, Achva).

The study population The study included 200 Bedouin Arab female students in four teacher training colleges, Kay, Achva, Sakhnin, and Al-Qasimi (N = 50). The average age in the sample is 21.7 and the age range varies from 18 to 25. 67% of the participants in the study live in recognized localities and 33% live in unrecognized villages, under tough socio-economic conditions. The distribution of marital status reflects to a large extent, the age of the subjects, with 72% of the participants reporting that they were single and the rest are married (28%) or divorced (1%). Among married women, 54% said they had at least one child and the rest (46%) had no children.

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (N=200)

Gender (%) N women 100% 200 Age average 21.7 134 Range 18-25 marital status Single 72.00 144 Married 28.00 54 divorcee 1.00 2 Number of children (%) Irrelevant 72.00 144 The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students 51

0 46.00 25 1 54.00 31 Residence A recognized locality 67.00 134 Unrecognized locality 33.00 66

Table 2. The Students Studied, By College and Year of Study

Number Second of female First Year Third year Fourth Year Year students The Kaye Academic College of 45 23 10 12 0 Education Achva Academic College of 45 10 22 13 Education Al – Qasemi College of Edu- 45 1 3 23 18 cation The Academic College of 45 0 3 17 25 Education, Sakhnin

Table 3. The Students Studied, By Majors

Special Teaching Infancy Science Math Education certificate The Kaye Academic College of 17 10 10 8 0 Education Achva Academic College of 22 23 0 0 0 Education Al – Qasemi College of 18 0 0 0 27 Education The Academic College of 0 0 0 0 45 Education, Sakhnin

Research Tools

The aquestionnaire was used in this study to examine various aspects: demographic data and background variables of the female students, the difficulties and dilemmas of the female students regarding their absorption and integration into teacher training institutions, different services used by female students to assist them in teacher training institutions. 52 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj

A. Demographic Details Questionnaire: Its purpose is to provide information about the personal background of the examined sample, including demographic data such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, education, place of birth, residence, and more. B. Difficulties and Dilemmas: A questionnaire was used, in which 18 subjects were asked to indicate challenges and dilemmas in the context of the absorption process and their social and scholastic integration into teacher training institutions. In order to examine the absorption and integration of the examinee, they were asked to mark their opinions on the statements presented to them and the degree of their suitability to their life according to the 5-steps Likert scale. 1 = (not at all) and 5 = (to a very large extent). The coefficient of reliability is 0.50. C. The degree of Assistance and Services: The purpose of this questionnaire is to examine the amount of assistance and services provided to the subjects in teacher training colleges. The questionnaire has 11 items. The subjects are asked to indicate their opinion on the statements presented to them and the degree of suitability to their life using the Likert scale Where 1 = (not at all) and 5 = (to a very large extent). The reliability coefficient is 0.92.

The Research results The present study presents preliminary and unique findings that include authentic testimonies, from which we can learn about the absorption and integration of Arab Bedouin female students in teacher training colleges in Israel, especially among the following Arab teacher training institutions (Al-Qasemi and Sakhnin) and the Jewish training institutions (Kay, Achva).

The Testing of research hypotheses The first hypothesis: is that there will be a statistically significant difference in the process of absorption and integration of Bedouin Arab female students in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) and Jewish teachers’ colleges (Kay, Achva). The results of the study revealed that there was a significant difference in the degree of absorption and integration of Arab Bedouin female students in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) compared to the Jewish ones (Kay, Achva). The t-test shows significant differences between Arab training institutions and Jewish training institutions (t = 4.761 p <0.001). In other words, the absorption and integration of Arab Bedouin female students in Arab teacher training institutions is much easier and more convenient than that of Jewish teacher training The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students 53 institutions (m=1.440, sd=0.624 sd=0.638, m=1.698). According to the students’ assessment, the differences between the Arab academic institutions and the Jewish ones is in the context of language, dealing with the framework, relations with of- ficials, as well as dealing with the reading materials and articles, understanding the lecturers, self-expression and writing in Hebrew. In addition to coping with a load of work and exams and the availability of extra learning days in Arab teacher training institutions that take place on Fridays and Saturdays which does not mainly exist on the Jewish sideTherefore, the first research hypothesis was confirmed. The Second Hypothesis: is that there will be a statistically significant difference in the assessment of Arab Bedouin female students of the academic and social climate in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) and Jewish teachers’ training colleges (Kay, Achva).

Table 3. Assessment of the Social and Educational Climate

An Arab Standard Jewish train- Standard Statements training insti- deviation ing institution deviation tution Acclimatization 4.45 0.77 3.67 0.62 Social and educational absorption 4.95 0.73 3.57 0.63 Index of difficulties 2.56 0.89 3.27 0.71 General contact index with 3.67 0.94 4.15 0.90 students Index of personal contact with 4.32 1.06 3.13 0.91 students index of equal treatment to Arab 4.67 1.03 2.94 0.76 students Participation and college activity 4.45 0.91 1.23 0.04 index

As can be seen in Table 3,the mentioned statements characterize the educational and social climate in teacher training colleges. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference in the degree of Arab Bedouin students ‘assessment of the educational and social climate in Arab teacher training colleges (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) versus Jewish teachers’ colleges (Kay, Achva). This is expressed in the social and educational acclimatization statements, introducing and nurturing a relationship between all the students in the learning environment, mutual relations in submitting papers, a sense of ethnic belonging, and receiving a different attitude, facilitations of examinations and papers that are held mostly in the mother tongue. The significant difference, as shown in Table 3, was found 54 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj in the degree of participation of female students in the college activities in Arab teacher training colleges (P <.445), which is more significant than the involvement of Bedouin Arab students in the college activities in Jewish teacher training colleges. It was also found that there was a significant difference in the educational and social aspects between Arab and Jewish teachers’ training institutions. Therefore, the second research hypothesis was confirmed. Third hypothesis: there is a statistically significant difference in the level of assistance and support of the Arab teacher training institutions (Qasemi, Sakhnin) compared to the Jewish teacher training institutions (Kaye, Achva).

Table 4. Level of Assistance and Support of Teacher Training Institutions: Comparison between Arab and Jewish Institutions (t-test))

Statements An Arab training Standard devi- Jewish training Standard devi- institution ation institution ation Student Administra- 3.69 1.06 2.95 0.97 tion Dean of Students 4.30 0.87 4.25 0.92 Information and ser- 4.13 0.86 3.45 0.56 vice center Student Association 4.21 0.73 3.74 0.94 The library 2.95 0.95 2.85 1.29 Treasury and tuition 3.97 0.93 3.32 0.76 fees Main Programs and 3.89 0.59 3.23 0.67 Specializations

As can be seen on Table 4, the mentioned statements indicate the level of assistance and support that Arab Bedouin students receive in teacher training colleges. The results revealed that there was a significant difference among the majority of statements between Arab teacher training institutions (Al-Qasami and Sakhnin) and Jewish teachers’ colleges (Kay, Achva). Therefore, the third research hypothesis was confirmed.

Discussion and summary

The study findings indicate a significant difference in the level of absorption and integration and the degree of assistance and support for Arab Bedouin students in Arab teacher training institutions about the degree of uptake and integration into The degree of social and educational integration and absorption of Arab Bedouin female students 55

Jewish teacher training institutions. Recently, The Bedouin Arab female students, despite their young age, their numbers are increasing in the teacher training institutions. Despite the broad family support they receive, they encounter difficulties and problems in Jewish teachers’ training colleges, making it difficult for them to adjust to academia, socially and educationally. Such problems exist in every academic institution, not only in colleges for theJewish teachers training, but also in universities. The socio-cultural encounter in Jewish teacher-training institutions in the south makes it difficult for traditional conservative students to adjust socially and academically. It should be noted that few students succeed to adapt to academic life in teacher training colleges after the first year and continue their academic life away from integration with all students from the various cultural levels. Also, most of them continue to deal with their difficulties independently without the involvement of any academic body in the college, thus succeeding in developing alienation and bitterness toward the training institutions (Tutari, 2009). The poor performance of Arab female students in Jewish teacher training colleges, as opposed to Arab teacher training institutions, stems from the problem of language and cultural encounter (Reingold, 2008). In the present study, difficulties arose in the context of the Hebrew language, which makes it difficult to adapt Bedouin students in Jewish teacher training institutions, which is reflected in the process of writing academic papers, and the ability to express themselves in discussions during the various courses. According to my personal experience as a lec- turer and pedagogic instructor in Jewish teacher training colleges, the Hebrew level of Arab Bedouin students is deplorablein terms of writing and speaking. Sever (2004) argues that students whose mother tongue is not Hebrew can communicate and speak well, but the difficulty is in acquiring literacy as their academic writing is of a very poor and weak level, accompanied by many mistakes of writing and formulation that affect the scholarly output of the Arab student.The findings of the present study indicate a slight acclimatization of Arab Bedouin female students in Arab teacher training institutions (Al-Qasemi, Sakhnin) with regard to the many difficulties encountered by other Arab Bedouin students who choose to study in Jewish teacher training colleges. The only difficulty that the students mentioned was the distance between their place of residence in the south and the Arab institutions in the center and north, which made them spend much time on the roads and spend a lot of money on travel and school supplies. Nevertheless, they also expressed satisfaction with regard tobeing able to study during weekends, which gives them the opportunity to work and earn a living during the week. In comparison to the present study and other studies conducted on students from the Arab sector (Taotari, 2009) and Ethiopian students (Lev Ari and Ron, 56 Abraheem Abu–Ajaj

2012). It can be noted that the Arab students in general and the Bedouin in particular and the Ethiopian students have a different ethnic identity. However, both of the minority groups suffer from institutional oppression and injustice in the Israeli society but differ in levels. The state equally supervises themregarding the development of educational systems and in the integration of the weaker populations in the Israeli society (Smooha, 2001; Pasternak, 2003).

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Guthon, S. (2011).The relationship between ethnic-cultural identity and role perception, coping style, work environment and burnout among workers with at-risk youth in Israel. A thesis entitled “Doctor of Philosophy”, Bar-Ilan University. Ramat Gan. Gurtin, P., Dey, E.l., Hurtado, S. &Gurtin, G., (2002), “ Diversity and Higher Education: Theory and Impact on Education Outcomes”, Harvard Educational Review, 72(3), 330-366. Haimovitz, T. and Ben Shahar, G. (October 2004), the matriculation exam and the psychometric entry test for universities as predictors of graduation and graduation, trends, (3). Juang, L. &Silbereisen R., (2002), “The Relationship between Adolescent Acadmic Capability Beliefs, Parenting and School Grades”, Journal of Adolescence, 25(1), 3-18. Kaplan, H., A Decade, A., and Alsaid, H. (2014). The unique contributions of support and oppression Autonomy to back up Optimal learning experience among Bedouin students: An examination of the theory of self-direction in a collectivist society. Pages 58, pp. 77-41. Lev Ari, L. and Liron, D. (2012). Ethiopian students at an academic college of education: integration or differentiation. Immigration Visibility, 1, pp. 154-128. Mustafa, M. (2007).”Changes in Higher Education among the Arab Minority in Israel in the Last Decade”. In Arar, H. and Haj Yihya, K. (Eds.) Academicians and Higher Education among the Arabs in Israel: Issues and Dilemmas. Tel Aviv: Ramot Publishing – Tel Aviv University. Nuhad, p. (2013).Representation of Arab citizens in institutions of higher education, the chances of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Equality. Haifa and Jerusalem, October 2013. Olitsky, T., Ben-Shitrit, M., Mironichev, N. and Shmuel, S. (2005). Eligibility and non eligibility for a Matriculation Certificate: Analysis of Achievements of High School Students in Israel by De- mographic and School Variables, Van Leer Institute, Booklet 5, Jerusalem. Pasternak, R. (2003). Education in Israeli society. In A. Ya’ar and Z. Shavit (eds.), Trends in Israeli Society (vol. 2, pp. 1015-899). Tel Aviv, Ramat Aviv: The Open University. Reingold, R. (2008). “Separate Studies as a Basis for Optimal Future Pluralistic Dialogue – Case Study of a Track for Teaching Certificate Studies”. DafnaYozma, 5, pp. 123-110. Sever, R. (2004). The policy of immigrant absorption in the education system. Trends, 43 (1), 145-169. Smooha, S. (2001).Arab-Jewish relations in Israel as a Jewish and democratic state. In A. Ya’ar and Z. Shavit (eds.), Trends in Israeli Society (Vol. I, pp. 231-263). Tel Aviv, Ramat Aviv: The Open University. The Council for Higher Education and the Planning and Budgeting Committee (2016).The multi- year program for the years (16 \ 2017) and (20 \ 2021). Jerusalem: Council for Higher Education. Tutari, m (2009).Needs of Arab students at the College of Education and Absorption.Tivon: Oranim College, the Research and Evaluation Authority and the Ministry of Education. Yasser, p. (2008).Representation of Arab citizens in the higher education system, the chances of the Association for the Advancement of Civil Equality. Haifa and Jerusalem, October 2008.

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Małgorzata Cywińska Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Positive Reappraisal of Stressful Situations by Children of Younger School Age

Key words: stress, negative emo- Abstract: Stress as an individual phenomenon is a specific tions, positive emotions, benefits kind of emotional experience usually associated with neg- of stressful situations, positive ative emotions and analysed in their context. However, reappraisal of difficult situations, under certain circumstances stress may also trigger posi- individual’s cognitive appraisal tive emotions; analysing a stressful situation and reflect- (primary and secondary), coping ing upon it may lead one to perceive the benefits of the with stress, children of younger stressful experience and undertake a positive reappraisal school age of the encountered difficulties. The author’s own empirical research reveals that a considerable percentage of children finishing their early-stage school education believe that it is possible to find something advantageous, good and positive in stressful situations full of negative emotions. Examples of such positive aspects of stress given by those children indicate that for some of them the developmental process that involves coping with difficult situations has already started. The children begin to act independently (analyse the difficult situation, talk about it, ask questions, check the effectiveness of strategies) in order to overcome difficulties and find their meaning in human existence. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 59-64 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.4

Introduction

The contemporary world is dominated by events that arouse various emotions and result in stressful situations. Postmodernism, a new phenomenon of the 21st century, is in itself a source of stress in our lives. It is characterized by the category of 60 Małgorzata Cywińska difference, multiple discourses, varied paradigms that define the world in various different manners, and lack of a generally acceptable universum (absence of core values). This ambiguity and vagueness of the surrounding reality, filled with competition that antagonizes interpersonal relations, results in numerous stress spaces, not only in the world of adults but also among children (Melosik, 2003: 459 – 463; Melosik, 1995: 20 -21; Śliwerski, 2004: 358 – 376). Postmodern children have very different childhoods. In the world around us we can see both ‘low quality’ children (homeless, poor, living in the streets) and ’high quality’ children – well-invested, educated in elite schools, who function according to their parents’ programme and are being trained for success (Nyczaj-Drąg, 2005: 145 – 148). The lives of children from both those categories may be full of stress. Coping with shortfalls and poverty triggers many stressful situations, yet striving to meet the expectations of adults who want their children to go from success to success may also be a dangerous stressor capable of disturbing the child’s emotional, social, intellectual and somatic development. There are three tendencies that can be distinguished in characterizing stress. The first tendency is to analyse stress as an external stimulus, situation, or event having certain specific qualities. The second tendency is to accentuate internal human reactions, particularly emotional reactions forming one’s specific inner experience. The third tendency is to define stress as a relation between external factors and human properties (Heszen-Niejodek, 2000: 467). In all the described approaches, stress is perceived as a specific form of emotional experience. Modern foreign psychology most often refers to the transactional theory of stress developed by Richard S. Lazarus and Susan Folkman. The fundamental notions of that theory – transaction, cognitive appraisal (primary and secondary), coping with stress – are strongly determined by emotions, usually intense and negative ones. It should be emphasized, however, that positive emotions may also occur in the stress transaction, as will be presented in the transactional theory of stress referred to above. An example may be one of the main notions of the transactional stress theory already listed above, i.e. individual cognitive appraisal, involving mainly negative emotions but not entirely devoid of positive ones. Thus, the following emotions are involved in the primary appraisal of a given situation by an individual: • anger, sorrow, sadness – when the situation is evaluated as harm/loss; • fear/anxiety, worry – when the stress transaction is evaluated as a threat; • hope, zeal, excitement, amusement – when a given situation is perceived as a challenge. Positive Reappraisal of Stressful Situations by Children of Younger School Age 61

According to this theory, the primary cognitive appraisal decides about emotions, i.e. about the intensity and nature of emotional response, and about trigger- ing the secondary cognitive appraisal. If a transaction (relation) of an individual with the environment is evaluated as stressful, then the secondary appraisal follows in which the individual evaluates the possibilities of undertaking action aimed at eliminating the reasons for stress and activates coping resources. It should be underlined that the coping process is in itself the source of emotions. The effectiveness of emotional control in the coping process defines its course and results. If the coping activity is successful, positive emotions are generated; on the other hand, failure gives rise to negative emotions. In the model of Richard S. Lazarus and Susan Folkman, emotions are secondary to cognitive appraisal and change along with that appraisal. They also alter the way in which the situation is perceived. However, it should be noted that the latest results of longitudinal studies conducted by Irena Heszen have revealed that the opposite is also possible, i.e. emotions can shape the cognitive appraisal of an individual; they may be the first signal that something important is going on in a person’s life and make that person undertake cognitive appraisal under the influence of emotions connected with a given situation (Heszen, 2013 : 27 – 40).

Positive emotions in stressful situations and benefits of such situations perceived by children of younger school age

Over recent years many studies have been carried out in contemporary psychology to demonstrate the significance of positive emotions in stressful situations. Certain elements of that trend were present in the concept of R.S. Lazarus and S. Folkman connected with the primary appraisal related to a transaction with the environment treated as a challenge, which was demonstrated to be associated with hope, excitement and amusement. However, it was Susan Folkman (Folkman, 1997: 1207 – 1221) that attached importance to positive emotions. Together with Judith Moskowitz, Folkman concentrated her attention on “meaning-focused coping”, reflecting the search for positive meaning in stressful situations and finding it, treated by both researchers as the third function of coping, apart from the instrumental, problem-centred function and the self-regulation function of emotional control. The authors accentuate two levels of reappraising meaning: global, related to the fixed values and beliefs of an individual, and situational, connected with a specific situation and close-range goals. 62 Małgorzata Cywińska

Meaning-focused coping is analysed in relation to the following forms: • rearranging priorities when confronted with stress in order to make them more attainable, which offers a chance to achieve current goals; • adaptive transformation of goals – revising the possibility of attaining previously set goals, giving up impossible goals and setting goals that are possible to attain; • finding benefits in stressful experience (such as becoming a stronger and better person after a traumatic experience); • recalling the benefits previously found in stressful situations experienced in the past; • infusing ordinary events with positive meaning (e.g. being offered words of kindness from a friend, watching the beauty of nature); • reinforcement of positive affect by initiating positive events meant to free one from emotional discomfort (e.g. spending time with friends). Positive emotions play the adaptive role here; not only are they provoked, maintained and intensified, but they retroact on all the coping functions (emotions-focused, problem-focused and meaning-focused). Positive emotions offer a distraction from the stressor, are a source of momentary relief, and serve the purpose of replenishing physiological and social resources. They serve as a coping behaviour motive and mark the aim of that behaviour (Heszen, 2013 : 48 – 55). I. Heszen also presents the coping processes – emphasized by R. S. Folkman and J. Moskowitz – that inspire positive emotions. These are: positive reappraisal, problem-focused coping, creating positive events and infusing ordinary events with positive affect. Positive reappraisal consists in the cognitive transformation of a stressful situation in such a way as to be able to find its positive aspects. For that purpose we can use certain strategies, treating a stressful situation as: • an opportunity for personal development, acquiring wisdom, patience; • grounds for learning important life skills; • experience that helps us appreciate the value of life; • a space in which to strengthen faith and spirituality and improve our relations with other people. While positive reappraisal mainly takes place in the cognitive sphere, problem-focused (goal-oriented) coping relates to the behavioural sphere. As already mentioned above, it is one of the two functions of coping. Searching for positive emotions appears quite controversial in situations when the source of stress cannot be eliminated (e.g. terminal illness); still, even in such situations, as S. Folk- man demonstrates, it is possible to feel positive emotions (for instance relief Positive Reappraisal of Stressful Situations by Children of Younger School Age 63 when we manage to alleviate the pain of a suffering person). Problem-focused coping also generates positive emotions in situations when we achieve positive results of undertaken activation efforts, e.g. a sense of being efficient, masterly, in control, high self-esteem, and in the context of activities undertaken for another person – when we receive positive reinforcement from our social environment (external reinforcement) and from the sense of fulfilled duty (internal reinforcement). The emotional state can also be improved by creating positive events and infusing ordinary occurrences with positive affect. The former strategy involves activities deliberately undertaken to get out of the stress space (by socializing with friends, or going to the cinema or theatre), while the latter is about the reappraisal of ordinary everyday situations (Heszen, 2013: 88 – 91). One of the forms of meaning-focused coping mentioned above, i.e. finding benefits in stressful situations, was related in a research study to children of younger school age (aged 8 and 9). This particular line of research on stressful situations forms an element of broader research on child stress. In the research study the diagnostic survey method was used, and the main research techniques were questionnaire and free interview. The study involved 280 children finishing their early school education (eight- and nine-year-olds; 147 girls and 133 boys). The survey research was conducted in a specific manner; it was carried out in stages and always in the presence of the researcher who read out the survey questions to the children and answered their individual questions. Another technique was the free interview, carried out for 70 children randomly selected from the group of research subjects. The interview was carried out to deepen the qualitative aspect of the research and penetrate the child’s psychology in the context of stressful situations. The children were asked the following question: “Is it possible to find something beneficial/good/positive in stressful situations filled with negative emotions such as fear/anxiety, sadness or anger?” The children’s answers to that question are presented in Table 1. As can be seen, a considerable percentage of children gave the affirmative answer. At the same time it turned out that neither sex nor age were factors differentiating their opinions, as the chi-square test result is not statistically significant (sex: p=0.77614; age: p=0.62330). The way in which the children answered the question is a very positive manifestation that I associate with perceiving a stressful situation as a chance to cope, not only in the classical way (by overcoming the problem and the emotions), but also by skilfully working through the situation and gaining positive experience or making a discovery. 64 Małgorzata Cywińska

Table 1. Finding benefits of stressful experience by children (N=280)

Girl Boy Total Age: 8 years Age: 9 years Total Answers N % N % N N % N % N Yes 96 65.31 89 66.92 185 40 63.49 145 66.82 185 No 51 34.69 44 33.08 95 23 36.51 72 33.18 95 Total 280 280 Chi-square χ² = 0.0808565; df = 1; p = 0.77614 χ² = 0.2412599; df = 1; p = 0.62330 test results Source: author’s own research

Individual interviews were then carried out, in which the children were re- quested to “substantiate” their positive response or give examples of positive outcomes of stressful situations. That request, however, proved difficult for the children from the examined age category. Many of them were not able to give any examples, knowing only perhaps intuitively that positive aspects of difficult situations can be found. Still, the examples of benefits of stressful situations given by those children who were able to do so are very inspiring and demonstrate their ability to think and analyse: • “When you are walking along a steep cliff and it is dangerous, you can see beautiful views ….” • “When someone breaks their arm, he or she is later happy when their arm is well again….” • “I had my tonsils removed and it was painful, but I got a big portion of ice- cream afterwards…..” • “My mum’s cancer was a bad thing but the fact that she is now well is good; now she is with me at home, and before she used to work from 7.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m.; she was terribly overworked and now she stays home with me; we talk a lot, we play together, go shopping, and I am very glad….” • “The benefit of being in a difficult situation is that by being in it we learn to overcome it…” • “When I was home alone for many hours I was scared, but later I learnt how to make a model plane and it made me learn something …. • “When after a quarrel you make up with someone and continue to like that person, be friends with them again – this is good….” • “When I go to the doctor I am scared of injection but thanks to that injection I won’t be ill anymore ….” • “My friend Leon broke his arm on vacation and could not do anything, but I was helping him out and we got to know one another better….” Positive Reappraisal of Stressful Situations by Children of Younger School Age 65

• “First I had a fight, and it was wrong, but I learnt how to solve conflicts and this is good….” • „When a person hits another person and apologizes for it, this is a good result …..” • “I do acrobatics and sometimes things don’t work out as I want them to, but when I practice and improve, this is good ….” • “Difficult situations may teach us something… not to do bad things again …..” • “One can learn how to talk with people. This may prove useful because when you’re grown up you have to talk with people ….” The utterances quoted above indicate that some of the children positively re- appraised and cognitively transformed difficult situations that they had experienced in their lives and therefore were able to notice beneficial, “valuable” aspects of stressful situations. From the above-quoted examples we can distinguish three strategies employed by children to reappraise the discussed situations. The first strategy entails personal development, the second is centred on learning vital life skills, and the third one shows appreciation of life’s values. All of them are examples of children’s reflections and testify to the adaptive nature of the described situations influencing the emotional, social and physiological area of the child’s world. Those reflections also demonstrate that at least some of the children are not defenceless in the face of encountered problems and are able to cope with them cognitively and emotionally.

Conclusion

The presented fragment of research related to stressful situations of children in younger school age may serve as the basis for the conclusion that in some of the children the developmental process of coping with difficult and stressful situations has already begun, that some of them have already entered the path on which they begin their independent search for problem-solving possibilities and check the effectiveness of employed strategies, think, analyse, turn to their environment with questions and demonstrate reflectiveness. It is therefore extremely important not to overlook that moment in child development and to offer children support in their progress. Children should be encouraged to exchange thoughts and opinions on solving difficult and stressful situations. Efforts should be concentrated on developing their problem-solving skills, including divergent thinking and skilful management of emotions in order to activate those children who already show development in that aspect and in- 66 Małgorzata Cywińska spire those who are less reflective in that sphere. An enormous role in this process is played by family and school, i.e. parents and teachers “sensitive” to the child and his or her needs.

Bibliography

Cywińska M. (2017). Stres dzieci w młodszym wieku szkolnym. Objawy, przyczyny, możliwości przeciwdziałania. Poznań. Folkman S. (1997). Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress. „Social Science and Medicine”, 45, pp.1207 – 1221. Heszen-Niejodek I. (2000). Teoria stresu psychologicznego i radzenia sobie. [In:] J. Strelau (ed.). Psychologia. Podręcznik akademicki, t. 3. Jednostka w społeczeństwie i elementy psychologii stosowanej. Gdańsk, pp. 465 – 512. Heszen I. (2013). Psychologia stresu. Warszawa. Hobfoll S.E. (2006), Stres, kultura i społeczność. Psychologia i filozofia stresu, przeł. M. Kacmajor, Gdańsk. Melosik Z. (2003). Pedagogika postmodernizmu. [In:] Z. Kwieciński, B. Śliwerski (ed.). Pedagogika. Podręcznik akademicki, vol. 1. Warszawa. Melosik Z. (1995). Postmodernistyczne kontrowersje wokół edukacji. Toruń – Poznań. Nyczaj – Drąg M. (2005). Dzieci wysokiej jakości w ponowoczesnym świecie. Esej o konieczności i ryzyku instytucjonalizacji dzieciństwa. [In:] M. Nyczaj-Drąg, M. Głażewski (red.). Współprze- strzenie edukacji. Kraków, pp. 145 – 157. Oniszczenko W. (1998). Stres to brzmi groźnie, Warszawa. Pilecka W., Fryt J. (2011). Teoria stresu dziecięcego. [In:] W. Pilecka (ed.), Psychologia zdrowia dzieci i młodzieży. Perspektywa kliniczna, Kraków, pp. 31 – 47. Śliwerski B. (2004). Współczesne teorie i nurty wychowania. Kraków. CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Waldemar Kmiecikowski Jagiellonian University in Cracow

Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man*1

Key words: axiological confusion, Abstract: The article presents the category of axiological truth, human dignity, manipula- confusion understood as an important trait of reality that tion, criticism. can be experimentally experienced by a modern man. The man is losing the ability not only to appropriately grasp one’s own human nature and the essence of the moral good, but also the ability of cognitive opening oneself to the intelligibility of being. A modern homo sapiens neu- tralises the need to seek the truth. After all, the truth ceases to be both a transcendental property of being and a supe- rior value that is the very foundation of a rational discourse on the philosophical imponderabilia. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 67-77 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.5

Axiology is strictly related to morality and simultaneously, a modern man should not only be educated, but also – as Leszczyński wrote – “moral by choice.” Nev-

* Lecture given on 15 October 2016 during the Inauguration of the Academic Year in the King Stanisław Leszczyński College of Humanities in Leszno. The lecture started with the following words: Dear Rector, Dear Chancellor, Dear Professors, Dear Students and All the Invited Guests. Dear Ladies and Gentlemen. I wish to thank the Rector for the honour of allowing me to give lecture at the inauguration of this academic year. The honour is even greater as we are in the King Stanisław Leszczyński College of Humanities, which seems to mean that the space that surrounds us (speaking slightly metaphorically) is filled – or at least should be filled – with the spirit of humanities, i.e. multi- directional reflection on man, which cannot take place without philosophical rudiments. However, this also entails that we are accompanied (at least symbolically) by the spirit of Stanisław Leszczyński – king, patron of the arts – but also a man who – arguing with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claimed that an educated man “is moral by choice; [that] his virtue is solidified”. Both of these motives can be found, to a certain degree, in the subject matter of our lecture, “Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man.” 68 Waldemar Kmiecikowski ertheless, how to be “moral by choice” if we live in an axiological confusion, i.e. a state of fundamental misunderstanding pertaining to the substance of the good and evil, the true and the false, the beautiful and the ugly and also the reasonable and the irrational; if we live in a space of misunderstanding pertaining to the human nature, man’s destiny and even the nature of thinking as such? In this place, it is necessary to quote Elżbieta Okońska and Krzysztof Stachewicz, who claim that “according to diagnoses of numerous contemporary thinkers, there has been a <> of values and even a process of their equivalence and substitution. Values shine through one another – every value squints from behind another one, we are living (...) at the time of common <>; the evil squints from behind the good, beauty from behind the ugliness, womanhood from behind manhood, etc.”1. In order to see this axiological confusion, it is necessary to perform a certain philosophical insight. Obviously, danger appears here that the speaker will be locked in a space of abstraction and cut off completely from the reality of life. In any case, most of us are the followers of the motto: do not philosophise, stop philosophising, be reasonable, stand firm on the ground2. Nevertheless, this is a misunderstanding. Because reliable philosophising is standing firmly on the ground. Thus: more philosophy, more thinking! This slogan-like appeal is even more justified as we suffer from a deficit of reasoning these days. I assume that now, some listeners would like to protest and would ask – in their assumption – a rhetorical question: don’t we think, don’t we reason? We have access to information in a scale that human history has not been familiar with. Entering the virtual space, we can penetrate into the mass of information, images, statements, opinions, facts, music compositions, films, etc. Such a possibility seems to be an important stigma of the modern man who, having clicked the mouse a few times, may find out that E = mc2, that the cosmos is constantly expanding, that cellular respiration takes place in mitochondria and also that it is possible to clone animals and freeze human embryos produced in laboratory conditions. With respect to such knowledge, geniuses of rational thinking, such as Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas, Immanuel Kant or Pascal seem to be

1 E. Okońska, K. Stachewicz, O wartościach i ich ambiwalencji – uwagi wprowadzające, [in:] Co się dzieje z wartościami? Próba diagnozy, ed. E. Okońska, K. Stachewicz, Poznań 2009, p. 17. 2 Andrzej L. Zachariasz says that a post-modern “reason is, even if not straightforwardly rejected, than at least negated in its hitherto rights. This has found its’ expression (...) in attempts of negating philosophy as theoretical cognition, science as knowledge finding justification in methods of inter-subjective condition and, in consequence, also rejecting the idea of order (cosmos), negation of all standards of social life, moral codes, ethical codes, etc.” A. L. Zachariasz, Moralność i rozum w ponowożytności, [in:] Moralność i etyka w ponowoczesności, ed. Z. Sareło, Warszawa 1996, p. 27. Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man 69 uneducated or even incompetent. Therefore, is our earlier suggestion about the deficit of modern reasoning erroneous? Unfortunately, the crisis of reasoning seems to be quite a common phenomenon; however, being a component of axiological confusion, it often remains unnoticed. A modern man – often irrespective of his education – simply no longer knows what thinking as a typically human activity is. It seems to him that to reason simply means to monitor the screen and to become passively immersed in the flow of visual or audio remarks and devour another set of data3. In protest against this epistemic myth, it is however necessary to declare: so what that a modern man usually knows that there are pulsars, quasars, black holes, etc. but it was Immanuel Kant (who no idea about them), but who wrote with passion: “Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect upon them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me” and it was Pascal who claimed that “Man is a reed, the weakest of nature, but he is a thinking reed.” These sample sentences express the genius of the human reason that admires the world and, being fascinated by it, constantly asks: why does it exist and what is the most important in it (what is its’ substance)? These statements are an instruction for us; they show us that reasoning is the negation of sheer receptiveness and means active and critical (!) movement of the mind, engaging the whole person, towards the truth4. However, a modern man commonly doubts the existence of truth. He does not trust himself nor the world. He is observing, like an indifferent and jaded viewer watching sports rivalry; he says to himself: this does not make sense. The race or the rivalry between players does not make sense. Nothing makes sense: life, love, work, family; the existence of the cosmos does not make sense too. Today’s

3 This common conviction forms a part of epistemological misunderstanding in line with which cognition “emerges and is shaped as a result of reciprocal impact of two realities onto each other: the objective external world (nature) and the social world (society and culture) and the subjective awareness of individuals. However, as a process, cognition (...) allegedly should take place in line with the principle of causality. Cognition interpreted in this manner – as that what is subjective – is understood as the result, whereas the objective reality of nature and society is the cause or the primary being.” A. Siemianowski, W. Kmiecikowski, Zarys teorii poznania. Ujęcie fenomenologiczne, Gniezno 2006, p. 8. 4 Being aware of the classic separateness of the distinction between the reason, the intellect and the mind – being guided by the pragmatics of the inaugural lecture – we are content with their certain unification. Cf. J. Herbut, Intelekt/Rozum [in:] Leksykon filozofii klasycznej, ed. J. Herbut, Lublin 1997, p. 296 et seq. Mieczysław Krąpiec says that getting to know “is, to a certain degree <> (in a special objective mode) the item (content) that is familiarised (...)” (M. A. Krąpiec, Ja – człowiek. Zarys antropologii filozoficznej, Lublin 1986, p. 173), and that “«speculabile» is an object of strictly theoretical cognition of man who, through the act of cognisance, is trying to get informed about the actual state of affairs (…) [and the truth is – W. K.] the purpose of such cognition and, simultaneously, its’ final criterion of value”. Ibidem. p. 186. 70 Waldemar Kmiecikowski man (Bauman would say man of the liquid reality), immersed in the axiological confusion, resembles a bit Pontius Pilate, who – when talking to Christ – in a well- known scene from the Gospel of St. John or at least from The Passion by Mel Gib- son – asked rhetorically: What is the truth?; it is a rhetorical question, because he does not believe in its’ existence5. Yet the modern homo sapiens, even the educated and intelligent one, seems to go beyond Pontius Pilate’s sadness, doubting the presence of the Truth. The modern bored thinker (or, more precisely, a quasi-thinker) more and more often adopts the stance that is full of intellectual arrogance and claims: there is no truth, truth does not exist. Even though he may still acquire encyclopaedic knowledge, a stream of information and images, yet internally, he is empty and dead like memory of a camera, whose lens may be directed towards beautiful landscapes, yet the memory, as such, does not perceive such beauty. Such man has internally ceased to ask questions and ceased to search for various why? (why did my friend betray me? why is the war waged? why do I participate or do not participate in a religious event? and why, bored with this lecture, am I still sitting in this room?). The why question becomes nonsensical if everything is false and illusory. In this perspective, the essence of the question, the <> (...): «on account of what?», «thanks to what?»”6, undergoes a radical atrophy. Can any panacea be advised with respect to such diagnosis? It seems that it is necessary to go back to the sources, to what is banally elementary and, simultaneously, solemn and difficult. An important moment of the intellectual turn has to be the realisation that the truth simply exists. A today’s sophist – often unwittingly referring to ancient Protagoras with his homo mensura – who says that everybody has their own truth, there is no objective truth contradicts himself; his very conclusion is the declaration of objective truth! Thus, he should be reminded that by claiming that there is only falsity and chaos (together with idiots who believe in the existence of truth), but yet.... He is declaring a certain truth. It is already in his brilliant “Theaetetus” that Plato puts forward a supposition that it is impossible, without succumbing to sheer absurdity, to question truth as such (even if it is difficult to find)7.

5 Cf. A. Adamski, Koncepcja prawdy jako wybór moralny człowieka, [in:] Prawda w życiu moralnym i duchowym, ed. D. Probucka, Kraków 2009, p. 39 et seq.; Z. Bauman, Płynne czasy. Życie w epoce niepewności, Warszawa 2007, 7 et seq. 6 M. A. Krąpiec Koncepcje nauki i filozofia, [in:] Wprowadzenie do filozofii, M. A. Krąpiec [et al.] Lublin 1999, p. 31. 7 Cf. Filozofia. Materiały do ćwiczeń dla studentów teologii, ed. J. Grzeszczak, Poznań2010, p. 23 et seq.; P. Kunzmann [et al.], Atlas filozofii, Warsaw 1999, p. 35; G. Reale, Historia filozofii starożytnej, vol. 1, Lublin 1994, p. 247 et seq. Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man 71

Another therapeutic motive should be the reminder of man’s exceptional dignity. Man is a reasoning animal, i.e. the only being in the universe that is capable of discovering the truth about the complexity of the world and other people. The genius of man’s mind has allowed him to construct a complex tool known as the computer and the Large Hadrone Collider, to discover graphene, but also to offer answers to questions about the sense of life, nature of friendship or love. Only man is vested with such genius and no other animal determined by its’ instincts possesses it, nor even a most sophisticated robot, whose possibilities of operation are designated by the plan of the human constructor. Since man (as a personal being) is a fragment of nature, yet, simultaneously with his reason, will and openness to the Good and Beauty, he goes beyond the entire Universe and is not only capable of typically technical activities, but also reflexive, moral, aesthetic and religious ones; he is even capable of – as Ingarden wrote – giving up life to save his honour8. Yet realising the dignity relying on the fact that man is always a unique person, is not yet sufficient to break away from the axiological confusion. A modern man has to terminate the intellectual laziness. Treatment should encompass awaken- ing of the cognitive passion: to want to know, to want to understand, to want to penetrate into the secrets of being, to want to critically read; to want – and thus reject the eternal trio of “learn, pass, forget”; to want to reject the stance of an intellectual absorber of information transformed into colourful images. Today’s man needs to break away from the intellectual apathy and return (or maybe even learn) to reason critically. It is necessary to break away from what is determined in the following manner by Martin Heidegger: “You think as you think, you speak as you speak, you read as you read.”9 If man is always a unique person, he is liable for making full use of his mind, and this entails personal reflection and criticism with respect to the dictatorship of the common opinion; criticism, which is rationally justified (grounded) objection, e.g. also in reference to the lecture presented here. On the concrete level, it means that our awareness should be vigilant when we hear, for example, that animals should be educated (and not trained) and especially that a pupil no longer needs to be educated (vide: anti-pedagogy) or that a hamster passes away or dies and that animals have rights analogous to people’s rights (vide: it is immoral to painlessly put homeless dogs to sleep, but it is moral to put mentally ill people to sleep). Nota bene: it was already in 1933 that the act on the protection of animal rights was introduced and a leader of a certain European state said that there would be no cruelty towards animals. There may have been no

8 Cf. R. Ingarden, Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987, p. 15 et seq.; 22 et seq. 9 Cf. K. Stachewicz, Człowiek w odniesieniach. Wokół koncepcji Martina Heideggera, [in:] “Filozofia chrześcijańska”, vol. 1, ed. M. Jędraszewski, Poznań 2004, p. 93. 72 Waldemar Kmiecikowski cruelty towards animals, but there was immense cruelty towards people. This was a promise given by Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany10. Dear Ladies and Gentlemen, Thinking, being critical and thus slowly emerging from the axiological confusion, we may notice that we are prone to intellectual mystification that forces us to say “sponsorship” instead of “sophisticated prostitu- tion” or “professional” instead of “murderer” (vide: “Leon the Professional” star- ring Jean Reno); this mystification that imperceptibly transformstolerance into approval (being an atheist – or a theist – I can only tolerate a person who believes (an atheist), but not approve his/ her beliefs, because it would entail resignation from my own world-view and adoption of somebody else’s ideas as my own)11.

10 A special illustration for our discussion is provided by the statement of Urszula Zarosa that “one of the simplest and most satisfactory solutions for the problem of occurrence of awareness in animals is to accept that they probably experience similar feelings and mental states as people. They consciously experience pain, they can use tools, they learn from prior experiences, they expect future events (...). There are multiple studies describing examples of rationality, intentionality and communication activities or behaviour indicating awareness present in the animal world.” U. Zarosa, Status moralny zwierząt, Warsaw 2016, p. 125 et seq. This statement corresponds with the author’s declaration – which appears in the context of violence used by certain organisations that protect animals – that “from the perspective of ethics, even activism with elements of violence may be acceptable (…)”. Ibidem. p. 251. Cf. ibidem, p. 243 et seq. Cf. https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawa_zwierz%C4%85t, downloaded: 22. 11. 2016; http:// niechcianeizapomniane.org/swiatowa-deklaracja-praw-zwierzat/, downloaded: 22. 11. 2016. “The general formula of anti-pedagogy,” writes Stefan Wołoszyn “is the principle to support and not to educate” (S. Wołoszyn, Nauki o wychowaniu w Polsce w XX wieku. Próba syntetycznego zarysu na tle powszechnym, Kielce 1998, p. 132) and Hubertus von Schoenebeck claims straightforwardly that the principle: “a little man is not a creature that should be educated (he is not homo educandus)” should be applied. H. von Schoenebeck, Antypedagogika w dialogu. Wprowadzenie w myślenie antypedagogiczne, Kraków 1994, p. 24. The same author proudly writes I“ have two children aged 8 and 10 and they have never been educated.” Idem, Rozstanie z pedagogiką, [in:] Edukacja alternatywna. Dylematy teorii i praktyki, ed. B. Śliwerski, Kraków 1992, p. 249. Cf. also: http://www.rp.pl/Sluzba-zdrowia/307249819-W-Holandii-rosnie-liczba-eutanazji-psychicznie- chorych.html, downloaded: 22. 11. 2016. 11 Approval is a “judgement containing a positive evaluation of something from the moral, aesthetic or utilitarian perspective.” A. Podsiad, Aprobata, [in:] Słownik terminów i pojęć filozoficznych, Warsaw 2000, p. 66 et seq. Cf. http://m.deon.pl/inteligentne-zycie/obiektyw/art,416,uniwersytutki.html, downloaded: 22.11.2016; Cf. M. Bańko, http://sjp.pwn.pl/poradnia/szukaj/tolerancja.html, downloaded: 24.11. 2016. Cf. M. Łobocki, Teoria wychowania w zarysie, Kraków 2006, p. 110 et seq. Piotr Jaroszyński says that tolerance “belongs to the canon of ethical categories promoted by socialist-liberal ideology (…).” P. Jaroszyński, Tolerancja, http://www.ptta.pl/pef/pdf/t/tolerancja.pdf, downloaded: 22. 11.2016. In this place, it is worth referring to a slightly more general reflection of Ryszard Wiśniewski, who claims that in the modern times “socio-technique and psycho-technique is taught at marketing courses or public relations courses. Manipulation skills are used to corner the partners of co-existence and communication (...). Marketing manipulation, persuasion and public, intrusive moralising that simplify the world of values are especially prone to axiological and logical babble (...).” R. Wiśniewski, Bełkot aksjologiczny w komunikacji międzyludzkiej, [in:] Co się dzieje z wartościami, op. cit., p. 164. Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man 73

In the light of the remarks above, we can experience joy if we are hit by the fact of being manipulated, because it entails certain sovereignty with respect to the axiological chaos, e.g. manipulation through a series of television programmes that practice the metaphysics of the length of one’s nails, the number of white and green dots on such nails or potentially the dramatic choice of a tie colour or the philosophy of life of celebrities who experience dramas in relation to the fact that paparaz- zi caught them without make-up or with a new partner. When working on this lecture I learnt – to the joy and sadness of millions of people – that Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie – can you believe it? – are getting divorced... My irony is obviously aimed at exposing the commonness of axiological sophistry, multi-directional and compromising the dignity of a rational man, which we often fall prey to. Falling prey, we do not even notice that commercials transform us into consumer puppets who feel happy after buying a given cosmetic or a windscreen wiper; puppets, who in the male model shape their minds and bodies through the matrix of metro- sexuality and in the female model through the matrix of dimensions of a specific body part. Modern puppets in the awareness-juggling theatre which, in its very premise, depersonalises (freezes) the genius of the human mind, who accept (like passive plasticine) the belief that life has to be easy, nice, pleasant, problem-free, colourful and peaceful. An atrocious belief, untrue and destroying the very nature of man, every man: the one who subjects to it, as well as his environment12. This is because the mentally enslaved actors – who believe that life has to be nice and easy – often fail to see other people around them. They only notice the functions that are useful for them. Thus, they mentally reduce a doctor to medi- cal competence, a patient to disease, a cleaner to the cleaning function, a student to a reference number and a professor to a machine entering grade in a university system. A parent ceases to be a parent and becomes a service provider, a child becomes a wish-maker (sometimes a very arrogant one, nota bene efficiently shaped by the mass media, often prone to moral and intellectual permissivism13).

12 “Commercials and election campaigns (...) destruct the need of axiological order, sense, truth, moral good and aesthetic order. A modern man is more and more often satisfied with the semblance of sense, semblance of truth, semblance of morality.” R. Wiśniewski, Bełkot aksjologiczny w komunikacji międzyludzkiej, op. cit., 164 et seq. The above-mentioned consumer puppets seem to be increasingly embodying the perfect consumer discussed by Zygmunt Bauman. Cf. ibidem, Płynne życie, Kraków 2007, p. 144. Andrzej Gorlewski aptly notices that “the level of education of youth (...) fills one with fear and anxiety. In the world of young people, the broadly understood anti-values play a significant role. They promote activities of dubious quality (...) that are undertaken without looking at the effects that such activities carry for another man or the society.” A. Gorlewski, Wartości a współczesne kierunki wychowania młodzieży, [in:] Co się dzieje z wartościami? op. cit., p. 321. 13 Piotr Żuk claims that “not only serious newspapers, fighting to survive, have become, to a large degree, similar to tabloids, but also television news programmes have transformed into gossip 74 Waldemar Kmiecikowski

The contemporary actor of the axiological confusion seems to solidify and pulls others into the space of falsity. Treating others as the above-mentioned functions changes them into objects and not only depersonalises, but in every non- ethical gesture solidifies in them the false conviction that life – let us repeat it – has to be easy, nice, pleasant, problem-free, colourful and peaceful. Yet this is a modern global lie. Because life simply has to be honest. Brilliant Immanuel Kant talked about “moral law within me” and about the fact that another man cannot be treated as an object. Inka (whose name has stately accompanied the Leszno Roundabout) emphasised it as “behaving properly”, whereas Jacek in the “Rodzina zastępcza” TV series (played by actor Piotr Fronczewski) said: “Only dead fish flow with the current.” This dead fish resembles our modern mentally enslaved actor who does not see and does not want to see the moral good enshrouding tired parents, volunteers in Syria or anybody who honestly performs their work; the actor who flows with the current of negative values of Roman Ingarden, namely injustice, lies, faithlessness, cowardice, iniquity, pride, egoism, vindictiveness or mercenariness completely devoid of respect for other people14. Only a reasonable man – in contrast to the more and more common acceptance for the current of evil – will notice the Good which is pervaded by Truth. It is only by being a critically thinking student, professor, cashier that I can notice programmes (...). In this manner, serious debates pertaining to socio-economic issues are shoved aside by the flood of infotainment, which, apart from news about crimes, murders and scandals from the life of politicians, also features sentimental stories about weddings, divorces and betrayals in celebrity circles.” P. Żuk, Homo ludens w czasach kapitalizmu. Infantylizacja życia społecznego i prywatyzacja sfery publicznej, [in:] “Dialogi o kulturze i edukacji”, op. cit., p. 203 et seq. Cf. A. Zwiefka – Chwałek, Casus Dody, czyli nie ma info bez rozrywki. Analiza „infotainment” we współczesnych polskich programach publicystycznych, [in:] Homo creator czy homo ludens? Twórcy – internauci – podróżnicy, ed. W. Muszyński, M. Sokołowski, Toruń 2008, p. 80 et seq.; D. Suska, Mody kulturowe, mody językowe w czasopismach młodzieżowych. Uwagi o najnowszej przestrzeni medialnej (dla) młodego odbiorcy, [in:] “Cudne manowce?”. Kultura czasu wolnego we współczesnym społeczeństwie, ed. W. Muszyński, Toruń 2008, p. 380 et seq.; A. Jeran, Związki celebrytów w zwierciadle plotek – Doda i Majdan w polskich serwisach plotkarskich, [in:] (Roz)czarowanie? Miłość i związki uczuciowe we współczesnym społeczeństwie, ed. W. Muszyński, Toruń 2009, p. 329 et seq. A conclusion (referring to A. Hill) that “a reality show and programmes pertaining to life style <> is significant in this respect. There is no clear-cut division between good and bad behaviour here, this is more about constant anxiety concerning ethical problems and cultural standards of conduct through which programmes <>. M. Briggs, Telewizja i jej odbiorcy w życiu codziennym, Kraków 2012, p. 56. An example of reflections contained in the lecture may also be a conclusion that “advocates of the hypothesis of the <> (...) claim that the impact of television on the viewers is primarily manifested in creating a sense of fear, threat, mistrust and significant helplessness.” D. Lemish, Dzieci i telewizja. Perspektywa globalna, Kraków 2008, p. 120. 14 Cf. R. Ingarden, Wykłady z etyki, Warszawa 1989, p. 14, 252 et seq.; Czego nie wiemy o wartościach, [in:] Studia z estetyki, vol. 3, Warsaw 1970, p. 233. Axiological Confusion as Challenge for Modern Man 75 that statements like: “everybody lies and cheats, there is nothing like justice, everybody just thinks about themselves” are simply not true, and they are only used to cover up somebody’s iniquity. If Sergeant Michel Ollis in 2013 sacrificed his life in Afghanistan for a Polish soldier (he shielded him from an explosion with his own body15), it means that the moral good is a solid, real fact and challenging it is only an expression of metal immaturity. The expression of such immaturity is also the uncritical acceptance of the worship of ugliness. If a child is growing accustomed to – through, by assumption anti-aesthetic, tacky characters from animated films or even vampire-like Monster High dolls – ugliness that fakes beauty, then how is it possible to build sensitivity to the beauty of the world? Or maybe the purpose is to make the man believe not only in the senselessness of good and evil, but also the ugliness of the world and to set him in opposition to the beauty enchanted in the works of art, in the rustle of colourful autumn leaves or in the lustre of loved eyes? A senseless, bad and ugly world is a world that no longer needs the First Cause or the Absolute Perfection that loves such world16. Summing up. As we remember, Leszczyński expressed a hope that an educated man is “moral by choice.” I trust that the reflection in which we are participating will make the fulfilment of this expectation slightly more plausible and it will be an obvious thing to combine the didactic imperative with the moral imperative. However, I hope that every participant of today’s inauguration knows very well that a man’s calling is to accomplish wisdom, that is – as suggested by Antoni Podsiad – simply the ability to distinguish between the truth and falsehood, the good and evil, the beauty and ugliness and being guided, in life, by the positive life signposts – also in the course of the current academic year – this is my wish for you and for myself.

