DOCSLIB.ORG

DECEIVED by DESIGN How Tech Companies Use Dark Patterns to Discourage Us from Exercising Our Rights to Privacy 27.06.2018 Table of Contents 1 Summary

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
DECEIVED by DESIGN How Tech Companies Use Dark Patterns to Discourage Us from Exercising Our Rights to Privacy 27.06.2018 Table of Contents 1 Summary DECEIVED BY DESIGN How tech companies use dark patterns to discourage us from exercising our rights to privacy 27.06.2018 Table of contents 1 Summary .............................................................................................. 3 2 Introduction ......................................................................................... 4 3 Background .......................................................................................... 5 3.1 From nudging to exploitation through dark patterns .................................. 6 3.2 European data protection legislation .......................................................... 8 3.3 Methodology .............................................................................................. 10 4 Dark patterns in prominent digital services.......................................... 12 4.1 Default settings - Privacy by default? ........................................................ 13 4.2 Ease - Making the privacy option more cumbersome ............................... 19 4.3 Framing – Positive and negative wording .................................................. 22 4.4 Rewards and punishment .......................................................................... 25 4.5 Forced action and timing ........................................................................... 27 5 Illusion of control ................................................................................ 31 5.1 Facebook: “You control whether we use data from partners to show you ads” ............................................................................................ 32 5.2 Google: «Easily delete specific items or entire topics” .............................. 34 6 Appendix: Flowcharts ......................................................................... 40 6.1 Facebook .................................................................................................... 40 6.2 Google ........................................................................................................ 41 6.3 Windows 10................................................................................................ 42 The flowcharts explained ................................................................................... 43 Side 2 av 43 1 Summary In this report, we analyze a sample of settings in Facebook, Google and Windows 10, and show how default settings and dark patterns, techniques and features of interface design meant to manipulate users, are used to nudge users towards privacy intrusive options. The findings include privacy intrusive default settings, misleading wording, giving users an illusion of control, hiding away privacy-friendly choices, take-it-or-leave-it choices, and choice architectures where choosing the privacy friendly option requires more effort for the users. Facebook and Google have privacy intrusive defaults, where users who want the privacy friendly option have to go through a significantly longer process. They even obscure some of these settings so that the user cannot know that the more privacy intrusive option was preselected. The popups from Facebook, Google and Windows 10 have design, symbols and wording that nudge users away from the privacy friendly choices. Choices are worded to compel users to make certain choices, while key information is omitted or downplayed. None of them lets the user freely postpone decisions. Also, Facebook and Google threaten users with loss of functionality or deletion of the user account if the user does not choose the privacy intrusive option. The GDPR settings from Facebook, Google and Windows 10 provide users with granular choices regarding the collection and use of personal data. At the same time, we find that the service providers employ numerous tactics in order to nudge or push consumers toward sharing as much data as possible. Facebook Google Windows Chapter No privacy intrusive default settings 4.1 in popups Equal ease (number of clicks) for privacy 4.2 friendly options in popups Design (colours and symbols) does not lead 4.2 toward privacy intrusive option in popups Language does not lead toward privacy 4.3 intrusive option in popups Privacy friendly options in popups come 4.4 without “warnings” Users can clearly postpone the decision while 4.5 accessing the service in the meantime To complement the analysis, we use two examples of how users are given an illusion of control through privacy settings. Firstly, Facebook gives the user an impression of control over use of third party data to show ads, while it turns out that the control is much more limited than it initially appears. Secondly, Google’s privacy dashboard promises to let the user easily delete user data, but the dashboard turns out to be difficult to navigate, more resembling a maze than a tool for user control. Side 3 av 43 The findings in this report are based on several user tests taking place in April and May 2018. The results represent the observations based on these tests, and may therefore vary somewhat between users of the services and geographic regions. The combination of privacy intrusive defaults and the use of dark patterns, nudge users of Facebook and Google, and to a lesser degree Windows 10, toward the least privacy friendly options to a degree that we consider unethical. We question whether this is in accordance with the principles of data protection by default and data protection by design, and if consent given under these circumstances can be said to be explicit, informed and freely given. 2 Introduction The Norwegian Consumer Council is an interest organisation for consumers funded by the Norwegian government. Part of our work is to promote consumer rights such as privacy, security and balanced contracts in digital products and services. We have published reports on how mobile apps1 fail to respect consumer rights, and how connected devices such as toys lack basic security and privacy-protective measures.2 This report is part of our work on consumer privacy and the right to make informed choices. In this report, we look at user settings updates in three digital services that relate to the new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In May 2018, European service providers confronted consumers with a wide array of GDPR updates. Amongst these services, users of Facebook, Google’s services, and Windows 10 had to click through and approve update messages as part of the companies’ attempt to comply with the GDPR. These popups contained references to new user terms, and presented a number of user settings related to the ways that the companies may collect, process, and use personal