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Vice in the Veil of Justice: Embedding Race and Gender in Frontier Tourism Daniel Richard Maher University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

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University of Arkansas, Fayetteville ScholarWorks@UARK Theses and Dissertations 8-2013 Vice in the Veil of Justice: Embedding Race and Gender in Frontier Tourism Daniel Richard Maher University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd Part of the Folklore Commons, Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Maher, Daniel Richard, "Vice in the Veil of Justice: Embedding Race and Gender in Frontier Tourism" (2013). Theses and Dissertations. 817. http://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/817 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UARK. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UARK. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Vice in the Veil of Justice: Embedding Race and Gender in Frontier Tourism Vice in the Veil of Justice: Embedding Race and Gender in Frontier Tourism A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology By Daniel R. Maher Illinois State University Bachelor of Science in Sociology, 1990 Illinois State University Master of Science in Sociology, 1992 August 2013 University of Arkansas This dissertation is approved for recommendation to the Graduate Council. ________________________________________ Dr. Kirstin Erickson Dissertation Director ________________________________________ ____________________________________ Dr. JoAnn D’Alisera Dr. Ted Swedenburg Committee Member Committee Member _________________________________________ Dr. Patrick Williams Committee Member ABSTRACT This dissertation analyzes how “frontier” discourses in Fort Smith, Arkansas simultaneously constitute mythological narratives that elide the deleterious effects of imperialism, racism, and sexism, while they operate as marketing schemes in the wager that they will attract cultural heritage tourists. It examines material exhibits and interpretive history programs at locations including the Fort Smith National Historic Site, Fort Smith Museum of History, Miss Laura's Visitor's Center, and the Clayton House; in texts such as the 1898 book by Samuel Harman whose title forever branded Fort Smith as Hell on the Border; in the subsequent branding and marketing derived from the novel and film versions of True Grit; and in performances by local reenactment troupes such as Wild West Shooters, Quantrill’s Raiders, Indian Territory Pistoliers, and Baridi Nkokheli’s portrayal of Bass Reeves. In this diverse assemblage of narratives and performances, the identity of Fort Smith as a “border town” teetering on the precarious edge between civilization and savagery, white and colored, rugged masculinity and domestic femininity, is constructed and celebrated. My thesis is that the frontier myths told in Fort Smith about the presence of the military fort and the principle figures of Judge Isaac Parker, Bass Reeves, Laura Zeigler, and Belle Starr, are mythologies that serve to legitimate and rationalize discourses that locate the role of Fort Smith as a doorway to the Southwest in the nation's campaign of manifest destiny. Locally, Fort Smith is veiled as a “noble protector of Indians” while Indian Territory is systematically and literally severed and railroaded into becoming a state. This frontier discourse operates on several levels. For the Chamber of Commerce and the Convention and Visitors Bureau it is the foundation for branding the city as a “frontier” town in order to grow the industry of cultural heritage tourism as the local manufacturing base shrinks. For many reenactors, the frontier resonates deeply, serving as a talisman for protecting narrow notions of race, gender, and justice, as it elides their complexity, ignores their ambiguity, and reinforces social inequalities. Still others find the frontier discourse as a way of transcending centuries of discrimination. ©2013 Daniel Richard Maher All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Kirstin Erickson, JoAnn D’Alisera, and Ted Swedenberg for their patience and encouragement with this endeavor. They have all been extremely supportive over the ten years it took to get here. I am very grateful to Kirstin for the spectacular guidance she has provided as chair of this dissertation. Thanks to Patrick Williams for joining the committee and his watchful eye on the historical details of this work. I also thank the administration, staff, and my colleagues at the University of Arkansas Fort Smith who have supported me: Henry Rinne, Rita Barrett, and Lonnie Watts were always encouraging. Assistance from the UAFS library was invaluable, reference librarian Carolyn Filippelli, interlibrary loan specialist Sharon Freeman, and