15 Cf. http://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/swiat/artykuly/438214,afganistan-atak-na-baze-w-ghazni- amerykanin-ocalil-polskiego-zolnierza.html, downloaded: 22.11.2016; http://usa.se.pl/nowy-jork/ newsy/oddal-zycie-za-polaka-rodzice-nowojorskiego-bohatera-ktory-wlasnym-cialem-zaslonil- naszego-zolnierza_365993.html, downloaded: 22.11.2016. 16 In this place, the speech culminated in the following manner: Summing up. As we remember, Leszczyński expressed a hope that an educated man is “moral by choice.” I trust that the reflection in which we are participating will make the fulfilment of this expectation slightly more plausible and it will be an obvious thing to combine the didactic imperative with the moral imperative. However, I hope that every participant of today’s inauguration knows very well that a man’s calling is to accomplish wisdom, that is – as suggested by Antoni Podsiad – simply the ability to distinguish between the truth and falsehood, the good and evil, the beauty and ugliness and being guided, in life, by the positive life signposts – also in the course of the current academic year – and this is my wish for you and for myself. (Cf. A. Podsiad, Mądrość, [in:] Słownik terminów i pojęć filozoficznych, Warsaw 2000, p. 493 et seq.; M. Gogacz, Mądrość buduje państwo. Człowiek i polityka. Rozważania filozoficzne i religijne, Niepokalanów 1993, p. 5). 76 Waldemar Kmiecikowski

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Elanit Ayzik Ministry of Education, Israel

The properties of the modern world and the teacher’s awareness

KEYWORDS: awareness, Abstract: The article discusses the teacher’s awareness professional-knowledge, and professional knowledge, emphasizing the character- teacher, globalization, science, istics and changes taking place in the modern world and technology their influence on teaching. Self-definition of the teacher’s consciousness has been developed based on the theory of Illeris (2003. p. 227) as a subjective process, which affects the way the teacher operates and assimilates information in the workplace through social interaction. The article presents refers to the concept of “teacher consciousness” as an interdisciplinary concept that characterizes the challenges of the modern world with an emphasis on the development of science and technology, On this background, the importance of the view of the “big picture” (Khenin, 2007: 36–39) stands out in the development of broad pedagogical awareness in the planning of teachers’ training. Teacher awareness is an acquired learning tool that enables cognitive ability to extract raw reality from the interpretation of attitudes and beliefs and may determine the school culture and its affiliation to a traditional or an innovative stream. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 79-86 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.6

Introduction

The purpose of this article is to review the subject of teacher’s awareness and professional knowledge, while emphasizing the characteristics and changes that are taking place in the modern world and their impact on teaching. Research 80 Elanit Ayzik studies show that teachers are aware of (Illeris, 2011: 46) and present different types of professional knowledge they should use during the fulfillment of their professional obligations (Kincheloe, 2007: 1–60). The accumulated material may help to change the teacher’s work style in school space and to allow the teacher to gain knowledge in the workplace by transforming the existing practical knowledge. Experience indicates that until now teachers in Israel still teach according to the traditional model. Frequently the teachers convey knowledge and the students are required to assimilate it (Goskov, 2016: 70–102). The students of the new generation are required to learn through research, experience, interaction, and collaboration, with emphasis on what interests them and the teachers’ task is to plan situations and learning spaces adjusted to the child’s development. Therefore, it is important to understand and to learn the teachers’ work style and to understand the educational approaches that influence it, in the assimilation of skills, in the improvement of learning, in the use of available research literature, in the integration of theory and practice, in the ability to cooperate with peers at work, in the enrichment of the activities that they perform, in the achievement of successes and failures, and in the ability to cooperate with colleagues at work (Illeris, 2011: 46). All these factors are contained in the teacher’s personal space (Clandinin, 2014: 361–385), and are the outcome, to a greater or lesser extent, of the teachers’ awareness (Illeris, 2003: 227). Awareness in teaching is one of the most important factors of professionalism, regardless of the model of education (Kincheloe, 2007: 1–60),

Awareness in the literature

In the accessible literature, there are many different definitions proposed by researchers that represent different disciplines and there is no one agreed-upon theory regarding the concept of ‘Awareness’ (Chalmers, 1995: 200–219). The Awareness constitutes an essential problem for the scientific perception since it is fundamen- tally a personal subjective experience, while science relies on objective and external information (Levine, 1983: 354–361). In modern Western philosophy, ‘awareness’ is defined in the experiential aspect described through the concept of ‘qualia’, the subjective feeling that we experience as an input of our senses and feelings but limited in thinking (Varela, 1996: 330–349). Modern psychologists define ‘awareness’ as a cognitive component that enables the absorption of stimuli from the environment and internal stimuli, such as thoughts, emotions, and physical feelings (Bargh, Kazdin, 2000: 347–348), the highest level of human functioning (Sohlberg, The properties of the modern world and the teacher’s awareness 81

2000: 135–151). In sociology, consciousness is a viewpoint that represents public attention to a topic, problem, or social, scientific, or political event but limited by the senses and the memory (Sillamy, 1994: 54–55).Current pedagogy defines the awareness as a subjective situation of every person as a person, including the teacher (Clandinin, 2014: 361–385). This is an internal psychological process in which the learner structures meaning for knowledge, skills, emotions, and social interaction and develops broader understanding and ability to cope with the practical life challenges (Illeris, 2003, p. 227). Therefore, the homeroom teachers need to aspire to a clear and communicational determination of roles in the school environment. The consciousness is expressed in action, in all that pertains to people and events (Illeris, 2001, p. 46). This is an important process that helps a person undergo a change and develop (Johnson, 2005: 103–129). The following figure presents the analysis of the different interpretations and the broad spectrum of the concept of ‘awareness’.

Fig. 1. Conceptual Map of Analysis of Different Interpretations and the Spectrum of ‘Awareness’ Source: Varela, 1996: 330–349, James, 1950: 145 –183, Sillamy, 1994: 54–55, Illeris, 2001: 46

The definition of the concept of ‘Awareness’ of the author takes into consideration of the different approaches presented and their characteristics. Consciousness is a basic and internal subjective process that occurs in every person in a situation of awareness and total alertness to what occurs and derives from a personal and social need. This is an instrument that can be acquired and that enables a change in the patterns of the behavior. As the person develops this instrument, his ability of action improves. The main characteristics in the process of the consciousness in the person are the following: 82 Elanit Ayzik

1. Focusing attention on the first information absorbed in the senses. 2. Subjective interpretation of the objective reality based on: (1) cognitive – knowledge and skills; (2) emotional – feelings, thoughts, experiences, memories, and emotions, and (3) social – interaction with the environment. 3. Self-controlling through storage in the long-term memory and using tools for the in-depth understanding and actions of response of future experiences. On the basis of the collected literature, a self-definition of the teacher’s consciousness has been developed. Illeris (2003) used the concept and found that consciousness is a subjective process occurring in the teacher, which influences the way he acts and assimilates information in the workplace, which expresses itself not only in the didactic process but also in the engagement A teacher in the acquisition of knowledge, skills, emotions, social interaction developing the ability to see and perform educational tasks with tangible effects. They are extremely important because of the changes in the modern world.

Changes and challenges in the world today versus the importance of learning for the teacher

The processes of globalization began in the first half of the 19th century and grew stronger in the second half of the 20th century. The main factors for this are communicational technological developments, scientific development, and economic-political developments. In essence, the relationship between the global and the local is a process of natural creation in which local developments depend on developments in other societies in distant parts of the world that threaten the spiritual and equal world of humanity (McGrew, Lewis 1992: 315), While having an impact on the awareness of every human being. In this changing space reality, new human needs, required for the young generation, the employment of multiple roles during the professional life, and the importance of the acquisition of suitable learning skills arise. Seeing them more aware by: 1. Communication, cooperation, and language (Vygotsky, 2004: 126). 2. Handling information (Martin, Madigan, 2006: 80). 3. High order thinking and self-learning (Harpaz, 2009: 38–44). 4. Use of computerized communication instruments, ethics, and protection online (Martin & Madigan, 2006: 49). 5. Personal development (Shenar, 2010: 31). 6. Skills for life and career (Salpeter, 2003: 17–26). The properties of the modern world and the teacher’s awareness 83

The new reality is responsible for the positive and negative implications in all areas of life around us. The implications of globalization on education are expressed in the ‘economization’ of the thinking and the educational action. Educa- tion is perceived as an economic resource intended for the improvement of com- petitiveness in the global economy. The success in the international achievement tests (PISA, TIMSS, etc.) becomes the main goal of the educational system at the expense of the humanistic and artistic contents (Hanin, 2007: 36–39). The point is to educate young people so that they can manage themselves and in school and life. To this need is the teacher’s awareness and education (Aloni, 2004: 41–49). The modern changes alter from the foundation the learning conditions and personal space of the teachers and naturally influence the teachers’ consciousness ,new ways of learning focus more and more on the learner and on the active learning processes, the flexible structure of the studies, contents adjusted to the social-cultural, economic, and cultural processes of change that invite engagement in actual issues and dilemmas that develop environmental-social consciousness, all this with the integration of technology in the processes of teaching-learning-assessment (Vid- islavsky et al., 2011: 1–16). Some maintain that the teacher’s thinking is influenced by the world of science and technology to which he is exposed during his life, training, and experience. Teachers tend to adopt new ways of teaching in the class, if these are commensurate with their personal epistemological perceptions (Clark, Peterson, 1986: 255–296). The scientific technological development brought with it a background of unquiet that characterizes the educational system and ambivalence. The concept of knowledge, the curricula, the school architecture, and the learning assume a different meaning. In a period of the lack of stability, diversity, and heterogeneity in academic, cultural, and socioeconomic terms, teaching and education become a complicated and demanding tasks for the teacher (Hargreaves, Fink, 2006: 105), However, the borders between all the sciences of the social sciences, the behavioral sciences, and the education sciences are rigid, and therefore they are called multidisciplinary. It is also possible that overlap will be created among them. Edu- cation aspires to be an applied multidisciplinary area of knowledge, and therefore it cannot disconnect from facts. Since knowledge is multidisciplinary and draws from different areas of knowledge, in the setting of positions in education there are considerations from different areas (Pasternak, 2002: 1–12). On this background, the importance of the view of the ‘big picture’ is prominent (Hanin, 2007: 36–39) in the development of broad pedagogical awareness in the planning of the teachers’ teaching. 84 Elanit Ayzik

The teachers’ consciousness as a basis for professional performance

Many researchers agree about the importance of consciousness in the processes of thinking in general and its role in the practice of teachers and developed different models for the purpose of the improvement of the quality of the teaching. model of extended professionality (Hoyle, 1975: 318), Critical pedagogy maintained that the way to social change lies in the development of consciousness (Shor, Freire, 1990: 105–126), Kincheloe (2007: 1–60) presents a model of post-positive training that shows that teachers build in actuality their practice according to critical knowledge and personal and social consciousness. Accord- ing to the model of learning of Illeris (2011: 46), the importance of consciousness among teachers is expressed during their action in the school environment as a result of an internal psychological process in which they structure meaning into knowledge, skill, emotions, and social interaction simultaneously and develop a broad understanding and ability to cope with the practical challenges of life. The starting point of Illeris is that the teachers’ awareness undergoes a process of change through what the teacher chooses to give attention. Thus, the focus on internal situations is an important component, a component that helps the person undergo a change and develop into a person who cares for and cultivates the ‘self’, the other, and the environment. In addition, teachers hold an interaction with an environment that includes other people, a certain culture, technology in a global and rapidly changing world that proposes many possibilities for learning without limitation (Illeris, 2003: 227) and in the modernity of the present era we are aware of the high frequency of the process of interaction and the power of social influence (Gergen, 1994: 93–143). It is possible to summarize that the teachers’ consciousness appears in the professional literature in a number of ways and all the researchers agree about the importance of consciousness for teachers and its critical influence in the practical work of the teacher in the school environment. Therefore, the author broadens the concept of “consciousness” and defines the concept of “teachers’ consciousness” as follows. Teachers’ consciousness is an interdisciplinary concept of the teacher, which characterizes the challenges of the modern world with emphasis on the development of science and technology that influence the teacher. This is an acquired learning tool that enables cognitive ability to extract a raw reality from the interpretation of attitudes and beliefs and the ability to act effectively and efficiently in the school. The process of the development of the consciousness through the three stages of FSS: The properties of the modern world and the teacher’s awareness 85

1. Focusing – The teacher knows what he does. 2. Subjective Interpretation of the objective reality – The teacher understands why he doing. 3. Self-Controlling – The teacher is responsible for his knowledge and his actions.

Resume

The author defines the teachers’ consciousness as an increase in the teacher’s ability to think, consider, understand, and solve problems. The development of the consciousness among teachers entails therefore the development of high order thinking skills, techniques and mental abilities through the use of reflection and meta-cognition, intended to guide the process of thinking for the purpose of self-control. In essence, the desired teacher is the person who knows to address his knowledge. The increase of the teachers’ awareness of the processes of thinking and doing, as a result of the internal and external events around them, may help teachers map their abilities, needs, and expectations, understand the factors of their behavior, plan and define for themselves goals commensurate with the requirements. The awareness grants the teachers an opportunity to take responsibility over the knowledge and thus may change the school experience and its space.

Bibliography

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Goskov E. (2016). The Teacher No Longer Has Eyes in the Back: Crisis of Educational Authority in the Post-Modern Era and Guidelines for Rehabilitation. Tel Aviv. Hanin D. (2007). Globalization and its disappointments: education in globalization. “Echo of Educa- tion” December, 36–39. Hargreaves A., Fink D. (2006). Sustainable Leadership. San Francisco, CA. Harpaz Y. (2009). Give children fish: thinking about thinking. “Echo of Education”, April, 73, 5, pp. 38–44. Hoyle E. (1975). Professionality, professionalism and control in teaching. [In:] V. Houghton et al. (eds). Management in Education: The Management of Organizations and Individuals. London. Illeris K. (2003). Three Dimensions of Learning: Contemporary Learning Theory in the Tension Field between the Cognitive, the Emotional and the Social. Malabar, Florida. Illeris K. (2011). The Fundamentals of Workplace Learning, Understanding How People Learn in Work- ing Life. New York. Illeris K. (2014). Transformativ Learning & Identitet. Copenhagen. James W. (1950). The Principles of Psychology. (Originally published 1890). New York. Johnson, J.A. (2005). Ascertaining the validity of individual protocols from Web-Based Personality In- ventories. “Journal of Research in Personality”, 39, 103–129. Kincheloe J.L. (2007). Critical pedagogy in the twenty-first Century: evolution for survival. [In:] P. Mc- Laren & J.L. Kincheloe (eds). Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now? New York, pp. 9–42. Levine J. (1983). Materialism and qualia: the explanatory gap. “Pacific Philosophical Quarterly” 64.4, pp. 354–361. Martin A., Madigan D. (eds) (2006). Digital Literacies for Learning. London. McGrew A.G., Lewis P.G. (1992). Global politics; globalization and the nation state. “Polity Press” pp. 30–315. Pasternak R. (2002). Chapters in the Sociology of Education. Tel Aviv. Salpeter J. (2003). 21st century skills: will our students be prepared? “Technology and Learning” 24(3), pp. 17–26. Shenar M. (2010). The teacher, the pupil and the school in reality of global cultural. “Imagination and Action” 13, pp. 17–44. Shor A., Freire P. (1990). What is the dialogic teaching method. “Pedagogy of Release: Dialogues of Change in Education”, pp. 105–126. Sillamy N. (1994). Słownik psychologii. Katowice. Sohlberg M.M. (2000). Assessing and managing unawareness of self. “Seminars in Speech and Lan- guage” 21(2), pp. 135–151. Varela F.J. (1996). Neurophenomenology: A methodological remedy for the hard problem. “Journal of Consciousness Studies” 3.4, pp. 330–349. Vidislavsky M., Peled B., Pavesner A. (2011). Innovative pedagogy or quality pedagogy in an innovative environment. “The Four M Pillars” 27, pp. 1–6. Vygotsky L. (2004). Learning in a social context: development of higher psychological processes. [In:] M. Tsellermeir, A. Kozulin (eds). Learning in the Social Context. Tel Aviv. CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ Magdalena Kozula Wroclaw School of Banking (Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa we Wrocławiu), Centre for International Cooperation

Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge of educational migration in Poland

Keywords: educational migration, Abstract: The aim of this article is to show a broad per- international students, adapta- spective on actions taken by universities in the area of tion, communication, adaptation adaptation and the influence of adaptation and language and language programmes programmes on the performance of international students in the academic environment. What factors influence the process of acculturation and how does it relate to the ability to learn and work in the receiving society? The paper concludes with a few reflections on how the adaptation programmes should be seen by universities and why they are important for the education of foreigners. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 87-99 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.7

Foreword

Human migration is currently one of the most pending global problems. Although the movement of people has been known in history since ancient times, it was only in the 20th century that the need arose to reflect on the issue of cultural adaptation and mutual development of social relations in immigrant circles in the country of residence1. Economic transformations, modern international relations and a growing level of life and education as well as availability of transport have had a significant impact on the dynamics of migration in highly developed countries.

1 P. Koryś, M. Okólski, Czas globalnych migracji. Mobilność międzynarodowa w perspektywie globalizacji, “Prace migracyjne”, 2004, no. 55, p. 3. 88 Magdalena Kozula

The 21st century is a period of “information and IT civilisation, one of its elements being the formation of knowledge societies” (Mydel, 2011:123). In the era of globalisation, the development of such a society is inherently linked with educational mobility. This trend is reflected in statistics: according to the ICEF Monitor, in 2014, the number of international students globally was five million2. Academic migration highlights the multidimensional nature of human movement. Undoubt- edly, one of the actors on the stage of education-based migration are universities. The presence of international students poses new challenges, such as the need to implement an international curriculum, or the co-existence of various national groups within a university, or havung to rearrange the administration of a university. Another issue that attracts increasing attention is certain responsibility that universities have for the functioning of students from foreign countries in a new environment and their introduction – as future graduates – into the structures of the local labour market and social environment, which is a broad perspective on the problem of recruiting international students.

Educational migration to Poland

In the history of educational migration, Poland has never played a major role and neither has it been a particularly attractive destination for international students. It was only after World War II, and more specifically in the 1950s that international students started – initially at a limited scale – enrolling for Polish universities (Żołędowski, 2010:54). An important factor that resulted in the arrival of foreigners was the introduction of educational programmes for third-world countries, and the most popular studies among foreigners were medicine and exact sciences (Ruda, 2014:28). The number of such students for a relatively long time remained low, below three thousand until the 1980s3. A more dynamic growth was reported in the 1990s, mainly due to economic and political transformations, a broader portfolio offered by universities and developed structures of grants for students of Polish origin and Poles living abroad. By the end of the 20th century, the number of international students reached more than six thousand (Żołędowski, 2010:54).

2 ICEF Monitor data, The growth of international students mobility 1990-2014, 05.11.2015, http://monitor.icef.com/2015/11/the-state-of-international-student-mobility-in-2015/, (accessed on: 29.06.2016). 3 Data of the Central Statistical Office; after: P. Hut, E. Jaroszewska, Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce na tle migracji edukacyjnych na świecie. Badania. Ekspertyzy. Rekomendacje, 2011, http:// www.isp.org.pl/uploads/pdf/772873926.pdf, (accessed on: 29.06.2016). Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge 89

In the last decade, Polish universities, both public and private, reported a significant increase in the number of international students. According to the 2015 Report “Study in Poland”, in the academic year 2014/2015, there were 46,101 international students in Poland, which is an increase by more than 28% compared to the previous year4. Although this result means that Poland’s share in the global market of international students is only 1.02%, analysis of the internationalisation indicator for Polish universities between the years 2005 and 2015 shows an increase from 0.52% in the academic year 2005/2006 to 3.14% in 2014/20155. Statistics is not the only issue that is worth considering in the context of the internationalisation of universities in Poland. Other aspects strongly linked with a growing number of international students are: a need for a holistic approach to the management of university internationalisation (Mazurek, 2016:48), activating the macro level associated with the presence of international students, including legislative processes to be undertaken by the legislator6, and, last but not least, raising the awareness of the role of universities in the process of cultural adaptation and integration of international students.

Educational migration to Poland – a broader perspective

At its core, the dynamic development of recruiting international students to Pol- ish universities is mainly linked with the demographic downturn in Poland and the dropping number of students. This, as it were, “preventive measure” against the challenges facing the existence of the main actors on the higher education market in Poland is linked with a broader perspective and certain consequences associated with the arrival of international students to Poland. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) lists the basic factors affecting the choice of studies by foreign candidates: “migration policies of the country of destination, job possibilities in the country of destination, recognition of education, costs of studies, living costs, opinion about studies, accessibility of university (exams,

4 B. Siwińska, Studenci zagraniczni w Polsce, Raport statystyczno-informacyjny przygotowany w ramach programu Study in Poland, Fundacja Edukacyjna Perspektywy 2015. 5 Data of the Central Statistical Office; after: B. Siwińska, op.cit. 6 Recently, educational migration in Poland has been strongly promoted through numerous legal and institutional instruments, such as inclusion of the degree of internationalisation in the evaluation of university courses by the Polish Accreditation Committee or liberalisation of the access of students to full time studies or of graduates to the labour market following the Regulation of the Minister of Labour and Social Policy of 21 April 2015. 90 Magdalena Kozula numerus clausus), support network, attractiveness of the country or infrastructure for students”7. Significantly, those factors do not include in a direct way the issue of an organised adaptation process offered by universities. This may be due to the vagueness of such activities, measurable rather as effects – after all, such factors as opinion about university or support network are indirectly influenced by university’s proper adaptation policies for international students. Also, job possibilities in the country of destination are not unrelated to social capital development during studies. The major challenges international students face upon arrival to the country of destination for their studies are new living conditions in a culturally foreign environment and different conditions of learning. Educational migration is specifically linked with the concept of “acculturation”, which is “the process of cultural transformations triggered by the flow of content between culturally different communities” (Zenderowski, Koziński, 2012:58). The process is vital for students, as it enables them not only to learn the cultural code and freely communicate with the environment, but also to establish effective interactions in the new environment and achieve a mental condition in which satisfaction is possible8. Such competencies gradually facilitate the functioning in not only academic but also professional environment. From this perspective, educational migration to Poland may – and should – be regarded as a phenomenon that yilelds ”social, cultural as well as economic benefits” (Main, Dydow, 2015:101) for the society. “Income generation” by international students is associated not only with the university fees they pay but also with their potential contribution to the development of economy and science. Another positive effect is cultural diffusion, which, in the era of globalisation, is an indispensable competence, in particular in a country with a uniform ethnic and national system, like Poland. According to S. Ruda: “Considering the positive changes that, together with the phenomenon of educational movement of academic youth, may happen in Poland, it is worth undertaking various projects and initiatives that would cause a growth in the number of foreign students” (Ruda, 2014:28).

7 E. Jaroszewska, Edukacja studentów zagranicznych w liczbach, “Biuletyn migracyjny”, https:// sites.google.com/site/biulletynmigracyjny/archiwum-html/biuletyn-migracyjny-26/bm26art4, (accessed on: 28.06.2016). 8 A.S. Baranowska, Tutoring akademicki jako forma wsparcia students international w adaptacji do nowych warunków życia i nauki in Poland, “Journal of Modern Science”, 2015, http://yadda. icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-47ab1b40-b12c-4707-a0b9-39ee1934129a (accessed on: 28.06.2016). Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge 91

Challenges facing educational migrants

The above phenomenon of the acculturation of an individual is associated with certain challenges facing a migrant student during his stay and education in a foreign country. The need to establish and develop communication tools is mainly associated with the following areas: – Language problems limiting one’s independence and sense of safety, – Cultural problems due to the migrant’s different cultural potential, – Institutional and legal problems limiting accessibility of services offered by various institutions in a given country, – Economic problems, mainly due to lack of language proficiency, but also market conditions and labour law in the receiving country. Fluency in Polish language9 is necessary for a student to properly and fully participate in academic life and develop relationships and possibilities outside the university. “According to the guidelines adopted by the Council of Europe, we check the language fluency level in five areas: hearing and reading comprehen- sion, writing and speaking skills, and the ability to establish verbal communication with interlocutor” (Laskowska, 2016:263). Given such technical and transparent description of foreign language skills, if a prospective student presents a certificate confirming his proficiency in Polish, a university may assume that he will be able to study without much difficulty. However, linguistic sensitivity and communicational possibilities are verified during actual studies rather than in the recruitment process. This is in particular the case of studying with native speakers. Internation- al students often have problems understanding written texts, especially ina situation of time pressure, e.g. during a test or exam: “(...) foreigners often understand spoken language very well (e.g. they grew up in a house, where their grandmother or grandfather spoke a given language), but cannot understand written texts” (Las- kowska, 2016:263). They also have limited ability to quickly react in a discussion during university classes and are afraid of being misunderstood or ridiculed by others, if they make a mistake. Abstract issues discussed in academic classes require high levels of language proficiency in order to be able to express a student’s opinions or realise his ideas, e.g. during group project tasks. It often turns out that linguistic skills confirmed by a certificate do not correspond to the reality of the first encounters of international students with Polish language in claseses. “We should bear it in mind then that foreigners who have sufficient language skills to study are a heterogeneous group” (Laskowska, 2016:263).

9 The paper concerns international students doing university courses in Polish language. 92 Magdalena Kozula

A migrant’s communication skills depend not only on his knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, but also on his familiarity with the cultural context and the related principles of communication in a given environment. In order to fully and fluently communicate with and understand others, an international student must also “gain knowledge of the cultural reality, acquire sociocultural competencies and learn to use the same cultural code as the native speaker of a lanaguage” (Tam- bor, Achtelik, 2016:259). This concerns not only knowledge of culture, pop-culture or history, which is necessary to properly decipher the content of classes or informal discussions with fellow students. A foreign student often does not know how to properly address others or “is unfamiliar with the principles of non-verbal and relational communication in a new culture”10. Such situations constitute examples of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis11 of linguistic relativity. Speaking of the specific situation of international students, it is also worth noting the cultural factor concerning the university itself. This concerns not only a general cultural context, but also a specific academic context. The complicated situation of an international student attending university classes is due not only to language gaps associated with technical or specialist language, but also unfamiliarity with the academic context. Different experience with and cultural patterns of teaching, learning and performing basic activities associated with studies12 pose major problems at the beginning of a university course. International students may be unfamiliar with the methods of group work used at a university or differences between lectures and classes. Compared to the situation of Polish students, who gain knowledge and studying models from their most immediate environment, the problem seems even more acute. Responding to this problem, American and British universities offer courses like Academic Writing or Group Working, to introduce new students to the academic context. Insufficient language skills and unfamiliarity with the principles governing the functioning of a university result in limited access to the university infrastructure. “Thus, international students have problems complying with various formalities at the university or in offices”13. The academic context covers, in particular, application documents, e.g. for grants or student dormitories, university’s legal acts (e.g. terms and conditions of studies), communication with the university and university teachers (e.g. various forms of intranet already functioning at Polish universi-

10 A.S. Baranowska, op.cit., p. 203. 11 Linguistic theory developed in the 1930, according to which the language we use affects, to a greater or lesser extent, our way of thinking. 12 Such as: writing, active participation in classes, projects, etc. 13 A.S. Baranowska, op.cit., p. 203. Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge 93 ties), scale of grades or even knowing how to read the schedule of classes. Similar challenges exist outside the university – in offices and in association with various practical issues, such as renting an apartment or applying for health insurance, whenever it is necessary to know not only legal regulations but, more importantly, the social and cultural code required for their interpretation. Economic problems are, to a large extent, the consequence of the phenomena described above. Linguistic and cultural limitations make it impossible to get a job quickly, and the costs of studying in Poland are a major financial burden for the family in the country of origin14. Of the international students of the 1st and 2nd degree studies at the Wroclaw School of Banking, as many as 80% respondents claimed that the costs of studying and staying in Poland are paid by the family15. Often, financial problems cause low self-esteem in such students and keep them away from social life, which is costly. “In their time free of university obligations, most respondents simply work (...). Moreover, the percentage of respondents who work in their free time has grown from 35% for MA studies – up to 45% for BA studies”16.

The concept of academic success and the impact of adaptation courses

The USA has been one of the main destinations of educational migration since the end of World War II and growth of academic mobility17. The many years of experience of this giant in the global educational market are nowadays reflected in the process of transition to the American higher education system. The system, based on the concept of academic success, achieving the best results and graduating from university, is equipped with such elements of “transition” education that enable students with differing social capital to settle in the actual academic context. These courses, which teach how to write academic texts or work in groups, help build the kind of social capital that enables an international student to participate in academic life. Examples of such measures and activities addressed to foreign students were collected and elaborated by the American Center for Global Education, an institution re-

14 This problem concerns mainly students from countries East of Poland, which form a large part of international students. 15 R. Majkut, J. Pluta (2015), Jakość i warunki kształcenia studentów obcokrajowców studiujących w Wyższej Szkole Bankowej we Wrocławiu. Raport z badań, typescript of internal report, Wrocław 2015. 16 Ibidem, p. 41. 17 O. Akiko, Factors Influencing Social, Cultural, and Academic Transitions of Chinese International ESL Students in U.S. Higher Education, 2013, http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=2050&context=open_access_etds, (accessed on: 30.06.2016). 94 Magdalena Kozula sponsible for promoting international cross-cultural education. These programmes include, for example, such courses as: The Culture of Higher Education in the U.S., which introduces students to American academic practices, Transitions for Interna- tional Students, focusing on the development of relevant skills associated with studying at American universities, or a broader course – Bridges to University Success, covering also the emotional aspects of studying abroad18. Good practices of American universities are not limited only to special academic courses, although these are undoubtedly an innovative example for Polish universities. A number of actions associated with so-called international students orientation covers, among other things, tutoring and adaptation programmes, permanent support in the form of International Students Assistance, career development workshops, integration projects for American and international students and psychological assistance. Such comprehensive approach to the phenomenon of educational migration is of course due to the scale of the migration and the overall social experience in a country built by immigrants. Importantly, however, it yields positive results for both parties of the process: international students as well as the receiving country and the receiving universities. Thanks to the provision of an adequate academic background, academic success is much more available to international students. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, if the basic needs associated with safety, belonging or esteem are satisfied, an individual is more likely to achieve self-realisation.

need for self-realization

need for recognition

need of belonging and love

need for security

physiological need

Fig. 1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, (source: http://ebookinga.com/pdf/piramida-potrzeb-maslowa).

18 A full list of programmes compiled by the Center for Global Education is available online at: http://globaled.us/internationalization/academic-advisement-for-international-students.asp#table, (accessed on: 29.06.2016). Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge 95

“A sense of belonging to a peer group and academic environment are important for the physical and mental health of students” (Łazarewicz, Werner, 2016:269), and this is directly linked with the need for the development of adaptation programmes at Polish universities. Properly developed and designed programmes are a chance for an improved sense of safety, help properly search for and decipher information, and prevent isolation and poor academic performance. This way, they increase active participation of foreign students in the social life of a town, contributing to their commitment to university activities and raise the chances of professional activation of the group. These positive consequences help international students graduate from studies and often make them decide to stay in the receiving country.

Adaptation and language courses as an example of linguistic and cultural adaptation projects

Adaptation courses responding to the challenges described hereinabove require not only planning an appropriate structure of the programme, but also a broader interaction and cooperation between various units of the university and their and students’ involvement in the implementation of the programme. It should be noted, however, that adaptation and language courses that take place before academic year should be the beginning of the adaptation process and should show students the areas, where they may first of all receive assistance and secondly, where they should apply for that assistance, because young people are often unaware at the beginning of their migration process of the challenges that may face them once they start studying abroad. The most optimum version of the programme development should be as follows: • Determining the goals of the programme. • Building a team directly and indirectly responsible for the implementation of those goals. • Proper planning and preparing of the programme. • Monitoring, drawing conclusions and analysing the programme upon its completion. • Developing tools to measure the effectiveness of activities covered by the programme, regularly measuring those effects and constantly modifying the programme to match the actual needs. The goals of an adaptation and language programme should focus on the implementation of tasks associated with adaptation, integration and support, and in 96 Magdalena Kozula this case, adaptation means both linguistic, cultural and social aspects. Proper determination of goals and methods for their achievement enables “transition from applying to university to being a student and reduces the anxiety associated with the process” (Łazarewicz, Werner, 2016:274). Based on an analysis and deliberations, we may conclude that those goals should cover: – A broad and flexible approach to improving language proficiency and verbal communication, – Integral language and culture teaching, – Academic work, – Administrative issues associated with studies, – Introduction to the town and the social space of the new environment, – Elements of coaching support and development workshops (e.g. CV writing, finding a job on the local market), – Practical information: legal aspects of the residence of foreigners in Poland, presented in a friendly and easy to understand way, – Possibilities to receive support at the university and in town. The right team and a strategic division of the areas of engagement and responsibility are in many cases decisive for the success of projects. “Seamless functioning of the complex internationalisation system at a university is the necessary condition for success in this area. The classical, so-called ‘silo’ functional approach to the problem enables effective achievement of goals, as most of those activities require the competencies of various organisational units” (Mazurek, 2016: 52-53). An example of such network approach should be adaptation courses held at numerous university units, with additional external support. Apart from the obvious involvement of the course coordinator and his immediate support, usually in the form of an international cooperation team, language teachers are also important, serving as guides to the culture they represent (Tambor, Achtelik, 2016:255). Close cooperation in terms of the curriculum during the courses (and after their completion) is important to build an adaptation base for international students. In order to familiarise international students with academic work, it is necessary to include university educators in the adaptation process. Building awareness of the need for such solution is particularly important for the abovementioned concept of academic success. Academic teachers are the group of university workers with whom students form the closest relationship. Creating a special dimension of this relationship in the context of an international student is highly desirable, as is shown by the abovementioned experience of American universities in this field. The engagement of researchers and academic teachers in the process of “transition” to the Polish educational system by including this group of students in Adaptation of international students at universities as a main challenge 97 adaptation programmes is not only a need but, more importantly, the condition to give international students equal chances in education. The administrative personnel of a university is also an important actor in the adaptation process. Meetings with representatives of various departments offering services to students, such as university career offices, libraries, dean’s offices, etc., make it possible to understand the processes taking place at the university and provide students with necessary tools and emotional support – to overcome barriers associated with the use of services available at the university. Engagement of units, such as career offices, and departments directly involved in student development, is fundamental for the achievement of the goals of coaching and activation workshops. An important role in international student activation, in the broad meaning of the term, is also played by integration and interaction with more senior students – both foreign and Polish. It is easier and faster to “clear the path” towards academic groups and organisations and, what is important for young people, towards social life at the university and in town – if a network of buddies participates in the adaptation and during the full year of adaptation. The engagement of more senior international students in the planning and development of a course is also important for the inclusion of such elements of adaptation that a “person from outside” might unknowingly disregard. Their experience and knowledge are a source of knowledge both for 1st year international students and university workers. The external actors of the adaptation process include representatives of institutions associated with the presence of foreigners in Poland and in respective towns. Information meetings and workshops with the personnel of foundations, town organisations or offices are a response to the challenges associated with every level of adaptation, because the scope of activities and services of those institutions covers linguistic, cultural and institutional issues as well as social integration. A necessary, though not always directly engaged member of the team should be a representative of the university authorities. From the historical perspective, university authorities are responsible for the organisational foundations of the internationalisation process19, which means that the process and all its model initiatives – such as adaptation programmes – should not be implemented without the support of those authorities. Monitoring and readiness to change and learn lessons for future adaptation projects are crucial for the success of adaptation projects in the long-term perspective. In the case of adaptation programmes and courses, it is important for education to be based on the evaluation of the support offered, which should be

19 G. Mazurek, op.cit. 98 Magdalena Kozula conducted before, after and after completion of a project. This way, it is possible to collect recommendations as to the usefulness of adaptation projects, increase their effectiveness and detect obstacles and changes. Also, it will enable activating the learning process of all persons engaged in the project, being an added value in the internationalisation process in a holistic approach.

Summary

To sum up, the problem of the presence of international students in Poland and their adaptation, presented in this article, is relevant to Polish universities, although it is a new phenomenon. Given that the number of foreigners who come to study in Poland is increasing, broader aspects of the receipt of foreign students, not limited only to immediate financial income and fighting the demographic downturn, must not be neglected. Recruiting international students obliges Polish universities to answer the following question: What next? The example of more experienced universities, holistic engagement, monitoring, learning lessons and a sense of responsibility are an important element of activities that will help deal with the issue of educational migration to Poland in a way that will be beneficial for all parties to the process.

Bibliography

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Joanna Kapica-Curzytek The University of Zielona Gora

Education and migration – European experiences and dilemmas towards integration

Key words: migration crisis – in- Abstract: Poland is about to face social changes caused tegration by education – parallel by a huge number of refugees and immigrants heading to- societies – foreign students – Eu- wards Europe. Not all of them come from societies whose ropean education culture is close to ours. The crisis of the peaceful idea of coexistence of cultures (Multikulti) inspires us to analyse the European experience in the process of building integrated society and to draw conclusions. In this way, we can avoid repeating some mistakes of other countries. In this situation, education must be a strong foundation of State policy. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 101-111 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.8

The migration crisis in Europe, which accelerated after 2015, has grown to unprecedented dimension. Its causes – mainly of economic and political nature – are complex and multiple. It is yet impossible to identify and predict all the consequences of the process. However, one thing is certain, namely that the flow of immigrants to Europe has caused a number of fundamental changes in almost all areas of life. These include – and will include – changes in the educational systems of European countries that will have to be adapted to new challenges. Also the educational system in Poland will have to confront the new social reality in Europe. However, it is still generally believed that Poland is as yet not affected by the migration crisis, and the problems associated with it do not apply to our country. The number of students of different nationalities attending Pol- ish schools does not seem high compared to Western Europe. Apart from ethnic 102 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek minority students in borderland regions, students of non-Polish origin in schools across the country are still quite few. However, it should be noted that Poland is, for many reasons, gradually becoming an attractive place for immigrants from different countries and cultural circles – even if our country is still more of a stopover on the road towards Western Europe. The number of international students in Poland is growing at a faster rate than is generally believed. The Polish school is about to become multicultural, in the full meaning of the word, and then, it will be confronted with the same problems as other States that receive high numbers of immigrants. Given the scale of immigration to Europe – it will be one of the major challenges for the Polish educational system after 1945. All the stakeholders of education will have to deal with it: teachers, educators, therapists, advisors. In 2008, it was noted that Polish teachers were generally left to themselves to deal with the presence of foreign students in schools. They had to rely on their own intuition, sometimes supported by experiences from other areas of education and their own interpersonal skills. There were no tools or procedures to help schools cope with the new challenge in Polish education (Stelmach, 2008: 82). In 2014, the Ministry of Education published on its website “Information on the education of foreigners in the Polish educational system”. It contains legal framework, instructions and basic information relevant to the education of foreigners in schools as well as suggested materials that teachers may use in teaching Polish language to foreigners1. The 2010 research report “Foreigners’ children in Polish educational institutions – school perspective” shows “growing cultural differentiation among students” – which means arrival of students with migration background. The report says that identification of the phenomenon affects the resulting, multiple problems of schools and a growing sense of helplessness and incompetence in teachers. At the same time, it is reported that awareness of the needs associated with adapting Polish schools and acquiring competencies to more effectively work with students with “migration background” is also growing (Błeszyński, 2010: 9). Thus, it is being acknowledged that the presence of foreign students in schools is a complex phenomenon and requires a completely different approach than working with students who speak Polish. Language problems of foreign children are but a tip of the iceberg. Teachers and the Polish educational system are confronted with an unprecedented scale of complex and multiple problems, resulting from

1 Informacja o kształceniu cudzoziemców w polskim systemie oświaty, Ministerstwo Edukacji Narodowej, https://men.gov.pl/wspolpraca-miedzynarodowa/ksztalcenie-cudzoziemcow/informacja- o-ksztalceniu-cudzoziemcow-w-polskim-systemie-oswiaty.html (accessed on: 1. 06. 2016). Education and migration – European experiences 103 cultural, religious and racial differences that until now were almost non-existent in Poland. Moreover, since the presence of foreign children in Polish schools is poorly rooted in Polish educational relations, we should rely on the experiences of other countries with many years of experience in having foreign students in their schools. In recent years, the perception of integration itself as well as the idea of multiculturalism has been changing in those states. Heinz Buschkowsky, former mayor of the Berlin district of Neukölln, says that the idea of Multiculti, backed by wrong- ly understood political correctness, the idea of peaceful coexistence of cultures and their symbiosis – supposedly leading to hybrid (intertwined) forms of culture – failed to work in Western Europe (Buschkowsky, 2013: 71). Similar is the opinion of the German Chancellor, Angela Merkel, who says that “the attempts to create a multicultural society in Germany definitely failed”2. Irrelevance of the idea of multiculturalism, which is “losing its credibility”, is also mentioned by A. Szahaj (2010: 66). “Multiculturalism should not be about tolerating the intolerance of another culture” says Ayaan Hirsi Ali (2016: 37), an immigrant from Somalia, intellectual and expert on the reality of Islamic religions. Integration should be understood as a long-term process, covering more than just one generation – the more so that not all immigrants in Europe come from culturally similar societies. The integration of newcomers depends to a large extent on the condition of education – the quality of the educational system and openness to the problems of international students. Thus, the educational system should be the first and most important pillar of integration. Its inefficiency has serious consequences, not only social but also economic. Heinz Buschkowsky notes that “nothing is more expensive than an individual not integrated with the society” (Buschkowsky, 2013: 99)3. Thus, expenditures on education must not be regarded as useless “cost generation”, but rather as necessary and undisputable investment in the quality of social life in a State and its social cohesion. In Sweden, every third Swede with “migration background” does not graduate from secondary school, compared to one in five native Swedes dropping out of school at this stage (Traub, 2016: 12). In 2011, only 22% of immigrant children in Germany passed secondary school graduation examinations, compared to 42% of children of native Germans (Buschkowsky, 2013: 45). These numbers will undoubtedly change, given the growing population of refugees in Germany, by 126% in 2015 compared to 2014 (Bloed and Masur, 2015: 37). However, behind those

2 R. Wróbel, Imigranci się nie asymilują – mówi kanclerz Merkel, http://www.rp.pl/artykul/550482- Imigranci-sie-nie-asymiluja---mowi-kanclerz-Merkel.html (accessed on: 7.06. 2016). 3 quotation translated to Polish by the author of the article. 104 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek numbers and statistics stand complex problems that the parents and caretakers of foreign children encounter. Most often, they concern their social and economic status, their attitudes, past experiences, views of life and concepts of professional career. These are the problems that the educational system of the host country must tackle with. Developing an educational model for newcomers is particularly difficult. Un- doubtedly, the major reason for difficulties in integration is educational gap. Those who arrive in a new country usually lack thorough education in the target language, and upon arrival – do not assimilate any elements of the culture or social norms of the new country (cf. Kelek, 2015: 94). Although children and youth go to schools, the gap is rarely bridged for adults. They remain for good in a situation of exclusion and have problems with finding employment, with social mobility and with establishing relations with anyone from outside their own community. As a result, parallel societies develop (Parallelgesellschaften), also called “ethnic colonies” or “asymmetrical societies” (Buschkowsky, 2013: 62-63). These are separate, hermetic worlds and day by day, they isolate themselves more from the majority of the society; they show no signs of interpenetration, no attempts to start a dialogue or step outside the cultural borders. On the other hand, a network of internal links is built in order to be able to stay among one’s kind, observe one’s own cultural and religious standards, protect children from “harmful influence” – the European lifestyle and social principles. This phenomenon is called cocooning (Hirsi Ali, 2016: 26). In a parallel society, all energy is spent on maintaining isolation, integrating only internally and building close links with other people from the same ethnic and religious group (Buschkowsky, 2013: 110). Its members are “citizens of the Western countries, where they live, but their hearts and minds are in another place” (Hirsi Ali, 2015: 15). In extreme cases, isolation is so strong that some dis- tricts of European cities seem to be beyond State control: for example Molenbeek in Brussels or Saint-Denis in the suburbs of Paris. Unfortunately, parallel societies also intensify another undesirable phenomenon that European public schools find it hard to cope with, namely gender discrimination. In many families with “migration background”, boys and girls are brought up differently. This is mainly associated with a different attitude to education. Educational chances and perspectives are strongly limited for girls, or even they are entirely deprived of any – due to the traditional perception of a woman’s role in the family. Since parents intend to have their daughter married when she turns 16, what is the point of investing in education and what is the point of her taking the examinations or planning to go to university? Girls are Education and migration – European experiences 105 brought up in an – incredible from the perspective of the European civilisation – submissiveness and obedience, and they cannot be independent or self-reliant. Constantly subjected to the strongly hierarchical family and controlled by older men – they are practically their property (Kelek 2015: 25-26), in the exact meaning of the word. Any attempts made by teachers to break the model and compensate the severe lack of educational aspirations are strongly resisted by parents: “My daughter is to become a good wife and mother, so why would she need a school?”. The democratic values, openness and liberalism – fundamental for the European school and educational system, are contrary to the anti-democratic, archaic structures of the families of many students. It is a civilisational conflict, because parents who come from “parallel societies” and have a drastically low cultural capital do not prepare their children for modern education in a modern State (Hirsi Ali, 2015: 244). “The rational, secular and individualistic values of modernity have a destructive impact on traditional societies, especially those that are hierarchically based on gender and age relations and hereditary succession of positions” observes A. Hirsi Ali (2016: 25). For girls from “parallel societies”, it is unthinkable to think independently and plan their own future, not to mention professional career. In those families, everything is done to discourage them from it (Buschkowsky, 2013: 111). Consequently, because of lack of female education, the educational gap becomes stronger and low sociocultural status is maintained, which is to a large extent the main reason for the reinforcement of “parallel society” structures. Uneducated mothers are not able to prepare their own children to be successful members of modern Western societies (Hirsi Ali, 2015: 19). The costs are huge: crime rates, social welfare, social benefits, etc. According to a German research, only every third immigrant child manages to move to a higher sociocultural status than that of their parents (Bloed and Masur, 2015: 42). The problem is acknowledged by the Dutch government, whose policy of increased efforts towards integration covers – apart from mandatory civic courses (language and knowledge about the society) – promoting emancipation of female immigrants (Buschkowsky: 2013: 162). Schools – as the foundation and strongest pillar of the process of integration – should set positive examples and give hope for a better future to students, especially girls, with a background of “educational poverty”. Certainly, it is not an easy task for educators. A teacher from Denmark I know says that Dutch teachers who work in schools with international students must focus on a number of things, not only teaching itself. Because of that, many Dutch parents remove their children 106 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek from schools with too many foreigners, because the level of education in those schools deteriorates significantly. In the school where my acquaintance works, international students have additional language and culture lessons in grades from I to IV. Also, teacher education studies include a course in “Dutch language for children from different cultural circles”, so educators who work in schools are aware of the problems that may arise in such situations. However, a major obstacle is the fact that foreign language families do not speak Dutch at home and children do not know basic vocabulary, even if they were born in Denmark. “There is a girl in our class (...) who has problems not only learning Dutch grammar but is also unhappy, because she cannot play with classmates after school. Those children are as if ‘trapped’ between two cultures”, observes the Dutch teacher4. Recently, it has been often raised that a particular challenge to European education may be the second generation of migrants. The mechanism is the following: “first generation” immigrants, when they come to a new country, are usually busy working and ensuring dignified living conditions for their families. They do not seem to be a threat to the internal security of the countries where they live. On the other hand, the “second generation”, as has already been mentioned, may experience various forms of rejection in school, like the case described in the above letter. Young people are much more sensitive to discrimination and mental discomfort associated with low self-esteem and self-evaluation. At the same time, they have much more time than their parents to think about what to do with their lives – e.g. look for their “true” identity, or return to their “root” culture, deserted by their families (Strachota and Pięciak, 2015: 42). This is perhaps the major challenge for the European educational system: to integrate in order to prevent radicalisation, to win the battle for the “control of souls” and to better educate people – not so much “uprooted” from their own culture but respecting and understanding the social norms of their country of residence. A. Hirsi Ali emphasises the particularly pending need for civic education (Hirsi Ali, 2015: 274, see also: 277). According to H. Buschkowsky: “without the school and through education, social barriers will not be removed. This fact has been known to us for 150 years” (Buschkowsky, 2013: 258). Aziz Al Azmeh is a fierce advocate of integration-oriented education: “If we allow enclosed communities to maintain the primacy of blood bonds over citizenship, a disaster will only be a matter of time” (Al.-Azmeh and Rosiak, 2015: 15). Also A. Hirsi Ali emphasises the importance of public edu-

