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Death in a New Key: the Christian Turn of Roman Sarcophagi

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Death in a New Key: the Christian Turn of Roman Sarcophagi DeathinNewKey:TheChristianTurnofRomanSarcophagi by Robert Couzin A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Art University of Toronto © Copyright by Robert Couzin (2013) DeathinNewKey:TheChristianTurnofRomanSarcophagi Robert Couzin Doctor of Philosophy Department of Art University of Toronto 2013 Abstract Christian sarcophagi were produced in Rome during a long fourth century for a narrow audience. Their iconography marks a discontinuity in a centuries-old medium, a turn away from pagan and profane themes towards biblical narratives and Christian ideas. Following their patrons and viewers, these sarcophagi “converted” to a new religion and visually expressed its novel conception of death. This dissertation approaches these monuments as autonomous historical documents that merit examination on their own terms, which is not to deny the importance of social, economic, religious or artistic developments. Some of these extrinsic elements of context are addressed in the initial chapters. In particular, inferences are drawn concerning the cohort of individuals who bought, occupied and saw these sarcophagi based on estimates of cost and the Roman income distribution. Visibility, conditions of access and the circumstances of reception are also examined. Following these contextual considerations, the study focuses on two distinct and chronologically separated groups of Christian sarcophagi. The first consists of monuments with the Jonah theme, the [ii] single most popular form in the period before 350 CE. Jonah sarcophagi are representative of the widespread use of scriptural symbolic narrative, combining Old and New Testament allusions with other potential associations. The second group are sarcophagi displaying the so-called traditio legis (a modern Latinism), an important example of the late-century “conceptual” forms that allude to religious tenets without any specific scriptural anchor. This complex and controversial form of representation suggests a composite design, a conflation of images into a single form. Through a close reading of both the Jonah and traditio legis sarcophagi, the discussion elucidates various facets of reception and a range of over-determined and alternative meanings. The conclusion considers how the fourth- century Roman sarcophagi contributed to the construction of a Christian imaginaire of Christian death among their viewers. [iii] Acknowledgements I could not have brought this project to fruition without the calm, unflagging and critical (in both senses) support of my dissertation supervisor, Jill Caskey. Her incisive comments and sage advice were indispensable and are deeply appreciated. She was joined on the dissertation committee by Adam S. Cohen, whose extraordinary diligence and perspicacity goaded me towards greater clarity of both thought and expression. I also thank Björn Ewald for his contribution of the Romanist perspective. Joseph Bryant (Department of Sociology and the Centre for the Study of Religion) added an important dimension to the examination committee and I appreciate his input. I am honoured that a scholar of the stature of Dale Kinney (Bryn Mawr College) agreed to serve as external examiner. She was generous in her appraisal and helpful in her comments. Through her inspired teaching Linda Safran, the first medievalist I encountered in my graduate studies, subtly but surely deflected my interests from the Italian Renaissance to late antiquity. Without the encouragement of Michael Koortbojian (Princeton University) I would probably never have undertaken this challenge, and his continuing counsel throughout the process was invaluable. I thank my fellow students in the Department of Art for being so accepting and supportive, and the Faculty for the confidence they expressed by accepting me into the program. I was warmly received in Rome by Umberto Utro, curator of the Museo Pio Cristiano, and at the Musée départemental Arles antique by Aurélie Coste and Valérie Clenas on behalf of the Director, Claude Sintès. Hermann Otto Geissler, who like me embarked on scholarly pursuits in retirement, kindly provided a copy of his Magisterarbeit on the traditio legis, and Arnold Provoost (Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven) generously forwarded CDs holding his extensive catalogue of early Christian funerary art. Several other scholars patiently responded to my queries, including Daniel Stökl Ben Ezra (École pratique des hautes études), Walter Scheidel (Stanford University), Timothy Lim (University of Edinburgh) and Branko Milanovic (World Bank). [iv] TableofContents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables and Figures ..................................................................................................... ix List of illustrations ................................................................................................................. x I. Introduction ...................................................................................................................1 1. Death and the viewer .................................................................................................2 2. On method .................................................................................................................9 3. Dating .......................................................................................................................18 4. Nomenclature: nomina sunt omnia ..........................................................................27 a) Jews, Christians and pagans ..................................................................................28 b) Sculptors, craftsmen and designers .......................................................................35 c) Patrons, occupants and viewers ............................................................................37 d) Christian sarcophagi ..............................................................................................40 e) Classical and pseudo-classical nomenclature .........................................................44 5. Plan of the text .........................................................................................................48 II. Elements of Context .....................................................................................................51 Chapter 1. The sarcophagus as a material and economic object ..........................................51 1. Size ...........................................................................................................................51 2. Substance and supply ...............................................................................................55 a) Characteristics ......................................................................................................55 b) Sources .................................................................................................................58 3. Production and “mass production” ...........................................................................61 a) Division of labour and specialization .....................................................................63 b) Standardization .....................................................................................................71 c) Scale and workshop concentration .......................................................................74 d) Conclusion ............................................................................................................78 4. Cost ..........................................................................................................................79 a) Evidence and methodology ...................................................................................80 b) Cost of material.....................................................................................................83 [v] c) Cost of labour .......................................................................................................89 d) Funerals ................................................................................................................93 e) Conclusion ............................................................................................................98 Chapter 2. The Christian sarcophagus population of Rome ............................................... 102 1. The population of Rome ......................................................................................... 102 2. Status and Wealth .................................................................................................. 104 3. Christians................................................................................................................ 112 a) Christian number ................................................................................................ 112 b) Income stratification ........................................................................................... 116 4. The Roman dead .................................................................................................... 120 5. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 126 6. Addendum: Ex-Jews among
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