Chapter 5: Air Pollution

Air pollution 117 5. Air pollution Emissions of acidifying and eutrophying fuels should enable the Russian Federation and substances and ground-level ozone precursors have the western countries of EECCA to fulfil their fallen substantially since 1990 — in particular in emission ceilings targets. Implementation of EU central and eastern Europe and the 12 countries of legislation in central and eastern Europe should eastern Europe, the Caucasus and central Asia result in countries attaining their national (EECCA) as a result of economic restructuring. emission ceilings for all air pollutants except Reductions in western Europe have resulted ammonia. In western Europe, additional measures mainly from fuel switching, flue-gas treatment and beyond current legislation will be needed to reach the introduction of three way catalysts for cars. the national emission ceilings of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia. In consequence, most of Europe’s ecosystems are now protected against further acidification but a The same projections suggest that the total area of number of hot-spot areas remain at risk especially ecosystems protected from further acidification will in central Europe. Eutrophication remains a increase to cover nearly all the ecosystem area. substantial problem with large areas unprotected Recovery from past impacts, however, cannot be throughout Europe especially in western Europe expected so rapidly. Protection from further and central and eastern Europe. Furthermore, eutrophication will also improve but still leave most of the monitored vegetation and agricultural about half of the area in western, and central and crops in western Europe and central and eastern eastern Europe unprotected. Regional ground-level Europe are exposed to ozone concentrations above ozone concentrations will fall below the threshold the long-term European Union target. for vegetation. Air pollution remains a problem in most cities. Assuming a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions Long-term average ground-level ozone to comply with the Kyoto protocol, there will be concentrations continue to increase although short- significant ancillary benefits in terms of term peak concentrations are falling. Exposure to additional reduced emissions of air pollutants and particulate matter may be the largest potential reduced costs of air pollution abatement. The use health problem from air pollution in most cities. of flexible mechanisms to implement the Kyoto Although concentrations have been falling since protocol, compared to implementation primarily by monitoring began, a significant proportion of the means of domestic measures, will shift the urban population experiences concentrations above additional reductions of air pollutant emissions limit values. Exposures to concentrations of from western to central and eastern Europe, the nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide above limit Russian Federation and the western countries of values have fallen since 1990 and further notable EECCA. It will also reduce the ancillary benefits reductions are expected. These reductions will focus in terms of control costs for air pollution in Europe attention to a greater extent on cities in the EECCA and result in higher ecosystem protection in the countries where air pollution remains a serious whole of Europe. Using surplus emission problem, and where implementation of better allowances will reduce ancillary benefits in policies, monitoring and assessment are needed. particular for central and eastern Europe, the Russian Federation and the western countries of Baseline projections to 2010 suggest that while EECCA. exposure to ground-level ozone at concentrations in excess of the EU threshold will fall in almost all western European and central and eastern 5.1. Introduction European cities, the target levels are nevertheless unlikely to be attained. Similarly, concentrations 5.1.1. The issue of particulates will remain above the limit values. Air pollution is a transboundary, multi- The fraction of the urban population exposed to pollutant/multi-effect environmental air concentrations in excess of the most stringent of problem. Although significant and well- the nitrogen dioxide limit values will fall to about directed efforts over more than two decades half compared to 1995, and exceedance of sulphur have led to a reduction in emissions, air dioxide threshold will be observed only in EECCA. pollution in Europe continues to pose risks and have adverse effects on human health Baseline projections for 2010 also suggest that and on natural and man-made economic restructuring and switching to cleaner environments. kiev_eea_version.pmd 117 03-04-2003, 12:16 PM 118 Europe’s environment: the third assessment Box 5.1 summarises various important air aspects. Policy measures must be targeted pollution issues. These arise either from accordingly at European, national and local atmospheric deposition of pollutants or from levels. direct exposure to ambient concentrations of pollutants i.e. from air quality. The issues of stratospheric ozone depletion and dispersion of chemicals such as organic The main deposition issues for this chapter compounds or heavy metals are addressed in are: Chapters 4 and 6 respectively. • acidification of soils and freshwater Emissions of acidifying and through the deposition of sulphur and eutrophying substances and nitrogen compounds; ground-level ozone precursors have • eutrophication of terrestrial, freshwater fallen substantially since 1990, but these and marine ecosystems through the pollutants continue to pose risks to deposition of nitrogenous nutrients. health and the environment. The main air quality issues addressed are: 5.1.2. The policy framework • human health effects resulting from Air pollution issues are addressed by: ground-level (tropospheric) ozone, particulate matter and other pollutants, • European Community legislation and including nitrogen oxides, benzene and strategies; sulphur dioxide; • the United Nations Economic • adverse effects on vegetation and crops Commission for Europe (UNECE) resulting from ground-level ozone, Convention on Long-Range nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide. Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). Ground-level ozone, acidification and A key element of EU legislation on emissions eutrophication are issues of European scale is the national emission ceilings directive because of atmospheric transboundary (NECD) (European Community, 2001a), transport of pollutants. Air quality issues such which sets emission ceilings for sulphur as nitrogen dioxide and benzene are more dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and subregional or local. Particulate matter and ammonia (NH3) and volatile organic ozone have both local and transboundary compounds (VOCs). These have to be achieved through EU-wide and national Box 5.1. Air pollution issues policies and measures aimed at specific sectors. Member States are obliged to Deposition of air pollutants prepare a national programme presenting Ecosystem acidification and eutrophication: Emissions, atmospheric chemical their approaches to achieving the emission reactions and subsequent deposition of nitrogen oxides (NOX) sulphur dioxide (SO2), and ammonia (NH3) are causing acidification of terrestrial and ceilings. EU sectoral emission legislation sets freshwater ecosystems. Eutrophication is a consequence of excess input of emission standards for specific source nitrogen nutrients (nitrogen oxides and ammonia), which disturbs the structure and function of ecosystems e.g. excessive algae blooming in surface categories. There are a number of EU waters. directives controlling emissions from vehicles (European Community, 1998), large Materials damage: Acidifying pollutants also cause deterioration of structures and monuments. combustion plants (European Community, 2001b) and industry (VOC directive — Air quality European Community, 1999 and integrated Ground-level ozone is a strong photochemical oxidant which, in ambient air, can affect human health, and damage crops, vegetation and materials. Ozone pollution prevention and control directive is not emitted directly, but is formed in the lower atmosphere by reaction of — European Community, 1996). volatile organic compounds and NOX in the presence of sunlight. National emission ceilings for non-EU Exposure of particulate matter, measured as concentrations of PM10 or PM2.5 (particle diameter less than 10 and 2.5 µm respectively) in ambient air countries have been agreed under the represents one of the largest human health risks from air pollution. Short-term CLRTAP Gothenburg protocol (UNECE, inhalation of high concentrations may cause increased symptoms for asthmatics, respiratory symptoms, reduced lung capacity and even increased 1999). These ceilings represent cost-effective death rates. Harmful compounds in particulate form can damage materials. and simultaneous reductions of acidification, Airborne particles can be emitted directly to air (primary particles) or can be eutrophication and ground-level ozone. The produced in the atmosphere from precursor gases (secondary particles) such as SO , NO and ammonia. EU NECD ceilings were developed using a 2 X similar approach. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX - combinations of nitrogen monoxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2) can have various adverse impacts on vegetation, human health, and materials. The EU air quality framework directive (Directive 96/62/EC) and daughter kiev_eea_version.pmd 118 03-04-2003, 12:16 PM Air pollution 119 directives (SO2,

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