4 Lene Juel R., private letter to the author of the article, June 2009. Education and migration – European experiences 107 cation in the process of overcoming “tribal” attitudes of isolation and self-exclusion (Hirsi Ali, 2015: 22). A very interesting example of the “removal of barriers” is the Rütli campus in the Berlin district of Neukölln. In 2006, teachers from that school wrote an open letter to the educational authorities, asking them to close the school, because they could no longer cope with the high level of violence and aggression among students. At that time, 87% of students were non-German nationals5. However, the decision was to provide more financing for and develop the school, rather than close it. Three years later, it transformed into multidimensional social space. It now consists of post-primary school, nursery school, preschool, free time centre, youth club, job counseling office, healthcare facility, music and folk school (extra classes) and playground. The project costs 35 million euro and is to be completed by 2016 (Buschkowsky 2013: 328). The school is still attended by almost 90% of immigrant children, and some of them come from families with criminal record (Buschkowsky, 2016: 274). The Rütli campus, which used to be a “problematic” school – is now an exem- plary institution, which serves as a proof that investing in education is vital. It shows that expenditure on education should never be treated as “necessary evil”, but that it is an important aspect of improving the quality of social life. The educational space that houses 20,000 people is also an attempt to reconstruct and reformulate the Neu- kölln district. It used to be an area equally enclosed and dangerous as Molenbeek in Brussels or Saint-Denis, but it has turned into an optimistic symbol of integration through education that the whole Europe looks at. This part of Berlin is now even considered to be a fashionable artistic district. This example shows that “inability” is not an excuse and that attempts to remove barriers in integration are not destined to fail. It is necessary to be proactive in every situation, always looking for new ways to reach the goal, solve problems, overcome obstacles. Education is an “exit ticket” from the ghetto of a parallel society (cf. Tyszecka, 2016: 112). Another similar example is the integration project for children from refugee families through sport, which has recently been actively developed in Germany6. The project seems invaluable. Participation in a sport programme – in an atmosphere of shared fun – activates young people, develops their social competencies and gives them a sense of goal and a sense of agency. Importantly, language skills develop through this project, too; children and youth learn language much better

5 Rütli School, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCtli_School (accessed on: 7.06. 2016). 6 Integracja przez sport, http://www.integration-durch-sport.de/fileadmin/fm-dosb/arbeitsfelder/ ids/images/2014/Flyer_Sportverein_POLNISCH.pdf (accessed on: 15.06. 2016). 108 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek in informal situations rather than in classes – spontaneously and almost effortlessly. Being together in sport activities and events is also an opportunity for the newcomers and their hosts to meet: not in an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion, but in trust and a sense of a shared goal. This way, refuges and immigrants learn the rules of their hosts’ world, whereas the latter learn to overcome barriers in encounters with newcomers. Education must also address the society that receives immigrants. One of its most important objectives should certainly be to overcome the fear of Überfrem- dungsangst, i.e. too much foreignness in the nearest environment. H. Buschkowsky claims it is not hostility towards specific individuals, and, moreover, the anxiety is not caused by an experience of a specific situation. Rather, it is an atmosphere of fear, when someone asks himself a question: “Where am I? Is this still my city? My country?” (Buschkowsky, 2013: 124-125). This feeling may be illustrated by the words of P. Bieler from the anti-immigrant Swedish Democrats party, who fears that “Sweden will lose its identity, a sense of living in a community that is also the family home” (Traub, 2016: 12-13). This fear definitely may – and should – be overcome. Before London mayor elections, in which one of the candidates was a Muslim politician of Pakistani origin, Sadiq Khan, 30% of Londoners said that they “would feel uncomfortable with a Muslim mayor” (Brytyjczycy sobie…, 2015: 37). But after he was elected, there were no negative reactions7, no anxieties were expressed that a “foreigner” could do harm to the native community. In terms of creating the model of education, it is worth remembering in particular the following dependence: the level of fear of foreignness drops significantly once the native community comes into real and personal contacts with “the others”. This is proven, for example, by the results of elections in Germany: in those Lands, where relatively few refugees live – in the latest elections (in the spring of 2016), the largest percentage of voters voted for anti-immigrant groups8. From the perspective of school education, the mechanism proves to be very similar. Krystyna Starczewska, a long-time head teacher of the “Bednarska” Com- munity General Education Secondary School in Warsaw, says that refugees have been admitted to the school since the 1990s. Currently, one-fifth of all students

7 Wygrał po „gorzkiej i brutalnej walce”. Światowe media o nowym burmistrzu Londynu, http:// www.tvn24.pl/wiadomosci-ze-swiata,2/swiatowa-prasa-komentuje-wybor-nowego-burmistrza- londynu,641796.html (accessed on: 14. 06. 2016). 8 Abstimmungen in drei Ländern: Die Ergebnisse der Landtagswahlen im Überblick http:// www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/wahlen-2016-die-ergebnisse-der-landtagswahlen-im- ueberblick-a-1082093.html (accessed on: 14. 06. 2016). Education and migration – European experiences 109 are foreigners (immigrants and refugees). This is the school’s conscious policy of openness to diversity. It was assumed that the presence of refugees from different parts of the world “would be some kind of a teaching aid for (...) children, and would teach them about different cultures, about tolerance and acceptance of diversity” (Starczewska and Winnicka, 2015: 26-27). The many years of practical experience in “Bednarska” school (examples of which are quoted in the interview) show that this indeed is possible. Even though the school dropped in rankings (which is always the fear of head teachers), according to Starczewska, this is not the most important criterion of the quality of education. Besides, she suggests that this problem could be easy to solve, if the results of students who had been in Poland for less than three years were not included in the school’s average performance, or if foreigners were allowed to receive some help in examinations: for example, if they could use dictionaries to make sure they understand exam instructions correctly (ibidem: 27). The experiences presented by Krystyna Starczewska convince us that the presence of foreign children in a class is a special form of intercultural education. It takes place in a natural environment, in direct contact with representatives of other cultures and languages. Like in real life, there are difficult, problematic situations that require a special ability to solve them. To sum up, the Polish educational system faces a number of challenges associated with developing procedures and activities relevant to accepting students of different nationalities in Polish schools. The right perception of those issues should be developed from now on, and it is worth drawing on the experiences of other countries. Education that provides for the “migration background” should cover two interconnected groups: it must not only focus on newcomers, but also include the societies that receive immigrants – persons who study, live and work alongside the new settlers. The most important person in the process is the teacher, whose role of a cultural mediator involves the need to create positive, unbiased and unprejudiced conditions for intercultural communication (Kapica-Curzytek, 2010: 99-101). School education, often too formal and interested only in achieving the best results in rankings, must promote attitudes that would eliminate stigmatisation, xenophobia, intolerance, egocentrism, aggression and racism. We do not think it is necessary to reformulate the goals of such education: the challenges defined by the four pillars of education remain valid, but they acquire a special significance in the new school reality: – Learning to know; – Learning to do; 110 Joanna Kapica-Curzytek

– Learning to live together; – Learning to be (Delors, 1998: 11). It would also be a good idea to give more significance to European and civic education, and more emphatically accentuate the goals: to develop a modern and democratic society of justice and progress, supported by the wealth of cultural diversity. It is important to raise the awareness of belonging to a community and a sense of solidarity (Nikitorowicz, 2009, 237). There are at least two goals involved here: to integrate the newcomers and to overcome nationalist, extremely right- ist and populist attitudes among host societies. Their source is escalated fear that turns into verbal or even physical aggression. According to the British journalist S. Kuper, the only key to this problem is thorough education (Kuper, 2012: 7). J. Nikitorowicz emphasises the fact that “we are (...) at the beginning of the road of the Europenisation of Europeans” (Nikitorowicz, 2009: 238) and visible results should not be expected to happen straight away. They will become evident at the earliest after several dozen years. This is the time that Europe needed to change its shape more than 70 years ago, when World War II ended. Then, the situation was equally or even more difficult: the continent was divided into two hostile political camps (zones of impact) and suffered from economic problems, with the infrastructure in ruin and mass migration in the aftermath of the war. Thus, it is worth focusing on educational objectives, bearing it in mind that consequent, long-term activities always yield their results. European integration is a process – and its success depends mainly on the condition of education. Without education that focuses on specific goals, there will be no integration and without integration, the economy will not function properly and the society will be neither coherent nor open, which is fundamental for democracy.

Bibliography

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Kelek N., (2015). Chaos der Kulturen. Die Debatte um Islam und Integration. Köln. Kapica-Curzytek J., (2010). Nauczyciel w szkole jako „culture broker” (pośrednik kulturowy) wobec uczniów obcokrajowców. “Kultura i edukacja”, no. 1, p. 95-107 Kuper S., (2012). How we can beat the far right, “Financial Times Magazine”, September 22-23, p. 7. Nikitorowicz J., (2009). Edukacja regionalna i międzykulturowa. Warszawa. Rosiak D., Al- Azmeh A., (2015). Islam i przemoc. “Tygodnik Powszechny”, no. 50, p. 14-17. Stelmach M., (2008). Obcy w naszej klasie. “Polityka”, no. 10, p. 81-85. Strachota K., Pięciak W., (2015). Wszystkie drogi prowadzą do Syrii, “Tygodnik Powszechny”, no. 48, p. 41-42. Szahaj A., (2010). E pluribus unum? Dylematy wielokulturowości i politycznej poprawności. Kraków. Traub J., Zmierzch raju, (2016). “Magazyn Świąteczny” Gazeta Wyborcza, 27 February, no. 9, p. 12-13. Tyszecka A., (2016), Jesteśmy stąd, “Polityka”, 2016, no. 13, p. 110-114. Winnicka E., Starczewska K., (2015). Kolorowanie biało-czerwonego, “Polityka”, no. 46, p. 26-28.

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Ewa Sowa-Behtane Ignatianum Academy in Krakow

Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation representing the interests of persons with different cultures

Keywords: multicultural families, Abstract: The article attempts to shows that in the era of non-governmental organization post-modernity, ethnically, racially, religiously, culturally (NGO), association, cultural di- or nationally mixed marriages are an increasingly frequent versity, Multicultural Families As- phenomenon, leading to the emergence of new types of sociation cultural identity. The degree of cultural difference determines the number of problems that occur between partners. National, religious, linguistic and cultural differences can affect both positively and negatively the functioning of multicultural families. The main context of this article is the activity of the Multi- cultural Families Association, which was founded following a research involving multicultural families living in Krakow. The Association responds to the needs of those families. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 113-121 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.9

Foreword

In the 21st century, ethnically, racially, religiously, culturally or nationally mixed marriages, which lead to the emergence of new types of cultural identity, are characteristic not only of typical multicultural societies, such as those of the USA, UK, Germany, the Netherlands or France. Also in Poland, international marriages are not isolated cases, but are becoming a statistically frequent phenomenon. 114 Ewa Sowa-Behtane

The phenomenon of multicultural families and intercultural marriages is associated with amalgamation, which means the development of a multiple identity “beyond divisions”, be it ethnical or national. In contemporary times, thanks to the Internet and increasingly easy communication between various countries, we witness so-called “shrinking” of the world and, consequently, a growing number of persons from different countries who meet, start a relationship and then create a family. Accordingly, multicultural families are increasingly often the subject of academic research. Marriages between persons of different cultural background are a kind of an indicator of the openness of a society to other cultures and countries, and they also provide indirect information on the scale of long-term emigration or immigration that may possibly lead to the creation of a lasting and intimate bond between the citizens of two states. When people from different nations enter into marriage, some very important phenomena and processes take place. From amalgamation emerges a new cultural order.

Persons with different cultures in Poland

The multicultural Poland is made up of national and ethic minorities who have lived in Poland for ages as well as immigrants who come to Poland for a number of reasons, the same as the reasons for migrating to other countries (work, family, studies). There are nine national minorities living in Poland: Belarusians, Czechs, Lith- uanians, Germans, Armenians, Russians, Slovaks, Ukrainians and Jews, and four ethnic minorities: the Crimean Karaites, Lemkos, Romani and Tatars. Also, in the Pomeranian region live the Kashubs, a community that speaks its regional language – Kashubian. During the National population and housing census1 in 2011, 144,238 of Polish citizens declared to be of German nationality, 38,797 – of Ukrainian nationality, 8,796 – of Russian nationality, 7,374 of Lithuanian nationality, 7,353 – of Jewish nationality, 2,833 of Czech nationality, 2,740 – of Slovak nationality and 1,684 – of Armenian nationality. 16,725 of Polish citizens declared to belong to the Romani minority, 9,641 – to the Lemko minority, 1,828 to the Tatar minority and 313 – to the Crimean Karaite minority.

1 Raport z wyników. Narodowy spis powszechny ludności i mieszkań z 2011 roku, GUS, Warszawa 2012, wersja internetowa raportu: http://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/lud_raport_z_wynikow_ NSP2011.pdf (accessed on: 20.05.2016). Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation 115

Although traditionally, Poland was a country of emigration, in recent years it has transformed from a typically emigrant country to a mixed emigrant and immigrant one, mainly as a result of EU accession. In recent years, immigrants have played an important role on the Polish labour market, which poses an additional challenge for the institutional structure. In general terms, five groups of immigrants may be identified in Poland. These are foreign citizens from, respectively: the European Economic Area and Switzerland, the OECD Member Stated (except the European Economic Area and Switzerland), West European states neighbouring Poland (mainly Belarus, Ukraine and Russia) and the Far East (mainly Vietnam and China), and other regions. We get information on the number of immigrants in Poland from an organisation called Hafelekar. In association with the “Leonardo da Vinci” and “Job-in- a-Job” Foundations, Hafelekar published the Report about immigrants in Poland2, according to which the countries from which most immigrants come to Poland are former USSR republics (Ukraine, Belarus, Russia). Another relatively large group of immigrants in Poland are citizens of developed countries (the USA, Germany, France and Vietnam). Every third foreigner residing in Poland comes from one of the neighbouring states. The most immigrants come to Poland from Ukraine (26.6% of all immigrants). Quite a large number of persons come from Belarus (9.2%) and China (4.2%). The immigrants in Poland share two main features. First, they are usually very well educated (36% are university graduates) and most of them are of working age (80% are aged between 20 and 59 years) and employed in Poland. This means that immigrants who come to Poland are professionally active and mostly male, rather than entire immigrant families. Foreigners from different parts of the world do not settle down in the same regions of Poland. West European and American citizens reside mainly in Warsaw and Cracow or in the vicinity of those two cities. Foreigners from the former USSR republics live mainly in Eastern provinces. The most immigrants reside in the Mazovia region (30%). In the ranking, it is followed by the Lesser Poland, Lower Silesia and Lodz regions. Approximately 83% of immigrants live in cities. Both national and ethnic minorities, and immigrants residing in Poland represent cultures different from the dominant culture, i.e. Polish national culture. This means that for them:

2 Hafelekar: Report about immigrants in Poland. http://hafelekar.at/CD_JIJ/pdf/pdf_pol/raport_ projektowy_na_temat_sytaucji_imigrantow_w_polsce.pdf (accessed on 03.06.2016). 116 Ewa Sowa-Behtane

– Polish national culture is not their own but rather a foreign culture; or – Polish national culture is one of many own cultures (individual multicultural identity); or – Polish national culture is a part of individual transcultural identity, i.e. identity composed of elements of various cultures, where it is impossible to determine which elements come from which culture, because they have mixed to create a completely new cultural value that cannot be linked with any national culture. Why is it worth studying persons with different cultures in a given society, even if it seems to be (like the Polish society) relatively homogenous in terms of culture? There are two main reasons, as discussed by Janusz Mucha in his book Kultura dominująca jako kultura obca (Dominant Culture as a Foreign Culture). First, we may learn something important about those communities, and secondly, we may better understand a broader group in which those communities function, i.e., in our case, the Polish culturally dominant community (cf. Mucha, 1999).

Multicultural families

The category of persons with different cultures that interests me is multicultural families understood as families that represent and cultivate various cultures (national, ethnic). Very often, two cultures are involved (husband’s and wife’s), but if a couple do not live in the country of origin of either of the partners, the third culture is also involved – that, in which the family lives and functions. Sometimes, one of the partners comes from a multicultural family background and represents a multicultural or transcultural identity. The extent to which cultural patterns, values and norms of the respective cultures are assimilated and cultivated is a subject for further research that goes beyond the scope of this article. Thus, the multiculturalism of families may be understood as the coexistence and interactions of various cultural patterns in the area of family activity, namely “coexistence within primeval groups, where personal contacts and intercourses predominate” (Komorowski, 1975: 260). Leszek Korporowicz believes that we are and will be more and more frequently confronted with the phenomenon of “(…) the multiculturalism of families and multilingualism of socialisation, various forms of cultural stress as well as a search for new forms of cultural and personal identity of individuals in a situation of borderline, multiplicity and often also disparity of identification” (Korporowicz, 1997: 45). It is the first of the problems potentially facing members of multicultural families, in particular Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation 117 children, who may find it difficult to define themselves and answer the question: Who am I? In multicultural families, there are often different religions. Then, a family is not only multicultural but also multireligious. On the one hand, intercultural couples with different religions are open to other denominations, curious to learn about them and tolerant to them. Partners may develop spiritually and broaden their knowledge of their own religion by comparing each other’s religions (cf. Ro- mano, 2008). On the other hand, different religions mean different approaches to and philosophies of life, and in particular, it is often difficult to reach a compromise as to the religion of children. Problems grow in number, if the behaviour of one partner does not conform to the religious standards of the other. According to surveys conducted among families with different cultures, “the degree of cultural differences determines the number of problems arising between partners. Different nationalities, religions, languages and cultures may have both a negative and a positive impact on a partnership or marriage. The result depends, among other things, on similarities between partners, degree of language barrier, acceptance of the partner’s different culture and religion, and his or her different views (Sowa-Behtane, 2015: 27). The problematic factors in mixed couples include, for example: differences between national cultures, interlocutor’s assumption of similarities, language differences, wrong interpretation of non-verbal signals, stereotypes and prejudices, different value systems, anxieties and tensions, ethnocentrism, cultural shock, different religions, and even the cultural models of satisfying hunger. Apart from problems arising within families, there are also external challenges, such as: non-acceptance by relatives or broader social circles, intolerance towards members of such families, problems with finding employment, problems with acceptance of children from multicultural families in schools. Another category of problems concerns integration of a person representing a different culture in the host society. We will make a distinction between two main types of multicultural families: those in which one of the members represents Polish nationality and culture, and foreign families or national or ethnic minority families, for whom Polish culture is secondary. Both types of families may encounter certain problems, thus it seems reasonable to provide multicultural families with various kinds of assistance and support.

Institutions that cooperate with persons with different cultures

Institutions that cooperate with persons with different cultures may be classified on the basis of the legal status of those persons or groups. Accordingly, there are 118 Ewa Sowa-Behtane institutions that focus on, respectively, national and ethnic minorities, repatriates and foreigners covered by international protection, and immigrants not classified under either of the two groups. Institutions supporting the functioning of national and ethnic minorities include: the Department for National and Ethnic Minorities at the Ministry of Home Affairs and Administration, and Regional Representatives for National and Ethnic Minorities. Since Poland’s accession to the European Union, the national government has been accommodating its migration policy to the EU standards. According to the instrument entitled The Polish migration policy – current status vs. future actions, developed by the Interdepartmental Committee for Migration in July 2011, Polish governmental institutions are obliged to provide specific support and services to repatriates and foreigners with international protection. However, governmental institutions are not obliged to support other categories of citizens (e.g. from third countries). This task is left to NGOs, which rely on external funding for their activities. In Poland, there are many non-profit organisations whose mission is to develop an open and diversified society by promoting intercultural dialogue and social integration, fighting against discrimination, disseminating knowledge and developing tools for social integration and equality of immigrants. The purpose of Pol- ish NGOs is to develop a society whose every member may feel free and safe, and may develop and participate in social life, according to his needs and ambitions, no matter who he is and where he comes from, and one that respects, appreciates and fosters social diversity. One of such NGOs is the Multicultural Families Asso- ciation.

Multicultural Families Association3

The Multicultural Families Association was registered in the National Court Reg- ister on 24 April 2015. The idea to create the Association arose from a diagnosis of the needs of multicultural families conducted in 2013-2015 in Cracow. The focus areas of the Association are: education, counselling, therapy, integration and activity of foreigners, culture, education and leisure activities, promoting multiculturalism and learning.

3 Website of the Multicultural Families Association: http://rodzinawielokulturowa.pl (accessed on: 14.10.2016). Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation 119

The Association works for the multicultural society, focusing in particular on members of multicultural families. It initiates, promotes and supports projects of comprehensive assistance to foreigners in the territory of Poland as well as pro- tects members of multicultural families against social exclusion. Moreover, it helps refugees, persons with supplementary protection or tolerated residence status and persons applying for refugee status or trying to legalise their stay in Poland by other means. The Association also organises activities for the integration of foreign nationals with the receiving Polish society as well as for the prevention of discrimination based on nationality, culture and religion. The Association also engages in comprehensive distribution of information, methods and techniques within the field of anti-racist and anti-discriminatory activities and raising awareness in the Polish society of the growing number of foreigners in Poland. It undertakes activities for the benefit of national and ethnic minorities. Also, it disseminates knowledge about multicultural issues as well as the different cultures and religions of foreigners residing in Poland and Poland’s relations with other States. Last but not least, it propagates intercultural understanding, promotes and supports intercultural dialogue and provides knowledge about the countries of origin of refugees and immigrants, and on ethnic and national minorities. The goal of the Association is to build a “bridge of understanding” between societies representing different cultural, religious and philosophical traditions, e.g. by coordinating projects that are supposed to make Polish nationals and foreigners residing in Poland get to know each other better. Also, the Association supports the development of local groups and communities and engages in professional and social integration and reintegration of members of multicultural families. Finally, it maintains and propagates the national traditions and languages of various cultures of members of mixed families and promotes equal rights of men and women in multicultural couples. The above tasks are performed through the following means: a) Workshops, trainings, conferences, lectures, speeches, courses, classes; b) Cultural events, exhibitions; c) Diagnosing (psychological and pedagogical), counselling (pedagogical, social, legal, professional, psychological), mediation and therapy; d) Cooperating with public institutions, culture centres, churches and religious organisations, ethnic, national and cultural organisations, associations and groups in Poland and abroad; e) Developing international cooperation, especially through exchange of experience, joint programmes, conferences and seminars, and other activities; 120 Ewa Sowa-Behtane

f) Cooperating with the media and other independent organisations or institutions, e.g. educational; g) Monitoring ongoing projects; h) Mass meetings, assemblies and happenings; i) Research, publications, journalism; j) Submitting requests and enquiries to competent national and international authorities. The Multicultural Families Association is the first Polish non-governmental organisation engaged in assisting multicultural families.

Conclusion

Like any other family, a multicultural family faces numerous threats and problems. Some of those challenges may be solved by a family’s own means, but if the problem-solving strategies of its members are not successful, a multicultural family needs external assistance. Such assistance is offered by the Multicultural Families Association. Assistance should be integral, i.e. it should be coherent: from diagnosis to preventive measures. In order to undertake the right actions, a comprehensive diagnosis of a family is required, including such elements as: the cultural and linguistic background of its members and the situation of cultural change. The Association provides multicultural families with specialist counselling, in particular legal, psychological and family counselling as well as mediation and family therapy. However, the functioning of multicultural families also depends on the society to which they belong. Accordingly, the multicultural educational activities of the Association addressed to the entire society are of vital importance, as they are supposed to prepare children and youth, regardless of their origin and culture, to live together and cooperate on equal terms between cultures, instead of dominating one over the other. Undoubtedly, the Association seeks to represent the interests of persons with different cultures.

Bibliography

Komorowski Z. (1975). Pluralizm – wielokulturowość – diaspora, „Kultura i Społeczeństwo”, no. 2-3, p. 259–263. Korporowicz L. (1997). Wielokulturowość a międzykulturowość: od reakcji do interakcji. [In:] U progu wielokulturowości. Ed. M. Kempny, A. Kapciak, S. Łodziński. Warszawa, p. 64–72. Multicultural Families Association – a Non-Governmental Organisation 121

Mucha J. (1999). Badania stosunków kulturowych z perspektywy mniejszości. [In:] Kultura dominująca jako kultura obca. Ed. J. Mucha. Warszawa, p. 11-25. Romano D. (2008). Intercultural marriage. Promises and pitfalls. Boston-London. Sowa-Behtane E. (2015). Rodziny wielokulturowe. Kraków.

Internet sources Hafelekar: Report about immigrants in Poland http://hafelekar.at/CD_JIJ/pdf/pdf_pol/raport_projek- towy_na_temat_sytaucji_imigrantow_w_polsce.pdf (accessed on: 03.06.2016). Raport z wyników. Narodowy spis powszechny ludności i mieszkań z 2011 roku, GUS, Warszawa 2012, http://stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/lud_raport_z_wynikow_NSP2011.pdf (accessed on: 20.05.2016). Stowarzyszenie Rodzin Wielokulturowych, http://rodzinawielokulturowa.pl (accessed on: 14.10.2016).

Multicultural Families Association – a non-governmental organization representing the interests of people with different cultures

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Angelika Figiel University of Szczecin

Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw

Keywords: foreign student educa- Abstract: This article is an attempt to present good prac- tion in the Polish educational tices in multicultural education. By introducing the main system, multicultural educa- problems, the author presents the principles of teaching tion, intercultural education, foreign students in the Polish educational system, high- “Raszyńska” Community Junior lighting the most important provisions of Polish legal regu- Secondary School No. 20 in lations. Warsaw Next, she defines the key concepts, namely intercultural education and multicultural education, discussing their main goals and tasks. The second part of the text presents good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 123-138 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.10

Foreword

In recent years, with a growing scale of migration, the number of foreign students who do not speak Polish at all or good enough has been growing in schools. These are usually students who were brought up in a culture with different customs than what is assumed to be standard in our country. Legally, a foreigner is a person who does not have Polish nationality (JoL / Dz.U./ 2003, no. 128, item 1175). Foreigners include refugees and persons applying for refugee status (JoL /Dz.U./ 2003 no. 128, item 1176), and EU nationals (JoL /Dz.U./ 2006 no. 144, item 1043). The instruments that grant refugee protection 124 Angelika Figiel according to international standards are the 1951 Geneva Convention and the New York Protocol of 1967, ratified by Poland on 2 September 1991. The 1951 Geneva Convention defines the refugee as any person who “owing to well- founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it” (JoL /Dz.U./ 1991 no 119, item 515). The law obliges Polish educational institutions to receive foreign children. Ac- cording to the data of the Polish Office for Foreigners, the number of foreign children in compulsory school age, i.e. between 6 and 18 years, is 945. It is slightly more than last year: as on 1 September 2014, 885 foreign children in the same age group were registered. The most numerous in this group are young Ukraine nationals – 418. They are followed by: Russia nationals – 370 (of which 321 are Chechens), Kir- gizstan nationals – 44, Georgia nationals – 40 and Syria nationals – 321. The teaching of foreign students in the Polish educational system is governed by two instruments: the Act on the Educational System of 7 September 1991 (JoL /Dz.U./ 2004 no. 256, item 2572, as amended) and the Regulation of the Minister of National Education on the conditions and procedures for receiving in public preschools, other preschool institutions, schools and educational institutions persons who are not Polish nationals and Polish nationals who attended schools in the educational systems of other countries as well as on organising additional Polish language teaching, additional remedial classes and teaching of the language and culture of the country of origin of 30 July 2015 (JoL /Dz.U./ 2015, item 1202). The most important provisions of the two instruments are discussed below.

Principles of foreign student education in the Polish educational system

According to Art. 15.2 of the Act on the Educational System, each child at the age of 7 years is subject to compulsory education from the beginning of the school year until completion of Junior Secondary school, however not longer than until the age of 18 years. Compulsory education applies to every child who resides in

1 www.udsc.gov.pl/uchodzcy-w-polskiej-szkole/ (accessed on: 18.05.16). Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 125 the territory of the Republic of Poland, regardless of their legal status, including refugees, whether or not their stay in Poland is legal (Art. 94 a.1.). It is the duty of parents to observe compulsory education, and they are controlled by the head teacher of the school in the area of the child’s residence, or by local (gmina) authorities – in the case of compulsory education after completion of Junior Secondary school: Art. 14b. 1. The parents of child subjected to compulsory education referred to in Art. 14.3 are obliged to: 1) Put the child in preschool, preschool unit in primary school or another preschool institution; 2) Make sure the child regularly attends classes; 3) Inform, by the 30th of September of each year, the head teacher of the primary school in the area of the child’s residence that the obligation has been complied with in accordance with Art. 16.5b; 4) Ensure proper learning conditions for the child, in accordance with the permit referred to in Art. 16.8 – in the case of a child for whom the obligation is performed outside preschool, preschool unit or another preschool institution. 2. It is the duty of the head teacher of the primary school in the area of a child’s residence to control performance of the obligation referred to in Art. 14.3. If a child’s parents do not perform the obligation, the head teacher is obliged to take proper actions for its enforcement: Art. 19.1. Head teachers of public primary schools and Junior Secondary schools control performance of the obligation to attend school by children residing in the area of respective schools, and local (gmina) authorities control performance of the obligation to attend school by youth residing in the area under their authority, including, respectively, they: 1) Control compliance with the obligations referred to in Art. 18.1.1, 18.1.2 and 18.1.4 and cooperate with parents to ensure performance of the obligations referred to in Art. 18.1.3 and 18.3; 2) Keep a register of performance of the obligation to attend school and obligation to learn. 2. The mayor of a gmina, town or city is obliged to keep the head teachers of public primary schools and Junior Secondary schools informed about the current status of and changes in the register of children and youth aged from 3 to 18 years. According to the legislator, a student who misses without just cause at least 50% of classes in a given month does not perform the obligation. If such a situation 126 Angelika Figiel is reported, the head teacher should take actions provided for in the law in order to verify the situation and discipline the parents: Art. 20.1. Failure to perform the obligation referred to in Art. 14.3, the obligation to attend school and the obligation to learn is subject to enforcement, pursuant to legal regulations on administrative enforcement procedures. 2. Failure to perform the obligation referred to in Art. 14.3, the obligation to attend school and the obligation to learn should be understood to mean that in one month a student misses without just cause at least 50% of: 1) Days of classes in preschool, another preschool institution, primary school, Junior Secondary school, secondary school or institution; 2) Classes, if the obligation to learn is performed in accordance with Art.16.5a.2 and in regulations issued pursuant to Art.16.6c. Admission of foreign children to public schools is provided for in detail by the Regulation of the Minister of National Education of 1 April 2010. According to that Regulation, those children are admitted to all institutions on the same principles as Polish nationals (§ 2.1 of the Regulation). According to § 2.2 of the Reg- ulation, admission is based on school certificates or other documents confirming completion of a certain stage of education abroad, or specifying the grade completed by a child and the total number of years in school. The exception is, if there are no documents confirming completion of a corresponding school or grade abroad. If this is the case, before admission of a child to school, the head teacher interviews the child and based on the result of the interview, the child is admitted to appropriate grade, according to §2.4 and § 2.5: 4. If a foreigner cannot present the documents referred to in par. 1.2.a or 1.2.b, he is admitted and classified to appropriate grade or term based on an interview. The interview is held by the head teacher of a public school, teacher training facility or institution, assisted, if needed, by another teacher or teachers. 5. If a foreigner does not speak Polish, the interview is held in the foreign language the foreigner speaks. If needed, the interview should be attended by a person who speaks the same language as the foreigner. Polish legal regulations also provide for additional assistance to foreign children. The students are entitled to free Polish lessons and remedial classes. According to Art. 94a.4 of the Act, if a foreign child does not speak Polish at all or well enough, he should be granted additional free Polish lessons for the period of one year. Additional Polish lessons are organised by the school’s managerial authority. The organisation of additional free Polish lessons is also provided for in detail in the Regulation of the Minister of National Education of 1 April 2010. According Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 127 to Art. 5.2 of the Regulation, the number of lessons should be such that the foreigner can learn the language well enough in order to attend compulsory educational courses, however, in any case no less than 2 lessons a week. Besides additional free Polish lessons, a foreign child in Polish school is also entitled to extra support in the form of remedial classes to bridge any curriculum gaps (Art. 94a.4c). Remedial classes are organised by the school’s managerial authority at the request of a teacher who reports curriculum gaps and are held during the first 12 months of a child’s attendance to school, one lesson per week per subject. The Regulation of the 1 April 2010 introduces some limitations – the number of all equal-chance classes attended by a foreigner, that is Polish lessons and remedial classes – must not exceed 5 lessons a week.

Multicultural vs. intercultural education

When discussing multicultural education, two terms should be highlighted, namely: “multicultural education” and “intercultural education”, which are often used interchangeably in the literature and educational practice. Przemysław Grzybowski believes that “unlike multicultural education that aims at the assimilation of minorities by subordinating them to the dominant group and maintaining a static status quo, the effect of intercultural education is supposed to be integration and sociocultural activation of various social circles, based on bringing their members closer together”2. A similar understanding of multicultural education and intercultural education is presented by Tadeusz Lewowicki, in whose opinion multicultural education is often stigmatised as hegemonic and instrumental and it uses education to assimilate or to maintain social peace. On the other hand, the purpose of intercultural education is not to “stay beside”, but rather to get closer – to integrate without an overt or covert domination programme of any of the groups (Lewowicki, 2001: 25-26). According to Jerzy Nikitorowicz, “the activities of multicultural education result from the need to accommodate education to the phenomenon of multiculturalism, whereas the activities of intercultural education involve educating

2 P. Grzybowski (2007). Edukacja europejska – od wielokulturowości ku międzykulturowości. Koncepcje edukacji wielokulturowej i międzykulturowej w kontekście europejskim ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem środowiska frankofońskiego. Kraków, p. 39. 128 Angelika Figiel towards multiculturalism, meeting half way”3. He adds that multiculturalism is a fact, whereas interculturalism is an educational task and challenge (Nikitorow- icz, 1999: 25). Stanisława Nazaruk believes that intercultural education performs the role of preparing children to meet their peers from different cultures and it is supposed to make young people aware of the fact that, despite cultural, ethnic or religious differences, people may live together, integrate and coexist. In an intercultural society, the most important principle is to “be together”, rather than “be beside” (Nazaruk, 2014: 248-249). On the other hand, research conducted by Izabela Czerniejews- ka proves that intercultural education still remains only a certain aim, a goal to be achieved, whereas in practice, the multicultural model is much more frequent (Czerniejewska, 2013: 28), and accordingly, in the subsequent part of the text, we use the term “multicultural education”. In order to properly understand multicultural education, one should analyse its main goals and activities, which we do subsequently.

Goals and activities in multicultural education

In multicultural education, the school plays an important role and is responsible for developing a multicultural teaching and upbringing programme respecting ethnic and cultural differences (cf. Nikitorowicz, 2009: 265). “Multicultural upbringing is the pedagogical response to the reality of a multicultural society, an open concept of action that is aware of social changes and introduces innovative processes, and has its share in education for peace by conflict solving. It is based on student-focused pedagogy, understood to be close to life, and on assistance in self-fulfilment, and it takes into account spontaneity and individual differences (…)”4. School is “a space, where a student of non-Polish nationality learns the competencies associated both with his native culture and the culture of the country of his residence. Students who attend minority schools have a chance to integrate or confront knowledge originating from the dominant culture with the minority culture”5.

3 J. Nikitorowicz (1995). Pogranicze – tożsamość – edukacja międzykulturowa. Białystok, p. 116. 4 E. Ogrodzka-Mazur (1999). Szkołą na pograniczu a proces wychowania wielokulturowego. [In:] Edukacja międzykulturowa w wymiarze instytucjonalnym. Red. J. Nikitorowicz, M. Sobecki. Białystok, p. 113. 5 I. Czerniejewska (2013). Edukacja wielokulturowa. Działania podejmowane w Polsce. Toruń, p. 59. Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 129

According to Dariusz Wojakowski, multiculturalism determines two types of goals for education: 1. Ensuring equal rights for a specific ethnic group, preparing to live in a certain society and teaching and cultivating the group’s own language and culture; 2. Organising meetings, especially of the dominant culture with minority groups (Wojakowski, 2002: 124). A longer list of the goals of multicultural upbringing is proposed by Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur. These are: 1. Learning one’s own culture and the culture of others. 2. Learning the reasons and motivations behind the conduct of people from different cultures. 3. Making students aware of the problem of stigmatising minority groups. 4. Being tolerant of traditions, language, religion and different lifestyles. De- veloping conflict-free standards of behaviour to prevent emotional confrontation and promote mutual enrichment between different cultures (Ogrodzka-Mazur, 1999: 114). According to Mirosław Sobecki, “the school is the only place, where changes in awareness of the attitude towards the culturally different may be initiated on an adequate scale. The point is to make use of the school’s potential”6. When it comes to multicultural education, the main goals of the school are to: 11) Assimilate minorities with the majority society, acquaint them with the dominant culture; 12) Teach the language, history and culture of the dominant society to minority group members, according to the principle of political correctness; 13) Educate to tolerance, prevent racism, make aware of the problem of stigmatisation, prejudices, negative stereotypes, etc.; 14) Highlight the problem of structural injustice towards minorities and motivate them to assert their rights and take action to improve their social, political, cultural and other conditions; 15) Prepare people to work and live in harmony in a multicultural society (Nikitorowicz, 2009: 265-266). John Rex believes that the most important challenge posed by multiculturalism to education is to develop tolerance in a young person and transmit knowledge of the minority culture to the dominant group (Czerniejewska, 2013: 28-29).

6 M. Sobecki (1999). Kształtowanie postaw wobec odmienności jako nowe zadanie wychowania. [In:] Edukacja międzykulturowa w wymiarze instytucjonalnym. Ed. J. Nikitorowicz, M. Sobecki. Białystok, p. 96. 130 Angelika Figiel

James A. Banks, apart from such dimensions of multicultural education as: integration of multicultural content, education as a process of the co-development of knowledge, preventing prejudice and empowerment within the framework of the school and social structure, also mentions education for equal treatment (C.A. Banks, J. Banks, 2010: 45-46). It should be understood as “teaching strategies and classroom environments that help students from diverse racial, ethnic, and cultural groups attain the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to function effectively within, and create and perpetuate, a just, humane and democratic society”7. The definition suggests that it is not enough to teach writing, reading and counting, but that students should also be prepared to question the dominant paradigms and assumptions. The idea of education for equal treatment is to help students mature in such a way that they develop critical thinking and become active members of a democratic society (C.A. Banks, J. Banks, 2010: 46-47). In order to effectively implement education for equal treatment in multicultural education, teachers must be familiar with the history and characteristics of the main social groups and minorities, and the differences within them (C.A. Banks, J. Banks, 2010: 57). Implementation of the above goals and activities of multicultural education is challenging for Polish schools. The subsequent part of the text presents good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” Commu- nity Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw.

Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw8

The “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School No. 20 in Warsaw is one of the seven schools9 of the “Bednarska” Community General Education Schools in Warsaw. It was founded in 1999 and since 2000 has been located at Raszyńska

7 C. A. Banks, J. Banks. (2010). Pedagogika na rzecz równego traktowania: zasadniczy element edukacji wielokulturowej. [In:] Szkoła wielokulturowa – organizacja pracy i metody nauczania. Wybór tekstów. Ed. A. Grudzińska, K. Kubin. Warszawa, p. 46. 8 Description of the activity of the Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 in Warsaw is based on an interview with the Head Teacher Krystyna Starczewska and other members of the school personnel. The pictures in the article were either taken by the author or used from the school’s archives. 9 The “Bednarska” Community General Education Schools in Warsaw include, in the order of their foundation: 1st Community General Education High School – 1990, Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 – 1999, General Education High School with International Baccalaureate – IBO – 2003, Multicultural Human Sciences High School – 2006, Junior Secondary School at Startowa Street – 2007, Primary School – 2011 and Community Junior Secondary School Hispaniola – 2013. Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 131

Street in Warsaw. From the beginning until 2015, the Head Teacher of the Junior Secondary School was Krystyna Starczewska, Polish language teacher, philosopher, ethician, educator. In 1989, she devoted herself to creating “Bednarska” – the Community General Education High School no. 1 at Bednarska Street and the Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 in Warsaw. Since the 1998/1999 school year, the school’s patron has been the Hindu Ma- harajah Jam Saheb Digvijay Sinhji. He was a great friend of Polish people. Dur- ing World War II, he saved more than a thousand Polish children who, after the trauma of Siberia camps and having lost their parents, fled from the USSR. The Maharajah created a real house for them in India and raised and educated them, making sure that they preserved their religious and national identity. Thus, it was concluded that the best way to commemorate him would be to make him the patron of a Polish school. The main educational idea of the Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 in Warsaw is that “Our school does not promote harsh competition between students or spectacular successes. We do not fight at all costs for the first places in rankings. Apart from very talented children who pass entrance examinations with excellent results, we also receive children who need additional assistance – sick, disabled, with psychological problems. Moreover, we also receive refugee children and children from orphanages, and offer them free tuition (…) we try to make our school a good place not only for the best achieving students but also for those who need educational assistance (…)”. The first foreign students were admitted to “Bednarska” Schools in 1995. They were children from the Refugee Centre in Dębak – from Greece and Chechnya. Since the 2003/2004 school year, immigrants and refugees have been attending classes at Raszyńska Street together with Polish students – up to four foreigners per class, or in separate groups, where they had intensive Polish language courses in order to be able to join standard classes later on. By 2007, the school had students from: Armenia, Vietnam, China, Somalia, Burundi, Kirgizstan, Ingushetia and Bangladesh. Between the years 2008 and 2013, students of the following nationalities were received, in the order of their arrival: Iran, Cuba, Mongolia, Afghani- stan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Israel and the Ivory Coast. In the 2013/2014 school year, students from three other countries joined the school: a boy from the Netherlands and girls from Serbia and Nigeria went to the first grade. Besides, every year new children from Armenia, Chechnya and Belarus join the school. Currently, there are students from 17 countries (over 70 refugee and immigrant children) learning in “Raszyńska” school. Kaja Malanowska, former teacher at the Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 in Warsaw, says that: “Working with a multicultural class – i.e. a class with 132 Angelika Figiel children of, for example, different cultural and religious background, different levels of knowledge compared to their peers or different Polish language skills – requires tailoring classes to the individual needs of a student, using different teaching methods than usual and patiently creating a bond with the children (…) Most Chechen students with whom I worked suffered from war trauma that had left a permanent and sad mark in them. Such children may be withdrawn, distrustful and are often aggressive. Even though it is usually easy for them to learn Polish, they find it difficult to abide by the school discipline. Many of them fall into conflict with their Polish peers. (…) Some of them never attended school before (…) For many, it is difficult to function in the school as an institution that requires punctuality, regular work and certain discipline” (Malanowska, 2012: 25-27). The practices used in the Junior Secondary School no. 20, which I analysed, introduce many solutions that adapt the teaching, raising and integrating methods to the needs of students – in particular those who do not speak Polish. One of the interesting ideas for additional support is to prepare the school and classrooms to receive children who do not speak Polish. With the assistance of Polish students, stickers with names are placed on every object in a classroom (e.g. the wall, door, board, etc.) or area in the school (e.g. the toilet, canteen, stairs, bell, etc.). This way, children who do not speak Polish may learn some basic vocabulary (Malanowska, 2012;29). Foreign children attending “Raszyńska” school are at first placed for one year in a multicultural class, where, in a group of appr. 12 students, they learn Pol- ish language and Polish culture for about 4-5 hours a day. Apart from regular lessons, they go the theatre, museums and restaurants, and on integration trips together with Polish students. One teacher in such a class is trained to teach Polish as a foreign language. After one year, the teacher council decides whether a student has learned the Polish language well enough to join a standard class, or it would be better for him to stay for another year in the multicultural class. For students over 16 years of age who do not speak Polish, a “multicultural extra” class has been created – after 2-3 years of intensive courses, they may choose a general education or vocational secondary school. Multiculturalism in “Raszyńska” school is evident the moment one enters the building. In the hall, there hang flags of the countries of origin of all the students attending the school. Foreign children, especially those who do not speak Polish, initially have poorer achievements and stay behind the rest of the class, so special conditions must be created for them to be able to show their rich knowledge about the world or other talents (artistic, musical, etc.). Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 133

Photo: School hall

One such solution is, for example, the school’s project: “Multiplicity that makes us richer”, involving classes on the culture, history and traditions of the countries of origin of foreign students attending the school. In this project, students were asked to bring to school pictures, paintings and other items, and the school was decorated in the Hindu style (as a reference to the school’s patron).

Photo: School hall and office

Multiculturalism is visible not only inside the school building but also outside it. In “Raszyńska”, school walls were decorated by Chechen students. Students painted their national leaders, as if to create their “little homeland” in the school.

Photo: school walls 134 Angelika Figiel

Another interesting idea for student integration is the Multicultural Club, where foreign students may learn about Polish culture, customs and traditions. Various outings are organised: to the theatre, museums or restaurants, as well as integration trips. Once a moth, a culture evening is organised, during which students learn dances and discover the cuisine, culture, etc. of a given country. The Multicultural Club invites guests from the students’ countries of origin.

Chechen folk dance Source: school archives

Students from Tibet Source: school archives Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 135

From the left: India Ambassador, Head Teacher Krystyna Starczew- ska, one of the Patron’s pupils

Tibetan monk

Another of the school’s initiatives was to create a day room for young refugee children, with school students as volunteers. Twice a week, a bus delivers children from the Refugee Centre to the school’s day room, where they may play various games and participate in integration activities. Also, two annual events are regularly organised at the school: Christmas Party and Children’s Day.

Source: Day room, school archives 136 Angelika Figiel

The school readily organises its own charity concerts and donates funds from those concerts to various purposes. In 2011, they raised money for a well building project in Somalia and two years earlier, in 2009 – to build a school in Birma. The school’s donation made it possible to erect a brick school building and provide it with basic teaching aids. As a thank-you from the local people, one of the girls born there was named Poland.

Photos: School archives

The Head Teacher of the “Raszyńska” Community Junior Secondary School no. 20 in Warsaw, Krystyna Starczewska, PhD, describes multicultural education: “Multicultural education is fascinating and receiving refugee children puts Poland in a positive light (…) It is our civic duty to receive those children in Polish schools (…) They should be received for the sake of our children; after all, it teaches them the multiplicity of cultures, the world’s complexity and openness, and it promotes volun- teerism”. Multicultural education is not only about teaching foreign children. It is also beneficial for other students as well as for teachers and parents. It enables the exchange of knowledge and experience, and learning from one another.

Conclusion

Because of the growing rate of migration, the number of foreign children joining Polish schools grows by the year. The law obliges Polish educational institutions to receive foreign children. In many of them, refugee and immigrant students have been for years an internal part of the school’s community, and yet, for quite a few teachers, educating foreigners and assisting them in the integration process is a challenge. The success of multicultural education depends mainly on the engagement of the persons forming the school’s environment. The stronger the engagement, the better for the sense of the school’s community (Malanowska, 2012: 29). Anoth- er necessary condition is knowledge of the culture, religion and traditions of the Good practices in multicultural education based on the example of the “Raszyńska” 137 country of origin of a foreign child, which helps not only prepare the classroom, tailor the classes to that child’s needs and prepare Polish students to welcome him, but also makes it easier for the teacher to build a bond with foreign children (Ma- lanowska, 2012: 33). What is also beneficial for multicultural education, is promotion of good practices by schools and other institutions that have worked with foreign children for many years. It is worth mentioning here the Foundation for the Promotion of Social Di- versity (FPSD), whose mission is to “create an open and diverse society by promoting intercultural dialogue and social integration, preventing discrimination, developing knowledge of and tools for social integration and equal treatment, and strengthening the position of male and female migrants, and migrant communities”10. The FSDP organises various educational activities, such as training courses and workshops, e.g. for public administration, teachers, students and NGOs. Also, it offers counselling and advisory services for the planning and implementation of equal treatment solutions. It also develops and delivers free of charge educational tools, such as the series of videos called “Migrant Narratives”. Additionally, the FSDP conducts research with view to implementing specific solutions or changes in practice or in the law. The Foundation issues numerous publications, this way creating a space for dialogue, and it engages in the public debate. Also, it provides direct assistance to migrants. These are but a few examples of the Foundation’s activities. More information is available on http://ffrs.org.pl/.

Bibliography

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Legal regulations Konwencja dotycząca statusu uchodźców, sporządzona w Genewie dnia 28 lipca 1951 r. (Dz.U. 1991 nr 119 poz. 515). Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 1 kwietnia 2010 r. w sprawie przyjmowania osób niebędących obywatelami polskimi do publicznych przedszkoli, szkół, zakładów kształce- nia nauczycieli i placówek oraz organizacji dodatkowej nauki języka polskiego, dodatkowych zajęć wyrównawczych oraz nauki języka i kultury kraju pochodzenia (Dz.U. /JoL/ 2010 no. 57 item 361). Ustawa z dnia 13 czerwca 2003 r. o cudzoziemcach (Dz.U. /JoL/ 2003 no. 128 item 1175). Ustawa z dnia 13 czerwca 2003 r. o udzielaniu cudzoziemcom ochrony na terytorium Rzeczypo- spolitej Polskiej (Dz.U. /JoL/ 2003 no. 128 item 1176). Ustawa z dnia 14 lipca 2006 r. o wjeździe na terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, pobycie oraz wy- jeździe z tego terytorium obywateli państw członkowskich Unii Europejskiej i członków ich rodzin (Dz.U. /JoL/ 2006 no. 144 item 1043). Ustawa z dnia 7 września 1991 r. o systemie oświaty (Dz.U. /JoL/ 1991 no. 95 item 425).

Internet sources http://udsc.gov.pl/uchodzcy-w-polskiej-szkole/. Accessed on: 18.05.2016 http://ffrs.org.pl/. Accessed on: 20.05.2016 CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ Patrycja Kinga Knast Institute of Sociology at the Faculty of Humanities at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń

Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies

Key words: theory, validity, Abstract: The paper contains a discussion on the valid- blogosphere, Stuart Hall, applica- ity of Stuart Hall’s theory. The thesis put forward by the tion author was presentation of arguments in favour of utility of the above-mentioned set of theoretical premises in the studies on blogosphere. The text refers to the concept of the British culture expert and introduces and discusses terms related to blogosphere. Its’ features are enumerated. First and foremost, a speculative application of the theory to the studies on In- ternet diaries is made. The paper also highlights potential hypotheses that should be adopted by scientists who apply the described paradigm in their studies. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 139-148 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.11

The dispute about validity of theories is not new. It is as old as science and its’ capacity for the development of new theories. Obsolete theoretical assumptions are discussed bearing in mind the time of their creation and the social background; however, in some cases ostensibly changing reality is overlooked. In the case of Stuart Hall’s theory of encoding/ decoding one can speak about such a change. Why? The concept derives from Antonio Gramsci, who transferred Karl Marx’s theory to cultural science. Hall discusses hegemony, which is rooted in culture and in social relations and becomes manifest in television messages. In this place, a question about validity of such theory emerges. However, it is necessary to signal in this place that the author of this essay acknowledges its’ validity. The theory is applicable in the analysis on who and how creates the Internet space. Its’ validity is also perceptible in the type of messages that are communicated. Even though 140 Patrycja Kinga Knast the Internet abounds in communication, its’ forms are disordered and there is no hierarchy in them. Nevertheless, if such factor as the number is taken into account, it may be claimed that blogs form the largest group. Blogosphere is the hegemon. It is the hegemon in the arithmetic and broadcasting sense. An individual Internet diarist seems to dominate over his/ her readers, organising his/ her own space of narrative about a given subject and creating own ideology. Thus, it is possible to find initial arguments that confirm the validity of Hall’s theory.