Pebley Center assistant Shelley Blanton provided easy access to important resources. Thanks also to my second department in spirit and poker companions, Bob Willoughby and all his Merry Pranksters, who have given support, encouragement, and entertainment throughout this process. Mike Crane, Steve Kite, and Matt McCoy put up with many random history questions, and I am grateful to them for that. I am particularly indebted to Jay Casey who read very early and very bad drafts of this work, and provided important insights for improving it. Numerous individuals made this research possible and offered generous assistance. Thanks to Catherine Foreman Gray for her insight and tours of the Cherokee Nation in Tahlequah; the staff and volunteers at the Fort Smith National Historic Site, Fort Smith Museum of History, Clayton House, and Miss Laura’s. I am grateful to Cody Faber, Jeremy Lynch, Pat Schmidt, Caroline Speir, Leisa Gramlich, Connie Manning, Julie Moncrief, and Carolyn Joyce for their ever prompt and friendly assistance with my questions. Loren McLane at the NHS gave especially helpful, timely, and important assistance. Thanks to the many reenactors who allowed me into their lives for a brief moment and freely shared their perspective with me. Their cooperation and acceptance of me hanging out with them was invaluable for my research. While they may disagree with my interpretations and conclusions, I am quite grateful to them. Thanks to Tokunboh-Baridi Nkokheli, too, for sharing his story with us all, and his assistance with this project. Without his compelling story, none of this would have happened. Special thanks to Jacqulyn Harper West for her superb editing suggestions and inspiring whiskey conversation. Janet Lynn Graige not only gave me her undying friendship but also the perfect home to live in for working on this project. Without the 19th Street vantage point, this would not have come to fruition. My friends have weathered the ins and outs, the strikes and gutters of this Ph.D. process and I am grateful to them for understanding my absence. Thanks to Mas Agua, the Tom Ware Trio, and John Elliot for supplying an inspiring soundtrack when I had lost my focus – Elliot’s “American West” and “Stars and Bars” were particularly motivating. I must also give thanks to Richard Stivers who mentored me through my bachelors and masters degrees in sociology at Illinois State University. He spent a great deal of time teaching me to write better. Though that was 1992, I know what follows bears his influence. To my former colleagues and still friends in St. Charles, I thank Dave Van Mierlo, Michael Kuelker, and Blanchard De Merchant for their friendship, collegiality, and opportunities they have given me. The five years I spent there were extremely important and influential. Thanks also to Darvin Curtis – who came close to literally giving me the shirt off his back at one point in this process. There is no way I could have survived the past 16 years without his truly unconditional friendship and encouragement. My parents, Richard and Mary Maher, siblings Christine, Patrick, and Michael, and my children Allyson, Thor, Atticus, and Jonah, have all been through this with me. I am thankful for their love and patience through this long process. We can all sing the Lane Tech fight song together this summer. Finally, without the eternal and over-flowing support from my dear friend and colleague Billy Higgins, this project would never have taken flight. For his encouragements, suggestions, editorial, and navigational skills, all I can say is, somewhere Bass Reeves, Peter Caulder, and Ed Levy are all having a burger and fries together – and Levy is dominating the conversation by telling them how “Lee was a good General . but they paid off on Grant.” DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory and family of SGT. Henry Wesley Kellough, LAPD. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. THE FORT SMITH FRONTIER COMPLEX…………………………………1 II. RESEARCH IN THE FRONTIER COMPLEX………………………………..15 III. MYTHIC FRONTIER………………………………………………………….25 IV. MYTHIC JUSTICE…………………………………………………………….62 V. MYTHIC RACE………………………………………………………………..106 VI. MYTHIC GENDER…………………………………………………………….144 VII. PERFORMING FRONTIER TOURISM ………………………………………180 VIII. THE WAGER OF FRONTIER TOURISM…………………………………….232 Notes…………………………………………………………………………….243 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………….246 I: THE FORT SMITH FRONTIER COMPLEX “Would you like to pull the lever?” For the grand finale of the tour, we were led to the end of a hallway where a miniature gallows stood on a table. The model was about two feet high and two feet wide and complete with a little stairwell that ascended to a platform with a vaulted roof covering it. Four little ginger-bread-like-men,
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