S. Hall’s Encoding/ Decoding Theory

Hall’s encoding/ decoding theory describes the possibilities of content decoding by an audience. When starting the discussion on the receipt of a message, attention should be drawn to the television programme that becomes the beginning of a meaningful discourse. It is encoded on the level of meaningful linguistic structures, originating from senders1. On the other hand, the recipients decode such structures with the use of their knowledge and competence attributed to them and resulting from their life experience or familiarity with culture. After decoding the message, they create its’ own image based on previously mentioned factors. In this manner, they may adopt various recipient positions: dominant, negotiated and oppositional2. Hall notices that “the first of these hypothetical approaches is the dominant-hegemonic standpoint [...]. If the viewer [...] takes the connoted meaning full and straight, and decodes the message in terms of the reference code in which it has been encoded, then we can say that the recipients operates in the dominant code. The second described approach is the negotiated position or code. [...] decoding in a negotiated version is a mixture of adaptive and oppositional elements. It acknowledges the legitimacy of the hegemonic definitions to make the grand significations (abstract), while, at a more restricted, situational (situated) level, it makes it own ground rules. It accords the privileged position to the dominant definitions of events while reserving the right to make a more negotiated application to ‘local conditions’, to its own more corporate positions. [...] it is characterised by varied and non-uniform approach to discourses [...]. Finally, it is possible for a viewer perfectly to understand both the literal and the connotative inflection given by a discourse but to decode the message in a globally contrary

1 Cf. S. Hall, Kodowanie i dekodowanie, translated by W. Lipnik, I. Siwiński, “Przekazy i opnie” 1987, No. 1-2, p. 58-71. 2 Cf. Ibidem.. Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies 141 way. He/she detotalizes the message in the preferred code in order to retotalize the message within some alternative framework of reference. […] He/ she is operating with what we must call an oppositional code.”3.

Blogosphere as the Study Object

Providing a single universal definition of a blog is difficult. Almost every researcher dealing with the blogosphere or, more broadly, examination of the Internet, concep- tualises an Internet diary according to own criteria4. Marta Więckiewicz explains that a blog is determined as “personal document, consisting of dated posts presented in a sequence reverse to chronological, published by the blogger on the website”5. In a further part of her discussion, M. Więckiewicz shows other important features of the discussed Internet genre: “Dated posts arranged in an order reverse to chronological are an easily recognisable feature of a blog referring to its’ structure (the dominance of anti-chronology over the thematic division is characteristic for an Internet diary). The term “document” indicates that a blog is a non-fictional genre. A personal character of an Internet diary is combined with the author’s subjectivism. Furthermore, the term “personal document” suggests that blogs may be included in the category of a personal document. Continuation of the process of publication, i.e. adding subsequent entries, is important in blogging. The fact of publication on a website is related to the interactive feature. […] In the case of this genre, it is important to offer the readers the possibility of expressing their opinions about the posts”6. The blog definition proposed by Dave Winer slightly differs from Marta Więckiewicz’s. “In line with Dave Winer’s criterion [...] a blog has to be personal, which means that it is written by a private person or a group of private individuals (e.g. friends). It cannot be written by a company or any other institution. An Inter- net diary, as the name suggests, is posted on the web and exists exclusively there, i.e. it is virtual. There are rare publications of blogs, yet these cases are few and far between and it happens most often at a moment when the blogger ceases to write the blog7. Another criterion is posting and publication, i.e. frequent updates, most

3 Ibidem, p. 69-71. 4 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p. 51-65. 5 Ibidem, p. 64-65. 6 Ibidem. 7 It is necessary to draw attention to the fact that these days, blogs are published traditionally. An example may be provided by the book of Paulina Stępień entitled “Mała wielka uczta” published 142 Patrycja Kinga Knast often once a day and making the posts available to readers on the Internet. The last condition that a website has to comply with in order to call it a blog is the audience, which is deemed one of the most important features of a blog, differentiating an Internet diary from an ordinary one. Blog is a part of a community. It cannot exist separately”8. When looking for a definition of a blog, sufficient to understand not only the idea of Internet diaries, but also the phenomenon of blog websites or platforms, it is necessary to combine both of the above-listed explanations. They are complementary with respect to certain issues, offering a broader research perspective. Thus, a blog may be defined in the following manner: a non-fictional personal document edited by a private person or a group of private individuals9. It is characterised by anti-chronology of entries, which dominates over the thematic division. An Internet diary is also characterised by its’ virtual nature, i.e. its availability on a website. Updates are continuous, i.e. they are made at least once a day, a week or a month. The blogger decides about the frequency of posting entries. Posting entries is understood as a form of interaction between the blogger and the readers. With the use of a structure that allows for receipt of information from users and for reacting to the content, it is possible for a blogger and the users to hold a dialogue, which subsequently leads to the building of a community between them. Every blog published on the Internet has its’ name, referring directly to the author or to texts presented in it. Apart from the title of the Internet diary, a dominant part is the main text10. The main text includes the author’s posts in an order reverse to chronological. Every post has a separate title and content in a traditional or multi-media form. The homepage of an Internet diary also features tabs, which the recipients can use to browse the archives and the guest book. The elements y MUZA. The publication relies on P. Stępień’s food blog. In reference to further portion of Dave Winer’s discussion, it should be added that Paulina Stępień’s blog did not expire, it is edited on an ongoing basis. 8 Definition quoted according to Marta Bańczarowska It derives from article entitled Blogi współczesne pamiętniki [in:] Język a komunikacja 12. Oblicza komunikacji. Perspektywy badań nad tekstem, dyskursem i komunikacją, I. Kamińska– Szmaj, T. Piekota, H. Zaśko – Zielińska (ed.), Kraków 2006, p. 663. 9 Thus, it is worth determining whether politicians’ blogs, bearing this thesis in mind, can still be classified as blogs? It would be necessary to analyse their content with respect to the views contained in them and determine whether they belong to a given politician or the entire political party. 10 In article entitled Blog jako dokument osobisty – specyfika dziennika prowadzonego w Internecie, Marta Olcoń calls the place where posts are published the main text. Following the terminology of M. Olcoń, the author of this paper uses the term main text. The article is available at the following address: http://www.depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/1442/Blog%20 jako%20dokument%20osobisty_Olco%C5%84_Marta.pdf?sequence=1; access: 04.07.2017, p. 4. Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies 143 of a blog may also include: space for comments from the readers, hyper-links to other blogs, favoured or recommended by the author, personal data of the Internet diary author; photos, a motto guiding the blogger and, less frequently, the visit statistics11. The outline and the structure of a blog is determined by the graphic design made available by blog servers12, thus Internet diaries located on them are similar to one another with respect to the graphic design. Some servers that make space available for writing an Internet diary allow the users to introduce slight changes in the so-called skins13. With respect to the structure and the form of the blog, the bloggers who design their own websites and publish their posts there have the greatest freedom. Precise determination of problems discussed in Internet diaries may be performed by preparing a blog typology with respect to the content. It is possible to distinguish five blog categories divided in line with such criterion14. The first one encompasses private life as the main theme15. “Bloggers use [the Internet] to present their private lives: they describe the growth of their children, they talk about the functioning of families, they analyse emotional problems”16; persons who write Internet diaries also discuss problems at work, intimate life or the current mental condition. Authors of blogs classified in the second category, namely cultural is- sues17, deal with broadly-understood culture. Thus, they write reviews of novels, poems and short-stories. Bloggers may be writers and18 the Internet diary allows them to find an audience19. Another type of Internet diaries are “blogs devoted to politics”20, which contain entries discussing the current political affairs. Their authors are politicians, journalists and persons interested in such subject matter. Blogs from this group show the plurality of ideas in the society and offer a space for the exchange of opinions. “Blogs related to new technologies [...] usually focus on such issues as: Internet (programming, coding, website design in compli-

11 Ibidem, p. 4-5. 12 It is worth looking at several or several dozen blogs located on popular servers (e.g. blox.pl or bloog.pl) in order to observe the discussed issue. 13 Skins are graphic designs made available as part of ready-made templates. 14 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p.125. 15 Ibidem, p. 126. 16 Ibidem, p. 136. 17 Ibidem, p. 137. 18 An example of such use of the blog is provided by the diary of Katarzyna Michalak, who reviews novels of other authors and describes her own. Cf. http://katarzynamichalak.blogspot.com/, access: 07.07.2016. 19 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p. 144. 20 Ibidem, p. 145. 144 Patrycja Kinga Knast ance with utility and availability standards, website positioning in search engines, browsers, Internet domains), computers (computer programmes, operating systems, hardware, computer network administration); less frequently, issues related to mobile telephony and digital photography appear there. […] What characterises a substantial group of Internet diaries devoted to such technologies is the hermetic language, incomprehensible for other readers”21. The last group of blogs in the typology include multi-thematic blogs22. It is impossible to indicate a single theme discussed by the authors in their diaries. To make it easier for the readers to get their bearings in such diary, the author categorises the posts according to the thematic criteria discussed by him/ her. A person writing a blog is frequently unable to assign the post to a specific category. Multi-thematic diaries may constitute a reflection on the social roles of people and experiences that accompany them23. It is also worth noting that a blog is a reflection of the author’s world-view. Thus, the subject matter depends on the author’s likings and the classification of blogs may indicate the paths that are followed by persons who create the blogosphere. Predominantly, blogs are a generally available space to express one’s opinions and to hold dialogue on the Internet24. Communication of this type determines the choice of a relevant code. Posts of a blog’s author should be normative in character, and in justified cases, they have to comply with the custom. It is also desired that the discussions among recipients of an Internet diary and between the readers and the blogger take place in line with the convention adopted in the real world, requiring them to be restrained and to observe etiquette, and, in electronic communication, netiquette. The language as such, apart from the above-mentioned convention, may be diverse on account of the blogger’s and his/ her recipients’ linguistic competence. Interactivity of blogs facilitates contact between the sender of the message and the recipient. They usually communicate with the use of comments posted under the entry and possibility of receiving responses to the remarks that were posted. Thanks to the possibility of adding comments, readers may influence the author, e.g. by suggesting the subject matter of a subsequent post or requesting a post

21 Ibidem, p. 156. Subsequently, the author notices that such blogs help solve IT problems or promote knowledge about IT. 22 Ibidem, p. 159. 23 Ibidem, p. 159 – 166. 24 Not all blogs are generally available. Some bloggers may set up and deliver access passwords to their blogs to recipients. More about it in: M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012. Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies 145 devoted to a specific issue. Such influence results in the fact that the reader may assume the role of the author. The border between them becomes blurred, which results in the fact that such roles may be, in theory, reversed. However, it is necessary to bear in mind that the blogger dominates over the reader, as he is the creator of the diary25. In order to ensure any relation between the blog’s author and his/ her readers, it is necessary to indicate the probable psychological causes for the emergence of blogs, namely self-presentation and exhibitionism26. Self-presentation accompanies people in every private and public situation, basically from birth to death. “Self-presentation is the process of an individual’s control of the manner in which the individual is perceived by the environment”27. The definition proposed by Mark Leary may be simply “transferred” to the realm of blogosphere. An individual, i.e. a blogger who publishes his/ her posts in an Internet diary, is revealed to the environment, i.e. other authors and readers, via a post. The subject matter of posts may refer to family, intimate or professional life and is freely determined by the author. With the use of entries and a special tab – About Me/ About Author – the blogger makes a self-presentation. Similarly, the name of the blog or the author’s nick28 may be a form of self-presentation29. In the case of a blog and its’ tools, self-presentation may be a phenomenon with a broad impact on two levels: conscious and sub-conscious. It is impossible to separate the conscious and sub-conscious self-presentation of a blogger. However, it is possible to indicate a type of blog where the authors perform a conscious self-presentation in the Emo-culture style. At the present moment, it is a no longer updated blog called emomarynka30. The authors of the above-mentioned Internet diary presented themselves as a fifteen-year-old girl who belongs to the Emo sub-culture. The blog was created in a graphic and linguistic style which referred to the subculture, yet its’ authors were adults. The other possible motive for writing a blog is exhibitionism31. In this case, if one wishes to use this term in a proper context, it is necessary to refer to the common meaning of this term. In line with Encyklopedia PWN, exhibitionism

25 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p. 23-255. 26 Ibidem. 27 M. Leary, “Wywieranie wrażenia na innych. O sztuce autoprezentacji”, translated by A. Kamcjor, M. Kamcjor, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2012 , p 27. 28 Nick, i.e. the Internet pseudonym of the author of an Internet diary. 29 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p. 200. 30 Cf. http://emo-martynka.blog.onet.pl. 31 M. Więckiewicz, “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Toruń 2012, p. 216-217. 146 Patrycja Kinga Knast colloquially means a tendency for disclosing own feelings and problems32. In line with such definition, it is possible to conclude that a blogger is predisposed to ex- ternalising his/ her experiences and problems in life.

Blog Coding/ Encoding

A brief return to the discussion from the beginning of the article is necessary: it was noted that an Internet diarist, posting his/ her entries, may become a hegemon with respect to his/ her recipient, expressing and decoding his/ her message in the comments. Thus, it is necessary to discuss the mode in which Hall’s theory is still valid. First of all, it has to be noted that certain changes are required for the discussed platform, i.e. the Internet. When discussing a message, Hall had television programmes in mind. For the needs of blog studies, the role of the message is to be taken up by blog posts. They initiate the meaningful discourse. The diarist’s encoding may have , similarly to the theory of the British scholar, linguistic, visual or au- ditory nature (or all of them together). Thus, it may have meaningful structures, such as: general availability on the Internet, interaction, wish for self-presentation or exhibitionism – which result from the structure of a blog and the blogger’s attitude. Proper competence in the sense of knowledge possessed by an Internet diarist is of lesser importance, similarly to the communication potential. It is assumed in advance that the author of the post describes his/ her life experiences or thoughts on a given subject and, in this manner, it is assumed a priori that he/ she is authorised to make judgements. In his theory, the British scholar talks about the relations of production33 understood as ideology. In the case of a blog, and in line with the definition of the term “ideology”34, these are ideas or remarks contained in posts. It is also necessary to remember about the infrastructure which, for the needs of this theoretical modification, is understood as the use of the editing possibilities offered by the network, the graphic design and the option to post comments. Thus, it follows from the discussion above that an Internet blog fulfils all the criteria listed by S. Hall. It has an audience, i.e. persons reading and commenting on its’ content. Therefore, it is possible to perform a study which would characterise the relations between the sender – blogger and the recipient – reader/ commentator.

32 http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4008135, access: 09.07.2016. 33 Hall S., Kodowanie i dekodowanie, translated by W. Lipnik, I. Siwiński, “Przekazy i opnie” 1987, No. 1-2, p. 61. 34 Cf. http://sjp.pwn.pl/sjp/ideologia;2465523.html, access: 09.07.2016. Essay on Validity of Stuart Hall’s Theory in the Context of Blogosphere Studies 147

However, before embarking on a study with the use of a modified encoding/ decoding theory, it is necessary to choose such Internet diaries that are comment- ed on. This statement should be treated as an initial assumption. Nevertheless, it does not reduce the value of the conducted studies due to the fact that by adopting certain theoretical assumptions and using them, a scientist acknowledges solutions of this type. Secondly, a blog that has its’ readers also becomes a place for the decoding of posts, as well as makes the space available where the stance of the addressee of the content may be revealed. The commentator may accept the content of the message, negotiate its’ meaning or completely oppose it. In this sphere, the Internet offers similar possibilities to the ones offered by television. Furthermore, it has one more advantage due to the fact that the researcher has all the recipients’ opinions collected in one place, and is not required to look for them and to create additional focus groups, perform in-depth interviews, etc.

Recapitulation

A modern methodological analysis of the theory of S. Hall allows for introducing certain modifications and adjusting it to the needs of the study on the relations between a blogger and his/ her readers, similarly to the broadcaster of a television programme and its’ recipients. Introduction of such changes indicates that Hall’s theory is still valid and may be used in studies conducted on-line. Having accepted the proposed initial assumption, it is also necessary to note the ease of its’ application. Analysis of the blogosphere as part of the reflection on the validity of encoding/ decoding theory poses additional questions. Namely, it is necessary to determine whether in the studies on the hegemonic message, the changes are sufficiently advanced to talk about invalidity of such theory? It is also necessary to discuss the modern hegemon (hegemons) and its (their) roles. Additionally, it is also possible to note the compatibility of the British scholar’s theory with respect to the new area of studies. Such compatibility gives rise to the question about the nature and the degree of advancement of changes, which took place from the first application until now. There are many more similar questions, at least with respect to the ones listed above; nevertheless, they will not be the subject matter of this paper. The assumption of the work was presentation of arguments in favour of the validity of Hall’s encoding/ decoding theory. 148 Patrycja Kinga Knast

Bibliography

Hall S., Kodowanie i dekodowanie, translated by W. Lipnik, I. Siwiński, “Przekazy i opnie” 1987, No. 1-2. Leary M., “Wywieranie wrażenia na innych. O sztuce autoprezentacji”, translated by A. Kamcjor, M. Kamcjor, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2012. Więckiewicz M., “Blog w perspektywie genologii multimedialnej”, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2012. Marta Bańczarowska, Blogi – współczesne pamiętniki, [in:] Język a komunikacja 12. Oblicza komunikacji. Perspektywy badań nad tekstem, dyskursem i komunikacją, I. Kamińska – Szmaj, T. Piekota, H. Zaśko – Zielińska (ed.) Kraków 2006. Marta Olcoń, Blog jako dokument osobisty – specyfika dziennika prowadzonego w Internecie, [on-line] http://www.depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/1442/Blog%20jako%20dokument%20oso- bisty_Olco%C5%84_Marta.pdf?sequence=1; access: 04.07.2017. http://emo-martynka.blog.onet.pl http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=4008135, access: 09.07.2016. CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska University of Wrocław, The Leon Schiller National Higher School of Film, Television, and Theatre in Łódź

“Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social, Historical and Cultural Changes Exemplified by the “Wallander” Series by Henning Mankell

Key words: anthropology of Abstract: The article above is meant to show the way in literature, popular culture, Swed- which works of popular culture are the mirror reflect- ish literature, crime story, social ing social, historical and cultural changes. Works such changes in the 20th and the 21st as films, novels or even video clips show the specific century. nature of the time in which they were created. Popular culture becomes the “hunting ground” for an anthropologist looking for information about the social world. In this article, the “hunting ground” is the series about Inspector Wallander written by Swedish writer, Hen- ning Mankell. The article focuses primarily on problems which emerged after 1989 and the social anxiety. Spe- cial attention should be devoted to two aspects which frequently appear in Mankell’s works: the problem of immigration and the “collapse of educational values.” It is also worthwhile taking a look at the murderers in Mankell’s novels, who often personify the aspects that the society is afraid to talk loud about. It turns out that in a country associated with affluence, a number of problems are shoved aside. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 149-165 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.12

“To use the crime novel as a scalpel cutting open the belly of the ideological pauperised and morally debatable so-called welfare state of the bourgeois type.”

Maj Sjöwall & Per Wahlöö 150 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska

Introduction

Popular culture is characterised by its’ close relation to social reality. Its texts have to refer to daily dilemmas of recipients. It cannot function without appealing to the recipient’s sub-consciousness, his/ her fears, hopes and dreams. Only then it can be “popular.” It “reflects” the meanings that people assign to their social world. To- day’s popular culture manifests the accuracy of the statement that culture is a social “discourse”,1 due to the fact that the social discourse is held on its’ basis. Thus, the analysis of phenomena occurring in popular culture is acquiring a pedagogical dimension.2 The purpose of this article is an attempt at showing the way in which the works of popular culture are the carriers of narratives dominant in the society and, at the same time, a mirror reflecting social, historical and cultural changes of a given period in the history of the world. To discuss this thesis, novels of Henning Mankell recounting the fate of Ystad police inspector, Kurt Wallander, are used. The primary focus of the paper is on the problems which emerged after 1989 and which develop at the turn of the 21st century in Sweden. In a foreword to a collection of short-stories about inspector Kurt Wallander entitled “Pyramid”, Mankell mentions the sub-title that we was constantly looking for: “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”3. The author confesses that his books, apart from the crime story, also smuggle “variations on the same issue: >> Which processes occur in a state under the rule of law in the 1990s? Will democracy survive if the foundation of law and order has been violated? Does the Swedish democracy have any feature that will be deemed too extravagant one day?<<”4. The specific features of popular culture texts include comments about the times in which they are created. Thus, such works as film, literature or music form an excellent research ground for literature anthropologists. In this place, it is worth mentioning the words of Mariusz Czubaj, who claims that “one does not have to be a fan of crime stories to know that this very genre is experiencing its’ heyday”.5

1 M. Czerwiński, Przyczynki do antropologii współczesności, Warsaw 1988, p. 6. 2 Cf. W. Jakubowski, Edukacja w świecie kultury popularnej, Kraków 2006. 3 This paper uses fragments of a master’s dissertation written under the supervision of Sławomir Bobowski, Ph.D. at the Institute of Polish Philology at the Philological Faculty of the University of Wrocław in 2015. H. Mankell, Cios, Szczelina, translated by I. Kowadło-Przedmojska, [e-book; format MOBI], Warsaw, 2011, doi: 56 – 57. 4 Ibidem. 5 M. Czubaj, Kryminał albo śmierć, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco-polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17(2012), Warsaw 2012, p. 5. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 151

Numerous re-editions of books, cover re-designs, preparation of additional works and screenings prove that the crime story in the 21st century is definitely not a thing of the past. Right after the international success of Stieg Larsson’s “Mil- lennium” trilogy, tourist agencies started to organise trips that followed the paths of the main characters from the book. An analogous situation is encountered in Wrocław. Tour guides offer trips along the paths of Eberhard Mock – a detective known from Marek Krajewski’s books; fans organise meetings in order to re-enact certain story-lines from the novels together. A question appears: what is the cause of such significant increase of interest in crime stories? The interest in crime stories might seem a worrying phenomenon (on account of the content of the novel): murders, suicides, drug trade or mutilation of another man do not reflect on the positive traits of humanity (if one can speak about humanity in this case at all). Raymond Chandler draws attention to the fact that “a murder which is a result of an individual’s frustration – and thus the frustration of the entire species – may have and in reality has a number of sociological implications”.6 Maj Sjöwall together with Per Wahlöö are trying to point out to the “cause” of the specific boom of crime stories which are popular around the world. According to these writers, “this literary form has so far been the only one which in a reasonably pleasant and easily accessible form reflects certain traits of the modern humanity.”7 In their discussion, they provide the example of the “heritage” which is carried by cultural texts: “If somebody wishes to read a book about New York in one hundred years’ time, about the way in which this city looks today, we believe that no better descriptions can be found than, for example, in “The Young Prey” by Hillary Waugh, a novel which its’ author, in a moment of unique lucidity, described as >>too true to be good<<.”8 Books written “in our times” which are devoted to them, constitute a certain anthropological certificate of what the modern times are like. Crime stories, similarly to other works of popular culture, become a certain mirror which reflects social, historical and cultural changes. An excellent summary is offered by the words of Buszta and Czubaj: “A crime story tends to be a certain index of changes in the modern world, changes that are seen, obviously, from a specific angle and for the needs of the plot.”9

6 R. Chandler, Skromna sztuka pisania powieści kryminalnych, http://chandler.republika.pl/ skromna_sztuka.htm, [access: 12.04.2014]. 7 M. Sjowall, P. Wahloo, Odnowa powieści kryminalnej, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco- polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17(2012), Warsaw 2012, p. 14. 8 Ibidem, pp. 15-16 9 W. J. Burszta, M. Czuba, Krwawa setka. 100 najważniejszych powieści kryminalnych, Warsaw 2007, p. 23. 152 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska

In his article entitled “What is Anthropology of Literature? The Difference Be- tween Explaining and Discovering Fiction”, Wolfgang Iser draws attention to the role of literary anthropologist, who has the task of showing the elusive content, which is imperceptible during the “ordinary” reading of the text. In his work, the author mentions the term “literary fiction”, offering a definition of presenting the “as if” reality: a work of literature may resemble reality.10 Simultaneously, “as if” constitutes a certain defence shield for the authors of the novel who may, in this manner, defend themselves from the accusation of showing a false reality. An excellent example of “fiction” and “as if” are crime stories. The authors of the stories, creating fiction, show the things which, in their opinion, are bad and imperceptible for the majority of people. Writers create some sort of carbon paper which, after being put on their novel, shows the information that was not perceptible during the “first” reading. Summarising Iser’s thought, the author wishes that the reader/ anthropologist learns to “read between the lines” and is able to find everything that is not said straightforwardly. In his assumptions, Iser was greatly inspired by Cliford Geertz and his theory of “thick description.” The aim of this article is to read what is imperceptible for an “ordinary” reader. However, in the first place, it is necessary to think about the characters of murderers shown in Mankell’s crime stories, the implications that they carry and about the causes of sudden changes in the Swedish society at the turn of the 21st century.

Sudden Changes

At the end of the 1980s, two very important events for Swedes took place: the murder of Prime Minister Olof Palme in 1986 and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989; these are very significant moments for the Scandinavian states. The prime minister’s murder caused certain anxiety; people, accustomed to freedom, related to undeniable safety, discover that such free space is taken away from them. This is what Mankell said about the prime minister’s murder in one of the interviews: “If something cracked in Sweden, then it must have happened on that atrocious night in 1986 when Prime Minister Olof Palme was murdered, returning home from the cinema... (...) Palme’s death will always be treated as the symbolic turning point that transformed Sweden. It does not seem to me that this is the truth. If Palme lived, everything that was supposed to happen, would have happened anyway. For more or less twenty years, we have been able to observe how a society relying on

10 Cf. W. Iser, Czym jest antropologia literatury? Różnica między fikcjami wyjaśniającymi a odkrywającymi, translated by A. Kowalcze-Pawlik, “Teksty Drugie” 2006, No. 5, pp. 11 – 35. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 153 sick bases is being formed. It should be reformed and healed, and not completely destroyed.”11 According to the author, even if the history took a different turn, it would not have changed the fate of the Swedish society much. However, for the Scandinavian residents the events of 1986 were a certain warning signal that their country was slowly starting to change, together with them. In Mankell’s books it is also possible to encounter frequent reflections of Wallander or his colleagues referring to Palme’s murder: “Mysterious, so far unexplained murder of the Swed- ish prime minister ten years ago not only left a trauma among policemen, but also a significant portion of the Swedish society. Too many people, both in the police and outside of it knew that the murder was probably not explained because the investigation was atrociously butchered already at the early stage by the usurpatory and incompetent provincial police commander.”12 In this manner, Mankell puts in Wallander’s lips the common opinion which is dominant in the Swedish society about the prime minister’s murder. Palme’s murder is a certain beginning. On the 9th of November 1989, the Berlin Wall collapses and, together with it, the “borders” for several Eastern Bloc countries cease to exist. Thanks to this, emigration becomes possible. Immigrants from various parts of the world start to come to Sweden. The collapse of the Berlin Wall is usually associated with independence, however this freedom from the Swedish point of view is limited on account of the flowing emigrants from the Eastern Bloc countries. This is one of the reasons due to which the problem of immigration is mentioned so often by Mankell in his novels. This is how Wallander talks about his native country: “This is Sweden, he thought. Apparently everything is clean and fresh, airports are built in a manner that no speck of dust is present there. Every- thing is in view, everything is what it seems to be. Our religion and national hope is safety, written down and guaranteed by the law, the whole world knows that dying of hunger is a crime here. We do not talk to strangers without a reason, because they might hurt us, they might dirty out streets, blacken our neon signs. We have never built an empire and that is why we have never had to look how it collapsed. We have convinced ourselves that we have created a small, but the very best world. We were the trusted guardians of the paradise and now, when the party is over, we get back at others through the most unpleasant passport control in the world.”13 The context is also important for this quotation. Wallander speaks these words during a trip to Riga, the capital of Latvia, a state which until recently belonged to

11 W. Burszta, M. Czubaj, Krwawa…, op.cit., pp. 205-206. 12 H. Mankell, Mężczyzna, który się uśmiechał, translated by I. Kowadło – Przedmojska, Warsaw 2007, p. 210. 13 H. Mankell, Psy z Rygi, translated by G. Ludvigsson, Warsaw 2012, p. 217. 154 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska the Soviet Union. This trip is very important for the character because it “opens his eyes” to another world; it is for the first time that he encounters poverty, corruption and endless struggle with the political system. What Swedes dislike the most about immigrants is meeting this “different world”; suddenly, they have to learn to live in a different culture and customs. The events of 1986 and 1989 were just a beginning for subsequent occurrences. Two years after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, Swedes experienced yet another shock and the events from Stockholm become, for some residents, a loud scream of the society that does not agree with the state policy. At the beginning of the 1990s, a masked murderer appeared in the streets of the Swedish capital, a sniper who targeted accidental persons whose appearance might indicate foreign origin. Camps for immigrants were overcrowded and became a target of frequent attacks – Molotov cocktails were thrown at the gates.14 In an interview with Czubaj and Burszta, Mankell speaks about these changes: “When the society experiences a thorough change, such as, for example, the one that you experienced in Poland after WWII, there will always be people who have a feeling that they have lost something important. This is what Wallander is like. Critical towards the reality. Or is it better to say that he is conservative? He is not so much looking for something significant in the past, but seriously doubting whether the changes that are happening in Sweden will be changes for the better [emphasis M.A.J.].”15 Further, he mentions the very beginning of creating Wallander’s character: “It was 1989. At that time, I decided to write about Swedish racism and how an open society and usually tolerant people can turn into xenophobes. At that time, I also understood that my character had to be a police officer.”16 For the author of crime stories, the turn of the 1990s was also an important moment; he noticed the above-mentioned changes and the growth of xenophobia in Sweden, which resulted in the novels about Inspector Wallander. This is how Slavoj Žižek writes about the stories of the Swedish author: “Mankell recalls all the traumatic subjects that offer a basis for the populism that is spreading in Sweden: the influx of illegal immigrants, the increase in crime rates and violence, growing unemployment and lack of social safety, the collapse of social solidarity... He focuses on those who are left in the shadows, desperately lost in existence.”17 Not only the Slovenian theoretician drew attention

14 G. Tamas, Mężczyzna z laserem. Historia szwedzkiej nienawiści, translated by E. Frątczak- Nawotny, Wołowiec 2013. 15 W. J. Burszta, M. Czubaj, op. cit. p. 205. 16 Ibidem, p. 206. 17 S. Žižek, The Artist of the Parallax View, http://www.lacan.com/zizekmankell.htm, [access: 2.12.2013]. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 155 to the specific “hidden agenda” in Mankell’s novels. Barry Forshaw’s book about Scandinavian stories contains such a sentence: “In his novels, Mankell unflinch- ingly reveals the deeply rooted divisions in the Swedish society, also entering the dark alleys of the psyche of his compatriots.”18 The Swedish writer treats his novels as a place for analysing the society in which he had to live and grow up. Czubaj draws attention to the fact that “In this manner, Mankell discusses two fundamental subjects which appear in a comprehensive manner and in various shades in the crime stories of other Swedish writers. The first one is the issue of violence. (...) and the second issue, which is the failure of the teaching model. How does it happen, asks Mankell, that a fourteen-year-old changes into a serial killer? What is happening with the Swedish family and the educational model?”19 This article presents an analysis of the “failure of the teaching model” and the impact of immigration on the growth of violence and xenophobia in Sweden.

Immigration

In the discussion contained in this article, it is very important to set the modern events in the context of a comprehensive history of the Swedish state. In the preamble of chapter “som invandrare jak imigranci” in his book Alfabet szwedzki, Jacek Kubitsky writes: “History has saved Sweden from the experiences of the migration of peoples, the attacks and occupation by foreign superpowers. As opposed to other European states, Sweden has never experienced a strong political turmoil, bloody revolutions and coup d’état and primarily, the two World Wars.”20 Such “political upheavals, bloody revolutions and coup d’état” contribute to the formation of the national identity and are a certain natural element of ethnic movements. Events during the last thirty years came as a certain shock for the Scandinavian residents, a region that so far has had not much in common with such grand tragedies as, for example, the two World Wars. The above-mentioned murder of Olof Palme is the beginning of such “revolu- tion” in history. The 1990s start with the events in Stockholm. John Ausonius (also known as the “Laser Man”) terrorises people whose appearance indicates foreign

18 B. Forshaw, Nordic Noir. The Pocket essential guide to Scandinavian crime fiction, film & TV, Pocket Essentials, Harpenden, 2013, p. 17. [All the quotations deriving from foreign works, not published in Poland, are provided in the Polish translation by the author of the paper, M.A.J.]. 19 M. Czubaj, Etnolog w mieście grzechu. Powieść kryminalna jako świadectwo antropologiczne, Gdańsk 2010, p. 318. 20 J. Kubitsky, Alfabet szwedzki, Warsaw 2012, p. 81. 156 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska origin. A decade later, between 2003 and 2010, the story repeats itself. Sweden is haunted by Peter Mangs (“Malmö Sniper”) who was recently convicted for his deeds. On 22 July 2011, close to Sweden, on the Norwegian Utøya island, Anders Breivik attacks the youth camp of the Labour Party, previously planting a bomb under the seat of Norway’s prime minister. Every one of the above-mentioned murderers is guided by the same motive: xenophobia. Scandinavian states, which for centuries were closed to the countries outside of their region, suddenly had to face increased immigration from other countries. The “natives” did not like the fact that certain ghettoes appeared next to their family homes and their peaceful, calm, Protestant culture was mixed with the “colourful” bustling culture of people from all over the world. In order to prove the claim above that the number of immigrants grew in Sweden, the following data is quoted: “In the course of nine years, between 1991 and 2000, Sweden granted permits for temporary stay to half a million foreigners, every third of whom claimed to be a refugee. Nobody knows how many actual refugees are included in this category. Experience indicates that they are a definite minority, even though one is not supposed to speak publicly about it in Sweden.”21 The immigrant paradox is very simple: on the one hand, Sweden is becoming an arid, open state that is basically able to accept anybody in its borders. On the other hand, through its’ activities (or, more precisely, lack thereof), it is starting to close itself to other states. This is how Kubitsky describes this “phenomenon”: “Every man, similarly to every country, needs a demarcation line. This is dictated by two factors: safety and the requirement of sovereignty. A world without borders seems to be a desert, whereas a world with closed borders is turning into a prison.”22 Analysis of some of Mankell’s stories will be made in the next part of the article. It is already in the first story with Inspector Mankell that the issue of immigration is tackled. The main character is trying to solve the macabre murder case of a certain elderly couple and one of the few traces that he has is the word uttered by the victim right before death: “foreign”23. One thing is known in “Faceless Kill- ers” – the killer is a person who is not Swedish by origin. In this manner, Mankell shows the Swedish fear of otherness, which is often identified with persons who come from countries other than Scandinavian.

21 Ibidem, p. 83. 22 Ibidem, p. 87. 23 This paper uses the translation into Polish by Anna Marciniakówna (Mankell Henning, Morderca bez twarzy, translated by Anna Marciniakówna, Grupa Wydawnicza Foksal, edition IV, Warsaw 2004); other translations feature such words as “foreigner”, Swedish original: unländsk. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 157

During the entire investigation, the reader is a witness to several other “foreign” incidents. Immigrants are not always the guilty ones. We learn that one of the centres for immigrants is set on fire and burns down almost completely and one of the Somali refugees is murdered. Was it a way in which Mankell wanted to “clear the battleground” by showing that the “guilt” lies on both sides of the barricade, with the isolated immigrants and the strongly isolated Swedish society? In spite of the fact that the crime motive turns out to be a trifle, and the murderers did not have any xenophobic acts in mind related to their origin, Mankell leaves a certain gate open for further discussion about immigrants in the Swedish state and how both parties are approaching this problem. In the “Faceless Killers” we can see that there is not one “guilty” party. The example of Sweden as a “prison” is perceptible in “The Dogs of Riga”.24 The main character, Wallander, travels to Riga for work purposes. His activities are dictated, inter alia, by the appearance of the “mafia tentacles” in the Swedish territory. So far, the characters from Mankell’s crime stories have associated the “phenomenon” of a gangster with cult-like films such as “The Godfather” or with regions as distant as Sicily. This is how Martinsson talks about the “phenomenon” of mafia, which is one of the elements of the plot in “The Dogs of Riga”: “’Mafia,’ said Martinsson, who was quiet until now, being content with offering right English words and phrases to Wallander, ‘is something new for us. Well-organised Rus- sian or Eastern European crime syndicates. Several years ago the Swedish police became aware of the fact that Soviet origin groups started to appear here, primarily in Stockholm. But we still know little about them. Some brutal crimes resulting from internal vendettas were the first signs that something was starting to happen. And a warning that these people, in the next couple of years, would be trying to put a wedge in the local crime world and take up the key positions in it’.”25 For the Ystad police, the appearance of organised crime from Latvia in Sweden is a very abstract and, at the same time, an absurd phenomenon. It is shocking not only for the residents, but also for the policemen who should, however, have their bearings in crimes of this type. However, the mafia is not all. In relation to the committed crime, Wallander is forced to travel to Riga. Contrary to appearances, this stage of the journey is very important for him. Crossing the Swedish border, he gets to know the other “wonderful world.” He starts to become aware of the things which he has so far

24 Mankell, in the sub-chapter of the book entitled “Hand” recollects that the second volume of the novel was primarily aimed at recounting (and, at the same time, making the Swedish readers aware) of the events which are happening in Europe after the collapse of the Berlin Wall. 25 H. Mankell, Psy… op.cit., p. 86. 158 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska seen only on television. He has the opportunity of seeing corruption and a state full of political tension. The main character admits that he is closed to what happens outside of his native country. “Wallander knew what she had in mind. Not a month has passed since the time when elitist Soviet units, known as the black berets, fired shots at the building of the ministry of foreign affairs in the centre of Riga. A number of innocent people died. Wallander saw photos of barricades in newspaper photos, erected from stone blocks and welded iron pipes. In spite of it, he did not really understand what had happened. He started to realise that he always knew too little of what was going on around him. [emphasis: M.A.J.]”26 Wallander, wandering around Riga, encounters a conspiracy group which is trying to make him see how the life of a displaced person in and out of Latvia looks like. Immigrants who, on account of various political situations, but also economic causes, were forced to leave their country, do not want to lose their identity. For them, life in a country that is so different from their own is tantamount to saying goodbye to their culture and, primarily, their national identity. That is why, among other reasons, immigration ghettoes are created. However, the “fault” is on both sides: immigrants do not show willingness to any changes and on the other hand Swedes, like children, keep their eyes shut, pretending that there is no problem. It is also in “The White Lioness” that Mankell is trying to show Swedes the world that exists outside of the borders of their country. Information that reaches the residents of Scandinavia about apartheid is ignored, and the majority of them use the commonplace phrase “it does not concern us.” In this novel, Mankell tries to show them that in spite of appearances and in spite of the distance, Sweden and the Republic of South Africa have a lot in common. Michael Tapper makes an excellent punch line: Similarly to the post-apartheid Republic of South Africa of Nel- son Mandela, due to certain reasons “the great world” outside of Sweden cannot be only associated to tyranny, violence and death as the embodiment of evil.27 Both Sweden and the Republic of South Africa shut themselves to the “great world” – for these states, everything that is different is associated “with tyranny, violence and death as the embodiment of evil”; however, in the course of time, it turns out that this is not really the truth. Everything depends on the approach that consists in not making one’s country a prison. For Wallander, every new crime is an experience from which he learns. He not only learns more and more about people, but also about the history and culture of other states: “In the recent years, Wallander encountered foreigners involved

26 Ibidem, p. 79. 27 Cf. M. Tapper, Swedish Cops. From Sjöwall & Wahlöö to Stieg Larsson, Intellect LTD, Chicago 2014, p. 171. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 159 in various crimes a number of times. They were the victims of crimes or their potential perpetrators. His earlier opinions about the existence of absolute truths, about the good and evil, about the crime and innocence do not have to be commonly applicable. Depending on the origin, being brought up in a specific culture, the classification of a crime could also change. In such a situation, he often felt helpless. He lacked knowledge to ask the proper questions which could lead to the solving of the case”28; in the course of time, Wallander becomes convinced that a single good legal system does not exist. There is no absolute truth. He talks about his conclusions in the following manner: “I live in a country where we believe that all truths are simple. And indisputable. Our entire legal system relies on such principle. Now, I am becoming aware that something quite opposite may be applicable. Truth is complex, ambiguous and full of controversies. On the other hand, a lie is black and white. Truth is perceived differently by those who contempt human life and by those who respect it.”29 The sentence above also fits another problem analysed in this article, namely the “collapse of educational values.” Wallander discovers that “what you see depends on where you stand” and sometimes an ordinary theft is a crime for somebody, whereas a murder is just a trifle. The examples above are only a part of the immigration motives that appear in Mankell’s novels. Only these were selected that offer the best reflection for the problem with which Sweden has been struggling in the recent years. In the “Faceless Kill- ers” the issue of immigration and hatred is shown from two sides – a person arriving in a new state and its’ permanent residents. “The Dogs of Riga” and “The White Li- oness” show how being closed to “the new, wonderful world” creates problems and, simultaneously barriers which, after some time, become impassable.

Collapse of Educational Values

“We should not fear lack of morals in great people But the fact that it often leads to grandeur.” Alexis de Tocqueville30

Another issue analysed by the Swedish writer is the “collapse of educational values” nourished for years in Sweden. One of the elements of life that has a huge impact on education is work. Kubitsky, referring to Voltaire, draws attention to the im-

28 Ibidem, p. 288. 29 Ibidem., p. 284. 30 Quoted after: H. Mankell, Mężczyzna… op.cit., p. 5. 160 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska mense role of work in the education of an average Swede. According to the French philosopher “work allows people to avoid three misfortunes: poverty, crime and boredom.”31 For every man, work is a very important element, yet for Swedes it is one of the most important stages in life. 32 Kubitsky finds two “causes” of such attachment to work: climatic conditions and the influence of Lutheranism.33 Fur- ther on, we read: “Lutheranism, the Swedish version of Protestantism, referring to the Bible, emphasised the significance of work and its’ role in the formation of character more emphatically than Catholicism. A man was – and in principle still is – understood primarily as homo faber (Latin: “man the maker”) and not homo ludens (Latin: “man the player”). Hard work was one of the virtues which the Swedish Church imbued in its’ followers since the beginning of Reformation in 1527.”34 Work forms one of the elements of education of a young man; family and the environment in which a child is brought up are equally important. In “The Man Who Smiled” Wallander examines the murder of two attorneys, a father and a son, Gustaf and Sten Torstensson. In the course of the investigation, certain traces appear which lead to Alfred Harderberg – the owner of a huge property, a castle in Farnholm. Harderberg is a very important person in the Swed- ish economy, known primarily for his charity activities. In the course of time, it turns out that Gustaf Torstensson who worked as Harderberg’s lawyer before his death, helped him cover up some financial flows. Wallander discovers not only traces of a large financial swindle. It turns out that the entire charity work was only a cover-up aimed at creating the so-called smoke-screen for the actual source of revenues. Harderberg is primarily involved in trading in human organs. Mankell writes about his reflections on the discussed book: “The starting point for the story in “The Man Who Smiled” was the worst type of crime against property that can be perpetrated and that one can be exposed to. And here, I do not have in mind the fact that somebody was deprived of his/ her wealth. Here, a part of man’s body, an organ. is stolen, which is later sold further, for transplants.”35 In this novel, Mankell shows the greediness triggered by money. Harderberg did not think about helping people and he called human organs “goods.” For him, work was not associated with toil, but primarily with profit; he was not homo faber, but homo ludens; money offered a possibility to play. The Swedish writer also

31 J. Kubitsky, Alfabet… op. cit., p. 13. 32 Ibidem. 33 Ibidem. 34 Ibidem, p. 14. 35 H. Mankell, Ręka, translated by Paulina Jankowska, Grupa Wydawnicza Foksal, Warsaw 2013, p. 119. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 161 indicates two elements which are responsible for the “fall of values” of such upbringing: lack of humility and the indifference of the Swedish society. For years, the Lutheran model of upbringing showed how much good can hard work offer. The problems start to appear when people only think about their work and they treat the rest of the world as the potential “goods.” This was the case of Harderberg. This is the manner in which Wallander speaks about the modern economy: “Previ- ously, without thinking too much, he lived with a feeling of complete trust to the tradition in line with which the Swedish economy, like the emperor’s wife, was beyond any suspicion. Swedish men and women, representing great concerns, were the foundation on which the miracle of affluence was erected.”36 In this manner, Mankell tried to show that the success of great concerns frequently relied on the tragedies of ordinary people. Some are trying to “redeem their faults” by charity activities; on the other hand, others do not see any problem. The next novel entitled “Sidetracked” to a certain degree combines both of the discussed problems: immigration and the collapse of educational values. Every- thing starts with the self-immolation of a black young woman on a field of rape. Wallander cannot imagine how anybody can choose such painful mode of suicide as self-immolation. This crime poses not only a moral, but also a legal problem, as the police does not how to “classify” such crime: “Nobody committed a crime, but it was a murder. She murdered herself. (…) – To murder oneself and to commit suicide are not always the same thing (…).”37 The girl’s suicide is just a beginning; a serial killer appears in Ystad who collects the scalps of his victims. For Wallander and his colleagues this also comes as a shock, just like the earlier appearance of the mafia (“The Dogs of Riga”): “So far, I have thought that serial killers were only in the USA. But here? In Ystad? In Skania?”38 It turns out that the serial killer is a fourteen year-old boy, Stefan Fredman, who wants to avenge the tormentors from his life; he thinks that he will be able to save his sister who has been in a psychiatric hospital for years. The idea for such actions derives from a comic. The boy planned and executed four murders in cold blood – including one on his father, who sold his daughter (Stefan’s sister, mentioned above) to a luxury escort agency providing entertainment to the Swed- ish elites.39 In reality, Fredman dons two masks: of the Indian warrior Geronimo and of the FBI boss, Agent Hoover. This was the way in which the boy was prob-

36 H. Mankell, Mężczyzna… op. cit., p. 202. 37 H. Mankell, Fałszywy trop, translated by H. Thylwe, Warsaw 2012, p. 44. 38 H. Mankell, Fałszywy… op.cit., doi: 2816. 39 Mankell, describing this story was probably influenced by the Geijer case which happened at the end of 1970s. 162 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska ably trying to “cleanse” his actions: by assuming the face of the guardian of order (Hoover), he justified his actions which go beyond the law of a Swedish citizen. In her analysis of Fredman, Samsel-Chojnacka refers to the Nordic saga where retali- ation was a natural thing and even an obligation40. In “Sidetracked”, Mankell tackles one more important issue: the collapse of a family model. Stefan Fredman was brought up in a family which may be called pathological. Stefan’s father, mentioned above, is a minor black marketeer, capable of selling his daughter. On the other hand, the mother does not want to see the world without glasses provided by alcohol. The father is known to the local police for beating up his pregnant wife, Stefan’s mother. The young boy, the future serial killer, does not have a moral spine and thus, he is not provided with proper educational values. As a four year-old, Stefan was so afraid of his father that he was trying to gouge out his eyes; this is how Wallander reacts to this news: “This is impossible. Not in Sweden. Exactly in Sweden. In the middle of the world.”41 The above-mentioned examples are only a part of the cases described by Man- kell. In “The Fifth Woman”, Wallander is dealing with a ruthless killer who turns out to be a woman, Yvonne Ander. The murderer decides to serve justice to the op- pressors of women. She plans subsequent murders with great precision. This novel shows the collapse of educational values also in the police: “Wallander noticed that his colleagues showed understanding for Yvonne Ander’s deeds.”42 The police and Ander are aware of the fact that if it was not for her, these people would have never been caught. It is possible to suggest that Ander and the fourteen year-old Fredman from “Sidetracked” are a far-fetched Batman-type characters. On the one hand, everybody is grateful to Batman, Ander or Fredman for putting the streets “in order” – they murder murderers, killers or other people who are beyond the margin of “normalcy.” On the other hand, everybody knows that the Code of Ham- murabi has not been functioning for a long time and that true criminals should be tried before a real court. However, the experience of the characters shows that justice often overlooks criminals and if they are caught by the police, the dimension of the punishment does not always correspond to the committed crimes.

40 Cf. M. Samsel-Chojnacka, Morderca o wielu twarzach. Portrety zabójców w serii o komisarzu Wallanderze, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco-polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17 (2012), Warsaw 2012, p. 132. 41 H. Mankell, Fałszywy… op.cit., p. 60. 42 H. Mankell, Piąta kobieta, [e-book; format MOBI], translated by H. Thylwe, Warsaw, 2006, doi: 7999. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 163

In “One Step Behind” Wallander fights with a serial killer murdering young and happy people who are his opposites. He cannot tolerate the sight of happiness, so he decides to annihilate people who represent it. Monika Samsel-Chojnac- ka in her article entitled “Morderca o wielu twarzach. Portrety zabójców w serii o komisarzu Wallanderze” refers to Philip Zimbardo’s thought: “One of the worst things that we can do to other people is to deprive them of their humanity, make them worthless by subjecting them to the psychological process of dehumanisation. This happens when one concludes that <>> do not have the same feelings, thoughts, values and life purposes like we do. (…) in the course of time, the person who applies dehumanisation is engulfed by the negative aspect of such experience and then it changes the <>, which, in result, leads to the relation <>, relation between items or between the perpetrator and the victim.”43 Each of the above-described murderers fits Zimbardo’s thoughts perfectly. Dehu- manising their victims, criminals become human wrecks. In order to perpetrate a crime that consists in depriving somebody of their life, they slowly shatter their humanity into tiny pieces. Samsel – Chojnacka draws attention to the aggravating “differences between the rich and the people shoved to the margin of the society – the unemployed, the homeless (in spite of the lofty ideals of socialist democracy fed to the Swedish citizens for decades)”44 – this refers both to Harderberg and Fredman. For several years, the ideal image of the Swedish state has been marred by shapeless scratches which, in the course of time, have changed into the “crack” from the Polish title of one of Mankell’s novels45. A good metaphor for Wallander’s musings is an ordinary cut: when the body is healthy, it will deal with a wound without any problems. But when a man is sick, just like the Swedish society is (suffering from indifference), subsequent scratches will not heal so easily in the course of time; the situation is the same with the “escalation of violence.” The murderer is a certain personification of social anxiety. Swedes are most afraid that the vertebrae of the spine of “Swedishness” such as work, family, language and even appearance are slowly starting to collapse. They know that the source of such problems is the policy conducted with respect to other states. How- ever, they are aware of the fact that from the country of tolerant people, they may easily transform into a country of xenophobes. Characters from novels such as Fredman, Ander or Harderberg are the literary “counterparts” of real killers such

43 Quoted after: M. Samsel-Chojnacka, Morderca… op.cit., p. 128. 44 Ibidem, p. 131. 45 One of the Polish titles of Mankell’s short stories is “Szczelina” (“The Crack”) (English version: “Wallander’s First Case”). 164 Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska as Ausonius, Mangs or Breivik. On the one hand, the readers sometimes identify with serial killers and don their “masks” in order to breathe their air. They want to be like the title character from “Dexter” series, “cleaning” the city from other criminals. On the other hand, the recipients know that such acts are bad and that by becoming another Dexter, they become another Breivik. Such books are a certain safety valve which allows the society to shout noiselessly. At the same time, they indicate that “something is rotten in the state of Sweden” and on the other, they provide an opportunity for looking at the reflection offered by the mirror of the book. The phenomenon of an anthropological crime story is starting to gain popularity around the world, not only in Sweden and it is also reaching the Polish publication market slowly. Zygmunt Miłoszewski with his trilogy (Uwikłanie [2007], Ziarno prawdy [2011], Gniew [2014]), perfectly fits Mankell’s model of “reflection” on the modern world. This may be the formula for success: not to make novels extravagant, but make them as realistic as possible. When critically reading crime stories, we can learn a lot about our reality; at the end, it is worth quoting the para- phrased slogan of Fidel Castro: “Crime story or death.”46

Bibliography

Burszta Wojciech Józef, Czubaj Mariusz, Krwawa setka. 100 najważniejszych powieści kryminalnych, Warszawskie Wydawnictwo Literackie MUZA SA, Warsaw 2007, pp. 13 – 30, 98 – 100, 205 – 209, 272 – 274. Czerwiński Marcin, Przyczynki do antropologii współczesności, Warsaw 1988, p. 6. Czubaj Mariusz, Etnolog w mieście grzechu. Powieść kryminalna jako świadectwo antropologiczne, Oficynka, Gdańsk 2010. Czubaj Mariusz, Kryminał albo śmierć, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco-polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17(2012), Warsaw, pp. 4 – 5. Forshaw Barry, Nordic Noir. The Pocket essential guide to Scandinavian crime fiction, film & TV, Poc- ket Essentials, Harpenden, 2013, pp. 13 – 40. W. Iser, Czym jest antropologia literatury? Różnica między fikcjami wyjaśniającymi a odkrywający- mi, translated by A. Kowalcze-Pawlik, “Teksty Drugie” 2006, No. 5, pp. 11 – 35. Jakubowski Witold, Edukacja w świecie kultury popularnej, Kraków 2006. Kubitsky Jacek, Alfabet szwedzki, Warsaw 2012. Mankell Henning, Piąta kobieta, [e-book; format MOBI], translated by Thylwe Halina, Warsaw, 2006. Mankell Henning, Mężczyzna, który się uśmiechał, translated by Kowadło – Przedmojska Irena, Gru- pa Wydawnicza Foksal, edition IV, Warsaw 2007.

46 H. Mankell, Psy… op.cit., p. 5. “Novel About the Swedish Anxiety”: Crime Story as a Mirror of Social 165

H. Mankell, Cios, Szczelina, translated by Kowadło-Przedmojska Irena, [e-book; format MOBI], Warsaw, 2011. Mankell Henning, Fałszywy trop, translated by Thylwe Halina, Wydawnicwo W.A.B., edition V, War- saw 2012. Mankell Henning, Psy z Rygi, ranslated by Ludvigsson Grażyna, Wydawnictwo W.A.B., edition IV, Warsaw 2012. Mankell Henning, Ręka, translated by Jankowska Paulina, Grupa Wydawnicza Foksal, Warsaw 2013. Samsel-Chojnacka Monika, Morderca o wielu twarzach. Portrety zabójców w serii o komisarzu Wal- landerze, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco-polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17 (2012), Warsaw 2012, pp. 124 – 135. Sjöwall Maj, Wahlöö Per, Odnowa powieści kryminalnej, translated by Samsel-Chojnacka Monika, “Kultura popularna, acta Sueco-polonica. Literatura popularna, powieść kryminalna”, Kultura Popularna No. 2 (31)/2012, Acta Sueco-Polonica 17 (2012), Warsaw 2012, pp. 12-16. Tamas Gellert, Mężczyzna z laserem. Historia szwedzkiej nienawiści, translated by E. Frątczak-Na- wotny, Wołowiec 2013. Tapper Michael, Swedish Cops. From Sjöwall & Wahlöö to Stieg Larsson, Intellect LTD, Chicago 2014. On-line sources: Chandler Raymond, Skromna sztuka pisania powieści kryminalnych, http://chandler.republika.pl/ skromna_sztuka.htm, [access: 12.04.2014]. Žižek Slavoj, Henning Mankell: The Artist of the Parallax View, http://www.lacan.com/zizekmankell. htm, [access: 2.12.2013].

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Marlena Kaźmierska Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students

Keywords: assertiveness, student, Abstract: The main aim of the article is to highlight the de- non-assertive behaviour, assertive velopment of assertiveness in students. The article presents behaviour concepts of social skills and assertiveness. It emphasises the issue of non-assertive behaviour in education. Next, the article describes the value of assertiveness skills to the life of the student and presents teachers with methods for teaching assertiveness to children. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 167-175 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.13

The contemporary socio-cultural reality, characterised by intensive dynamics of change, requires constant updating of knowledge and skills in the field of psychosocial and socio-pedagogical activities. One of the areas which is characterised by a strong relationship with the specificity of modernity is undoubtedly the social functioning of individuals formed in the basic socialisation environments, including the school environment. In the face of contemporary socio-cultural changes, education faces an extremely important and difficult task: to try to create and develop social skills in every student, which can be shaped by using various stimulation methods, as well as social training. One such capacity is assertiveness, a category which is an essential subject of the theoretical deliberations undertaken in this article. Assertiveness is a type of social competence, which is presented in a multi- threaded and ambiguous way. The first to introduce the term “social skills” was 168 Marlena Kaźmierska

R. White in 1959, who dealt with the issue of exerting influence on social environment. He understood “competence” as a kind of skill that leads to effective interaction with the environment. In this way, he linked competences to social skills. According to M. Argyle, social competences include the “ability, having the necessary skills to have the desired impact on other people in social situations. These desired effects can lie in getting others to make purchases, to learn, to acquire mental health.” In turn A. Matczak defines this term as the “complex skills that determine the effectiveness of coping with a given type of social situation, acquired by the individual during social training”. In Spitzberg’s and Cupach’s view, social competences are the ability to build emotional bonds with other people, and they are included in the category of defining relations, creating, developing and maintaining relationships and gaining social support. Social competences consist of many interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. Ac- cording to M. Argyle, there is a division of social skills according to the characteristics of a socially competent person. They include assertiveness – the ability to exert influence on others, while at the same time being the opposite of aggression and passive behaviour – as well as gratification – the effect of support in social situations, which consists in sustaining others and increasing their self-esteem. Non- verbal and verbal communication are also examples of social skills resulting from personal characteristics of the subject. Verbal communication is a key social skill because most signals are verbal and must fit in the conversation sequence, which means that each message must be comprehensible to the recipient. Non-verbal communication is a complement to it, as it is expressed in certain types of gestures, facial expressions and body postures. Other components of social competence are empathy, cooperation and attention focused on others. Empathy is the ability to share emotions felt by another person and to understand their point of view, to understand another person’s situation. The category of empathy is also linked to the ability to cooperate. The essence of effective cooperation is to take into account one’s own needs as well as those of other members of the interaction at the same time. Every kind of social activity requires the establishment of mutual relations between people, and therefore the ability to cooperate with others is not without significance. Recognising and solving problems is also an important element of social competence. Soft skills play a key role in this area of social skills. Behaviour is controlled by the existence of informal social norms and depends on situational and motivational factors. Another significant skill is self-presentation, which concerns the relation between social competences and the self-esteem of those entering the interaction, as Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students 169 well as the way in which they react to the behaviour of others. An individual’s own image is a set of notions that an individual has about themselves, such as social roles, character traits and appearance. Self-presentation is behaviour designed to influence how others see us. Abilities related to personality traits are another element of social competences; for example, directness is correlated with social competence. Assertiveness requires mastery of such skills as verbal and non-verbal communication, self-presentation, learning and solving problems, and having skills in various situations and relationships. The term “assertiveness” comes from the word “assertive”, which is understood as “a way of behaving that expresses one’s own emotions or rights with determination, strength and self-confidence and reveals to others a deep faith in one’s own abilities [...] a self-confident behaviour that evokes the respect of others.” In H. Sęk’s view, assertiveness is “a complex set of personal competences consisting in effective achievement of important life goals, with simultaneous, constant confirmation and defence of a positive self-image.” In turn, N. Branden understands assertiveness as respecting one’s own needs, desires and values, as well as searching for one’s own ways of expressing them in daily life. On the other hand, M. Król-Kijewska emphasises that assertiveness is the ability to reveal and express oneself in contact with another person; it does not refer only to interpersonal relations, but also to a specific way of thinking of the individual. According to Lazarus’ concept, assertiveness consists of four components: rejecting requests, making requests and giving instructions, expressing positive and negative feelings, as well as starting, continuing and ending a general conversation. Lazarus noted the correlation of assertiveness with many elements of verbal and non-verbal communication. The essence of every form of social impact is a verbal wish. If it is to be effective, it must be convincing, that is to say, one should motivate and convince by indicating good reasons or incentives to carry out an order. The verbal commands must be accompanied by an appropriate non-verbal style. The impact is greater when there is already a strong bond of friendship, authority or both. Assertiveness is an ability that is manifested by assertive behaviour, which consists in adequate, (i.e. in harmony with itself), open, firm, honest, but controlled expression of one’s own opinion, i.e. self-expression of one’s beliefs, attitudes, needs and emotions, as well as the realisation and management of the requirements of one’s own life relations, while respecting and managing the personal rights of others involved in those relations. The manner in which assertive behaviour is disclosed depends on a number of factors. The nature of an individual’s situation, their knowledge of how to behave 170 Marlena Kaźmierska in certain circumstances, and the type of interaction they have with one or more of their relationship partners are essential to determining the right behaviour. Through the manner in which assertiveness manifested itself, H. Sęk selected three types of assertive skills. The first is expressive skills, which include expressing emotions and desires through verbal and non-verbal language. It also lists interpersonal skills, which include communication, requests for support, starting relationships, reactions to evaluations and praise, defending one’s own opinion and refusing requests. Task skills are also important, e.g. proving one’s own rights, defending a victim, acquiring the necessary resources to achieve goals, overcoming obstacles, implementing breakthrough ideas. Assertive behaviours are aimed at defending and developing the “self” and effectively implementing one’s own ideas and values, but they must not violate the welfare of other people. Wolpe distinguished between positive – “praised” – and negative – “hostile” – assertiveness. An example of the former is the expression of gratitude, and the latter – the expression of dissatisfaction. Grambrill based his classification of assertive behaviour on this division. The author listed two main aspects of assertiveness: first, whether the behaviour is positive or negative, and second, whether the behaviour is initiated by an individual, or is a response to someone else’s behaviour. In this way, he distinguished four main types of assertiveness, each of which covers several detailed categories. The first is a negative assertion in response to a situation in which someone else takes the initiative, that is, the ability to say “no” to a demand that an individual cannot meet. It consists of the following behaviour: refusal of demands and reaction to criticism. The second is negative assertion combined with taking the initiative to take over the initiative in order to bring about a change in the environment. The following types of behaviour are possible: demand of a change in someone’s offensive behaviour or unjust treatment; defending oneself from being interrupted while speaking or acting; apologising when one is guilty, which requires one to take the initiative in a situation that is awkward for the individual; admitting one’s igno- rance; and ending unwanted interactions. Next is a positive assertion when someone else takes the initiative. Social interactions often require a positive assertion, which is a response to another person’s initiative. In this case, there are several possible categories of assertive behaviour: accepting compliments; responding to the other person’s initiative; and accepting an invitation or responding to a meeting proposal. We can also distinguish “meeting the needs”, i.e. taking the initiative. This kind of assertiveness also includes several subcategories: starting a conversation; main- Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students 171 taining a conversation; arranging future contacts and ending a conversation; asking for a favour; paying others compliments; and showing emotions. The opposite of assertive behaviour is non-assertive behaviour, also referred to as passive or submissive. The reason for such behaviour is a person’s lack of belief in the possibility of having their own convictions, choices and feelings. Another reason for the lack of assertiveness are the processes of a child’s socialisation, which teach them to control negative feelings and force the child to stop revealing them in interpersonal contacts. Currently, Polish schools are bringing up successive generations of subordinate and submissive students. The obedient and submissive pupils are rewarded, while the rebellious and stubborn ones who have the courage to speak out loud, are punished. Such behaviour is also the result of inadequate cultural habits, which support dependent and modest behaviours. Another reason for the lack of readiness to defend one’s rights and the right to express oneself openly is social and economic factors. On the one hand, the issue at hand here is parental anxiety, which creates anxiety in the child as a result of modelling. On the other hand, using the model of a modest and dependent child is not without significance for negative educational attitudes. The aim of passive behaviour is to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts, which are connected with the experience of reluctance or anger on the part of society. Currently, the prevailing trend in education is striving to make the student an independent and autonomous individual. This is to accompany the child’s education from the very beginning. At a certain stage of development, an individual achieves such autonomy and independence in acting, thinking, living and making choices. Assertiveness exercises strengthen the positive image of oneself, shape a sense of control and agency, and increase effectiveness in interpersonal contacts. The ability to be assertive is one of the main tools in counteracting and preventing addictions and other types of risky behaviours. The development of assertiveness competence also prevents disturbances in children’s behaviour and personalities and supports their development. It allows a young person to cope more effectively with difficult situations and to gain the support of the community. An important task for educators is to support their pupils in reaching full maturity by stimulating their self-development activities, strengthening their self-esteem, self-control, responsibility and making decisions about themselves. Shaping an assertive attitude as an element of pedagogical work is a prereq- uisite for achieving educational effectiveness. A teacher who respects, tolerates and takes into account their students’ views, opinions, experiences, emotions and values creates a supportive environment in which educational success is easier 172 Marlena Kaźmierska to achieve. An assertive teacher treats a pupil subjectively. Such a teacher is firm and gentle and does not use violence, aggression or manipulation to achieve their educational goals. The attitude of this type of educator becomes a role model for students. The pupils are more willing and more likely to use the teacher’s social competences, accept their educational style and feel that they are safe and have agency at the same time. Developing assertiveness is not easy, therefore it should only be undertaken by educators who fully understand the essence of this social skill and who are convinced of its positive impact on the psychosocial functioning of the student. It is important that teachers themselves demonstrate assertive behaviour as often as possible. It should be remembered that when an educator develops assertive competences, they must make the child feel that they fully accept them and praises the assertive behaviour of the pupil. Support and acceptance should also be given to all students to help them build the right self-esteem. There are a number of exercises that shape assertiveness in children. The most effective way, according to J. Mączyński, is assertiveness training, which is “a planned programme of therapeutic effects aimed at reducing aggressive and non-assertive behaviour, and modelling readiness for assertive behaviour in various social situations, so that an individual can learn to express their feelings, to master and extinguish their fear, to control their own behaviour and to defend their rights without violating the rights of other people”. Such training is aimed at achieving the skills of free self-expression, interpersonal communication, an active life attitude, defending one’s own opinions, rights and interests. Its most important goal is to help the child develop an assertive attitude. The course of such training is as follows: at first, the teacher explains the concept of assertiveness and its essence to the pupils, then the teacher offers the children an exercise that makes them aware of the importance of having their own rights, after which they share their feelings about participating in the exercise. As- sertiveness training is aimed at raising awareness of the reason for feeling unwell. Homework is also part of the exercise, as it consists of drawing up a charter of one’s own rights, bearing in mind that they must not conflict with the rights of others. At the next meeting, the children fill in the assertiveness questionnaire, and then the teacher assesses which situations are most often difficult for the pupils. Each exercise of all types of assertive behaviour is preceded by a mini-lecture in which the students are given a description of the principles and process of assertive response. Next, the pupils act out scenes during which they acquire skills and strengthen their readiness to be assertive. Next, the people who play the roles each Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students 173 talk about how they felt in a given situation. Later, the participants reflect together on the behaviour of individual actors. The last issue that is discussed during the training is the work on building an assertive internal dialogue. After the students learn about the role of internal dialogue, the teacher encourages them to analyse internal conversations in order to continue to learn how to replace anti-assertive messages with pro-assertive ones. The teacher assigns homework that ends the training – self-observation and self-control and the use of skills in private life. It is recommended to organise a meeting after several weeks in order to provide support in case of failure, dispel doubts and share the joy of successes. The acquisition of assertiveness competence is fostered by experiences that evoke certain emotions. In this way, the individual is convinced to reflect on changing their own actions. It is worth using art therapy activities to develop assertiveness, especially drama classes, as well as visual and musical creation. These give students the opportunity to experience different social situations by playing different roles. Lessons of this type stimulate the ability to express oneself consciously, in a way that is still being shaped and perfected during the art therapy workshop. This way, participants can present their opinions confidently, but without violating the rules of culture and offending others. Another factor that contributes to the liberation of assertiveness are literary texts. Contact with literary works contributes to the student’s processing of themselves, which leads to positive changes in behaviour, beliefs under the influence of the negative or positive experiences, and the misfortunes of the characters in the text. Bibliotherapy with elements of drama is helpful for the development of this ability. During the classes, the student has the opportunity to learn about their weaknesses in relations with others, to develop the ability to show feelings and oneself and to constructively resolve conflicts. I also suggest, on the basis of poetic license, a few tips that may be useful for working with students in every class to create a strong foundation of lower social skills for assertiveness. First, let young people be free in whether and how they speak. There should be room for discussion and freedom of speech. Students will feel the taste of freedom but will also be open to relationships with others. They can signalise issues that are important to them, problems and subjects for conversations. It is worthwhile to organise such activities so that each student can express their opinions on a specific subject, even if they do not have their own opinions, they learn about the opinions of others. This teaches active listening, tolerance, acceptance, respect and trust. Second, let the students talk as often as possible about their own ways of working and learning. The pupils, talking about themselves, open themselves up to others. This information may be extremely important for the pedagogue, as it helps to 174 Marlena Kaźmierska make an accurate pedagogical diagnosis. The teacher can use any methods, means and therapies that awaken and develop the student. Various school events, class events, events, excursions, clubs, etc. are good opportunities to “say something about yourself.” Third, it is worth teaching students the art of wise self-evaluation (asking for advice from colleagues, parents and teachers). Proper self-evaluation is a very difficult art – it should be as adequate as possible – not too low, but also not too high. Teaching adequate self-assessment requires a lot of effort from the teacher. They should, above all, use praise, but in a moderate amount, as well as give reasons for the praise. They should give each student constructive criticism. Methods to check other students’ opinions about what they think about X or Y are also helpful. It is useful to apply elements of self-assessment and justification in tests and trials. Fourth, teach people the ability to analyse and evaluate others’ conversations. A child learns to think constructively, their worldview is broadened by listening to the conversations of others. It is worthwhile to analyse their statements together with the charges on an ongoing basis. Discussions about literary texts or art are helpful, forcing students to reflect on whether or not they like a work, and to put themselves in the role of the protagonist. Fifth, promote and shape a culture of discussion, to develop the ability to defend and negotiate positions and opinions. This is very difficult, but very valuable. It is desirable to organise a discussion wisely, to explore its principles and culture. The communication skills of the students are then improved. Discussion forces participants to adopt a specific position, to argue it, to listen to counter- arguments, to work out a compromise or a common position. It also teaches the art of assertive behaviour. Difficult and controversial topics should be tackled, but they should be interesting for students, in order to familiarise them with the art of talking about difficult issues, with the ability to understand oneself and the surrounding world. Students acquire the ability to recognise and name the states and emotions they feel. This makes it easier to find the source of one’s own feelings and promotes understanding of the emotions of others, as well as developing emphatic thinking. Discussion is the basis for interaction and cooperation skills. During the discussion, the teacher should not only encourage the students to continue and develop their statements with their voices, but also with their facial expressions, postures and gestures. New topics for conversations and discussion that are of particular concern to young people can also be encouraged. The students should also be taught the art of patience, silence and appreciation of the values of sharing common silence. Paradoxically, such silence can be both meaningful and under- standable. Assertiveness as a social competence in the school reality of students 175

Summary

The ability to act assertively is one of the postulates of contemporary pedagogical paradigms, to make a student a fully independent, mature and autonomous individual. Unfortunately, in the school reality, an individual who is easily influenced, dependent and humble is treated as a model. Students who demonstrate different attitudes are punished. These situations happen because it is easier and more convenient for teachers to shape a polite, submissive person who does not defend their rights. This is also due to the fact that few teachers have the ability to be assertive and show appropriate assertive behaviour. The article discusses the issue of students possessing this skill, which is extremely important for their further social functioning. This article proposes several ways to develop assertive skills that can be used in any class, but that require extra work and time from the teacher. These methods do not require very much effort or material resources, but they are extremely satisfying when students manage to acquire this competence.

Bibliography

Argyle M., Psychologia stosunków międzyludzkich, Warsaw 2002. Branden N., 6 filarów poczucia własnej wartości, trans. H. Dąbrowska, Łódź 1998 http://www.szkolnictwo.pl/index.php?id=PU4150. Kanios A., Społeczne kompetencje studentów do pracy w wolontariacie, Lublin 2010. Kaźmierska M., “Teacher’s monologue in disguise or dialogue with the student” [in:] Contemporary issues in scientific information and communication, (ed.) E. Poniedziałek, Poznań–Kalisz 2015. Król-Fijewska M., Trening asertywności, Warsaw 1992. Mączyński J., “Behawioralny, kognitywny i behawioralno- kognitywny trening asertywności” [in:] Przegląd Psychologiczny, no. 34/1993. Martowska K., Psychologiczne uwarunkowania kompetencji społecznych, Warsaw 2012. Poprawa R., “Co znaczy być asertywnym?” [in:] Zdrowie w medycynie i naukach społecznych, (ed) T. B. Kulik, T. Wrońska, Warsaw 2000. Sęk H., “Rola asertywności w kształtowaniu zdrowia psychicznego. Ustalenia erotyczne i metodolog- iczne” [in:] Przegląd Psychologiczny, no. 3/1988. Szymańska J., “Moc i kruchość kompetencji społecznych w życiu młodego człowieka” [in:] Kom- petencje społeczne w edukacji, pracy socjalnej i relacjach zawodowych, (ed.) A. M. Janiak, K. Jankowska and W. Heller, Poznań – Kalisz: Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Wydział Pedagogiczno-Artystyczny 2012. Zubrzycka-Maciąg T., “Rozwijanie asertywności u uczniów” [in:] Kompetencje diagnostyczne i tera- peutyczne nauczyciela, (ed.) D. Wosik-Kawala, T. Zubrzycka-Maciąg, Krakow 2011.

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Łukasz Albański Pedagogical University of Cracow

The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood

Key words: migrant children, Abstract: This article examines the concept of undocu- incorporation, education, mented childhood. Undocumented children have to navi- unauthorized status gate between protected (as minors) and unprotected (as young adults) contexts. Therefore, they live not only in a relatively difficult situation as children staying in another country, but also face other risks due to their uncertain futures. Their situation calls for a re-examination of the frame that has been triggered to incorporate them. In particular, one may ask: what does it mean to provide children with rights and protections that ultimately expire? Thus, the article aims to bring the discussion about children as a minority group back. It helps to ensure that migrant children will be considered as children first, and not as foreigners. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 177-194 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.14

This article considers the concept of undocumented migrant childhood from the perspective of sociology. In doing so, it aims to complement different areas of study on undocumented migrant childhood, such as educational studies, to better understand the complexity of the undocumented migrant childhood concept. As a discipline from which to consider the undocumented migrant childhood concept, sociology offers a good vantage point for examining certain tensions between being classified as a minor and being tainted with the social stigma of undocumented migration. Sociology provides a critical examination of the idea of childhood in regard to the importance of the transition into adulthood. Children are trapped in the mindset of the adult in which children are portrayed as symbolically 178 Łukasz Albański important figures of future adults (release from the authority of the adult one day) if still powerless and passive individuals for now. Therefore, social rules on how to socialize children, how to educate them and who has the responsibility for bringing them up are core elements in every society. The intersectionality of childhood and undocumented migration places children in a precarious position as developing into adults, because they are left with the disadvantage of their uncertain future when they reach maturity (Gonzales 2011). Moreover, the challenges of living as undocumented migrant children effect integration into institutions and access to basic social rights (Bean et al. 2011). Al- though undocumented migrant children have been recognized as invisible victims of immigration restrictions, it does not provide the greater recognition of their inherent rights as children (PICUM 2008). Most developed countries experience the tensions between the needs to protect migrant children and the needs to defend national borders. In times when state policies face towards a migrant crisis, the needs for security tilt the balance in favor of lowering protections for undocumented migrant children (Spencer 2016). Additionally, increased restrictions on citizenship can push undocumented migrant children out on the fringes of society and reduce their chances to overcome the handicap of marginal membership status before becoming adults. The article begins with a consideration of the critical role of children in relation to the future of each society that places them at the center of the debate on citizenship and migration. It explores some of the core ideas about migrant childhood with particular regard to incorporation and public schooling. The article delves into what is socially constructed as undocumented migrant childhood. It is argued that the dominant discourses on undocumented migrant childhood fail to recognize the agency of children in the developing world, while traditional notions of childhood as a time of innocent and adult-dependency are challenged by the reality of undocumented migrant lives. Building on this, the article aims to bring attention to the transitional aspect of undocumented childhood. Careful consideration should be given to the issues of coming of age, the representation of migrant children as a minority group, and their legal incorporation into the host society.

Global perspectives on childhood

The role of children is justified by their strategic position in every society. Children are tied to the survival of a society and to the transmission of its cultural values. The role of children is thus everywhere subject to control and regulation. In contempo- The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 179 rary studies of childhood, sociologists reveal the norms governing childhood and traditions of making normative judgements on the child (Bühler-Niederberger 2010). Sociologists of childhood lay a strong emphasis on the social construction of childhood rather than treat it as a relatively determined and universal trajec- tory of development (Corsaro 2011). In their classical work, which attempted to establish a new paradigm of social understanding of childhood, James and Prout (1990:8) declared that childhood, as distinct from biological immaturity, is neither a natural nor a universal feature of human groups but appears as a specific structural and cultural component of many societies. There has been a concerted attempt in a sociology of childhood to differentiate the field of the historically and culturally specific research on the constitution of childhood in and through discourse from other approaches to childhood which promote the description of childhood within epistemological and methodological traditions associated with positivism. Moreover, the break with the assumptions of developmental psychology and traditional socialization frameworks, which cast children primarily in the role of the next generation’s adults (reproducing the biological and social order), has fostered a heightened sensitivity to interpretive analysis on social relations, contexts, meanings, and social structure (Mayall 1994). Childhood studies scholars suggest that the idea of childhood is profoundly shaped by child-adult dualism (James 2007). The dominant discourses on natural- izing the child have reified the child as a construct of the other, who is perceived as dependent (passive, vulnerable, unable to speak for themselves), innocent (simple, ignorant) and cute (lovely objects to be watched and discussed). Moreover, traditional notions of childhood as a time of innocent and adult-dependency have espoused the description of childhood in, more or less, universal terms, thereby undermining the diversity and complexity of childhood(s). In his postmodern critique of the dominant interpretations on childhood, for instance, Kinchloe (2002:76) claimed that such viewpoints have often equated difference with deficiency and sociocultural construction with the natural. Childhood studies scholars postulate to reintroduce the term childhood by challenging much that has been approved of modern childhood, framed in terms of a-historical “becoming adults- in-the-making” (Uprichard 2008). The contemporary line of critique in childhood studies even moves beyond the adult-child dualism in (what has been called vaguely) Western countries and emphasizes the need to take roots in a global context. In the words of Canella (2002:8), the aim of childhood studies is to generate a childhood studies that cri- tiques itself, attempts to decolonize, and struggles to construct partnerships with those who are younger in the generation of human possibility. Global oriented child- 180 Łukasz Albański hood studies generally mean to broaden theoretical perspectives on childhood in a multicultural universe. One of the benefits from such approaches is to grasp the experience of childhood that transcends nation-state borders. Some issues such as migration affect children across national borders and cultures. Moreover, the meaning of global childhood is recognized beyond the figure of the normative Western child. The crucial point of global childhood studies is therefore clarified by the assumption that the image of the child is Western derived, and that distorts all other images of children around the world. It means that childhood studies struggle to reconcile the effort to work on behalf of all children with respect to global and cultural differences. Two topics of discussion on childhood seem to be particularly relevant to show further implications for new approaches to childhood based on a global perspective: childhood as a discursive construction, and children as a minority group. The first indicates that the child is constituted through various forms of discourse. In this sense, Jenks (1996:32) defines the child as a status of person which is comprised through a series of, often heterogeneous, images, representations, codes and constructs. In other words, the child is not always and everywhere understood in the same way. Moreover, it is argued that it is more accurate to use the plural of childhood rather than the singular in order to capture a set of cultural discourses that underline the contingent character of childhood(s). In the latter the focus is on the capacity of children to form a minority group. It attempts to generate new possibilities for children in order to obtain legal status and to modify current children’s rights to account for gender specific and cultural violations.

Defining undocumented child migrants

The role of children in the process of migration, however it is perceived, exists between the opposite poles of the migration debate. On the one hand, children’s presence and participation in processes of migration constitutes a central axis of family migration, while on the other hand, migrant children are depicted as victims – vulnerable, innocent and at risk of corruption and exploitation. In the decision to immigrate, adults are often motivated to build a better future for their families, and children in particular. The child is also seen as a factor that motivates to keep adult family members together and reunite them after a time of absence. When a whole family moves, children usually form the front line of the process of integration in the place of arrival, because children often learn the language and social conventions faster than adults, and therefore they act as interpreters and ne- The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 181 gotiators for family members. Conversely to the central role of children in explaining the pattern of migratory decisions made by adults, migrant children are often conspicuously absent from close scrutiny (for instance, official statistics), and it is still unusual to hear the voices of migrant children themselves (James 2007). It is even more powerfully evident, at the time of writing this article, when Europe is in the midst of a migrant crisis, that screens are dominated by images of people attempting to reach the EU borders and the promise of a better life. Most of them are men, but occasionally the camera focuses on women and children, who are usually depicted as a category of those more dependent and vulnerable. Moreover, for children, there is poor recognition of the diversity of their experiences, with clumsy attempt to understand the issues from their perspectives. Thus, the most obvious figures emerging from media coverage are children as victims. The migrant crisis has made the situation of migrants outside Europe even more acute, since migration comes to be perceived as an issue of security rather than merely one of economics or culture. The images of migrants and refugees as illegals, welfare scroungers and potential terrorists have turned them into objects of public scrutiny. In this climate, migrant childhood has given added urgency to the debate about citizenship and diversity, but much of the focus of concern has been directed at young people (Spencer 2016). Child migrants (outside Europe) have been deliberately depicted as victims at risk of global maladies such as in- equality, poverty, war or terrorism. By contrast, once they approach the age of adolescent, migrant youth tend to be increasingly perceived as a potential threat to the social order in European societies. The unequal power relations that are inherent in contemporary forms of migration shows the difference between those who are in charge of time-space com- pression, who really see it and turn it to their advantage, and those who are on the move, but they do not take charge of the process in the same way. Massey (1994: 149) refers to this distinction as a power-geometry. Bhabha (1992: 321) writes that the globe shrinks for those who own it; for the displaced or dispossessed, the migrant or refugee, no distance is more awesome than the few feet across borders or fron- tiers. For migrant children (and undocumented migrant children in particular) who find themselves in a very vulnerable position as children and foreigners, the distance can seem infinitely vast. Moreover, the cost of migration comes high as a result of the implementation of more restrictive measures for preventing people without documents from reaching European borders. The dire consequences are a growing number of undocumented child migrants and a substantial rise in human trafficking, and it is only children with resources who can move a considerable distance from their homes. A small portion of attention has been paid to 182 Łukasz Albański undocumented child migrants in Europe, yet the picture of contemporary child migration is more complex. For instance, more prosperous countries in Africa and Asia have also received people from their poorer and war-affected neighbors. It is not possible to consider child migrants as a coherent group, since they vary in terms of obvious demographic, social and cultural divisions. It is therefore understood as an umbrella term to distinguish migrants who are under the age at which they become adults. Moreover, children, in most cases, do not appear separately from adults in the statistics, and it is often necessary to read between the lines to get an understanding of the main issues that affect children. These difficulties further contribute to the conditions in which some children are highlighted and others become hidden. Undocumented migrant children constitute a category under a deep veil of invisibility. Undocumented migration is usually interpreted as the taint of illegal entry which borrows from the deep-seated fears of strangers that lurk at the nation-state boundaries. Moreover, it is almost impossible to cease believing in the power of legal-illegal relations, at least when the case is addressed to deal with strangers and non-citizens. Through their socialization process, children learn and incorporate the standpoint of the wider society of what it would be like to possess a particular stigma attached to being both undocumented and invisible. They learn the far-reaching consequences of possessing it. Undocumented child migrants as a category comes as a result of two possibilities – undocumented settlement and unaccompanied minor migration. The former is associated with restrictions that are put upon labor migrant families. Until the 1980s, undocumented migrants were mainly seasonal labor migrants who left their families back home in their countries of origin. However, a body of contemporary migration studies literature shows the changing pattern of today’s migration and the undocumented migrant family (Ryo 2013). The trend in undocumented migration has shifted from a population of predominantly single male migrants working seasonally to larger numbers of women and children striving for settlement. For instance, Massey (2008) demonstrates that increasing the number and composition of the undocumented population in the United States comes as an unintended result of changes in immigration policies concerning a tightening of the border and strict enforcement of immigration regulations. As seasonal migration became more costly and dangerous in the 1990s, and early 2000s, increasing shares of families accounted for undocumented settlement in the United States (Gonzales 2009). A similar mechanism of the production of the undocumented population in the European Union has been shown in several studies (Donato & Armenta 2011, Düvell 2006). The trend towards undocumented settlement has The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 183 given rise to a population of undocumented migrant children that grow up in poverty and with uncertain futures. The latter is connected with some migrant and humanitarian crises. There is particular concern in immigration countries about the increasing number of unaccompanied minors (or separated children) arriving both as refugees and labor migrants. The UNHCR (2014: 15) defines unaccompanied minors as children under 18 years of age who are outside their country of origin and separated from the both parents or their previous legal/customary caregivers. The current migrant crisis in Europe trends highlight the difficulties in gathering a reliable source of data on this category of undocumented migrant children. The media coverage stresses sudden and dramatic situations that are related to increases in human trafficking and disappearances from reception centers. Although potential data sources on undocumented child immigration are compromised, there is a broad consensus of opinion on this issue that the number of unaccompanied minors is increasing, but only a disproportionate percentage of them may claim asylum.

The dichotomy of understanding undocumented migrant child between “to be” and “to become”

There are certain questions about undocumented migrant childhood that should not be evaded. What is the responsibility of a receiving society to undocumented migrant children when they come under the age at which they legally become adults and are responsible for their actions? What does it mean to provide children with rights and protections that ultimately expire? There is a stark contrast between the legal position on undocumented childhood and adolescence and that of social sciences. The legal perspective is situated around two major components – minors and undocumented, whereas the sociological perspective derives from the transitional nature of childhood and its cultural diversity. Being undocumented means that a person does not have the necessary documents, especially permission to live and work in a foreign country. However, it is a very difficult concept to define adequately in reference to the situation of children. The International Convention on the Rights of the Child stipulates that minors have to be protected and provided with care. Unlike adult undocumented migrants, children obtain a residence permit and receive support and education before reaching early adulthood. However, there are no extending rights to undocumented youth once they come of age. Moreover, many authorities use medi- cal tests such as dental examination or x-rays of the clavicle to verify someone’s age 184 Łukasz Albański and decide upon her/his status (Hunter 2001). Thus the legal perspective heavily relies on a category ascribed to an official age limit. From the sociological point of view, experiences of childhood vary widely across cultures and contexts, which means that an official age limit does not always correspond with the cultural idea of transition to adulthood (Corsaro 2011). Moreover, the degree of variation concerning the social recognition and non-recognition of the transitional phase of adolescence is more problematic than other stages of the life cycle, because adolescence is merely understood contextually, and even the social stage of adolescent coincides approximately with physical puberty (Arnett 2000). Neither does the notion of adolescence as a model phase of separation and conflict, popularized by influential Western psychologists, fit in cultural varieties of adolescence elsewhere. In fact, nor does the official age limit as a worldwide standard. Several countries define the age at which someone legally becomes an adult at between 16 and 21 years. And finally, there are also important differences in the individual growing up and social upbringing processes of every child, which create the possibility that an adolescent of 16 years old may be more mature than an 18-year-old adult. According to the legal perspective on minors, they are never classified as voluntary migrants (Halvorsen 2002). It puts an emphasis on two elements; children do not make an independent decision to migrate, and they do not have the necessary resources to undertake a journey on their own. Moreover, they are not responsible for their actions as minors. Being unaccompanied is thus the most complex concept in grasping the importance of interpretation. The definition of unaccompanied children emphasizes the absence of the parents or previous legal caregiver. However, the criminal phenomenon of the trafficking of minors for ex- ploitive purposes imposes a strict interpretation of this concept (Wernesjo 2012). Authorities have to determine whether the accompanying adult is the appropriate caregiver under tradition and law. This task is particularly demanding when there is no available documentation to verify alleged ties. The way of identifying migrant children is hence adult-centered, even though there is an effort made to protect them from abuse and exploitation. From the sociological perspective, the developing nature of the child is considered to be intermediate between the extreme of virtually permanent adult authority and the extreme of late adolescent autonomy (James & Prout 1990). In this sense, the emphasis is laid on rational adults with children waiting to be processed through the particular rite of passage that socialization within a society demands. Migration often involves the breakdown of family and other social structures that provide the basic frameworks for socialization. For undocumented children (and The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 185 unaccompanied in particular), the lack of adult role models and the absence of normal socialization contexts that mediate between normal dependence-independence issues can be very concerning. The independence that many undocumented children have to develop in order to survive in the living and fleeing circumstances does not correspond with any notions of the ideal childhood based on the dependence upon significant others (adults). The idea that children (or even adolescents) may exercise unsupervised choice is not only socially outlandish, but dangerous. Thus adults are empowered to act for minors in their best interest (Jenks 1996). The problem is in making an accurate judgement where the line justifying adult intervention should be drawn. The ideal childhood, as conceptualized in much contemporary legislation, is perceived as one where all children are shielded from the pitfalls of a precarious living (UNHCR 2014). In reality, the living situation undocumented migrant children experience in everyday life and towards their future perspectives sharply contrasts with the ideal childhood in the way it is constructed in Europe or North America. There is also another concern. It is now commonplace to view children as eco- nomically unproductive and adult-dependent (Zelizer 1985). Outside Europe and North America, however, many children do work and are expected to be economi- cally useful, contributing substantially to the household from an early age (Mor- row 1996). Moreover, being born often incurs a debt of gratitude that involves the child in lifelong obligations to family. This anticipated return can play an important role in making a migratory decision. Many unaccompanied minors come with some hopes and expectations to the host country. In particular, they believe that they will be able to fulfill their obligations to parents and other family members to whom they possibly made important promises. The difficulty in keeping their promises is often seen as a source of distress and loyalty conflicts, because they perceive themselves as collaborators who are expected to assume their fair share of family duties. This attitude towards children is excluded from the conventional view on childhood in Europe and North America, where children are protected from the necessity to earn money to support family. The legal perspective, the responsibility to provide temporary protection until the child attains the legal age, is dedicated to minimum standards of care and reception, and yet there is serious neglect of social standards of child nurturing and migrant incorporation. The major obstacle is that by relying on the legal perspective one may lose sight of the developmental nature of childhood. The uncertainty that follows undocumented migrant children’s everyday living has dire consequences for the rest of their lives. Ideally, each child should be protected by guaranteeing her or him two aspects: the right “to be” and the right “to become.” 186 Łukasz Albański

The right “to become” means that the law is used in a way that would protect the child from any improper restriction upon her/his life choices as an adult. In reality, the acquisition of citizenship in order to achieve a legal status formally equal to that of the native-born is a critical part of one’s incorporation process into adult life in the receiving society (Enriquez 2015). Naturalization will provide a secure legal basis to children on which to make decisions on their life perspectives, but the harsh realities of undocumented migrant life are too often bound to the limbo of the stateless person until they reach legal age and eventually immigration courts decide in favor of their request. Up to this point undocumented minors will not be certain of their future in the receiving country.

Undocumented childhood and delayed incorporation

Undocumented children not only live in a daunting life situation as strangers in another country, but also face other risks due to their uncertain future as they try to find a balance between unprotected and protected social contexts. Their initial process of incorporation into a receiving society is polluted by the stigma of unauthorized entry. Thus attaining legal residential permission and naturalization, both are widely recognized in the scholarly literature on integration as milestones in achieving societal membership and reducing marginality, are expensive and complex (Wong & Garcia 2016). Moreover, their initial incorporation processes will take much longer than for less marginalized migrant groups (Bean et al. 2011). Furthermore, their migratory experiences involve multiple losses that distract them from incorporation. They are usually sequentially traumatized by tragic and stressful events before the flight from their home country and during their flight to the host country, and even after their arrival in the host country they still might encounter awkward experiences. In addition to their migratory experiences in diverse aspects, they are usually deprived of parental assistance because of their separation from them, or parents, unauthorized themselves, tremble with the fear of deportation. Last but not least, for all migrants, and certainly for children, migration involves confrontation with the unfamiliarity of the new society, including multiple barriers such as language, habits, rules and customs. This means that undocumented migrant children are severely disadvantaged. Acculturation stress comes as a predictable consequence of a disadvantaged position, when children work to adapt to the new environment (Berry 1988). Their legal status, together with other barriers, might render the immediate impressions of alienation and marginality. The living circumstances of undocumented migrant The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 187 children are of little comfort to cope with acculturation stress, since some of them might live in overcrowded refugee centers, while others live with their relatives in the shadows. They may not always receive any substitute care, and the uncertainty about the future dominates their lives in such a manner that it may exaccerbate acculturation stress and other psychological problems such as depression (Gonzales et al. 2013). The disruption and insecurity inherent in undocumented status may thus affect social and psychological adjustment, delaying the process of incorporation. Transitional membership statuses among migrants usually pose a dilemma in balancing between integration into the host society and disintegration from the society left behind, whereas unauthorized entry means that their lives are vulnerable and precarious (Enriquez 2015, Donato & Amada 2011). For children, the experience of becoming undocumented puts them at greater risk for the rest of their lives. In conclusion, the loss of the sense of security and well-being associated with uncertain status may produce delayed, detoured, and derailed life trajectories.

Belonging: public schooling and undocumented status

The place of the children of migrants in a society has been always centered around the key issue of integration (Portes & Rivas 2011). The focus is especially on the bedrock issue in integration policy – how migrant children can become engaged citizens of tomorrow. Proposed solutions to a problem are usually addressed to prolonged exposure to the mainstream receiving culture and institutions of a host society as supplemental sources of influence upon downward assimilation (Alba and Nee 2003). However, the first membership experiences with the host society reflect well or badly on the migrants involved. Entry, legalization and naturalization carry important implications for the delayed or even blocked assimilation of children into the receiving country. Rules on the naturalization of the migrant generation and on birthright for the second generation have come under close inspection recently, since many members in the country of immigration have found cultural otherness as the possibility of trouble for national identity and security (Spencer 2016). A general lowering of society’s acceptance of undocumented migration has thus accompanied it. Per- manent fear of adverse immigration consequences and experiencing the feeling of social isolation have a dramatic impact on the possibility that socially disadvantaged migrant children will overcome obstacles of inferior social status and take full advantage of public schooling in the receiving country. Stigmatized by 188 Łukasz Albański their uncertain immigrant status, children may experience a social world ruled by norms and institutions as absurd and morally unstable, because they feel excluded from membership. Migrant children assimilate into the dominant normative patterns of the receiving society through participation in everyday practices in societal institutions (Portes & Rivas 2011). These institutions are not static but change over time in the dynamic interplay between individual or group agency, institutional traditions and discourses, societal practices and material conditions. The multiple transformations that immigrant children experience have dramatic impacts on their identity formation, social network patterns, aspirations and expectations, as well as social and economic mobility. The context of reception thus provides more nuanced approaches on how immigrant children are channeled into different segments of society than a focus on the linear process of assimilation based on human capital gaining. The non-legal status causes undocumented children to do less well than other children of immigrants (Bean et al. 2011), in particular when they transit from de facto protected (as minor) to unprotected status (as adult). In his research on undocumented immigrant children in the United States, Gonzales (2011) shows that there is a considerably high risk that a lifetime of social vulnerability, without citizenship status, will create an underclass of children who have remote chances to overcome the handicap of marginal membership before reaching adulthood. In the European Union, the Platform for International Cooperation for Undocu- mented Migrants (PICUM 2008) has also warned that careful thought about the conditions of undocumented migrant entry and assimilation mode are relatively rare, while barriers to institutional access and social services are common. The conclusion is that undocumented childhood should not be a barrier to the use of basic rights to health, education and legal protection. However, it is unfortunate enough that the practice does not seem to follow the major recommendation for a change in the treatment of undocumented migrant children. The public school system has been always seen as the principal institution that plays a critical role in educating and integrating migrant children into the very fabric of society (Portes & Rivas 2011). The school conjures up the cultural imagination of nation that shapes immigrant pupils’ understanding of their place in society. Moreover, in school, migrant children come to meet native-born teachers and peers, as well as other foreign-born newcomers (like themselves) from different parts of the world. It creates perceptions of where they belong to. Further- more, this secondary socialization mechanism is by far different from what adult migrants encounter. Children grow up with the native-born, while adult migrants absorbed into low-wage markets and ethnic enclaves are usually separated from The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 189 contact with members of the receiving society. Therefore, the school promotes a unique opportunity for the acculturation processes of migrant children. For undocumented migrant children, however, their uncertain status places them in a developmental limbo. They have the legal right to elementary education, but other stages of education are usually problematic, because of costs and legal obstacles (Olivas 2012). In fact, they move from inclusion (protected status of mi- nor) to exclusion (unprotected status as adult) during the final days of secondary education. Moreover, legal restrictions keep them from legal work or applying for financial aid that will help to support their further educational ambitions. Stud- ies show that undocumented status depresses educational aspirations (Bean et al. 2011, Gonzales 2011). Undocumented status also highlights the gap between the role of elementary education in the development and integration of children and limits that shatter their educational trajectories. The difficulty in continuing education sensitizes undocumented late adolescents to the reality that they are barred from further integration into society. In the words of Gonzales (2011), in those days they learn to be illegal.

Undocumented status and transition into adulthood

Generally, life-course scholars point out that the transition into adulthood takes much longer today. This means that young people usually continue their tertiary education, delaying both exit from the parental household and entry into full-time work. They also defer the decision to get married and become a parent. These are usually referred to as the five milestones that put the stamp on the transition into adulthood. The transition thus shows the contradictory roles of childlike dependence and adult independence. As mentioned before, undocumented status creates difficulty in following the normative pathways into adulthood, because undocumented migrant children do not have enough of the normalcy that provides the institutional frameworks by which adolescents are socialized into the roles that they are expected to oc- cupy as adults (Rumbaut & Komoie 2010). Legal restrictions leave them unable to complete some transitions, while deportation remains a constant threat to coming of age. Therefore, the basics of adolescence such as a choice of social role and the search for an adult identity cannot proceed normally. The chronic uncertainty about the future undermines their confidence about long-term prospects. As a result, they do not have the certain degree of ability to choose convenient routes to adulthood. As Gonzales (2011: 605) notes, while the public school context helps 190 Łukasz Albański to sustain their acculturation process and fosters expectations and aspirations that bind undocumented children to the receiving society, it contradicts what awaits them in adulthood. There are different meanings to undocumented status; whereas one stresses the school as a protected space that gives rise to higher hopes for integration into society, the other one animates the experience of illegality at late adolescence. They learn in a heartbreaking way that it will be difficult to realize the hopes and plans they came to the host country with, because they may never acquire a definitive residence permit. Once committed to the belief that their integration is possible, they experience their downfall as some positive outcomes after school are broken.

Children at the center? Children as a minority group

The case of undocumented migrant children underscores the need to develop a solution not limited to ethnic identification and suggestive of alternative modes of belonging. At the core of current child welfare policies, however, lies a powerful blood bias – the assumption that blood relationship is crucial for entitlement to membership of a cultural/national group. Blood is recognized as a significant factor in shaping the quality of the collective identity of individuals. Identity thus becomes a well-defined entity, which is based on the legitimacy of birthright. Even in the age of migration, birthright is the most acceptable way to obtain membership, though the cultural identity of the migrant child has always been a contentious issue in the country of immigration (Portes & Rivas 2011). The presumed lack of the child’s autonomy to state which group she or he belongs to eliminates another identity option. The issue of belonging to a group is thus identified with the matter of being owned by the group. It determines typical ways of dealing with the cultural identity of a small child. There is an implicit assumption that the small child has a cultural identity from birth. The cultural identity of the small child is just the same as the cultural identity of her/his parents. Thus the cultural identity of the child is readily understood as a quasi-genetic entity that is passed through the ties of kinship. It creates a certain belief that the entitlement to membership of a cultural/national group and the absorption of its culture follow an almost genetic destiny. These beliefs are deeply entrenched in law and culture (Montgomery 2009). Either of them puts emphasis on both aspects: parents’ rights to guide their children, and children’ rights to their roots and heritage. It contributes to a deeply shared belief that children belong with and to their biological parents. The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 191

On the contrary, children’s vital needs (outside the biological family) are for someone who is committed to and capable of caring for them today and in their future. In the event that things go terribly wrong, such as those which undocumented migrant children experience, they need to be provided with not only protection and support, but an alternative mode of belonging. However, for undocumented migrant children, who face vulnerability as children and undocumented foreigners, the process can seem additionally complicated. Firstly, they are more likely to inherit the socially inferior status of their parents. Secondly, if they cross borders alone, they will be classified according to their age as a person who is not responsible for her/his actions until she or he legally becomes an adult. Thirdly, they are bound to their culture of origin. Their situation exposes the truth that treating them as belonging, in an essentialist way, to their kin and national/cultural group, often ends up with policies that prevent children from truly belonging to anywhere (Spencer 2016, Wernesjo 2012). This leads to the application of a lower quality of care standards compared to the care for other children and adolescents, which, of course, raises tremendous ethical questions. Do we really care for children? If so, why do we have certain cultural preferences? Some sociologists of childhood thus suggest that children need to be treated as a minority group beyond their primordial ethnic affiliation, yet with respect to cultural diversity (Jenks 1996). The empowerment of unequal childhood could protect children as a minority group against the deprivation of their needs in the name of collective interests. The role of the child will be used as a rationale for the limitation of individual incentives and the vulnerability to restrictive cultural practices. Therefore, the dedication to children’s best interests should not be limited to the connection to the past – their birth heritage and cultural heritage – but involves their individual needs and rights for today and in the future. The strength of this suggestion derives from the experience of the cultural diversity of childhoods, which requires giving children (seen as active subjects) a legal status that will protect them from cultural violence, gender discrimination and unequal treatment (Mayall 1996). The weakness is that the Western liberal discourse on diversity emphasizes the importance of autonomy and identity as the precondition for any resolution of minority rights (Kymlicka 1996). In the case of children, there are certain obstacles to the solution offered by liberal thinkers. Firstly, it contains the problem of determining the child’s capacity to choose autonomously, and of establishing the limits of parenthood. Secondly, it causes a lot of problems to recognize the identification of the cultural identity in relation to children unless the cultural identity of the parent determines the cultural identity of the child. 192 Łukasz Albański

Nevertheless, there is a solution. The degree of capacity for autonomy and identity that children have will depend on their age. Therefore, the transition is a key concept that refers to the passage of the child from being a non-autonomous individual to a young person who is able to decide for herself/himself. It is odd enough, however, that at the same time, when undocumented migrant youth come of age, they enter into a stigmatized and passive identity, which not only prevents them from gaining from social, educational and occupational activities, but disenfranchises them from fighting to change their fate. This means that their further legal incorporation (as early adults) strongly depends on current trends in immigration policies and the political climate. Minority status which underlines the importance of the transitional process of childhood could give them freedom from political caprice and xenophobic propaganda (which are not willing to recognize their rights once they reach the age of majority). Therefore, it is highly recommended to take the transitional process seriously as the starting point in the discussion about undocumented migrant children’ rights for their incorporation into the receiving society.

Conclusion

While scholars generally claim that most young people today face some difficulty in managing adolescent and adult transitions, undocumented migrant youth face added challenges (Gonzales 2011). Legislations agree on the need for the support and care for minors, but all these rights cease when the minor comes of age. They have some access to basic social institutions in early adolescence, but when they transit into an adulthood they are denied everyday participation in most institutions of mainstream life. This means that they are put into an overwhelming powerless social situation and they lose every right to support. Moreover, these young people are likely to remain in the receiving country because of the severe limitation of other options. As a result, they have to learn live as a disfranchised underclass of young adults, who risk being repatriated to their country of origin or another country. In a certain way, one may call it “wasted young lives and life opportunities”. Furthermore, all socialization efforts made by teachers and social workers to integrate them into the receiving society are hampered by a lack of hospitality. The neglect of a sociological perspective on undocumented migrant children concerning their transition to adulthood results in allowing these people to enter very endangering and abusive situations as undocumented immigrants and young adults without supportive social networks. These accumulations in- The challenges of undocumented migrant childhood 193 dicate high risks for dysfunctional behaviors. In the end, differences in quality of child care and welfare based on the minor’s legal status and not on her/his needs call for careful thought about the moral condition of society and its dedication to humanistic values.

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Joanna Kozielska Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinions vs. educational-vocational choices with regard to the situation on the labour market

Key words: Planning of the future Abstract: The proposed text is an illustration of selected of vocational education, voca- conclusions from a four-module research project con- tional counselling, labour market, ducted in one of the Wielkopolska counties (Gniezno youth, vocational education County). The aim of the empirical verification was to make a description of educational and professional plans of middle-school students from the Gniezno County, to become acquainted with employers’ opinions on the situation in the local labor market, to become acquainted with employment plans, to become familiar with opinions on the preparation of graduates of particular types of schools (vocational schools), to become familiar with opinions of principals of secondary schools on the state of vocational education and to become familiar with opinions of students of last secondary school grades on the situation on the labour market, the offer of vocational education and the self-assessment of the preparation to enter the labour market. The research was conducted in the 1st quarter of 2016 and 2017 using the diagnostic survey method (after the year-long campaign “Vocational School is OK”). The paper is based on one of the study modules – a study of middle school students that was conducted in 2016 – the findings from the 2017 study will be cited in some places for comparative purposes only. Due to specific characteristics of the research topic, the selection of the research sample was random. Middle school students (N = 486 in 2016 and N = 490 in 2017), secondary school students (N = 503 – 2016 and N = 498 – 2017), secondary school principals (N = 6 in 2016 and 2017) and the biggest employers from the Gniezno County (N = 78 in 2016, N = 102 in 2017). This project was carried out on the basis of 196 Joanna Kozielska

the diagnostic survey method.. The content analysis method was used, involving the local traditional (printed) and internet press and the thematic work edited by the County Labour Office in Gniezno and other institutions. This paper deals with educational and vocational choices of middle school students in the context of the situation on the local labour market (which, as it turns out, do not correspond to its needs), at the same time revealing in the shortcomings of vocational counselling. With regard to the specific nature of the region, attention has also been paid to the perception of vocational education, which is evaluated negatively by the middle school student community, even though its offer turns to be rich. However, in the reality of the local labour market, vocational school seems to be a rational educational choice that does not block access to higher education. The reflections on vocational education constitute an additional element of the publication. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 195-204 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.15

Educational choices of young people

Specific and constantly changing conditions of social-cultural space resulted in the “prolongation of the period of preparation for participation in the community of adults (moratorium – no longer a child, but not an adult yet)” (Krzychała, 2007, p. 8); this, in turn, gave rise to a “new phase of life and new social space” and this is how the “phenomenon of youth was born” (Krzychała, 2007, p. 8). This category of persons is at the stage of development that involves making decisions about their own future. It is worth stressing that the “formation of partner and family relationships and the modelling of social-vocational career is currently an open task for the entire life that is constantly modified and redefined. It is an obvious, even triv- ial statement for us – the participants of the society of lifelong learners. Learning and work are essential elements through which the social profile of the biography is built and young people enter various tracks of vocational life that characterise paths of life of adults” (Piorunek, 2004b, p. 27). Below you will find conclusions from surveys where respondents were young inhabitants of the Gniezno County. In the survey of the last grades of middle-school students (256 K, 230 M) (2016), the most active group consisted of students from middle schools in Gniezno; among Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinions 197 the rest of middle school students from the county, few filled the survey questionnaire. Consequently, the vast majority of middle school students (68.30%) participating in the survey live in the city; only every third student lives in the countryside (31.70%). The structure of education of parents – respondents is very diverse; nearly 60% (57.60%) of fathers are graduates of basic vocational schools and technical schools; 16% of fathers completed higher education. As regards the education of mothers, the group of basic vocational school graduates is also large (every third mother). How- ever, nearly 10% more mothers than fathers (25.00%) completed higher education. We should be alarmed by the fact that every 5th middle school student does not know from which school his/her parents graduated. Knowledge about the education of parents is one of the first stages of vocational consultancy – vocational orientation, stimulation of cognitive curiosity concerning the professional life and educational choices of close relatives – not only parents, but also grandparents, siblings etc. Students from the group of respondents obtained diversified grade averages. Most of them (almost 20%) are persons who obtained a grade average between 3.5 and 4.0 in the winter semester of the school year 2015-16; persons with an average of 3.00-3.50 and 4.0 and 4.5 form almost equal groups (around 17%). Every fifth student achieved an average of 4.50-5.00. 15 persons do not know whether they continue their education or do not intend to continue education, whereas almost 97.00% of respondents from the reported research sample intend to continue their education. Their plans were essentially specified at the time of measurement. (The survey was conducted in the last grade of middle school half a year before the end of the school year). Secondary schools of general education were the most popular choice among future middle school graduates. Over 50.00% of students declare that they are familiar with the offer of secondary education, but they need information support with regard to the educational offer in the Gniezno County. Every tenth student says that he/she is completely unfamiliar with the educational-vocational offer in the city; 37.40% declare that they have full knowledge regarding the offer. Interestingly enough, even without knowing the offer, they declare – as presented above – that they have already chosen their future school. The presented survey was conducted half a year before the possibility of making an authentic choice of the further level of education. After the juxtaposition of surveys from February and data of the County Starost Office in Gniezno (N=1216 all middle school students of the county) with recruitment data (July), it turned out that (forecasted) choices (being the subject-matter of the project in question) overlapped (in terms of popularity of particular types of schools) with actual choices of graduates of middle schools. 43.00% of students decided to learn in secondary school of general education, 37% of middle school 198 Joanna Kozielska

In what type of school ar eyou going to continue eduaction?

40,00% 37,70%

35,00% 31,30% 30,00%

25,00%

20,00%

15,00% 12,60%

10,00%

5,00% 0,20% 1,00% 0,00% Secondary School Technical Basic Vocational Qualifying Vocational School School Vocational Courses for Students with Special Educational Needs Chart 1. Students’ educational plans 90 Source: Own work. Enter exams results 80 graduates70 chose technical schools, whereas 20.00% of students chose vocational schools. However,60 as a result of declarations made in February, the authorities of 50 the county reduced the number of divisions in secondary schools Secondary of school general ed- 40 ucation. In declarations from February, nearly 40.00% of middleTechnical school students 30 th planned to choose secondary school of general education, althoughBasic Vocational every School 10 student hadNomberof candidates not20 decided yet in which type of class he wanted to learn (the remaining respondents10 chose arts classes and defence classes most frequently). Every third 0 respondent intended0 2 4 to6 continue8 10 12his/her14 16 education18 20 22in technical school, and only th every 10 respondent wantedpoints to attend x10 basic vocational school. It is worth noting that middle school students decide to learn in secondary school of general education irrespective of their average grades. This is confirmed by data presented above, which exemplify results of middle school tests with regard to the secondary school to which middle school graduate has been admitted. A vast majority of students who declare that they will continue education in vocational schools and technical schools were able to identify and name the profession they chose (72.00%), but some of them (38.00%) indicated professions that cannot be learned in the aforementioned schools, e.g., psychologist, therapist, doctor, teacher, criminologist, lawyer, sports commentator, etc. Moreover, most of those who chose basic vocational school (64%) were unable to indicate what predispositions are necessary to practice the profession chosen by them. In addition, over 62.00% of students were unable to indicate the professions for which there is demand on the labour market (at least the local one). This means that they In what type of school ar eyou going to continue eduaction?

40,00% 37,70%

35,00% 31,30% 30,00%

25,00%

20,00%

15,00% 12,60%

10,00%

5,00% 0,20% 1,00% 0,00% Secondary School Technical Basic Vocational Qualifying Vocational School School Vocational Courses for Students with Special Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinionsEducational Needs 199

90 Enter exams results 80 70 60 50 Secondary school 40 Technical 30 Basic Vocational School

Nomberof candidates 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 points x10 Chart 2. Results of middle school examinations Source: Own work on the basis of data of the County Starost Office in Gniezno made basically random decisions. After one year of duration of the program “Vo- cational School is OK”, whose beneficiaries were parents and students and under which career advisers and employers promoted vocational education, the trend was reversed and 42.50% of students declared they would choose technical school, 37.50% opted for secondary school of general education and 20.00% would choose 1st degree vocational school. The researcher of post-accession economic migrations was surprised by the low level of declarations of mobility for education or employment purposes in the research group. 88.00% of middle school students declared their will to learn “on the spot’; in the case of respondents, this meant learning in Gniezno, and only every 10th student considers the possibility of moving to another city (e.g., Poznań, which is 50 km away and has a broader educational offer).

Specific characteristics of the local labour market

Middle school students made their decisions at random – as they declared, they did so without knowing the needs of the local and regional (not to mention nationwide) labour market and their predispositions and professional interests. This exposes once again the poor condition of career counselling – its first module refers to becoming familiar with oneself, whereas the second refers to the knowledge of the local/regional educational offer and specific characteristics of the local/regional labour market. The list of industries identified as industries with biggest development potential and/or industries of strategic importance for the Wielkopolska Province and the barometer of professions and specialisations indicate 44 shortage professions 200 Joanna Kozielska on the regional level. Most of them are the professions that require the completion of vocational education (24 professions). The list of shortage professions in the Gniezno County and, more broadly, the region includes, e.g., computer system administrators; analysts, testers and operators of ICT systems; concreters and steel fixers; car sheet metal workers; building carpenters and woodworkers; building roofers and sheet metal workers; financial and investment advisers; elec- tromechanical engineers and installation electricians; hairdressers and barbers; computer graphic designers; plumbers; mechanical engineers; waiters and bar- tenders; truck tractor drivers; tailors and clothes production employees; cooks; car sprayers; building painters; machine and equipment mechanics; motor vehicle mechanics; building system fitters; bricklayers; vocational training teachers; foot- wear makers; caregivers for elderly or disabled persons; nurses; kitchen assistants; floor layers; accounting and bookkeeping employees; building workers; wood processing workers and woodworkers; farmers and breeders; independent accoun- tants; MIG/MAG method welders; TIG method welders; automation and robotics specialists; production organisation specialists; chefs; upholsterers; electric technicians; mechanical technicians; plasterers. The vast majority of shortage professions are those taught in basic vocational schools and technical schools. Local employers declare that employees most frequently sought by them are graduates of technical schools (100.00%), basic vocational schools (60.00%) and universities of technology (40.00%); as many as 80.00% of employees declare that, in spite of their numerous efforts (job offers on the Internet, in the local press and media; internal recruitments; co-operation with the labour office, employment agencies and schools), they find it very hard to find an employee whose professional profile would correspond to the company’s needs.

Lowered perception of vocational education

Because of its lowered perception, vocational education is not popular among young people; the choice of vocational school is a negative choice that is often preceded by school failures. Associations concerning technical schools are more favourable. Middle school students associate technical schools with the fact that they will acquire the profession and take secondary school final examinations; young people stress: ‘we can, but don’t have to undertake studies, because we already have vocational education,’ ‘you can take final examinations and the title of technician is yours,’, ‘it is good when you want to acquire both the profession and higher education,’ ‘I can Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinions 201 study and I’m oriented towards a specific profession.’ The biggest number of pejo- rative associations concerned basic vocational schools; respondents think that this school is for persons with low ambitions and after graduation it is very difficult to find a job or only low-paid work is available. These beliefs are exemplified by respondents’ answers: ‘I have negative connotations with vocational school – parents have always warned me against it, or even threatened that if I didn’t study hard, I would go there and have a hard life’ (K/2016/12). ‘Vocational school is only for blockheads who achieve the worst results, because it is on the lowest level and they can cope only there ...’ (K/2016/77). ‘I’ve always known that I would choose general secondary school and studies; I’ve never thought of vocational school, when I go by bus, I see boys from there who do the cleaning work in these blue uniforms; I wouldn’t like to do this; I prefer learning to working at an early age ... I will have a better job and more money after studies’ (K/2016/16). ‘Vocational school is for worse students who do not cope; later they find it hard to find a job and earn little ...’ (M/2016/23). ‘I associate vocational school with hard work, dirt behind nails and drunken guys on the building site; I prefer secondary school, it guarantees a better future’ (K/2016/107). ‘I don’t think much of vocational school; you can’t find a good job after it, and today you have to learn and study to find work’ (M/2016/65). ‘I associate vocational school with the weakest students who would not cope anywhere else; I perceive it as a place for boys rather than girls that involves uninterest- ing jobs, hard manual work on building sites and dirty uniforms...’ (K/2016/54). ‘It’s a school for lazy and illiterate persons; some of my classmates are like this; they’re up to no good, vocational school is the only suitable place, if any, for them’ (K/2016/17). ‘I would be ashamed of going there; it’s well-known that this school is for the worst students’ (K/2016/54). There were only few positive opinions concerning the fact that vocational school helps to acquire a certain profession and its graduates can start work immediately. ‘Vocational schools are not that bad; I have a friend who is young and already runs her own hairdresser’s salon and is very successful; her friends learn and have nothing, and she does a great job and makes a good living; she can afford everything and is independent ...’ (K/2016/77). ‘It’s a fine place because you can immediately get a job and earn your own money; and, after all, you can continue education at the same time,’ (M/2016/76). ‘These schools are good for those who have a family business, for example, I have a friend whose parents run a patisserie, so he is going to learn there (in vocational school) in order to take this business over from his parents’ (M/2016/12). ‘My mother is a vocational school graduate and has her own tailoring shop; she never complains, she says that she does what 202 Joanna Kozielska she likes, she works for herself, so I think it is a fine thing, and my father works in a warehouse; he works hard, but he says that he would find it even harder to get accustomed to clerical work; he graduated from vocational school, too, and he says that this school gave him a lesson of life ...’ (M/2016/34). As mentioned above, vocational school is associated with poor students; S. Kwiatkowski points out that vocational school is difficult, and its students gain not only theoretical, but also practical knowledge. (cf. S. Kwiatkowski, 2001) As can be seen, the labour market of the Gniezno County is characterised by a shortage of specialists in industries for which vocational and technical schools educate their students. For the last few years, the educational offer of secondary schools has been invariably inadequate (even though it is very rich) to the personnel needs of employers; an analysis of the educational offer of schools allows us to state that education in almost 60 professions is available in the county, including all shortage professions identified above. However, conclusions from employers’ studies show that professions (e.g., a welder or an automation fitter) often fits the category of a shortage profession (literally), but, because of obsolete education technologies, the graduate fails to match the profile of the candidate being sought. Moreover, employers use latest technologies in their work; according to declarations of school principals in their studies, such technologies are absent in their schools. In connection with the above, teachers are also incompetent in respect of modern technologies. Engaging practical training teachers is a very serious problem. Underfinanced vocational education results in a decrease of the quality of learning. 80% of employers participating in surveys stated that employees are available, but it is impossible to find a candidate with relevant education and qualifications; they declare that things would improve after the implementation of an adequate education system considering market needs, a programme of internships improving the competence of the future graduate, a programme of additional training courses, the delivery of equipment analogous to employers’ equipment to school workshops, a job fair, lectures in schools, the improvement of the significance and modernisation of vocational education – schools should be provided with equipment used in the given workplace so that the graduate could be fully prepared for work immediately upon completion of education and internships. None of the employers reported the lack of difficulty in finding an employee. In enterprises covered by the study, the biggest group of employees comprises employees with basic vocational and secondary vocational education. Such results mean that mainly persons having specific vocational qualifications and competences stand a higher chance of employment on the local market in the Gniezno Vocational school is (not) OK? Vocational school in middle school students’ opinions 203

County. Obviously, graduates can migrate to other cities in search of employment; however, it must be stressed that respondents forming the research group do not declare the will to migrate.

Summary

Educational and vocational choices of middle school students from the group in question seem to be based on the stochastic strategy and the safety strategy. In terms of planning their educational & vocational future, young people seem to rely on others’ opinions and current trends that are not compatible with the needs of the local labour market, which means that the optimisation of trends at least in the local environment becomes a challenge. Middle school students more often decide to continue education in secondary schools of general education than in vocational schools. This may be a consequence of the lowered perception of vocational schools. Schools that, in respondents’ opinions, should be avoided. The hardly visible activity of career advisers does not improve things, either. What forms, therefore, is a vicious circle: negatively perceived vocational school and educational & vocational choices focusing on secondary schools of general education. In addition, it is necessary to take into account local employers who permanently seek personnel (in professions taught in vocational schools). The situation of the county is not an isolated case; it is a part of the nationwide situation presented, for example, in the report A Shortage of Talents – a cyclic survey of ManpowerGroup aimed at determining the scale of the problem encountered by employers seeking employees for their organisations. Around 40,000 respondents from over 40 countries, including 750 from Poland, take part in the annual survey conducted by Manpow- erGroup around the world since 2006 and in Poland since 2008. The respondents are persons responsible for the personnel policy in small, medium-sized and large private companies and state-owned institutions. 45% of employers in Poland report difficulties in acquiring employees. It is the highest rate in the last 6 years. In the global ranking that encompasses 43 states from around the world, Poland is classified in the first half, exceeding the global average. The most numerous vocational groups marked by the largest shortage of talents include qualified manual employees, engineers and drivers. Qualified manual workers have been invariably the vocational group whose representatives are the most difficult to find during the last few years. It includes, among others, mechanics, electricians, welders, fitters, forklift truck operators, bricklayers, printers, woodworkers or lathe-operators. The second place is occupied by drivers; immediately behind them there are engineers. 204 Joanna Kozielska

Thus, a serious challenge for the education system is to reform vocational schools (which will see in the nearest future) so that they would be perceived fa- vourably by students having to choose school and their graduates would be prepared for work in the environment of the state-of-the-art technologies; another important issue should be to restore the high rank of vocational education.

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Kamila Słupska Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Activity of young people studying in their free time

Keywords: time, free time, study- Abstract: The article concerns students’ free time. It in- ing youth, activity, culture of free cludes theoretical explanations concerning the essence time and meaning of the main above-mentioned category, review of the outcomes of a research conducted on free time activities of the studying youth, and – as an illustration to these considerations – a report from a personal research. As a part of it, the respondents referred to, among others, the significance of free time in life, its functions, ways of making use of it (actual and desired ones), and factors contributing to it. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 205-223 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.16

Taking care of (free) time...

Referring to two attitudes towards time, shaped by the influence of cultural factors, attitudes towards time described by Tad James – “in time” and “through time” – a question could be posed: which one of them dominates in the current landscape? The former is characterised by the focus on the present, which makes a person fully engaged in what is happening at present (its specificity refers to the culture of the East). The latter, on the other hand, provides easy access to the past and the future, which makes it difficult to focus on what is “here and now” – this philosophy is characteristic of Western culture. Using the “time crunch” category, Philip G. Zimbardo analyses the attitude in feeling the strong pressure of time, which manifests itself, among other things, in irritation in the situation of waiting for something. “[...]although thousands of devices make our everyday lives easier, we 206 Kamila Słupska work longer than ever and have no time for certain activities, considered to be wasting it [...], such as meetings with friends, religious life, family ceremonies. [...] The multitude of events taking place in the environment makes us feel that our time is not our time” (Sobol-Kwapińska 2007, p. 70-71). It also has consequences for the perception (or not) of the importance of free time, i.e. the category which on the one hand seems to be something obvious that has always existed “although “as a product of modern, industrialised society, a derivative of the industrial revo- lution, the separation of sacred and profane [...] there is no equivalent of it in the previous political systems” (Orłowska 2007 b, p. 66), inscribed in everyday life, and on the other hand – being its element, encourages reflection and discussion, taking into account the specificity of the present reality, the pace of life, people’s expectations and duties. Maria Czerepaniak-Walczak distinguishes three categories of definitions of free time: structural (their essence is to list the activities that are performed in free time); functional (the emphasis is on its purpose) and attributive (containing the attributes of that time, in the context of the life and activity of the individual), proposing an original definition according to which “free time is the interval of subjective life in which a person experiences intellectual, emotional and physical well-being, as a result of the possibility of independent, sovereign manifestation of activities which are voluntary and non-commercial and which are a source of satisfaction. [...] free time is the tissue of personal life, a confirmation of oneself as an individual, and at the same time it gives an opportunity to participate in the public sphere – civic, mass culture, religious, etc.” (Czerepaniak-Walczak 2007, p. 222 and 236). On the grounds of social pedagogy, a lot of attention was paid to the analysed category by Aleksander Kamiński, whose proposal, referring to the above classification, belongs to the category of structural definitions: “Free time is that part of the time budget which is not occupied by normal or additional gainful work, by systematic education, by satisfying basic physiological needs [...] or by domestic chores [...], and can be used either for recreation or for family life, social responsibilities and activities with short-term benefits.” He also proposed that this concept be filled with content, using the term “recreation,” defined as “a part of our free time, which can be freely and voluntarily used and filled with rest, play and mental work (self-education), as well as social, artistic, sporting, technical and other activities undertaken as needed for our own development.” As a supplement, he also introduced the category of “partially free time”, which he understood as “a part of the time budget allocated to activities carried out with a sense of duty to perform them or awareness of material benefits, but which we also perform with a certain degree of freedom” (Kamiński 1980, p. 352). He thus pointed to both the Activity of young people studying in their free time 207 quantitative (part of the general budget of time) and qualitative (filling with content) dimension of free time. These two categories are also believed to be significant and used by Anna Zawadzka, who also devotes much attention to detailing the conditions necessary for its occurrence (non-mandatory, voluntary, conscious nature) (Orłowska 2007a, p. 583-587). Ramon Ramos Torre presents three contemporary ways of referring to time metaphorically – time as a resource; time as a specific external environment; time as a horizon of intentionality – which, as Tomasz Szlendak points out, cannot be escaped, because they are imposed by participation in social life. That is why we can observe more and more frequent entrapment of people who work today by time, for example generating free time “in spaces and areas previously considered to be inviolable ‘time of necessity’,” “scraping” free time from working time (due to new technologies) (Szlendak 2009, p. 202-205). On the other hand, according to Stanisław Zagórny, we are entering a laborious phase of mutual approximation of two orders: work and free time, which is necessary in order to provide an opportunity for the full development of social personality. There is a paradox here: working time, which is tiring by nature, is less tiring (duties are known, defined in advance) than time spent relaxing (when it is necessary to plan its schedule and put some intellectual effort into it) (Zagórny 2011, p. 226). It is therefore important to pay attention to the leisure activities of all generations: • Children – so that they can play, develop their interests and use their predispositions (and thus avoid the emergence of various phenomena defined by Aneta Jegier, such as the “occupied child syndrome”, where their entire time is filled with activities imposed on them by adults, which makes them only passive consumers, as well as the “child neglected due to welfare”, where they are surrounded by an abundance of toys that they do not know how to use. (Jegier 2016, p. 7-8; see also: Orłowska, Błeszyński 2016; Kostrubiec 2008; Nowak 2009; Charaśna-Blachucik 2011); • Youth – so that they are aware of the purpose of their free time and able to make full and satisfactory use of their own free time and its potential (see for example: Seul-Michałowska 2008; Tomaszewska 2014; Zasacka 2014; Charaśna-Blachucik 2011; Graczykowska et al. 2011; Walentynowicz-Moryl 2011; Trzop, Szaban 2011; Bojanowicz 2014); • Adults, constituting an extremely broad category, diversified in terms of their life situation, including professional life – free time of working persons, free time activity of the unemployed, structure of post-retirement time (see for example: Orłowska 2007 b; Borkowska, Mroczkowska 2012; Krzyżanowska 208 Kamila Słupska

2012; Woszczyk 2009; Domańska 2009), resulting from successive stages (see Daniel Levinson’s stages of adult life; the stages of cognitive development according to Warner Shaie, Zimbardo 2004, p. 205), so that they can balance work and free time, and the change in the dynamics of their activity did not entail the loss of the sense of social functioning. In this article, the author focuses on the issue of free time of students as representatives of the young generation. She invokes arguments related to this subject matter, both theoretically and empirically, reviewing research analyses in a syn- thetic form, as well as illustrating her reflections with a communiqué from her own research.

Free time in students’ lives

The authors of the Report on the State and Diversity of Urban Culture in Poland emphasise that, according to contemporary perception, participation in culture covers the entire period of an individual’s activity. The following categories can therefore be distinguished from leisure time in its broadest sense: • time for oneself – at the exclusive disposal of the individual, filled with various behaviours and activities, which are part of the “passivity – considerable effort” continuum; it is limited mainly by compulsory activities, financial situation and availability of cultural offer, it can be daily and occur during holiday time, it is also time for family and/or friends • time that is unorganised and uncontrolled – in relation to the young generation it is characterised by lack of supervision of adults, it is highly valued and spent mainly among peers; • compulsory free time – free time of the unemployed, or children and young people brought up in neglected environments, characterised by frustration, related to boredom and the occurrence of negative behaviours; • seemingly free time – available to mothers on parental leave, retirees or pen- sioners, as well as some of the unemployed working in the so-called grey market, “people forced to participate in culture or imposing on themselves a healthy lifestyle regime, children and young people with so-called organised leisure (Fatyga, 2009). According to the results of the study carried out in 2008, which took into account free time in the sense of “time for oneself”, more of its forms are realised not at home, but outside. The activities carried out outside include meetings in pubs, cafés, restaurants, weekend trips outside the city, shopping in malls, visits to the Activity of young people studying in their free time 209 cinema, theatre, walks, going to discos or music clubs, sports, music concerts, as well as gardening. At home, on the other hand, people watch television, read newspapers and books, use computers and surf the Internet, meet friends, create and engage in do-it-yourself activities, clean, sleep and care for their children. Youth “leave home, seek entertainment in the city and hang out with their peers. Often, their financial situation becomes an obstacle. [...] A division can be observed between hanging out in public space (with peers) and private space (with a partner). Among the dominant form, there are music clubs and meetings in pubs or cafés, followed by sports (mainly bicycle, gym, skateboard, roller skates, but also more elite urban sports, such as parkour, turbogolf, freestyle cycling)” (Fatyga, 2009). It also seems symptomatic that “[...] in the opinion of young respondents, free time spent away from home is usually filled with entertainment, while high culture (theatre, art galleries, avant-garde) is rather the subject of interest of the elite individuals, or its use results from a type of environmental pressure or snobbery. Even in large academic centres, it is difficult to find traces of student culture, which flourished in the times of the Polish People’s Republic. Student clubs are no different from other clubs, and students, who are usually engaged in gainful employment, declare that they have very little time for themselves” (Pęczak 2010, p. 106). The results of the research conducted by Katarzyna Klimkowska on a group of 84 students (of applied linguistics, as well as culture animation and management) indicate that the most common forms of spending free time are: entertainment, socialising and using the mass media (mainly the Internet, TV and listening to music, while the level of readership turns out to be very low.) The use of cultural institutions is not popular, unlike sport, tourism or self-development. The rates of religious activity at that time are also not high. As far as preferences are concerned, respondents would like to spend their free time on having fun and entertainment, resting, as well as working on themselves. Referring to the types of participation in culture distinguished by Dzierżymir Jankowski, the author concludes that the participating students represent mainly the third type – intensive, sometimes quite versatile, but only perceptive activity. It cannot be said, however, that they suffer from “cultural anaemia,” because they meet their aesthetic needs and interact with the world of art through new technologies (Klimkowska 2008, p. 234-235), which undoubtedly enable and facilitate the performance of the role of both viewer and creator (Słupska, 2015.) On the other hand, empirical analyses conducted by Małgorzata Przybysz-Za- remba, who conducted research among 260 students of five faculties – pedagogy, philology, Polish studies, economics and computer science – show that 81% of them spend their free time actively, on participating in social gatherings (59.2%), 210 Kamila Słupska walking (53.8%), shopping (37.3%), going to dance clubs (35.7%), going to the cinema (33%), practising sports (26.5%), going to the theatre or participating in concerts (20%). On the other hand, the most frequently mentioned passive forms, indicated by 19% of the respondents in total, are: listening to music, using a computer, watching television and sleeping (Przybysz-Zaremba 2008, p. 103-105). Another study of the culture of free time of academic youth (humanities and economics) in a medium-sized city, carried out in two stages (in 2007 and 2012) by Karolina A. Zaniewska showed that students prefer to spend their free time in the company of their friends, using the Internet and watching television. Com- pared to the first stage, listening to music has lost some of its popularity. What differentiates the preferences of students of humanities and economics was reading books – in the case of the former – higher in the ranking (stage I: 33%, stage II: 27%), in the case of the latter – lower in the ranking (stage I: 16%, stage II: 17%) – and practising sport (reverse trend; students of economics, stage I: 17%, stage II: 30%, students of humanities, stage I: 13%, stage II: 19%). Other free time activities include going to dance clubs, meetings in student clubs and walks. On the other hand, what makes respondents similar is that they do not often mention such forms of spending free time as sleeping, playing computer games, thinking, going to the cinema and theatre, shopping, as well as artistic activities. Travel has not been popular either, nor has self-improvement or volunteering. Lack of free time was declared by almost equal group of students in the first and second stages of research (stage I: 3% among students of humanities and 2% among students of technical faculties; stage II: 4% and 3% respectively) (Zaniewska 2012, p. 132-141). Empirical research on free time activities of students (N=133) of psychology at the Catholic University of Lublin and tourism at the University of Rzeszów (which constituted a part of a larger project), conducted by Agata Błachnio and Aneta Przepiórka, also showed that the focus in this area is placed on social contact, followed by reading and sports, with taking up work and volunteering being the least popular. Using the cluster analysis method, two groups were also distinguished: active (N=77, high scores for all activities) and passive (N=56, low scores or zero scores) (Błachnio, Przepiórka 2008, p. 275-281). Students of pedagogy, participating in the research conducted by Lidia Marek (the cohort consisted of 344 people), formulating their own definitions of free time, stressed mainly freedom (from learning, from work; from orders and prohi- bitions), privacy (free time as personal time) and pleasure, as well as the functions of rest/leisure, ludic, creative, developmental and integration. The most popular idea for free time implemented by the respondents is the use of mass media (radio, television, Internet – first of all; books, press – apparent lower interest), meetings Activity of young people studying in their free time 211 with other people are also popular, including ludic activities (games reducing emotional tension, for example meetings with dancing during private parties, in the clubs or in dance clubs,) outdoors relaxation (although sports do not place high in the ranking), shopping and visits at shopping malls, tourism, understood as trips away from home, undertaken for recreation purposes and lasting at least two days, developing interests and hobbies, followed by sleep and passive relaxation, as well as: volunteering, participation in various types of organisations and cultural events (35.5% each), which turns out not to be very attractive in comparison with other forms of spending free time. The place where most participants come into contact with culture is the Internet, which gives them an opportunity to participate in cultural events, as well as to partake in creative endeavours (Marek, 2012), which has already been mentioned above. According to the study carried out in 2007 by Patrycja Hanyga-Janczak among a group of 734 students of two universities: Jan Kochanowski University (majoring in pedagogy) and Kielce University of Technology (majoring in construction), the most popular forms of spending free time include watching television, using a computer, meeting friends and reading (books and magazines); however, these activities are not always compatible with the interests of the respondents, of whom only half expressed their satisfaction with taking advantage of their free time. The most frequently indicated obstacles standing in the way of the realisation of their dreams connected with the choice of a form of spending free time, where students from both groups opted for travels, courses and social meetings; differences in choice occurred in the case of practising sport (selected more often by students of the University of Technology) and participation in cultural events (selected more often by students of the University) are lack of funds, insufficient time and lack of information about the events taking place (Hanyga-Janczak, 2011, p. 65). The results of the survey completed by 23 students of the first year of English Studies (aged 20–22 years), where five main spheres of human existence – physical, mental, sociological, cultural and spiritual – were identified, and the forms of free time activities chosen by young people during the summer holidays were listed within them, show that mental and social activities were selected to be the most attractive (primarily: leisure and making up for the sleep deficit, visiting friends, developing thinking, the top ten also included: activities related to the needs of association and communication with friendly people, as well as activities related to the development of memory and reading books; only one item was related to physical exercise – going to the gym). Among the least popular forms are spiritual and physical activities. The respondents were also able to indicate any number of days (having 30 days at their disposal ) for each activity. It turned out that they were able 212 Kamila Słupska to spend most of their time on activities related to mental activity of recreational and cognitive nature (9 days on average), then – on meeting social needs (6 days on average), cultural and physical activity (4 days on each) and only about half a day on the spiritual sphere. Respondents also stressed the attractiveness of particular forms by allocating specific amounts of money to them (having a monthly budget of PLN 3,000 at their disposal). It turned out that they would most willingly spend this sum on physical, as well as cultural and social activities (shopping, pubs, concerts, combat sports, relaxation, followed by meeting new acquaintances, gyms, mountain tourism, sailing and swimming). Jacek Z. Górnikiewicz summed up the analyses by pointing out that similar surveys, which would cover a larger number of people from socially diverse groups and be more representative of them, could be a source of inspiration for entities involved in the organisation of free time (at the local, regional and national level), as well as turn out to be inspiring for representatives of the media promoting various forms of free time activities and for the participants themselves as future parents (Górnikiewicz 2014, p. 138-151). This conclusion may constitute a universal justification for the need to undertake continuous empirical explorations, the effects of which have not only a diagnostic and cognitive dimension, but also serve practical purposes, both in the current and prospective perspective.

I rest, have fun, develop interests… (research communique)

The considerations presented above can be illustrated with the results of research carried out in the academic year 2015-2016 among pedagogy students at the Fac- ulty of Educational Studies of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. The research methodology employed was diagnostic survey, using the questionnaire technique. The research group comprised 52 persons aged 20–24 (including: 20 years – 15.38%, 21 years – 44.23%, 22 years – 28.85%, 23 years – 5.77%, 24 years – 3.85%, no answer – 1.92%), mainly women (94.23%, men – 5.77%). Respondents were asked to assess the importance of free time in the life of a young person. Most of them expressed the opinion that it is very important (73.08%), giving their own justifications, which, in order to organise the empirical material, were classified into the following categories: • opportunity to rest and regenerate – 44.23%; • opportunity to develop passions and interests – 40.38%; • opportunity to maintain relations with others/meet with family and friends – 13.46%; Activity of young people studying in their free time 213

• opportunity to reflect on oneself – 3.85%, • opportunity to realise plans and dreams – 3.85%, • opportunity to do something useful – 1.92%; • opportunity to devote time to what you like – 1.92%, • opportunity to see the world – 1.92%, • opportunity to gain life experience – 1.92%, • learning opportunities – 1.92%, • others – 5.77% (“this is a time that we can plan only for ourselves”; “we can happily enjoy life”; “there is very little of it and young people want to do so much”; “this is a time when young people can still ‘go wild’ in their lives, take advantage of this time before they reach adulthood”). On the other hand, 26.92% of the respondents stated that it is important, indicating mainly rest and recuperation – 21.15% (additionally: contact with relatives – 3.85%, developing passions and interests – 1.92%). The students were also asked to estimate the amount of free time they had (Table 1). They have more free time at their disposal during the weekend (61.63% have 5 hours or more), 25% of them have about 3–4 hours, and 3 people stressed that they do not have any free time at all (at the same time 2 of them declared that they have about 2 hours during the week, while 2 more respondents declared having less than 2 hours).

Table 1.

during a week on weekend Amount of free time (%) (%) 5 hours or more 36.54 61.53 approx. 3-4 hours 38.46 25.00 approx. 2 hours 19.23 3.85 less than 2 hours 5.77 3.85 none 0 5.77 Source: own research and calculations.

Referring to the amount of free time they had, respondents indicated mainly two answers: 20 people said they did not have enough of it, while 19 people thought they had enough of it. It is worth noting that almost 20% (10 respondents) noticed a problem with the proper use of their free time, and only 1 person indicated that they had too much free time (earlier they declared that they had 5 hours or more at their disposal both during the week and on weekends). (Table 2). 214 Kamila Słupska

Table 2.

I believe that: % Generally speaking, I do not have any free time. 3.85 I do not have enough free time. 38.46 I have enough free time 36.54 I have enough free time, but I also have a problem with planning it properly. 19.23 I have too much free time 1.92 Source: own research and calculations.

Forms of spending free time constitute a certain order, “the combination of elements of time and its organisation.” They have a variety of functions (such as leisure, entertainment, self-fulfilment), define specific activities (for example “recreational events, holidays, team games and individual activities”), overlap [...] and complement each other in the overall impact on a person’s personality.” However, each of them “has a different meaning, especially in the context of the requirements of modern civilisation and educational tasks” (Truszkowska-Wojtkowiak 2012, p. 116). The behaviours in free time can vary greatly. Kazimierz Migdał clas- sifies them into the following categories (often complementary): • Activities with an emphasis on recreation (passive leisure, active leisure, social contacts); • Religious practices. • Creative activities, learning, helping others. • Tourism in various forms. • Asocial, antisocial and pathological behaviours. • Additional gainful employment (in this case free time loses its original character) (Migdał 2011, p. 36-37). On the other hand, Krzysztof Przecławski, divides the behaviours of young people in their free time into ways of spending this time (individual and in groups) and behavioural patterns related to it and defines the following categories of group patterns: • intellectual (e.g. clubs); • artistic (e.g. amateur theatres); • social (e.g. helping others); • technical; • sports; • tourism; • cultural; Activity of young people studying in their free time 215

• ludic–social; • pathological (source: Przecławski 1978, after: Walczak 1994, p. 14-15). In response to the question about the real and desired forms of free time activities, respondents were asked to indicate no more than four types of activities from a list consisting of 14 proposals, the last of which was open (Fig. 1). Meetings with friends are by far the most popular (selected 46 times – 88.46%), followed by using computer and the Internet (31 times – 59.62%) and meetings with family (22 times – 42.31%), reading books, watching TV, listening to music, doing nothing, walks, sports, pursuing interests and going to dance clubs/events (equal number of picks), cinema/theatre/concerts. None of the respondents uses the offer of the community centre, which indicates that it is not perceived as an institution which guarantees interesting ways of spending their free time, which may be the result of the lack of knowledge of the offer and stereotypical perception of its activities, while it (often!) plays an important role in the activation of young people (cf. Słupska 2016), including older ones. Four respondents selected “other” and specified that they participate in brass band rehearsals (2 of them), study (1 respondent) and relax (1 respondent). When asked what they would like to do in their free time, choosing from the same categories, the students responded that they would prefer to spend their free time with friends/family, which is in line with the high rate of their choices in terms of current leisure activities (the balance also applies to reading books – where these indicators are certainly not satisfactory, going to parties/events and walking). On the other hand, the dreams and aspirations of many respondents include: going to the cinema, theatre or participating in concerts – 44.23% to 9.62% – (due to the fact that participation in culture, as a form of spending free time, is conditioned by the occurrence of specific needs in this area – higher-order needs, or so-called secondary needs – according to the classification proposed by A. Maslow) (Szafran- ska, Napierała 2007, p. 117) – the students express such needs), sports (53.85% to 19.23%), pursuing interests (48.08% to 15.38%). Responses in the “other” category included two answers pursuing interests with loved ones and sleeping (1 person did not specify). The issue of persons/factors influencing the ways of spending free time by the respondents also seems to be interesting (Table 3). The vast majority (82.69%) emphasises the fact of independent choice. At the same time, the financial situation, emphasised by half of the respondents, turns out to be a significant factor; followed by the opinion/attitude of peers (44.23%); the impact of the family (34.62%), as well as coincidence (32.69%) Among those who indicated the financial aspect, 52.17% would like to use the offer of cinema/theatre in their free time or to 216 Kamila Słupska

100 90 80 70 60

% 50 40 30 20 10 0

real forms of free time activities desired forms of free time activities

Fig. 1. Source: own research and calculations.

participate in a concert, while 47.83% would like to pursue their own passions. It can therefore be concluded that the barrier of insufficient financial resources hinders the realisation of the objectives, in the context of participation in paid events and possibly the pursuit of a hobby involving the necessity of making certain investments (which would need to be confirmed by further in-depth study). Students surveyed by Jolanta Urbanek, who conducted her research in order to determine the level of participation in culture, indicated that the lack of financial resources and lack of free time were the main obstacles hindering their participation. It is worth mentioning, when assessing their contacts with institutions of high culture (theatre, philharmonic, art exhibitions, museums, opera houses, operettas), that they are definitely insufficient (only 3.6% of the studied population can be classified as regular audiences) (Urbanek 2002). At the same time, as Ewa Krawczak emphasises, “modifications of free time activities and mediatisation of leisure patterns result also from a change in attitudes towards culture and lack of specific habits” (Krawczak 2009, p. 71). The “other” category was picked by five respondents, who complemented it with the following answers: “my mood on a given day, for example whether I am happy, sad, etc.”; “employer”; “university, work (work to be done for the next day)”; “scheduling”; “limited time.” Activity of young people studying in their free time 217

Table 3.

What/who mainly determines how you spend your free time? % I do, myself 82.69 Peers/friends 44.23 Family 34.62 Coincidence 32.69 Health 15.38 Financial situation 50.00 Current fashion 0 Other 9.62 Respondents could choose more than one answer. Source: own research and calculations.

When asked about the care, interest and attention paid to free time and appropriate forms of using it in the family home, half of the respondents (51.92%) answered that it depends (sometimes yes, sometimes no). Almost 20% felt that it was either difficult to say or that no attention had been paid to these issues. Only 15 respondents confirmed that their parents cared very much about it (Table 4).

Table 4.

Has any importance been attached to creative/valuable free time activities in your % family home? Yes, parents have taken great care of this 28.84 No, parents did not pay attention to this 9.62 Sometimes yes, sometimes no 51.92 It is difficult to say 9.62 Source: own research and calculations.

Respondents were also asked what they considered to be the functions of free time. The question was open-ended. The possibility of providing any answer resulted in a variety of forms. Some of the respondents listed their functions, simply naming them without characterising their essence, others formulated general opinions about their free time and their free time activities, indirectly indicating issues of interest from the analysed standpoint. In order to organise the empirical material, the following function classification was made on the basis of the answers obtained: 218 Kamila Słupska

• Recuperation (rest, relaxation) – 68.63% • Self-realisation (self-understanding, development of interests, broadening knowledge) – 56.86% • Recreation (fun) – 17,65% • Integration (meetings with family and friends) – 13.73% • Reflection – 5.88% Among the functions mentioned by students, there were also: cultural, “nutri- tious”, activating and socialising. Each of them has been indicated once, appearing among others in the above qualification. For them to be included, the respondents would need to clarify their meaning. In order to illustrate the answers of the respondents, it is worth citing some of them:

“Free time gives us the opportunity to get to know ourselves better, it is the time when we can rest and do what we like, do what gives us satisfaction, pleasure” (F, 21 years old); “Free time is the time taking a break from everyday chores. Rest and recuperation. It’s a time when people can do what they want” (F, 22 years old); “It allows you to distance yourself from problems, rest, unload, calm down, regain strength” (M, 21 years old); “In my opinion, free time serves the purpose of allowing you to regain your strength, for example, for the next day, week [...]” (F, 23 years old); “[...] a moment for yourself to contemplate various things” (F, 21 years old); “This is a time when we can focus only on ourselves and our needs” (F, 21 years old); “Enables [...] to change the mood” (F, 22 years old); “Free time serves a function of relaxation and “stopping”, when we have a lot of things on our mind” (F, 21 years old); “[...] time for reflection” (F, 21 years old); “During this time I can do whatever I want. I don’t have to rush anywhere and I have time only for myself” (F, 20 years old).

Referring to – as Małgorzata Orłowska puts it – timeless typology developed by Aleksander Kamiński, who pointed out: rest (recuperation from fatigue, which is conducive to regeneration of the body), fun (entertainment, expression, counteracting boredom) and self-development (development and participation in so- Activity of young people studying in their free time 219 cial life) (Orłowska, Błeszyński 2016, p. 34-36), it can be said that the students participating in the survey paid attention to each of these aspects, although they emphasised them in different ways, mentioning some of them while not emphasising the others (for example activities for the benefit of others within the framework of self-development). At this point, it is worth referring to the terms collected and analysed by Maria Truszkowska-Wojtkowiak, which are the answers to the question “What is free time for you?” answered by a group of 36 working female students. The most common and typical terms are: pleasure (20%); relaxation (20%); time for myself (17%); clearing backlog (11%); short holiday to do something else (8%); family time (5%); sense of freedom (2.5%); hobbies (2.5%); dreams (2.5%); laziness (2.5%); others (8%). As the author herself emphasises: “In the vast majority of responses, the dominating approach to free time is that it is a state of mind and spirit, as well as simple relaxation and pleasure” (Truszkowska-Wojtkowiak 2012, p. 267), which is also reflected in the responses to the question about its functions mentioned above. Free time in students’ lives – important, indifferent, or maybe completely meaningless? To sum up, young people are certainly aware of its importance, but they also recognise that activities that they undertake are not always corresponding to their real needs or preferences. This, in turn, proves that the discussed issues are still part of the area of pedagogical research, as important and current topics, and that they are a challenge for theoreticians and practitioners involved in the analysis and organisation of human development environments.

Conclusions

“Having free time combined with the impossibility of fulfilling it in an attractive way or lack of formed habits in this aspect leads to boredom, frustration, multiplies discouragement and promotes escapism into the world of apparent values” (Denek 2006, p. 129-130). We should agree with the commonly held view that its deficiency has a negative impact on human health, personal achievements, self-esteem and attitudes towards others and everything around us. Rationally organised free time activities is of great importance for the development of the personality of a person and the society in which they live (Denek 2006, p. 135). Fragmentation of free time, its commercialisation and instrumentalisation (cf: Mroczkowska 2014), mediatization on the “phenomenon of free e-time” (used through the Internet – “exercising freedom to” or “free time from contact with the Internet”; Czerepaniak-Walczak 2007, p. 226), 220 Kamila Słupska resulting from and manifesting contemporary phenomena related to its postmodern vision (cf. Mokras-Grabowska 2015) make it an important, interesting and cognitively unsatisfactory issue, requiring both theoretical analyses and empirical exploration. Studying youth who enter adulthood, full of challenges and forcing commitment (in the context of the activities carried out) should balance the various forms of everyday activity, so as not to forget about themselves, their passions and the moment of taking a break from everyday duties, which will allow them to distance themselves from the problems, worries or existential attempts that are so necessary, yet still exploiting. Referring to the research results indicated in the article, it can be stated that the images of students’ free time activities contain many similarities in the context of actual and preferred activities/behaviours, in the context of functions as well as associations connected with this category. Appreciating its importance is encouraging; however, it must be translated into action in practice. Remembering the sphere which is “a particularly good source of inspiration” (Szaf- raniec 2011, p. 224) – about free time, the (real) care for its proper development is an important element, influencing the quality of life, and therefore one can state with full conviction that free time is important time.

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Aneta Judzińska Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

(Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda

Key words: young people’s iden- Abstract: The author, taking into account popular and tity, homo eligens, education, cy- scientific discourse about the “liquid” and “globalised” berspace, masculinity, patriotism identity (viewed in the context of various social and family roles), attempts to reconstruct the image of a contemporary teenager’s identity by referring to “The Face”, a 2-minute film impression by seventeen-year-old Szymon Kołoda. The author uses the film as a basis to show areas of participation of contemporary young people, who balance between two realities: the real and the virtual one. The author supports her reasoning with the concept of hybrid identity by Zygmunt Bauman and the global teenager/ culture of diffusion by Zbyszko Melosik. The aim of the article is to make a subjective, socio-psychological interpretation of identity creations presented in Szymon Kołoda’s picture, rather than a psychological diagnosis of the teenage actor’s “inner integrity”. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 225-237 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.17

Szymon Kołoda’s film, entitled “The Face”, won the campaign contest “Oglądam, czuję, myślę – młodzi w kinie” (“See, Feel and Think: Young People in Film-Mak- ing”), organised by New Horizons of Film Education and the Polish Film Insti- tute; Szymon Kołoda is seventeen-years’ old and he is a student at General High School No. 4 in Żary, Poland. The two-minute film impression presents various roles/ social activities “experienced” and “re-enacted” by the young director, thus creating a highly heterogeneous identity image of a modern teenager. Numerous 226 Aneta Judzińska

“creations” include: a naked torso of a young man, a pupil, a fan of a rock band, a computer-game player, a businessman, a soldier, a teenager holding a telephone conversation, a shaving man and a sports fan. “The Face” was selected out of over 40 films submitted to the contest. Szymon says: “I have been wondering for a long time: ‘who am I?’ and ‘where am I heading to?’ I decided to show my various em- bodiments by imposing one frame on the other. In spite of the fact that I only had an ordinary camera at my disposal, I managed to get the effect that I wanted.”1 In the times of “liquid identity”2 it is harder to capture – also on the grounds of developmental psychology – the specific character of the “identity’s merry- go-round”, on which a contemporary teenager “is whirling.” Social and cultural changes, including globalisation processes, have turned into a specific “tsunami of stimuli”, which has redefined the traditional outlook on a coherent and conscious self-awareness in both inner and outer world3. Moreover, the currently observable “state of cultural discontinuity” leads, in consequence, to the “relativisation of individual social identities”, insensitive (at least in theory) to gender, social class or ethnicity.4 What is, therefore, Szymon Kołoda’s “The Face” or, more precisely, “The Fac- es”? Is it possible to examine them in the context of mature creations resulting from a conscious obligation preceded by intense exploration (achieved identity)? Alternatively, they may be changing concepts of the self, enriched by active searches, only leading to the discovery of the truth (moratorium identity). There is yet another option: they may simply be devoid of the element of exploration, temporary (because, in consequence, they appear as frustrating) obligations resulting from fascination with significant persons (mirror identity)5. The purpose of this text is not an attempt at providing answers to the questions above, thereby being an expression of a psychological diagnosis of the level of “inner integrity”, but more

1 Wygrało “Oblicze” Szymona Kołody!!!, http://ogladamczujemysle.blogspot.com/, [access: 20.04.2015]. 2 Z. Bauman, Tożsamość. Rozmowy z Benedetto Vecchim, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psycholog- iczne, Gdańsk 2007, p. 18. 3 T. Paleczny, Socjologia tożsamości, Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne, Kraków 2008, p. 133-134. 4 E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, (Nie)obecność patriotyzmu w świadomości aksjologicznej młodego pokolenia Polaków. “Przesuwanie się horyzontu aksjologicznego” czy kryzys w wartościowaniu?, [in:] Patrio- tyzm i nacjonalizm. Ku jakiej tożsamości kulturowej?, J. Nikitorowicz (ed.), Kraków 2015, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 108. 5 M. Bardziejewska, Okres dorastania. Jak rozpoznać potencjał nastolatków, [in:] Psychologiczne portrety człowieka. Praktyczna psychologia rozwojowa, A. I. Brzezińska (ed.), Sopot 2013, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, p. 367-370. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 227 a desire to perform a subjectively influenced socio-psychological interpretation of identity creations presented by the author. Being aware of the complexity and conceptual ambiguity in defining the concept of identity, which may be analysed in a substitutional, psychical or sociocultural dimension, the author is going to pursue her discussion in the “spirit of synthesis” of the above-listed categories, paying special attention to the third, socio-cultural aspect6. It is perceived as the “key determinant of the subjective dimension of reality (...) (which; author’s note A.J) remains in a dialectic relation to the social world”7. In this place, it is worth mentioning a comprehensive definition of cultural identity of E. Zamojska, in which the researcher “equips” the individual with a package of reflexive selectiveness, assigning subjective causality in the process of (self)identification to it. In the researcher’s opinion, cultural identity is a “relatively fixed structure of the individual’s awareness, emerging as a result of the individual’s subjective choices, which usually tends to be called the individual’s self-concept. Its content derives from the outside, in this case from the specific systems of culture.”8 Analysing the identities presented in the film in detail, the author’s attention was, in particular, caught by one, astounding by the character’s nudity. It becomes particularly clear at the beginning and at the end of the film. According to the author, its uniqueness consists in specifically designed structure of the creation as such, in which the author perceives certain oxymoron-like features, being emphasised in the form of “covered nudity.” It has to be stressed that in this case, the attire should be perceived more in the symbolic than literal context. This attire assumes a body-adorning form (more precisely: the area of face and ears) of jewellery (piercing, which, nota bene, accompanies every one of the presented creations), which is probably aimed at providing the plain (not individualised) nudity with a more pronounced (individual) character. Reaching further, one may venture saying that this “procedure” is an excellent analogy with respect to the very process of identity formation, perceived in the context of striving to “search for the self”9, as well as discovery of own “exceptionality, individuality and separateness.”10 Such

6 T. Paleczny, Socjologia … op. cit., p. 20-23. 7 A. Cybal-Michalska, Tożsamość młodzieży w perspektywie globalnego świata. Studium socjo- pedagogiczne, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań 2006, p. 89. 8 E. Zamojska, Kulturowa tożsamość młodzieży. Studium empiryczne. Z badań nad młodzieżą ze szkół średnich, Wydawnictwo Edytor, Toruń 1998, p. 23. 9 A. Krauze-Sikorka, M. Klichowski, Świat Digital Natives. Młodzież w poszukiwaniu siebie i innych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, Poznań 2013, p. 10. 10 A. Cybal-Michalska, Tożsamość w ponowoczesności – przyczynek do refleksji na temat spo- łecznej konstrukcji obrazu ciała, [in:] Przemiany seksualności w społeczeństwie współczesnym Teoria 228 Aneta Judzińska creation is thus perceived as a highly individualised fragment of the “identity tale.” Nevertheless, it seems that this is not the only context that may be perceived when interpreting its’ meaning. In the performed analysis, it is worth taking into account the perspective of the “background function”, which is performed by this character. The author will venture an assumption that the character’s “covered nudity” filtering each of the drifting identities, exemplifies the identity root11, the metaphor of relative permanence, which is mentioned both by Z. Melosik, as well as A. Gid- dens12. On the other hand, Z. Bauman calls it the identity nucleus, also known as homo eligens (man choosing), whose only permanent trait is instability13. Thus, Bauman’s homo eligens (man choosing) boldly reaches for the products of culture, tempting him with their form and content, and undertakes diverse social roles: of a pupil, of a smiling fan of a rock band, a computer-game player, an assertive businessman, a soldier/ patriot, a teenager holding a telephone conversation, a man shaving his beard and a sports fan. Simultaneously, we can perceive that each of these performative identities is accompanied by specific emotional states and types of behaviour: anger, joy, feeling of pride, concentra- tion, involvement, dissatisfaction, so characteristic for the time of adolescence, in which two (or even three!) space-time continua are interwoven,14 constituting a dimension for fundamental questions: Who was I? Who am I? Who will I be? Particularly expressive – probably by its’ very definition – is the character showing anger or even fury, which wonderfully portrays the identity of a sports fan. It probably not only forms a basis for pursuing a football passion or a desire to identify with a favourite sports club, but also – in an indirect manner – becomes an excellent “emotional valve”, offering release for negative emotions teeming in the teenager’s body. Without doubt, analysis of individual “identity characters” confirms their hybrid (unspecified and isolated – according to Bauman) character, whereas the multi-level co-existence, immersed in boundless variety, phenomenally reflects

i rzeczywistość, Z. Lew-Starowicz, K. Waszyńska (ed.), Poznań 2012, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, p. 60. 11 which is losing the “former equivalence, stability; (...) (however; author’s note: A. J) even resetting a part of the core of identity does not entail getting rid of a part of own “I”, because such “I” is in constant stillness” Z. Melosik, Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2013, p. 157. 12 A. Giddens, Nowoczesność i tożsamość. “Ja” i społeczeństwo w epoce późnej nowoczesności, translated by A. Szulżycka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw 2001, p. 113. 13 Z. Bauman, Płynne życie, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2007, p. 54-55. 14 Here, the author means the past, the present and the future. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 229 the nature of the culture of diffusion.15 An excellent confirmation for the assumption above is – in the author’s belief – the second and the third “identity creation” reflecting, as the author assumes, the character’s attitude to work (in this case learning) and leisure time. Here, we have two images, standing in opposition to one another: the first one, presenting a youth staring impassively at the camera, whose facial expression shows dissatisfaction (and possibly even rebellion) and his outfit (a jeans shirt and a T-shirt) may testify to being in school premises; the second image is, to a degree, the antonym of the first one. Here, the viewers see the smiling face of the teenager, full of positive emotions, dressed in a sports blouse with the name METALLICA on it (possibly symbolising Szymon’s participation in an interesting music event – e.g. a concert of his favourite band). Thus, the first identity character probably shows the real (or commonly deemed chronic) “tense” relation along the line teenager – school, which is mentioned by Z. Melosik in a text entitled “Młodzież a przemiany kultury współczesnej.” The researcher emphasises that a young man “does not like school, but he takes care not to get into t rou b l e .” 16 The motif of education, emphasised in the film, leads the author to the conclusion that formal learning has ambivalent meaning in this approach: emotionally, it evokes disapproval and lack of willingness, yet cognitively, it becomes a “instrumentally important” (however not the only one – in particular in the Pol- ish reality) channel of social mobility17 and socially approved (in a mentor-like approach) means to pursue the objectives determined by the consumer culture.18 The opposite connotations are evoked by the second creation, which may be interpreted as greatly desired in the eyes of teenage recipients, as “music plays a very important role in (their; author’s note A.J) life, providing (them; author’s note A.J) with pleasure and fascination.”19 Without doubt, it forms one of the key elements that create the youth culture, being a carrier of values preferred by the teenagers (as well as an excellent space to negate the rejected values). Its’ generation-oriented character is aptly reflected in the words of R.A. Goldstein, according to whom

15 Cf. Z. Melosik, Pedagogika i konstrukcje tożsamości młodzieży w “kulturze kontroli” i “kulturze rozproszenia”, Studia Edukacyjne 2014, No. 31. 16 Z. Melosik, Młodzież a przemiany kultury współczesnej, [in:] Młodzież Wobec (nie)gościnnej przyszłości, R. Leppert, Z. Melosik, B. Wojtasik (ed.), Wrocław 2005, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Dol- nośląskiej Szkoły Wyższej Edukacji TWP, p. 24. 17 A. Gromkowska-Melosik, Stratyfikacja, ruchliwość społeczna i edukacja, [in:] Problemy ni- erówności społecznej w teorii i praktyce edukacyjnej, A. Gromkowska-Melosik, T. Gmerek (ed.), Kraków 2008, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 12. 18 I. Pospiszyl, Patologie społeczne, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw 2008, p. 30. 19 Z. Melosik, Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2013, p. 141. 230 Aneta Judzińska

“every generation seems to have its’ own music expression; listening to the newest music may help adults find the existing similarities and differences” (as compared to the music deriving from the period of their youth; author’s note A.J)20. In “The Face”, the expression of virtual space where the modern teenager moves freely also becomes clearly visible. In his next “creation”, the character of the film seems to confirm the scientific discussion (appearing with increasing frequency in the reference books) about the cyber-space being a significant dimension of socialisation and formation of identity of the modern teenagers (the film features the following gadgets: headphones with a microphone and a mobile phone). Without doubt, the virtual space here is presented as a very attractive and, at the same time, a very important sphere of life in which (predominantly) young recipients participate. This attraction is manifested in the specific possibilities that are brought by the promise of fulfilling wishes which did not come true in reality, as “it is possible to create own identity on-line.”21 Intensified – in particular in the period of adolescence – need of peer acceptance is one of the basic impulses that push the teenagers to “enhance” their personality and/ or body. Excellent areas for pursuing these desires are, in this case, social networking sites the use of which, according to E. Wołyniec, “to create own image is currently becoming a standard.”22 Thus, the connotations for the term “real” are blurred in the ocean of virtual paradoxes, forming a highly-eclectic mosaic of co-existence – or, more precisely – a mental rift between the two worlds: the real and the virtual one. Therefore, it is not surprising that a global teenager, as emphasised by Z. Melosik, “moves on-line with great ease (…) and is in the habit of incessant telephone (mobile) and SMS communication with friends.”23 Simultaneously, the entire “cultural performance” takes place in the atmosphere of free and uncontrolled flow of information, as – it is worth emphasising – “knowledge has become ex-territorial.”24 When attempting to conceptualise this “virtual phenomenon”, the author refers to the so-called

20 R. A Goldstein, Oh Puhleeze! Learning Youth Culture, [in:] Contemporary Youth Culture: An International Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, S. R. Steinberg, P. Parmar, B. Richard (ed.), Westport 2006, Green- wood Press, p. 10. 21 A. Krauze-Sikorka, M. Klichowski, Świat Digital…, op. cit., p. 181. 22 E. Wołyniec, Zlajkowany czy zhejtowany – zalogowany w kulturze. Analiza portretu współczes- nego nastolatka – stan i zagrożenia, [in:] Od wielokulturowości miejsca do międzykulturowości relacji społecznych. Współczesne strategie kreowania przestrzeni życia jednostki, J. Nikitorowicz, J. Muszyń- ska, B. Boćwińska-Kiluk, (ed.), Warsaw 2014, Wydawnictwo Akademickie ŻAK, p. 90. 23 Z. Melosik, Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2013, p. 141. 24 W. Jakubowski, Media, tożsamość i edukacja, [in:] Kultura mediów, ciało i tożsamość: Konteks- ty socjalizacyjne i edukacyjne, Jakubowski, S. Jaskulska, (red.), Kraków 2011, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 24. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 231

“network identity” defined by J. Lipińska as “the overall capacity of presenting self on the Internet, the capacity to manipulate one’s identity and, at the same time, the unlimited possibility of manipulating other network users.”25 Thus, in this case we are dealing with a certain array of “cyber-inter(intra)personal” competence, shaping the level of quality of virtual relations. The work of Szymon Kołoda also features the aspect of sexuality/ corporeal- ity, which is testified by the penultimate character of the young director. It is an excellent portrayal – both in the biological and socio-cultural dimension – of the image of a young man trapped in the cultural practice of caring for his masculinity (shaving). It is worth emphasising that such masculinity no longer possesses such homogeneous nature as it had, for example, in the period preceding the Pol- ish system transformation. The crisis of masculinity present in the contemporary culture26 gave rise to the birth of new “global trends in reactions to the lack of universal criteria of masculinity.”27 According to M. Doroba-Sawa referring to the ideas of a number of outstanding (both domestic and foreign) researchers of modern culture, there are two elementary paths of evolution of masculinity: hyper- masculinity as a result of distorted reaction of traditional masculinity “disgusted” by feminisation of a number of areas of life and feminisation of the body and sub- limation of personality which “replaces the stereotypical masculinity by traditional femininity.”28 When attempting to locate Kołoda’s creation in the discourse above, the author is going to risk a presumption – referring both to the colour (red) and the cut of the shirt (sleeveless) in which the character appears before the audience – that he manifests an inclination for the former path (hyper-masculinity). The author’s interpretation relies on the popular culture system of meanings of such attributes (“aggressive red” and exposed arms) perceived in the context of a clearly legible longing for the traditional, atavistic (?) masculinity. It is excellently exemplified by the American “action films” creating the image of a “super-male” hero, impressing the audience with his physical stamina (e.g. Rocky). Obviously – in the case of Kołoda’s creation – it is yet impossible to determine unequivocally the level of intensity/ involvement with which such hyper-masculinity will develop (if

25 K. Grabianowska, Bezpieczeństwo w sieci. Szanse i zagrożenia komunikacji internetowej z perspektywy pedagogicznej, [in:] Wielowymiarowość bezpieczeństwa środowiska wychowawczego, T. Bier- nat, J. Gierszewski, (red.), Chojnice 2014, Wydawnictwo Powszechnej Wyższej Szkoły Humanistycz- nej „POMERANIA”, p. 84. 26 Cf. Z. Melosik, Kryzys męskości w kulturze współczesnej, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2006. 27 M. Doroba-Sawa, W labiryncie męskiej tożsamości: hipermaskulinizacja versus feminizacja ciała i sublimacja osobowości, Przegląd pedagogiczny, 2008, No. 2, p. 61. 28 Ibidem, p. 62. 232 Aneta Judzińska it actually takes place) and which other male models will also be activated. In the analysis, it is necessary to take into account yet another significant aspect mentioned by K. Arcimowicz. Arcimowicz notes that “the contemporary man is feeling cornered by a large number of discussions proposing various, even contrasting, models of masculinity.”29 Thus, adaptation is manifested by the presence of various combinations and fragmentary connections of identity, leading, in consequence, to the emergence of male “identity mosaic” in which the young men are “drifting” with more or less grace. In this context, the concept of hegemonic masculinity of R. Connell is of crucial importance. The researcher rejects the traditional assumption about the existence of a monolithic model of masculinity, drawing attention to the complexity and variability of elements that are making it up. She formulates a premise on “multiplicity of male constructs”, dependant on the context of time, place, society and culture. Thus – in this context – it is possible to speak about three types of masculinity: hegemonic, marginalised and subordinate.30 The first one refers to the “culturally dominant ideal of masculinity, focused on authority, physical stamina and power, heterosexuality and paid work.” The drive to power and dominance plays a significant role here. On the other hand, marginalised masculinity is a response to unfilled aspirations of such men who wish to be included in the first group, but are unable – on account of diverse causes – to fully “catch up with the ideal.” The last model characterises men who do not meet the standards of either the first or the second group, and the most common cause is their ethnic origin and/ or homosexual orientation.31 Notions pertaining to models and schemes affiliated with a given gender also become noticeable in Kołoda’s fifth creation. The teenage director presents yet another embodiment of masculinity which is, in contrast to the previous one, focused on “here and now” – “a dream of the future.” Thus, one may venture saying that it is an embodiment of boyish dreams about accomplishing Connell’s hegemonic masculinity. Here, Szymon assumes the posture of a mature (in the professional aspect) man who, via his gestures, stance and outfit, expresses affiliation to a high social class. Businessman-like image (a dark suit and a white shirt), enhanced by a note of uncompromising nonchalance (no tie, a cigar) shows a man for whom international financial markets seem to have no secrets. One may get an impres-

29 K. Arcimowicz, Dwa paradygmaty męskości w kulturze męskiej, Kwartalnik pedagogiczny 1998, No. 1/2, p. 51. 30 K. Wojnicka, E. Ciaputa, Wprowadzenie: refleksja naukowa nad społeczno-kulturowymi fenomenami męskości, [in:] Karuzela z mężczyznami. Problematyka męskości w polskich badaniach społecznych, (ed.), K. Wojnicka, E. Ciaputa, Kraków 2011, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 12-13. 31 Ibidem. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 233 sion that this man, perceived – in a stereotypical approach – as the symbol of high status, power and affluence, probably in this case is also the incorporated quintessence of “high hopes and grand dreams”32 of a modern teenager about full and “abundant” participation in the consumption society. An excellent exemplification of these wishes is confirmed by the “worship of money” phenomenon33 and the “worship of success”, forming a part of the dominant cultural messages created by the modern mass media. In this case, the starting point is the commencement of professional work and, more precisely, a career which is a certain (socially approved) measure to meet the purpose such as the “drive to power, position and money.”34 Interesting conclusions about its’ significance are provided by the studies of A. Cybal-Michalska presented in a monograph entitled “Młodzież akademicka i kariera zawodowa.” They reveal that the concept of career more and more often becomes the synonym of appreciation, authority, feeling of safety and a chance for acquiring valuable experiences by the young people.35 Furthermore, one of the basic perspectives from which it is viewed is the criterion of promotion, perceived – in the perspective of youth – through the prism of accomplishing constant and quick professional elevation.36 Additional attention-worthy contexts are provided by the attitude of the respondents towards territoriality which, similarly to the multi-global flow of information, does not seem to be a problem for young people, thus creating the “world of border-free careers.”37 Thus, Zbyszko Melosik makes the following observation when constructing the image of a global teenager: “even though he is not fond of studying, yet he understands that education and certificates are an initial condition of professional success and may become useful in the f utu re .” 38 The two-minute film quite clearly highlights the issue of the feeling of national identity and patriotism, which is testified by the image of a Polish soldier presented to the audience, holding his right hand on the heart. The vision of a young patriot constructed in this manner remains in a certain opposition to the traditional

32 J.J. Arnett, Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the Twenties, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2015, p. 1. 33 W. Pasierbek, M. Fearn, H. G. Ziebertz, Poland: Family and Faith, [in:] Youth in Europe: An international empirical Study about Life Perspectives, H. G. Ziebertz, W. K. Kay, (ed.), Münster/Ham- burg/London 2005, Wydawnictwo LIT, p. 87. 34 Z. Melosik, Młodzież a przemiany…, op. cit., p. 26. 35 A. Cybal-Michalska, Młodzież akademicka a kariera zawodowa, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Im- puls”, Kraków 2013, p. 303-304. 36 Ibidem, p. 310. 37 Ibidem, p. 352. 38 Z. Melosik, Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2013, p. 141. 234 Aneta Judzińska concept of a modern teenager, whose identity “is, to a much lesser (or even slight) degree formed by the national and state values and, to a much greater degree, by the popular culture, the mass media and consumption”39 whereas the world is a global village devoid of any borders.40 When attempting to explain this emerging scientific dissonance, the author is going to refer to the statement of Krystyna Szafraniec, the author of a report entitled “Młodzi 2011”, who stresses that “young Poles are both romantic and pragmatic at the same time. Contrary to appearances, they are very sensitive about the history of their own nation. This is best visible abroad, when, during social situations, confrontations frequently take place with representatives of various nationalities – the English, the German, the French or the Dutch. It turns out that these young people, apparently indifferent to their own history, can be proud of the national risings and of the fact that their forefathers were always there where people were fighting for freedom. Honour, heroism, courage – even though absent in daily vocabulary of young people – are something that is revealed in the discussions on virtues of nations.”41 In this place, the following question emerges: what conditions the co-existence of such youthful romanticism and pragmatism? Looking for an answer to this complex problem, the author is going to refer to the concept of contextual identity described – on account of its’ rela- tivism – in categories of the transforming vision of the self, generated as a result of an individual’s participation in various macro-structures.42 In line with the views of N. Hartmann, the mode of experiencing values is changing, in consequence causing a “shift of the axiological horizon.” This means that the assimilated value (e.g. national) is losing – in the course of time – its’ attraction, thus intensifying the individual’s need to look for a new one. However, this does not mean that it is removed from the human awareness: if “man has already captured a value” and it continues to be significant for him, he can “no longer forget about it – author’s note A.J).”43

39 Ibidem. 40 Z. Melosik, Postmodernistyczne kontrowersje wokół edukacji, Wydawnictwo Edytor, Poznań- -Toruń 1995, p. 93. 41 T. Słomczyński, Jak młodzi rozumieją patriotyzm? Rozmowa z socjologiem, http://www.dzi- ennikbaltycki.pl/artykul/883496,jak-mlodzi-rozumieja-patriotyzm-rozmowa-z-socjologiem,id,t. html?cookie=1, [access: 30.04.2015]. 42 J. Nikitorowicz, Dylematy patriotyzmu, nacjonalizmu i ustawicznie kształtującej się tożsamo- ści. Wprowadzenie do książki, [in:] Patriotyzm i nacjonalizm. Ku jakiej tożsamości kulturowej?, J. Ni- kitorowicz (ed.), Kraków 2015, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 21. 43 E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, (Nie)obecność patriotyzmu w świadomości aksjologicznej młodego pokolenia Polaków. “Przesuwanie się horyzontu aksjologicznego” czy kryzys w wartościowaniu?, [in:] Pa- triotyzm i nacjonalizm. Ku jakiej tożsamości kulturowej?, J. Nikitorowicz (ed.), Kraków 2015, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, p. 112. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 235

Summing this discussion up, the author would like to recall the metaphor of cultural surfing (which was used in the works of Z. Bauman “44 Letters from the Liquid Modern World”, R. Kapuściński “Lapidaria”, and M. Stranger “Surfing Life”), which, in the author’s belief, excellently explains the specific identity of a modern teenager (and not only a teenager), permanently drifting on the waves of the pop- cultural ocean. A multi-coloured repertoire of proposals and possibilities allows for – at least temporarily – feeling a part of (some) whole, yet prevents or significantly hinders reaching a timeless, cohesive image of one’s Self (referring to the traditional way of defining identity). Here, integrity appears as a heterogeneous construct adopting the form of a mosaic of various social worlds, constantly “accepted” and “exchanged for the new ones” in the catalogue of life experiences. This peculiar “identity rift” results, as noted by A. Giddens, that in the modern times “an individual is forced to create and rebuild its’ identity on account of changing experiences of daily life and a tendency of modern institutions for fragmentation of individual identity.”44 Paraphrasing the researcher’s words, the author makes an assumption which is, at the same time, a form of conceptualising the phenomenon described by him. Namely, the necessity of permanent “rebuilding” of identity assumes – in the author’s opinion – a form of unspecified and, to a certain degree, socially enforced adaptation with respect to the non-uniform and culturally unspecified conditions in which a modern teenager has to function. Additionally, there is also the problem of “retaining the feeling of own exceptionality45 and original- ity.” As emphasised by Z. Bauman, “every postulated and/ or searched for identity (identity as a problem and as a task) is involved in a dual dependency, from which it is impossible to get free. It navigates between the extremities of uncompromising individuality and total belonging.”46 Balancing on the border of Erikson’s intimacy vs. isolation47 is well exemplified – in a social approach – by Bauman’s concept of an individual in which a man, on the one hand, undertakes various practices to shape his own individuality and uniqueness and on the other, in a more or less conscious manner, falls into the apathy of plainness, becoming uncritically subject to the “exclusive trends” displayed in the consumption culture, in consequence leading to social uniformity of individualism. Thus, in line with Z. Bauman, “the

44 A. Giddens, Nowoczesność i tożsamość. “Ja” i społeczeństwo w epoce późnej nowoczesności, translated by A. Szulżycka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warsaw 2006, p. 254. 45 S. E. Wood, E. R. Green-Wood, The World of Psychology, Allyn and Bacon, Needham 1999, p. 327. 46 Z. Bauman, Płynne życie, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków 2007, p. 50-51. 47 E. Erikson, Tożsamość a cykl życia, translated by M. Żywicki, Wydawnnictwo Zysk i S-ka, Poznań 2004, p. 90. 236 Aneta Judzińska paradox consists in the fact that ‘individualism’ is a ‘herd instinct’ and the order of the crowd. Being an individual does not mean differing from the crowd, being like everybody else”48. The experience of such a paradox may, in consequence, lead to a situation where the individual (a teenager) incessantly choosing or, using the psychological terminology of James Marcia, exploring inner and outer worlds not only searches, but browses the subsequent levels of identification, postponing the moment of accepting a specific obligation (sometimes for the whole life).

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48 Z. Bauman, Płynne... op. cit., 28. (Self)-Perception of Young People’s Identity in “The Face” by Szymon Kołoda 237

Jakubowski, W. (2011). Media, tożsamość i edukacja. [in:] Kultura mediów, ciało i tożsamość: Konteks- ty socjalizacyjne i edukacyjne. ed. W. Jakubowski, S. Jaskulska. Kraków, p. 24. Krauze-Sikorka, H., Klichowski, M. (2013). Świat Digital Natives. Młodzież w poszukiwaniu siebie i innych. Poznań. Melosik, Z. (1995). Postmodernistyczne kontrowersje wokół edukacji. Poznań-Toruń. Melosik, Z. (2005). Młodzież a przemiany kultury współczesnej. [in:] Młodzież Wobec (nie)gościnnej przyszłości. ed. R. Leppert, Z. Melosik, B. Wojtasik. Wrocław, p. 24. Melosik, Z. (2006). Kryzys męskości w kulturze współczesnej. Kraków. Melosik, Z. (2013). Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności. Kraków. Melosik, Z. (2013). Kultura popularna i tożsamość młodzieży. W niewoli władzy i wolności. Kraków. Melosik, Z. (2014). Pedagogika i konstrukcje tożsamości młodzieży w “kulturze kontroli” i “kulturze rozproszenia”. “Studia Edukacyjne”, No. 31. Nikitorowicz, J. (2015). Dylematy patriotyzmu, nacjonalizmu i ustawicznie kształtującej się tożsamo- ści. Wprowadzenie do książki. [in:] Patriotyzm i nacjonalizm. Ku jakiej tożsamości kulturowej?. ed. J. Nikitorowicz. Kraków, p. 21. Ogrodzka-Mazur, E. (2015). (Nie)obecność patriotyzmu w świadomości aksjologicznej młodego pokolenia Polaków. “Przesuwanie się horyzontu aksjologicznego” czy kryzys w wartościowaniu?. [in:] Patriotyzm i nacjonalizm. Ku jakiej tożsamości kulturowej?. ed. J. Nikitorowicz. Kraków, p. 108. Paleczny, T. (2008) Socjologia tożsamości. Kraków. Pasierbek, W., Fearn, M., Ziebertz, H. G. (2005). Poland: Family and Faith, [in:] Youth in Europe: An international empirical Study about Life Perspectives. ed. H. G. Ziebertz, W. K. Kay. Münster/ Hamburg/London, p. 87. Pospiszyl, I. (2008). Patologie społeczne. Warsaw. Wojnicka, K., Ciaputa, E. (2011). Wprowadzenie: refleksja naukowa nad społeczno-kulturowymi fenomenami męskości. [in:] Karuzela z mężczyznami. Problematyka męskości w polskich badaniach społecznych, K. Wojnicka, E. Ciaputa. Kraków, p. 12-13. Wołyniec, E. (2014). Zlajkowany czy zhejtowany – zalogowany w kulturze. Analiza portretu współcz- esnego nastolatka – stan i zagrożenia. [in:] Od wielokulturowości miejsca do międzykulturowości relacji społecznych. Współczesne strategie kreowania przestrzeni życia jednostki. ed. J. Nikitorow- icz, J. Muszyńska, B. Boćwińska-Kiluk. Warszawa, p. 90. Wood, S. E., Green-Wood, E. R. (1999). The World of Psychology. Needham. Zamojska, E. (1998). Kulturowa tożsamość młodzieży. Studium empiryczne. Z badań nad młodzieżą ze szkół średnich. Toruń.

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Adel Ayada Grefat Elementary School, Beit Zarzir, Israel

The Breakthrough of Bedouin Women in Northern Israel – a Conflict Between Generations

Keywords: young women, Abstract: The article examines the breakthrough of Bed- Bedouin, tradition ouin women in Northern Israel, based on the testimony of twenty young Bedouin women who did not accept the ‘traditional’ role of the woman, in the family in particular and in Bedouin society in the village in general. This group of women succeeded in breaking the boundaries of the tribe and struggled for the right to complete high school and even to study in the institutions of higher education. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 239-245 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.18

Bedouin society is found in a process of change in the transition to the modern world, and this change influences the status of Bedouin women. Therefore, for example, the acquisition of education in the formal educational system gradually led to a profound crisis and change in the Bedouin woman’s status. This exposure was intended to develop possibilities for the young Bedouin woman, but this exposure also caused her to cope with cultural obstacles set by a patriarchal tribal society found in a process of transition and political obstacles since she is a Bedouin and a part of Israeli society. Many research studies have been performed on Bedouin society in the south of Israel1. However, very little has been written on the Bedouin in the north.

1 For more about the Bedouin in the south of Israel see: Abu Ravia, S. (2000). Differences in Attitudes on the Dropping out of Girls from the Bedouin Schools in the Negev, Master Thesis, Ben Gurion University in the Negev. (Hebrew) 240 Adel Ayada

Contemporary changes in Bedouin society

Bedouin society is a patriarchal tribal society that is found in the processes of transition. Marks1 asserts that there is a traditional division of roles in which the man decides everything and earns the family livelihood and the working of women will

Abu-Saad, I. (1991). Towards an Understanding of Minority Education in Israel: The Case of the Bedouin Arabs of the Negev, Comparative Education, 27(2), 235-242. Abu-Saad, I. (1995). Bedouin Arab Education in the Context of Radical Social Change: What Is the Future? Compare 25 (2), 149-160. Abu-Saad, I. (1997). The Education of Israel’s Bedouin: Background and Prospects, Israel Studies, 2, 21-39. Abu-Saad, I., Abu-Saad, K., Lewando-Hundt, G., Forman, R. M., Belmaker, I. Berendess, W. H., et al. (1998). Bedouin Arab Mothers’ Aspirations for Their Children’s Education in the Context of Radical Change, Teaching and Teacher Education, 18 (4), 347-359. Adler, S. (1995). The Bedouin Women and the Income Stipend in the Polygamous Family, In P. Radai, K. Shalev, & M. Liven-Koby (Eds.), The Status of the Woman in Society and Law (pp. 133- 147). Jerusalem & Tel Aviv: Shoken. (Hebrew) Anker, A. (1995). Employment of Bedouin Women in Urbanizing Bedouin Society in the Negev, Seminar Paper, Ben Gurion University in the Negev, Department of Geography and Environmental Development. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1988). Tribe and Family in New Bedouin Society: The Case of Kaseife (Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, Number 19), Midreshet Sdeh Boker:(Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1993). Bedouin Settlement in the Negev: Policy and Reality, 1967-1992, Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for the Study of Israel. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1995).The Land Conflict between the Bedouin of the Negev and the State: Historical, Legal, and Contemporary Aspects, Land, 40. 61-91. (Hebrew) Fenster, T. (1999). Space and Gender: Cultural Roles of the Forbidden and the Permitted. Society and Space, 17, 227-2246. Meir (1994). Territorial Formation among the Bedouin in the Negevn in the Transition from Nomadism to Permanent Settlement, Researches in the Geography of the Land of Israel, 14, 71-95. (Hebrew) Meir, A., & Barnea, D. (1986). The Development of the Bedouin Educational System in the Negev, Beer Sheva: Ben Gurion University in the Negev, David Tobiyahu Archives for the History of the Settlement in the Negev. (Hebrew) Mosokona-Lerman, B. (2001). The Woman Who Created Workplaces, Maariv (Supplement), pp. 56-58. (Hebrew) Pessate-Schubert, E. (1999). The Private Sphere and the Public Sphere: Case Analysis of Learning Mothers in Israel Society, Doctoral Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. (Hebrew) Pessate-Schubert, E. (2000). ‘Education is Our Destruction’: Dialogue between Personal Building and Social Building of the Meaning of Higher Education in the Lives of Bedouin Women in the Negev (Research Report), Submitted to Mofet Institute, Center for Research of Bedouin Society, Ben Gurion University and Achva College. (Hebrew) Tal, S. (1993). Towards the Promotion and Integration of the Bedouin Population in the Negev in Israeli Society (Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin 24). Midreshet Sdeh Boker. (Hebrew) 1 Marks, E. (1971). Division of Roles between Spouses among the Bedouin in the Negev, Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, 3, Midreshet Sdeh Boker, 3-13. (Hebrew) The Breakthrough of Bedouin Women in Northern Israel – a Conflict Between Generations 241 erode the man’s status in the family. In this type of family, the young woman must learn to cope and sometimes even negotiate over basic demands with all the family members, including the grandparents and sometimes relatives. Moreover, according to Bedouin tradition young Bedouin women marry at a young age, between seventeen and nineteen, and therefore if a young woman chooses to go to study at the university, her chances of finding a groom are poor. Ben-David2 holds that the transition from one lifestyle to another leads to changes in education. Abu Ravia3 maintains that because of the transition to an urban lifestyle the roles between the sexes were changed. Pessate-Schubert4 asserts that the transition in the lifestyle causes the woman to sit at home, lacking work and lacking an education. Rimlet5 asserts that the new lifestyle, an urban lifestyle, requires increased consumption, and therefore women go to work so as to maintain a high standard of living.

Research results

Today in anthropology it is customary to research near the home6. In the present research study, the Bedouin village of Beit Zarzir is my home and the Bedouin women are from this home. The present research study was conducted in a Bedouin village called Beit Zarzir in the north of Israel and is based on interviews and the stories of twenty Bedouin women who acquired a higher education in different areas – medicine, teaching, engineering, social work. One of the interviewees is divorced, eleven are married, and eight are single. The interviews were conducted in the Hebrew language in the homes of the women and translated into Hebrew and then into English. Every interview lasted about two hours. The quotes from the interviewees were written as they were said, without adding or changing anything.

2 Ben David, Y. (1993). The Bedouin Community in the Negev: Policy and Reality, 1967-1992, Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for the Study of Israel. (Hebrew) 3 Abu Ravia, S. (2000). Differences in Attitudes on the Dropping out of Girls from the Bedouin Schools in the Negev, Master Thesis, Ben Gurion University in the Negev. (Hebrew) 4 Pessate-Schubert, E. (1999). The Private Sphere and the Public Sphere: Case Analysis of Learning Mothers in Israel Society, Doctoral Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. (Hebrew) 5 Rimlet, E. (1991). Patterns of Image in the Services and Patterns of Use of Employment of Bedouin, in light of Their Exposure to the Development Process: The Case of Salameh Village, Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, 22, Midreshet Sdeh Boker, 52-58. (Hebrew) 6 Rabinovitz, D. (1995). The Twisted Journey to the Saving of Brown Women, Theory and Criticism, 7, 5-19. (Hebrew) Simons, G. (1995). The Feminist Coalition in the Border Region, Theory and Criticism, 7, 20-29. (Hebrew) 242 Adel Ayada

“Being the first” experience

Almost all the interviewees who told about their experiences in the acquisition of an education felt the difficulty with “being the first”. They see themselves as breaking the trail, from the secure tribal space, and creating a precedent and a new reality in Bedouin population7. The young women who are considered groundbreaking in the village created something new or rebelled against conservative Bedouin tradition that does not allow the woman to leave the area of the tribe and the village. Amina says, “They were angry at me when I went to learn in a high school in Nazareth. They said that my father did not raise me properly according to the tradition and afterwards when I continued my studies in the university they said that I am too free and this is very negative in the eyes of the older people in the village. It was very difficult for me.” Ranya recalls that, “I would see the examining and tracking eyes of the people in the village when I went out in the morning to wait for a bus and they also attempted to exert pressure on my father to marry me to my cousin so as to stop my studies.” Tagrid says that, “The people in the village gossip about girls who wear modern clothing such as pants. I understand them since because of unemployment they are bored and therefore they look at who is coming and who is going and what she is wearing and how she is behaving. Therefore I prefer to dress traditionally and to put a head covering on my head.” All the young women felt social pressure on them and their families to end their studies. They claim that their breakthrough created a precedent and a new reality in the village and there is no way back.

The conflict between the young women and the older people

The older women also saw the educated young women to be a threat to their status in the family. The lack of education of the older Bedouin women puts them in an inferior position with the young women who go to acquire an education. Ac- cording to one old lady from the village, “The role of the woman is to care for her children and her husband.”

7 Marks, E. (1971). Division of Roles between Spouses among the Bedouin in the Negev, Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, 3, Midreshet Sdeh Boker, 3-13. (Hebrew) The Breakthrough of Bedouin Women in Northern Israel – a Conflict Between Generations 243

The conflict between the young women and the older people was especially apparent in the change of the patterns of marriage. The accepted pattern in Bed- ouin society is marriage among relatives. Some of the interviewees told that they surrendered to the family pressure to marry their relatives, while others received threats that the family financial support would be ended if they did not marry their cousins. However, the rest of the single women chose their studies, knowing that they are endangering their chances of marrying. Those who obeyed the instructions of their elders and even fulfilled their parents’ expectations and in return needed to marry a cousin through matchmaking bought ‘quiet’, according to one of the young women. The young Bedouin women who went to study in the university had to uphold the rules of their tradition, for example, a traditional external appearance and appropriate behavior, so as to calm their family and the tribe. All the interviewees felt the subjective experience of “being the first”8 and explained the difficulty in this experience and the effort to persuade those around them to accept the decision to go to learn or to work. Bar-Tzvi9 says that the fear of the traditionalists derives from the fear of dis- honoring the family10. In contrast, some maintain that the reservations about the women going outside of the home derive from religious reasons11. An older woman in the village says that “We must separate in the educational system, especially during adolescence, between boys and girls”.

Conclusions

To summarize, the groundbreaking young women extended the boundaries of their safe space and acquired anew knowledge and experience, which constitute a resource that shows their value and respect, so as to cope with the ‘modern’ world, although they are strongly blocked by members of the tribe. These young women are forced to stride slowly and cautiously without challenging the norms

8 Kassam, F. (2002). Trailbreakers Pay the Price: On Bedouin Women and Their Struggle for the Right of Education, Aspects, 22, 72-83. (Hebrew) 9 Bar-Tzvi, S. (1991). Bar-Tzvi, S. (1991). Tradition of Judgment of the Bedouin of the Negev, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense Publications. (Hebrew) 10 See also Alatuna, M. (1993). The Relationship between the Status of the Bedouin Woman and Her Self-Image and Psychological Wellbeing, Master Thesis in Social Work, Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University. (Hebrew) 11 Kama, B. (1984). The Status of the Arab Woman in Israel, Jerusalem: Bureau of the Counselor for Arab Affairs in the Prime Minister’s Office. (Hebrew) 244 Adel Ayada of the tribe, so as to attain the goal they set for themselves. The research study indicates that, according to the married women, the going to work and to study is not only for financial reasons but also for the fulfilment of the self and “to feel that I exist, am living and breathing”, as one of the interviewees said. The single women assert that they go to work to buy personal goods and fashionable clothes, independent of their family. In addition, the research study shows that the pressure of housework and the poor economic situation of Bedouin society are main factors that can cause the Bedouin woman to be denied her right to complete her studies. It must be noted here that although Israel has a Compulsory Education Law, which compels the parents to send their daughters, as well as their sons, to study, Bedouin tradition does not allow this freedom. Randa says that, “Some of the parents did not heed this law and refused to send their daughters to learn.” The interviewees’ statements indicate that they believe that this conflict between the old generation with the norms and the tradition and the new generation with education and modernization continues to exist. The older people want to preserve what remains of the Bedouin tradition. They are afraid that the women who go to study will be detrimentally influenced by the Western Israeli values and will adopt values of freedom and liberation of the woman, which are counter to Bedouin tradition. In addition, the older people do not want the young women to wear seductive pants or to know and speak Hebrew, which is not accepted by them.

Bibliography

Abu Rabia, S. (2000). Differences in Attitudes on the Dropping out of Girls from the Bedouin Schools in the Negev, Master Thesis, Ben Gurion University in the Negev. (Hebrew) Abu-Saad, I. (1991). Towards an Understanding of Minority Education in Israel: The Case of the Bedouin Arabs of the Negev, Comparative Education, 27(2), 235-242. Abu-Saad, I. (1995). Bedouin Arab Education in the Context of Radical Social Change: What Is the Future? Compare 25 (2), 149-160. Abu-Saad, I. (1997). The Education of Israel’s Bedouin: Background and Prospects, Israel Studies, 2, 21-39. Abu-Saad, I., Abu-Saad, K., Lewando-Hundt, G., Forman, R. M., Belmaker, I. Berendess, W. H., et al. (1998). Bedouin Arab Mothers’ Aspirations for Their Children’s Education in the Context of Radical Change, Teaching and Teacher Education, 18 (4), 347-359. Adler, S. (1995). The Bedouin Women and the Income Stipend in the Polygamous Family, In P. Ra- dai, K. Shalev, & M. Liven-Koby (Eds.), The Status of the Woman in Society and Law (pp. 133- 147). Jerusalem & Tel Aviv: Shoken. (Hebrew) Alatuna, M. (1993). The Relationship between the Status of the Bedouin Woman and Her Self-Image and Psychological Wellbeing, Master Thesis in Social Work, Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University. (Hebrew) The Breakthrough of Bedouin Women in Northern Israel – a Conflict Between Generations 245

Anker, A. (1995). Employment of Bedouin Women in Urbanizing Bedouin Society in the Negev, Semi- nar Paper, Ben Gurion University in the Negev, Department of Geography and Environmental Development. (Hebrew) Bar-Tzvi, S. (1991). Tradition of Judgment of the Bedouin of the Negev, Tel Aviv: Ministry of Defense Publications. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1988). Tribe and Family in New Bedouin Society: The Case of Kaseife (Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, Number 19), Midreshet Sdeh Boker. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1993). Bedouin Settlement in the Negev: Policy and Reality, 1967-1992, Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for the Study of Israel. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1993). The Bedouin Community in the Negev: Policy and Reality, 1967-1992, Jerusa- lem: Jerusalem Institute for the Study of Israel. (Hebrew) Ben-David, Y. (1995).The Land Conflict between the Bedouin of the Negev and the State: Historical, Legal, and Contemporary Aspects, Land, 40. 61-91. (Hebrew) Fenster, T. (1999). Space and Gender: Cultural Roles of the Forbidden and the Permitted. Society and Space, 17, 227-2246. Kama, B. (1984). The Status of the Arab Woman in Israel, Jerusalem: Bureau of the Counselor for Arab Affairs in the Prime Minister’s Office. (Hebrew) Kassam, F. (2002). Trailbreakers Pay the Price: On Bedouin Women and Their Struggle for the Right of Education, Aspects, 22, 72-83. (Hebrew) Marks, E. (1971). Division of Roles between Spouses among the Bedouin in the Negev, Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, 3, Midreshet Sdeh Boker, 3-13. (Hebrew) Meir (1994). Territorial Formation among the Bedouin in the Negev in the Transition from No- madism to Permanent Settlement, Researches in the Geography of the Land of Israel, 14, 71-95. (Hebrew) Meir, A., & Barnea, D. (1986). The Development of the Bedouin Educational System in the Negev, Beer Sheva: Ben Gurion University in the Negev, David Tobiyahu Archives for the History of the Settlement in the Negev. (Hebrew) Mosokona-Lerman, B. (2001). The Woman Who Created Workplaces, Maariv (Supplement), pp. 56- 58. (Hebrew) Pessate-Schubert, E. (1999). The Private Sphere and the Public Sphere: Case Analysis of Learning Mothers in Israel Society, Doctoral Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. (Hebrew) Pessate-Schubert, E. (2000). ‘Education is Our Destruction’: Dialogue between Personal Building and Social Building of the Meaning of Higher Education in the Lives of Bedouin Women in the Negev (Research Report), Submitted to Mofet Institute, Center for Research of Bedouin Society, Ben Gurion University and Achva College. (Hebrew) Rabinovitz, D. (1995). The Twisted Journey to the Saving of Brown Women, Theory and Criticism, 7, 5-19. (Hebrew) Rimlet, E. (1991). Patterns of Image in the Services and Patterns of Use of Employment of Bedouin, in light of Their Exposure to the Development Process: The Case of Salameh Village, Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin, 22, Midreshet Sdeh Boker, 52-58. (Hebrew) Simons, G. (1995). The Feminist Coalition in the Border Region,Theory and Criticism, 7, 20-29. (Hebrew) Tal, S. (1993). Towards the Promotion and Integration of the Bedouin Population in the Negev in Israeli Society (Lists on the Topic of the Bedouin 24). Midreshet Sdeh Boker. (Hebrew)

CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAN

Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D.

Keywords: Generation Z, Mister Abstract: Changes resulting from the development of the D, music video, video, visual cul- Internet have a significant impact on the shape of popular ture, Masłowska culture. Music, particularly the message that it conveys, constitutes an important element of culture. Music, which is a part of a wider cultural context, has a significant influence on the shaping of the world view of contemporary people and serves as an important element of its description. According to Jacek Bernasiewicz, music often becomes the building block of the young generation. “It is primarily about music, and particularly its content, that always served as a generational bond and carried ideology – rock music for flower children, punk rock for neglected children, rap music for hip hoppers...” Music always car- ries a message and combined with a music video, it becomes a story. This paper and deliberations contained herein are devoted to the works of Mr D, also known as Dorota Masłowska, which is a mirage – on the one hand of pop culture, entertainment and fun, and on the other, a depiction of the contemporary Polish society, in which the Generation Y plays a major role. The aim of the paper is to show how the Internet, being a place where narratives about the world play out, using the convergence of media, contributes to the construction of a certain reality, the elements of which, emphasised by Dorota Masłowska and elevated above the everyday life of the global teenager “Made in Poland,” make up the determinants of contemporary youth culture. Music videos by Mr D. and the content of songs from the album Społeczeństwo jest niemiłe will serve as the subject of this analysis. The narrative appearing in these songs will be examined, and the broader context of the meanings contained in the songs in relation to the entirety of popular culture and the way of functioning of society in it 248 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

will be pointed out. Dorota Masłowska’s songs are not narratives of the author herself, but of protagonists presented in her music videos: the girl presented in the music video undergoes a kind of metamorphosis, and the viewer looks at the world through the eyes of her imagination. The protagonists in her music videos and songs are representatives of certain social groups with specific, clear characteristics that allow them to be individually identified. I assume that lyrics of songs listened to and music videos watched by youth and young adults are among the most important ways of learning and participating in culture by giving meaning to oneself, one’s life and the world. A musical work that is an “immature form” of culture, making use of the wide range of possibilities available to it for con- veying messages, full of symbols and metaphors, demands its recipients to read and discover the meaning. Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 247-265 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.19

Video clip in visual culture

Video clips constitute an integral part of the audio-visual landscape. Apart from advertising, video clip is a genre of contemporary visual culture. Video clips, music videos and clips are short television works made using modern techniques of electronic recording and editing with the use of sound and visual effects. The video takes the form of an audio-visual miniature, which is a freely and ingeniously staged visualisation of a given song or musical composition. As a genre, the video clip crystallized as a result of the transformation of the traditional music video and the visualisation of songs in film. A classic example of a video clip is “Billie Jean” directed by Steve Barron. The music or song enriched with images is the dominant feature of the video clip’s construction. The phenomenon of attractiveness of this genre meant that in 1981, the MTV station was established, which quickly achieved a global reach and popularity. Despite the fact that the roots of the video clip come from the cinema, their popularity was ushered by television. Thanks to it, the music video has become a separate genre. The popularity of music videos flourished in the 70s and 80s. At the time, it became a cultural idiom. The popularity of music videos has changed the The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 249 current narrative as well as the mechanism of perception and the way of perceiving screen phenomena. “The linear representation, previously omnipresent in the cinematographic spectacle, has now given way to simultaneity. From that point on, audio-visual dominance began to reign supreme on television screens, computer monitors and cinemas, in which the visible and acoustic images are combined into one whole, becoming equal elements of the higher-tier work.” “The new generation of music videos, which were incredibly popular worldwide and which had a huge commercial boom, is a phenomenon of the last two decades of the 20th century. It has become a synonym and a slogan of change. In this period, the poetics and aesthetics of the music video were clearly visible in popular culture. The proper formula of this genre caused the stream of moving images to accelerate to gain dynamics and speed. The cause and effect logic of the film has been replaced by the previously unknown kaleidoscopic variability, flicker and freedom to combine everything with everything.”. Thanks to the appearance of music videos, the iconosphere and audiosphere have developed. The digital image has opened up new, previously unknown possibilities of creation, transformation and creativity for the creators. “It was the music video that ushered the triumph of quickly-paced cuts, fragmentation, mosaic and kaleidoscopic nature, and seriality of the events on the small and large screens. The screen world has become more illusory than ever before, containing virtual time and space [...] It can be said that it is an audio-visual riot of colours and sounds, a galloping image, a stream of images in an unstoppable flow.” Piotr Sitarski also presents video clips in a similar way, pointing out that the plot contained in music videos is often only a pretext for arousing non-narrative pleasure, which stems from the visual attraction, from the very activity of watching moving pictures. An important, if not the most important point of the video clip is the visual attraction, which is provided by the clip. All the more so because music video artists join the viewer’s space with the music video space by looking at the other side of the screen, the musicians in the video clip look into the viewer’s eyes and draw them into the presented world [...] The music video builds a common space with the viewer, which is the space of a visual attraction, based on the interplay between possibility and impossibility, between participation and observation. Video clips and music videos are one of the elements that make up the entirety of the content of mass culture. They are part of the TV landscape, which includes films, TV series, information and journalism broadcasts, as well as broadcasts devoted to high culture [...]. The vision of the world created in music videos coexists with other television genres, overlaps and permeates with the 250 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga image created by the press, literature, art, fashion, art sciences, etc. In contemporary music videos, which are products of popular culture, one can find elements that construct it, they are part of the world or worlds of contemporary youth.

Study methodology

Content analysis is a method of researching media messages and content. Content analysis allows us to understand the symbolic features of text as it relates to the broader cultural context of which it is a vital part. The analysed discourse, which is a part of the way youth born after 1995 function in the popular culture by trying to show the world of values, priorities and beliefs of the protagonists of music videos for “Chleb” and “Hajs” has a descriptive character. Therefore, the aim of the paper is not so much to verify the hypothesis as to describe the way young people function and construct their reality on the basis of music videos which are an attempt to describe the world through the eyes of their protagonists. I decided to focus on two music videos from the album entitled Społeczeństwo jest niemiłe, because they show the fate of their characters in social roles they had invented in the fullest possible way, using metaphors and images. The meanings that they attribute to the surrounding reality, the way they modify it in their dreams and imagination, finally the roles they ascribe to themselves and others, allows them to get to know the world in which young people function. Dorota Masłowska’s project Społeczeństwo jest niemiłe, which involved the stars of the Polish entertainment scene, initially considered controversial, quickly gained popularity, not only in Poland, but also abroad. The way in which the artist describes the pop culture intertwined in the everyday life of teenagers forces reflection and may become a subject of interest for media researchers as well.

“Chleb” and “Kanapka z hajsem” – analysis and interpretation of the works of Mister D.

Dorota Masłowska’s project, who decided to adopt the “Mister D” stage name, has a special place among music videos made thus far. Masłowska’s music videos, apart from being intended for promotional and entertainment purposes, show social problems. As Urszula Jarecka rightly points out, music videos not only contribute The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 251 to the creation and establishment of certain stereotypes, but also break established conventions of perceiving and reading the world. The works of Dorota Masłowska, a Polish writer, playwright and columnist, which she presented on her album entitled Społeczeństwo jest niemiłe [Society is Unpleasant], released on 23 February 2014, force the listeners to take a critical look at reality: “I think Polish society is very unpleasant. But I can’t write a book about it because I hate engaged literature. Here, I could express all my grim reflections about prostitutes, pimps, cash and driving an Audi.” In her works, Masłowska creates a collage – a mirage consisting of functional objects, consumer goods and lifestyles, which interweave to amaze the listener and the recipient of her music videos – suddenly it turns out how important all the elements of our and someone else’s everyday life are in the perception of social reality. In all of Masłowska’s works, narration is an important element. As the artist herself points out, it is the language of the characters that creates them on its own and then constructs their reality. This principle was also used to build the music videos. Music, which is a natural means of human expression, has been combined with narration. Narration is one of the ways of communicating. As Ch. Barker rightfully points out, narration is text and text is narration. The notion of text includes not only written word, but all practices that have meaning. It concerns the creation of meanings by images, sounds, objects and activities. Narration is a story of the world, an explanation of reality. The media talk about the surrounding world. The music video for “Chleb” directed by Krzysztof Skonieczny tells the story of a young girl growing up in one of the city’s housing estates in Poland. One January day she goes to a Żabka convenience store to buy bread, as usual. On the way, she passes a boy, sitting on a bench, and she falls in love with him. After his mother ends up in hospital, the boy asks the girl to buy a bread baking machine that his mother had previously used from him. “Tak się składa, że dziś stara w ciężkim stanie zlądowała na OIOM-ie, raczej trochę tam zostanie, tomografia dobrze jej nie wróży, a maszyna do chleba dobra się kurzy.” (“It so happens, that mom ended up in ICU in critical condition, she’ll be there for a while, as the CT results aren’t great, and the bread machine is collecting dust.”) Finally, the girl agrees to the boy’s offer and bakes the bread herself, finding fulfilment in it, like the boy’s mother did before. However, the absurd, banal love story has a second meaning. The above story is only a superficial representation of the entire plot of the video, in which the text and image are filled with ambiguity and hidden meaning. Here, the flashing images, while preserving their fragmented and mosaic-like 252 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga character, create a plot of the entire work. The visual image, which in this case complements the narration, has an explanatory function and gives a deeper meaning to the words. It is not a coincidence that in Mister D.’s works the artist’s voice had not undergone a complete metamorphosis, as the artist embodies the main protagonist of the music videos. She is a young girl from a housing estate whose dreams and building her own identity are always an expression of her longing for luxury, popularity, being a star or wife of an influential person. It is clear that this identity is built on imagining oneself as someone one knows from the world of television – the world of celebrities or the world of film heroes. What is more, in the era of talent-shows, which deal with the creation of so-called “telebrites” (a category of celebrities – stars, who hitherto unknown, often with complicated biographies, in one moment experience a sudden turn in their lives thanks to television, and become rich and famous), it becomes possible to fulfil the dream of wealth and becoming a media person. The song “Chleb” shows that the girl actually functions in two worlds – one of them is the sad, unchanging reality of a block of flats, filled with stagnation, monotony and greyness, which focuses on the problems experienced by people in their 50s. The second world is the girl’s everyday media life, in which the most important place is occupied by products and consumer goods of popular culture. (In fact, the beginning of this story could be: “Once upon a time in Poland, a girl lived in a flat in an enormous block of flats...”) Thus, in “Chleb,” we can see tradition, old order and new customs interweaving with each other. The method of narration used in the song lyrics (the girl’s vocabulary – typical for contemporary youth subculture) makes the observed picture even more real. The world presented on the screen, the language of the message, the clothes and the way of life of the protagonist create a logical and coherent whole – the visuals on the screen and the text are a reality known to the audience, which makes it easier to interpret it. It is also worth noting the background of the events. It is worth pointing out that the main element of the description of the music video protagonist’s world is a metaphor. The whole video is a play on associations composed into transient images. In fact, only by playing the video a number of times makes it possible to grasp certain details, which create a jigsaw puzzle of interrelated meanings and senses. The metaphorical experience of reality allows the music video to put the viewer in the role of a protagonist, which helps to equalise their perception – their ontological and epistemological statuses. The images depicted in it – dreams, hallucinations and visions – represent mental states of the protagonist, which make the world real and close to the viewer’s experience. The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 253

Fig. 1. A metaphor for happiness in love. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 11.09.2015.

An important element that starts the story in the music video is the space constructed in it. Urszula Jarecka notes that the space presented in music videos is deliberately constructed to be “familiar” and encompasses the real world. These directly experienced spaces are inhabited by music video people who love and play. The proper organisation of space has an impact on the hearts and minds of people, because it allows them to get familiar with it – it is understood and clear for everyone. The social spaces presented in the music video are familiar, limited to the range of our sight – supermarkets, playgrounds, stations, buildings with an unreal character. What is more, flats and houses are not presented here as friendly spaces, a house is not an asylum. The streets and parks of the place are the stage for often fantastic performances. A similar world is presented in the video. The protagonist of the clip lives in one of many blocks of flats, her window is one of many small openings to the world, only a close-up shows which of the windows of the yellow skyscraper is the girl’s window. When she walks along the neighbourhood street, she resembles a theatre puppet, passing by the scenes playing out to her left. The image is always limited to the presentation of a moving scene that goes on and changes with the girl’s steps in a matter of seconds. The first thirty seconds of the video show how deeply the culture of consumption is ingrained in contemporary young people living in a world in which small retail chains were successful in their marketing activities and became a part of the image of Polish cities, successfully finding consumers and getting them attached. The protagonist of the music video goes to the Żabka store for bread, because they give out “these stickers.” Along the way she passes a booth with a “Kebab 24 h” sign, which is also typical for the existing fashion for “kebab business.” The language 254 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

Fig. 2. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 10.09.2015.

Fig. 3. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 10.09.2015. of the song deserves special attention. The protagonist of “Chleb” points out: “why wouldn’t I go to Żabka,” which in the case of a situation in which she enters into a dialogue with another person, this is automatically connected with a known, even the most reasonable, confirmation of her decision, which does not need to be explained. Furthermore, “these stickers are so sweet” and “anyway, why does he care” and his “mom doesn’t buy bread, she bakes her own.” The boy in the piece tells the girl: “you could bake your own bread and stuff.” Here, the local metalanguage plays an important role in the whole plot of the video, so it is difficult to say which one of the two – narration or visualisation – serves as the background for understanding the essence of the message. The more so, that in the thirty seconds of its duration it can be seen that the mother about whom the protagonist sings is Twitter – the girl taps a message The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 255 on the computer keyboard: “I’m going to get some bread.” The social reality created by its protagonists also deserves attention. On the way to get the stickers, the girl passes a man in socks and flip-flops, who jumps away and opens his coat, showing grey underwear; a nice elderly lady wearing a beret walking a dog, a large dog that relieves itself on the lawns, a runner and a rubbish container, from which smiling children dressed as strawberries jump out and give the girl mascots. These 30-second fragments are full of hidden meanings: the societal fear of deviants hidden among tall housing estates, the pointlessness of collecting loyalty stickers in shops and their lack of value – ultimately, they end up in a trash can, a Polish society ageing in soli- tude, healthy lifestyle fashion and the problem of dog excrements on the lawns.

Fig. 4. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 10.09.2015.

An important element of the video are the icons of popular culture taking part in it. A girl who walks down the street knowing that she is being watched by a boy from the estate suddenly takes on a role and, in her mind, she becomes Anja Ru- bik, a Polish model. Interestingly, both the clothes and the bracelet made of candy on the girl’s wrist prove that certain qualities of her identity remain unchanged. The candy bracelet, which she later seductively bites is an element with which, despite her metamorphosis, remains a part of the teenager’s style. Moreover, the image of herself as a model is not entirely in line with her media image: her clothes and exaggerated make-up are far removed from the current fashion trends. Thus, in a sense, the girl still remains herself. The candy bracelet, kitschy make-up and costume still make us believe that the heroine of the clip, although she plays the role of a model with a lisp, imitating her lifestyle and the speech impediment, which is 256 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

Fig. 5. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 10.09.2015. clearly emphasised in the video, still remains herself mentally. In the girl’s imagination, the boy from the video takes the form of a muscular, bald, tattooed b-boy. A tattoo, an oversized figure and kitschy striped trousers also create a caricature of famous stars from the world of sports. The characters presented by the protagonists of the music video show that the identity of a contemporary teenager is commercialised. Young people, whose idols are stars from the world of fashion, sport or music, are eager to build their identities on the basis of their lifestyle and career paths. It also shows that young people perceive themselves through the prism of their body and its characteristics. If a TV star with a lisp is considered to be attractive and sexy by popular media, it is enough to articulate words in the same way to become like her: beautiful, famous, recognisable and desirable. This is all the more true as the previously accepted and promoted models of behaviour promise social acceptance and respect. Searching for the patterns of behaviour seen every day on the glass screens presented by top stars is also a chance to make one’s dream lifestyle come true. As a result, the everyday life of teenagers blends with the media reality, they themselves turn to appearances. The girl takes the form of “Princes Chav” (name taken from the electronic media) with the model’s face, facial expressions, gestures and posture, when she sings: “And he’s looking at me... I’m walking, and he’s looking at me... I’m walking, and he’s looking at me... I’m walking, and he’s looking at me...” which points to the analogy that attracting men’s gazes is tantamount to being a super star. Suddenly the pavement turns into a catwalk and everything else disappears. Barbara Laskowska came to a similar conclusion when analysing the Hannah Montana TV series, when she noticed that teenage girls already have the need to understand that their appearance is being assessed, The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 257 that living in the world means living in mirror reflections. The teenage Hannah sings: “Put on your best dress and your sexiest boots [...] the boys’ jaws drop. They always want more. We make them stop and stare. We see them everywhere. And now you know who we are. Today you have to be a superstar.” In the music video for “Chleb,” the girl describes the meeting with the boy: “He grabs my hand, looks at me strange, comes so close, touches my face, holds my hand with his, slippery with sweat. His breath hurts [...].” It is accompanied by a picture of two characters in a romantic scenery, the girl is no longer a resident of the housing estate, instead she plays the main role in a romance film. The reality, however, is different from the one he knows from television screens: the boy has a slippery hand, dripping with sweat and his breath “hurts.” It is clear that the impact of popular culture on young people is so significant that they experience a convergence of identities.

Fig. 6. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 10.09.2015.

Fig. 7. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 07.09.2015. 258 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

In Masłowska’s music video, props also deserve attention – they are significant items, elements of popular culture, which confirm the level of awareness of the culture surrounding the protagonists. It is no coincidence that the boy sitting on a bench holds a “Tajger” energy drink in his hand, which later turns into a real tiger along with his metamorphosis, and he holds the animal under his arm as “Macho.” Tigers and lions have often been, and still are, props – mascots of mafias – these exotic animals are symbols of wealth, power and dominance. As Mateusz Marciniak points out, our possessions (clothes, shoes, accessories) allow consumers to keep up with other people. In addition, they have a symbolic meaning – consumers can “choose” their identity when they buy certain items. K. Romaniszyn says that by choosing specific products we define ourselves as members of a given group. In addition, it allows us to build a new dimension of our identity (for show). Building one’s identity by choosing specific products is based on the semantics of objects – a code that is not only material but also symbolic in nature We define ourselves by the things we surround ourselves with and by their brands. Paulina Wierzba’s text “God wears sneakers – the pop-cultural phenomenon of the Converse brand and its influence on the construction of the identity of a global teenager” proves that the brand of – in this case – youth sneakers is a showcase of a young person or an object that has certain meanings, which are used to give specific characteristics and group status in youth culture. They are a kind of cultural code, because they provide information that is easy to decipher in a given youth group. There are more such objects in popular culture, and what is more, their meanings are created and broadcast by TV commercials and advertising slogans. In the video, a similar function is performed by the “Tiger” energy drink, the 2012 advertising campaign of which featured Mike Tyson, who advertised Tiger Black, one of the product variants. Interestingly, the boy does not drink the drink from the original can, but from a silver plastic bottle, which is commonly called and associated with the original “Tiger” energy drink. However, it is a cheaper and larger equivalent, available in the Biedronka discount chain. Nevertheless, the “Tiger” energy drink has become an important element of building one’s group identity around it in youth circles, becoming a lifestyle product. The image of the boy sitting “on the bench, as always” accompanied by the “Tajger” drink, apart from symbolising the cult of the brand, shows the everyday life of many young people in the neighbourhood, who spend their time sitting on a bench every day – not working, not studying, not taking any actions towards their self-development. This is one of the social issues. The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 259

Fig. 8. Poster promoting the Tiger Black energy drink produced by FoodCare. Source: http://skroc.pl/04cf4, retrieved on: 11.09.2015.

Fig. 9. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 11.09.2015.

The story presented in Masłowska’s video about “baking bread” seems to have a deeper meaning. After the boy offered to sell the girl a “cheap” bread machine with “free” stuff: “I would sell it cheaply, add a free overlay and a book with recipes, you could bake your own bread” – which is a reference to the culture of “bargain hunters” or “olx society,” related to the need to get things only if they something used free of charge and at a good, “affordable” price (these three words: free, cheap and affordable are of key importance here) – the girl unconsciously takes a specific life path, because from now on baking bread will become the purpose of her life. “Since then, I have been doing nothing but baking, a mountain of loaves reaches the ceiling, I baked walls, chairs and painting out of bread and instead of tears, crumbs are rolling down my face...” 260 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

The girl followed the lifestyle that the boy’s mother had followed until then and, by getting together with him, she took over her role when she fell ill. This story leaves the girl unhappy in the end, because her sense of apparent happiness: (the video shows an image of the girl running with her mother on a meadow) – in fact means repeating the scheme of running a family life and becoming a wife according to a traditional scheme, which does not correspond to the image of herself and her partner that we have seen before. In the video, the girl – still stylised as Anja Rubik, rides with her b-boy on a large dachshund (not on a tiger), which she had previously seen on a lawn in the neighbourhood, and finally, after the boy’s mother’s death, she becomes an element of the caricatured, somewhat exaggerated reality shown earlier and finally abandons the figure of the model, who flies off into space. One may also risk a claim that within specific communities, time, place and environment have a significant impact on the life choices of their inhabitants, which even prevents the abandonment of generational patterns. The music video for the song “Hajs” from the same album was built in a slightly different convention. The piece does not have a plot but consists of images depicting the main character in various situations, in which she imagines herself as a gangster’s girlfriend. The situations she sings about each time take her into the world of fantasy – in this case. the authors again decided to use visions of the protagonist in a “different” form and emphasised the role of meanings in language expressions. A contrast was also applied between the imagination in certain situations and the everyday life of the protagonist. In the song “Hajs” the girl sings: “Let’s go to Grand

Fig. 10. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 11.09.2015. The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 261

Fig. 11. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 11.09.2015.

Fig. 12. Screenshot from music video for “Chleb” by Mr D. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1-z48cJDbc, retrieved on: 11.09.2015.

Canaria, just remember that I have maths at 8 o’clock.” Similarly, the protagonist of the video demands a sandwich “with Egypt, with an Audi and with lard.” Later in the song, she sings: “All of my friends cry [...] when you come to my school in your Audi, pulled by hungry Amstaffs.” In the quoted fragments, elements of popular culture – an indicator of luxury – are inscribed in all-inclusive culture and refer to the paradocumentary TV series Pamiętniki z wakacji, [Summer Diaries] which takes place in Gran Canaria. The Audi and Amstaff dogs are attributes associated with 262 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga a gangster. The girl, therefore, imagines herself as a gangster girl and cites various situations that would have happened if she had been one. However, they take place in the reality that is familiar to the girl, in which she functions on a daily basis. To some extent, the music video is a story about the girl’s dreams: what if I became a gangster girl. An important element here is the participation in the culture “just for show,” which is emphasised twice. In this culture, social respect is regulated by the condition of having what is unavailable, difficult to access and desired by society. The sandwich with cash from the music video is an attribute of wealth, luxury, comfort and prestige. The more others desire the goods owned by others, the more attractive they are and the more prestige and fame, recognition can be enjoyed by its owner. In this culture, jealousy is an important regulator of social relations. In addition, having a cash sandwich is combined with the promise of quickly meeting other consumption needs. A girl wearing a “gangster girl” costume with a big bun with cash sticking out of it, sings: “All my friends cry, when I eat my sandwiches during recess, give me a bite, give me a lick... Fuck off, eat your own, mine are with cash and Amstaff ham.” The girl also sings: “All my friends cry, when I eat them during recess like potatoes,” which indicates how important the sandwiches are in youth culture, like in one of the advertisements for Hochland cheese, titled “School Friends.” The composition of the sandwich matters, whoever has “better” sandwiches has a higher group status. The music video for the song “Hajs,” directed by Krzysztof Skonieczny, was created for the film Hardkor Disco, also directed by K. Skonieczny. The shots from the film form a collage together with other images that make up the whole video. The film shows a few days of life devoted to the ecstasy of contemporary people. Participation in parties, getting into various emotional states on discos where the play of light distorts reality and introduces the participants to a different dimension of existence is an important element of young people’s lives. The need to stimulate oneself and treat one’s body as an object, as a means to enter the world of experience, is the sense of life of young people balancing on the border of fiction and reality. Functioning in two worlds: an ecstatic world of evenings and a professional, family world during the day means constantly balancing on the border of two worlds. As one of the film’s protagonists notices: “This is the generation of images, it’s either everything or nothing. Stimuli must come one after another, faster and faster. They have to... and I apologise sincerely for being vulgar – ‘fuck you up.’ Their brains are shaped in such a way by the Internet that information needs to be interesting and if it’s not – wham, another one, more and more powerful, constantly getting more, over and over again. Due to that, their brains read the information quicker and all their senses work on it...” The scenes from the film, which can be noticed in the music video, are expressions of longing and dreams for a life full of experiences, apparent freedom and happiness. The depiction of contemporary society in Dorota Masłowska’s music – Mister D. 263

Fig. 13. Screenshot from the music video to “Hajs” by Mister D. A sandwich with cash and the connected associations. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4suvl4AO88, retrieved on: 07.09.2015.

Fig. 14. Screenshot from the music video to “Hajs” by Mister D. The protagonist as a girl in an Audi, pulled by hungry Amstaff dogs. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4suvl4AO88, retrieved on: 07.09.2015.

Fig. 15. Screenshot from the music video to “Hajs” by Mister D. An image of oneself created on the basis of images from Hardcor Disco directed by K. Skonieczny Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a4suvl4AO88, retrieved on: 07.09.2015. 264 Justyna Wrzochul-Stawinoga

Conclusion

Masłowska’s videos show the reality of contemporary young people, as well as their values, beliefs, life priorities and points of reference. Popular culture is an important source of knowledge, not only for young people but also for adults, because thanks to music videos and the narrative used in them, one can “get into” the world, which is often inaccessible for adults. Moreover, young people not only learn through the media and thanks to the media, but through co-creating films, repeating lifestyles presented in them, which often contributes to the creation of certain language codes with a wide meaning capacity, which is clearly emphasised in the project. The aim of the work was to present a picture of contemporary society. This objective has been achieved. Generation “Z” – people born after 1995 – lives in an illusory reality, the construction of which is influenced by popular culture and its products.

Bibliography

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Majak K., “Dorota Masłowska nagrała teledysk z Anją Rubik i Maciejem Nowakiem. Zobacz Mr D. ‘Chleb’,” [in:] http://natemat.pl/96165,dorota-maslowska-nagrala-teledysk-z-anja-rubik-i- maciejem-nowakiem-zobacz-mr-d-chleb, accessed on: 10.09.2015. Marciniak M., “Rzecz o utowarowieniu siebie i innych,” [in:] A. Cybal-Michalska, P. Wierzba (ed.), Dyskursy kultury popularnej w społeczeństwie współczesnym (ed.), Impuls, Krakow. Romaniszyn K., Rzecz o pracy i konsumpcji. Analiza antropologiczna, Impuls, Krakow 2007. “Schronisko dla zwierząt polskiej mafii,” [in:] http://swiat.newsweek.pl/schronisko-dla-zwierzat-wloskiej-mafii,97418,1,1.html, 12.10.2012, accessed on:12.09.2015. Rose G. Interpretacja materiałów wizualnych. Krytyczna metodologia badań nad wizualnością, trans: E. Klekot, PWN, Warsaw 2010. Sitarski P., “MTV i cylindry. Wideoklip jako druga młodość kina,” [in:] A. Dytman-Stasieńko, J. Sa- sieńko (ed.), Język@multimedia, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskiej Szkoły Wyższej Edukacji TWP we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 2005. Włodek P., “Człowiek XXI wieku i doświadczanie rzeczywistości odbite w kinie Puzzle Films jako metafora współczesnego świata,” [in:] A. Ogonowska, G. Ptaszek (ed.), Człowiek- Technologia- -Media. Konteksty kulturowe i psychologiczne, Impuls, Krakow 2014.

KULTURA – SPOŁECZEŃSTWO – EDUKACJA Nr 1 (13) 2018 POZNAŃ

Jerzy Janiec University of Kazimierz Wielki in Bydgoszcz

Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students

KEYWORDS Abstract: How many times dear reader have you found creativity, ASD, OCD, yourself in a quite challenging situation (having an am- perfectionism, deficits bitious student, but with depression, social, emotional and interaction deficits, low self-esteem, OCD and everything connected with ASD) when the most crucial was timing (15 weeks and the same amount of subjects to pass by the given learner) and you have been looking for possible solutions without any further favorable outcomes wondering what should be another step of mine as educator in the upcoming end of the school year? This paper is some sort of answer on the given questions providing a far-reaching suggestion, after in-depth reflection and evaluation, for individual creative work in order to understand ASD students. Sometimes we need to give ‘three steps back to move one step forward’. Three steps back is a diligent investigation that consists of four stages, namely stage of novitiate (refocus), stage of puzzles, and stage of fixing the puzzles and stage of creativity. What’s more, we need to reflect on our thoughtfulness by analyzing acronym C.A.M.P.A.I.G.N.E.R. with specific personality traits. Possessing background knowledge about the problem and ourselves we can move forward by implementing creatively possible solutions to our circumstances remembering about being in every situation ourselves.

Adam Mickiewicz University Press, pp. 267-280 ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.13.20 268 Jerzy Janiec

Fig. 1. Homerton Conference Centre, Cambridge, July 3, 2016

Stimulus

Having been fortuitous to attend a methodological course entitled “Creativity in the Classroom” with Chaz Pugliese (Arnold et al., 2015; Pugliese at al., 2010) in Homerton Conference Centre, Cambridge in July 4–15, 20161, I caught sight of it even higher than just fruitful. On top of it, there are not many favorable circumstances to be in all respects a part of life changing experience throughout the whole savoir-fair in all one’s born days. Being exhilarated to distribute inwardness likewise schemes from the school year 2015/2016 and more philosophical insights thanks to new colleagues-teachers encouragement2. What’s more compelling, people have a tendency not to spend as much time on reflection as they perhaps should in order “to move one step forward after taking three steps back” (Chaz’s words) also in the classroom. The emphasis on contemplating corresponds with

1 IB School No. 006654 International School of Bydgoszcz took part in two years Erasmus Plus program focusing mainly on linguistic and methodological teachers’ up growth. The aforementioned course was organized by Bell Educational Services featuring worldwide-recognized ETL speakers, namely Jim Scrivener (Academic Director), Lyndsey Warwick (Chief Executive), Adrian Underhill, Anne Young, Jacquelin Douglas. 2 I would like to dedicate this paper to the whole ‘Creativity in the Classroom’ colleagues-teachers group, namely: Francesca, Juliana, Katarina, Magda, Marcia, Maya, Madeline, Natalia, Ute, Valle, Matt and Juan. Thank you for being one of the best teams ever. Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students 269 a question whether you know yourself in terms of strengths and weaknesses, but especially what are your personality traits that can make a difference in a classroom environment willing to be flexible as much as it is possible in order to teach children in the 21st century (Levitin, 2015: 329–369).

Schema 1. Where does the creativity in teaching happen? Author: Jerzy Janiec

Let just make these three steps back. Apart from the course content I was fa- miliarized to NERIS Analytics Limited Company and its sixteen personalities test (NERIS 2016). Around 37,7 mln people took it so far3, so a number of Polish inhabitants in their country. I had been quite skeptical and cynical beforehand, but after some time I just realized that result, hinging on a clear-cut algorithm, actually describes myself. There was an urgency to combine the latest finding with education and two far-reaching quotes:

Remember two things: that there is no such thing as right or wrong and that you need to trust the process [in the classroom, ed. JJ]. – Chaz Pugliese, (Gurr, 2013; Pugliese at al., 2010: 83–87)

More experienced colleagues tell me that I should play the role of a confident, knowledge- able teacher. As I walk into my classroom, I feel myself trying to become that teacher, but somehow I’m never comfortable with it and never quite sure how I should be in the classroom. (Scrivener, Thornbury, 2012: 36)

Have you ever reflected on a way of bonding people, making new friends and on a term ‘team spirit’? Why trust and honesty are crucial factors for teaching- learning process? Why it is important to know students’ moods, routines, hobbies, ways they learn and other attributes? What are the ways to put theory into practice? How to motivate your students? Why on the grounds that we will understand

3 On a day July 23, 2016; hour: 18:25. 270 Jerzy Janiec

Howard Gardner’s (1983; 1993) Multiple Intelligences Theory (MI theory)4 scholars are able to provide a meaningful learning environment not for themselves, but their students? Why any teacher should come as she/he is? (Scrivener, Thornbury, 2012: 36–39; taking also into account Adrian Underhill’s suggestions from his workshop entitled “Developing Classroom Relationships through supportive Lis- tening”). What are inclusion and differentiation? How they should work the best for my students? Why I am assuming that young learners are going to master information as I do? Why I am fixating merely on my strengths as a teacher not on my students’? (Pugliese et al., 2010: 84–85).

Diligence

Answering the given questions please imagine a situation, which you are going to be put in as educator and form teacher at once. One of your fourteen years old students is diagnosed with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)5 of course including repetitive obsessions and compulsions in her behavior that occur at home, at school, during classes and breaks. After another set of interviews and ses- sions with psychologists, psychotherapists and other specialists she is spotted with Asperger Syndrome/ASD6 having above-average intelligence and a dint of being a perfectionist with social, communication and interaction deficits7. To make matters even worse she is taking medicines without any positive reactions, consultants are not certain how to help and you have only fifteen working weeks during second semester (5 days each) to make sure that your learner is going to pass this school year with fifteen subjects and its subject teachers on a check-in list to issue final marks. To add, she is getting handle on depression, panic attacks, and problems with vision, breath and low self-esteem these days.

4 Forms of intelligences consist of: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kin- esthetic, intrapersonal and interpersonal. 5 Definition given by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH): ‘Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common, chronic and long-lasting disorder in which a person has uncontrol- lable, reoccurring thoughts (obsessions) and behaviors (compulsions) that he or she feels the urge to repeat over and over.’ Source: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml; 23.07.2016. 6 Nowadays categorization: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). 7 For instance: ‘getting upset by a slight change in a routine or being placed in a new or overly stimulating setting’, ‘making little or inconsistent eye contact’, ‘failing to, or being slow to, respond to someone calling their name or other verbal attempts to gain attention’, ‘having difficulties with the back and forth of conversations’; from: NIMH, Autism Spectrum Disorder. Source: http://www.nimh. nih.gov/health/topics/autism-spectrum-disorders-asd/index.shtml; 23.07.2016. Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students 271

What would you do? Beyond the bounds of any theory that is given on workshops, additional courses or in a form of guidance, here comes reality – metaphorically a skillful academic professor determined to scrutinize somebody’s perception, maturity, awareness and dexterity in a real life scenario not in a written test or any other similarly relevant to school-like assignments. Notwithstanding this fact, the profile of criteria to assess your work is more likely to be the biggest concern. There is a chance of gauging individual from many perspectives by people having interest in the aforementioned matter, namely the teenage child, her family, friends, relatives, other parents and students, but in essence you will be able to hear only two convictions ‘success’ or ‘misstep’. During my course on ‘Creativity’ our tutor addresses a fear of accepting failure as one of the main reasons why teachers do not want to move out of their comfort zone not opening a little bit wider doors for learning. One of the most pervasive sentences that you can read is, as follows:

F a i l u r e is simply a basic fact of life for the creative individual: what makes everything different is how the individual r e s p o n d s. (Pugliese at al., 2010: 85)

In other words we need to find a smooth balance of everything overcoming obstacles and starting making our own research to refresh our knowing and understanding of the problem. Remembering that:

To think creatively is to learn to live one’s life with d o u b t, indecision and uncertainty. Some individuals may not like this, because it leads to anxiety. Creative people are constantly confronted by darkness and far from being afraid, they quickly learn t o a d a p t and move swiftly. (Pugliese at al., 2010: 86)

The aim of being diligent in education is not only to work hard being assidu- ous, but also to recognize somebody’s wants and needs likewise emotions, to create original and valuable solutions and implement them as soon as it is possible (Pugliese at al., 2010: 13–19; Scrivener, 1994: 82–98). Not having enough experience (a doubt) shall be exchanged with a self-taught process like the author’s of this paper (sequencing process of adaptation). Finding yourself in a total state- of-art plight provokes you to speculate out of the box and moreover to discover unusual pathways that might be demonstrated in systematized stages behaving towards ASD students. My investigation consists of four levels: a) Stage of novitiate or/and refocus may refer to any educator, whose area of expertise is dissimilar to psychology, biology, physics and chemistry, for instance a historian working as a form teacher. Perhaps it might be useful for 272 Jerzy Janiec

experts in the aforegoing disciplines adjusting knowing and understanding on more scholarly ground. One of the main objectives here is to revise processes that happened in our body and mind as well as being introduced to neuroscience likewise neurodidactics building up some sort of a skeleton thanks to which we will be able to attach more detailed data after making generalizations (Berg et al., 2007; Bhikkhu Samahita, 2011; Feynman et al., 1965; Longstaff, 2012; Stapp 1993; Zemełka, 2015; Żychlińska, 2013). b) We undergo stage of puzzle(s) by defining a problem, analogizing8 and dis- criminating9 this what we know and what should we know about any dilemma. In our case of study there is a necessity to pinpointed the successive puzzles of: perfectionism (Bonelli, 2015; Frank, 2015; Resourc- es Result Relief, 2016; Smout, 2014); anxiety, communication and social deficits with their consequences (Falk et al., 2015; Fox, Francine, 1990; Hi- ber, 2011; Napora, 2011; Schwartz, 2016; Swallow at al., 2000; Waszczuk et al., 2015; Wojciechowska, 2011; Zabłocka 2011); OCD (Bryńska et al., 2011; Gorbis, 2016; Duncko, Veale, 2016; Pearcy et al., 2016; Smolińska, 2016), ASD (Attwood, 2006; Baron-Cohen, 2008; Berney, 2004; Garnett, 2013; Mazzone et al., 2012). c) Stage of fixing the puzzles is a long term proceeding when we are trying to find connections between at least two open to doubt diagnoses, observing them from various perspectives, analysing their positives and negatives, advantages and disadvantages, risks and chances to grasp for example OCD phenomena – ASD – Autism – emotional experiences – quantum mechanics theory in neuroscience (changing a way of thinking and behaving of individual with ASD) – impact on peers and adults relationships, etc. (Fischer- Terworth, Probst, 2009; Losh, Capps, 2006; Kelly et al., 2008; Neziroglu, Hen- riksen, 2014; Paul, 2014; Russel, 2005; Ruzzano et. al., 2015; Samson et al., 2012; Schwartz et al., 2005; Sofronoff et al., 2005; 2011; Zandt et. al 2007). d) Stage of creativity (on three types of creativities read: Pugliese et al., 2010: 11-12) corresponds with three above because finally we are able to aim for possible solutions starting with Jeffrey’s Schwartz four steps self-treatment method to overcome OCD (Schwartz, 1996; 2002; 2011), mindfulness and cognitive therapies (Bays, 2015; Burdick, 2014; Gorbis, 2016; Gu et al., 2015; Hertenstein et al., 2015; MacCoon et al., 2013; McKay et al., 2015), way our

8 Analogizing in teaching-learning process means to compare and contrast things in order to understand them. 9 Discriminating in metaphorical sense is to make a shopping list of things ‘what goes in’ and ‘what goes out’. Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students 273

learners acquire knowledge including MI theory (Caine, Nummela, 2001; Hüther 2016; Montessori, 1949), how to create a group of people with the same goal (Chybicka, 2006; Dweck, 2006), how to communicate with any student with obstacles being inspired by certain authors and their publications not necessarily connected with the subject matter (Dutta, 2015). All we need to do is to decide whether we are going to combine, explore or transform (Pugliese et al., 2010: 11-12) antecedent solutions in order to implement them to the new circumstances.

Thoughtfulness

On behalf of the previously acknowledged sixteen personalities test let me mention a campaigner who on one hand is a quite arduous person always sufficiently involved in malleable frame10 to accomplish a certain objective, for instance in education. According to NERIS’s (2016) research there is only 7% of population around the world that can be described by psychologists using campaigner’s personality traits. On the other hand we may develop acronym11 – C.A.M.P.A.I.G.N.E.R. – that consists of peculiar idiosyncrasies of any individual who would like to make changes in a particular field or assist her/his students with special educational needs in various frames. They are as follows: – Curious = inquisitive: a teacher who is eager to learn something about people she/he is working with including ASD students using Socrates-like conversations as main armor. – Anxious = thoughtful: a teacher who is showing consideration of others ‘in the process’ of learning in the classroom environment, but also in real life scenarios. – Martial = courageous = gallant: a teacher who is able to face a difficulty without losing grip that is connected with state of mind and spirit. What’s more she/he is not going to relinquish effortlessly after taking risk and coming across possible missteps. Brave personality will recover, acclimate and sub- mit another quick fixes to adequate states of affairs in one’s life. – Passionate = compassionate = empathetic: a teacher who is acknowledged in any feasible crunch and is able to respond in accurate manner.

10 Another word for a task, but this time more flexible with an opportunity to adjust self-refer- ential data. 11 Based on the third creative strategy introduced by Chaz Pugliese entitled ‘S.C.A.M.P.E.R.’ and creatively reused for educational purposes of this paper. 274 Jerzy Janiec

– Acute = insightful: a teacher who is understanding, is having acumen (intuition), is able to see causes and consequences of the given dilemma and can predict unexpected. – Indefatigable = diligent = independent: a teacher who is independently pains- taking in order to aid those in need without looking behind. – Genial: a teacher who is favorable for life, she/he is amicably and courte- ously good-natured. – Newscaster = communicative: this is one of the most important personality traits because ASD students are choosing people to talk to (Barbeau et al., 2013; Hüther, 2014; 2015). You need to be very diplomatic in answering and asking questions without using unnecessary sarcasm or joke because learners might feel uncomfortable with. – Energetic = enthusiastic: this is one of the most difficult personality traits to keep because you need to be always ready for unexpected and reacted positively on every trigger in the air. – Risk-taker = doer, mover and shaker in order to create environment of understanding and appreciation what is going on with ASD students. Unfortu- nately, you will always take risks in that matter. In a nutshell, remember to be yourself on every occasion. Please do not feel ashamed to involve intuition and feelings in a way you teach adolescents.

Key

Belatedly time has come to make a step forward. Firstly, bear in mind lock stock and barrel. By way of clarification as a result of comprehensive research you are capable of perceiving each and every even indiscriminate obstacle. By the same token by virtue of peculiar idiosyncrasies you have a proven capacity to go through somebody’s mental state as well as you are able to deliberate with. Considering bringing together and infusing certain problems withal fishing for smart resolutions you may be ready to anticipate outcomes in advance. Being well appointed you might spend amazingly successive period on the genuine in existence battlefield. Every milestone in educational positive energy driven get-up-and-go process ought to be reach thanks to commitment and equal embroilment of three elementary bodies in a shape of isosceles triangle, scilicet a student (on the top), a parent (on the right side) and a teacher / form teacher (on the left side). Please never undervalue hearing with a particular student and his parent in furtherance of any learner’s wants and needs. A role of any listener is to hear along with using informa- Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students 275 tion rather than waiting for astute reply. Humanists are essential if it comes to leading dialogues. It might sound controversial, but a conversation can have some sort of remedial strength principally in exemplification where because of any rationale there was no chance of having this privilege at home. Acceptable communicator is going to open up slowly a given person stimulating a discussion to be aware of things that she can control, is able to excite and cannot influence obstacles (IB Team, 2016). We can react in a classroom observing what is going on with the pupil. Very useful are mindfulness strategies to control breath also Schwartz’s four steps and exercises connected with behavioral therapies. Teacher-watcher should assess whether educate other classmates on a problematic case in the classroom. Everything depends on se- riousness of the given situation. There is a huge possibility that the given student will be absent for a certain amount of time. We can use it wisely to prepare other children telling only this what they should know, not giving any details. Of course, I do not need to mention that regular contact with parents is fundamental. After collecting all the data you can demonstrate results of your investigation to other teachers as well as management creating a supportive and caring team that has one aim – to watch over our student. Be prepared for sharing your idea how to work with ASD student in other classes. Each case is different, so one solution might be not suitable for every occasion, but making one misstep is not a tragedy in order to help adolescent. If your learner is more focused at school than at home do everything what you can to lower a number of homework that is given to her/ him. In order to make life at school for ASD student more predictable I would like to present, in a form of a table, my solution ‘One subject per one week’. Accord- ing to my student passing subjects weekly was less stressful and clearer what to do than in more traditional way. Knowing forms of assessment, working at school and being aware which criteria could have been checked made her feel prepared (even though being reserved she underlined one thing that she is no matter what always ‘choppy’).

Table 1. Example of solution named ‘One subject per one week’

Forms of Assessment Notes / Dates / Specifica- Week Subject(s) Teachers IB Criteria during Classes tions / Descriptions Movie analysis (written as- 1 English … A … signment) up to 350 words Power point presentation 2 Spanish … B C A … Listening – paper Written assignment up to 3 Biology … A … 220 words 276 Jerzy Janiec

Atom’s structure and peri- 4 Chemistry … A C D … odic table – presentation Written assignment up to 5 Physics … A-D … 350 words Website or/and 6 ICT … A-D … Database Physical 7 … ‘Healthy Diet Menu’ A B D … Education … … … … … … Source: author

Table 2. Suggested differentiable and editable set up of daily routines in each subject for ASD students

Additional activities Subjects Routines Notes in the classroom Morning routines … Afternoon routines History … … … ‘Before you leave the classroom’ routines …

… … … …

Source: author

To conclude, the ASD student was the best in her class passing all of the fifteen subjects with the highest average (being more precise: twelve excellent grades and three very good marks) and having second best at school result fulfilling in outstanding manner all of the goals for school year 2015/2016. She was also a representative of the school in various competitions and she attended extra after school activities hooking up her wide range of hobbies that get a fix on music. Thanks to “Creativity in the Classroom” course I was introduced to the three creative strategies. One of them was simplicity, which requires using people as resources. One thing sticks with me the most and I am very thankful for this lesson:

Simplicity is about adopting a frugal, minimalist, ecological, learner-centred and anti-exte- rior-clutter approach in the classroom. (Chaz Pugliese et al, 2010: 16) Problem-solving activity including trust and honesty: spotlighting ‘ASD’ students 277

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CULTURE – SOCIETY – EDUCATION NO. 1 (13) 2018 POZNAN

Report on the First International Scientific Symposium “Textile Art. Master and Dis- ciple”, Lviv, 2-6 September 2017

From 2 to 6 September 2017, the First International Scientific Symposium of Textile Art “Mas- ter and Disciple” was held at the Lviv National Academy of Arts. The event was organised by the staff of the Lviv National Academy of Arts, Andrey Sheptytsky National Museum in Lviv and the Historical Museum of Weaving in Gliniany. The conference was held under the patronage of the Rector of the National Academy of Arts in Lviv, Prof. Andriy Andriyovych Bokotey. The aim of the Symposium was to draw attention to the timeless character of the art of fabric and to exchange experiences related to the education of young artists in Ukraine, Poland, Moldova, Switzerland and Finland. Representatives of these centres, together with their students, discussed and conducted workshops and lectures on applied arts for five days. The symposium began on the 2nd of September with the official opening of the exhibition at the Andrey Sheptytsky National Museum in Lviv “Master and Disciple. Vision of the Master”, where the present academic teachers presented their works. The Adam Mickiewicz University was represented by Prof. Jędrzej Stępak. The work presented by him is a series of works made in the old Hutsul weaving technique according to his own design. During the exhibition the participants of the Symposium had an opportunity to get to know each other, which influenced the quality and effects of the discussion in the coming days. The second day of the event was devoted to the opening of the original exhibition “Ma- donna Huculska” by Prof. Dorota Sak from the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź, which took place at the National Museum in Lviv. The opening was accompanied by a discussion on the image of Mother of God in art and fabric. In the afternoon, another meeting of teachers and students was held in connection with the opening of the next exhibition “Weaving carpets – to be or not to be,” which was organised by the Historical Weaving Museum in Gliniany. It was undoubtedly a time of very heated discussions concerning the need for weaving in contemporary cultures of European countries. On the third day, the First International Student Conference “Textile Art – A Look to the Future” was held at the National Academy of Arts in Lviv. It was an intensive time of presentation of scientific and artistic achievements by Ukrainian and international students. In the first part, students of the Lviv National Academy of Arts presented themselves, showing off the traditional methods of designing clothes and applied materials, as well as contemporary trends in artistic education in the context of designing and creating national costumes and headgear. In the second part, we could listen to presentations by students from the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź, who talked about modern techniques of designing and making clothes. The participants 284 summarised the first day of the meeting, which was accompanied by the exchange of experiences related to the topic of the day. On the fourth day, the First International Student Conference was continued; however, it revolved around the area of artistic education in schools and universities in Europe. This part featured a student from the Faculty of Educational Studies of the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Jakub Adamczewski. Jakub talked about his teaching practice in primary school in Vasa, Finland, which was part of his paper Everything starts with a child. Artistic education and design in Finnish primary schools. The presentation was accompanied by a heated discussion about the state of education in the countries represented at the Symposium. Then, Bernard Borzęcki from the University of Rzeszów gave a lecture on traditional wickerwork technique in contemporary artistic education. Bernard also presented his artistic achievements related to his profession, which he claims is in danger of extinction. After a short break, the participants met at the Lviv National Gallery to discuss contemporary methods of teaching design. This was the last event on the penultimate day of the Symposium. On the last day, the rector of the National Academy of Art in Lviv, Prof. Andriy Andriy- ovych Bokotey, and Head of the Textile Studio Prof. Zenovia Shulga officially closed the First International Symposium and held an award ceremony, in relation to the competition for the best artistic works in the following categories: traditional clothing, modern clothing, wickerwork, art book. The Rector thanked the lecturers, students and listeners for attendance, effective debates, meetings and discussions, which allowed to create new initiatives and open new perspectives in the discussed context. Among all the participants who received awards was Jakub Adamczewski (Faculty of Educational Studies at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań), who was distinguished for his paper Everything starts with a child. Artistic education and design in Finnish primary schools and the first place in the art book category for Dobrze mi tutaj, czyli gdzie mieszka współczesny patriota [I feel good here, or where the contemporary patriot lives.] Due to the great success of the event, the participants and the organisers decided to continue the idea of the Symposium devoted to art. Participation in this event was possible thanks to the fruitful cooperation of the dean authorities of the Faculty of Educational Studies of the Adam Mickiewicz University and the Department of Creative Activities in Social Spaces with the Na- tional Academy of Arts in Lviv. The next, Second International Scientific Symposium is slated for August 2018 and will take place in Moldova. I also believe that international debates and interdisciplinary discussions will have an impact on the quality of artistic education, not only in Poland, but also in the whole of Europe.

Jakub Karol Adamczewski Faculty of Educational Studies Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań Informacje o autorach

Artykuły Małgorzata Grzywacz, dr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Grażyna Miłkowska, dr hab., prof. UZ, Uniwersytet Zielonogórski Magdalena Piorunek, prof. zw. dr hab., Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Lech Sałaciński, dr, Ośrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli w Zielonej Górze Kinga Kuszak, dr hab. prof. UAM, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Abraheem Abu-Ajaj, MA, The Kaye Academic College of Education, Beer-Sheva, Israel Małgorzata Cywińska, prof. dr hab., Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Waldemar Kmiecikowski, dr hab., Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Elanit Ayzik, MA, Ministry of Education, Israel Magdalena Kozula, mgr, Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa we Wrocławiu, Centrum Współpracy Międzynarodowej Joanna Kapica-Curzytek, dr, Uniwersytet Zielonogórski Ewa Sowa-Behtane, dr, Akademia Ignatianum w Krakowie Angelika Figiel, mgr, Uniwersytet Szczeciński Patrycja Kinga Knast, mgr, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu Małgorzata Anna Jakubowska, mgr, Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Filmowa, Telewizyjna i Teatralna im. Leona Schillera w Łodzi Marlena Kaźmierska, mgr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Łukasz Albański, dr, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie Joanna Kozielska, dr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Kamila Słupska, dr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Aneta Judzińska, mgr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu Adel Ayada, MA, Grefat Elementary School, Beit Zarzir, Israel Joanna Wrzochul-Stawinoga, mgr, Dolnośląska Szkoła Wyższa we Wrocławiu Jerzy Janiec, dr, Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego w Bydgoszczy

Sprawozdania Jakub Karol Adamczewski, mgr, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu

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