data. Facebook, Google, and Microsoft were chosen as examples, as they are some of the world’s largest digital service-providers. Although the examples used in this report are probably not unique to these three service-providers, they serve to illustrate the problematic aspects that consumers face when using digital services. As we argue below, providers of digital services use a vast array of user design techniques in order to nudge users toward clicking and choosing certain options. This is not in itself a problem, but the use of exploitative design choices, or “dark patterns”, is arguably an unethical attempt to push consumers toward choices that benefit the service provider. We find that the use of these 1 “Threats to Consumers in Mobile Apps” https://www.forbrukerradet.no/undersokelse/2015/appfail-threats-to-consumers- in-mobile-apps/ 2 “Internet of Things” https://www.forbrukerradet.no/internet-of-things/ Side 4 av 43 techniques could in some cases be deceptive and manipulative and we find it relevant to raise questions whether this is in accordance with important data protection principles in the GDPR, such as data protection by design and data protection by default. Creating seamless and enjoyable user experiences is central to user-centered design, but this does not excuse the use of exploitative nudging. Excessive nudging toward privacy intrusive options, use of dark patterns and privacy intrusive default settings, should in our view not be regarded as freely given or explicit consent. Instead, digital service providers should trust their users to make independent choices about what data they wish to share, and how their personal data is used. After all, trust is the basis of any good customer relationship, and deceit and manipulation leads to the erosion of trust. When digital services employ dark patterns to nudge users toward sharing more personal data, the financial incentive has taken precedence over respecting users’ right to choose. The practice of misleading consumers into making certain choices, which may put their privacy at risk, is unethical and exploitative. This report was written with funding from the Norwegian Research Council and the Norwegian ministry for Children and Equality and with input from academics from the ALerT research project,3 BEUC, and Privacy International. 3 Background In the digital world, the main revenue of free digital services is often the accumulation, use and analysis of user data, in many cases personal data.4 These services rely on users sharing as much data as possible about themselves, both to personalize services, and then to sell individualized/targeted advertising. Under this business model, users are often considered to be paying for the service with their personal data, although this trade-off is subject to some controversy. While many digital services monetize data by serving advertising, highly personal
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Techlash, Loot Boxes, and Regulating “Dark Patterns” in the Video Game Industry’S Monetization Strategies
    12. GOODSTEIN.DOCX (DO NOT DELETE) 12/2/20 7:53 AM WHEN THE CAT’S AWAY: TECHLASH, LOOT BOXES, AND REGULATING “DARK PATTERNS” IN THE VIDEO GAME INDUSTRY’S MONETIZATION STRATEGIES Scott A. Goodstein* INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 287 I. DEFINING DARK PATTERNS AND OTHER INVASIVE ASPECTS OF THE VIDEO GAME INDUSTRY ....................... 294 A. Dark Patterns ............................................................ 294 1. Video Game Dark Patterns Identified by Lewis, Björk, and Zagal ...................................... 297 2. A Loot Box is Simply a Monetized Rivalries Dark Pattern, Sometimes Combined with a Currency Confusion Dark Pattern ..................... 300 B. Psychology, Consumer Surveillance, and Data Research .................................................................... 302 II. TECHLASH IN THE VIDEO GAME INDUSTRY ..................... 306 A. Political Recognition of Exploitative Video Game Design ........................................................................ 308 B. Consumers Should Not Expect or Be Forced to Rely Upon the Video Game Industry to Self- Correct its Predatory Practices ................................. 311 III. LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS TO CURB MANIPULATIVE INTERFACE DESIGN .......................................................... 314 A. The Protecting Children from Abusive Games Act .. 315 *J.D. Candidate 2021, University of Colorado Law School; Associate Editor, Univer- sity of Colorado Law Review. I would like to thank all my fellow Law Review
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Patterns and the Legal Requirements of Consent Banners: an Interaction Criticism Perspective
    Dark Patterns and the Legal Requirements of Consent Banners: An Interaction Criticism Perspective Colin M. Gray Cristiana Santos [email protected] [email protected] Purdue University Utrecht University West Lafayette, Indiana, United States The Netherlands Nataliia Bielova Damian Clifford Michael Toth [email protected] [email protected] Australian National University [email protected] Australia Inria France ABSTRACT ACM Reference Format: User engagement with data privacy and security through consent Colin M. Gray, Cristiana Santos, Nataliia Bielova, Michael Toth, and Damian Clifford. 2021. Dark Patterns and the Legal Requirements of Consent Ban- banners has become a ubiquitous part of interacting with inter- ners: An Interaction Criticism Perspective. In CHI Conference on Human net services. While previous work has addressed consent banners Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’21), May 8–13, 2021, Yokohama, Japan. from either interaction design, legal, and ethics-focused perspec- ACM, New York, NY, USA, 18 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445779 tives, little research addresses the connections among multiple disciplinary approaches, including tensions and opportunities that transcend disciplinary boundaries. In this paper, we draw together 1 INTRODUCTION perspectives and commentary from HCI, design, privacy and data protection, and legal research communities, using the language and The language of ethics and values increasingly dominates both the strategies of “dark patterns” to perform an interaction criticism read- academic discourse and the lived experiences of everyday users ing of three different types of consent banners. Our analysis builds as they engage with designed technological systems and services. upon designer, interface, user, and social context lenses to raise Within the HCI community, there has been a long history of en- tensions and synergies that arise together in complex, contingent, gagement with ethical impact, including important revisions of the and conflicting ways in the act of designing consent banners.
    [Show full text]
  • Tales from the Dark Side: Privacy Dark Strategies and Privacy Dark Patterns
    Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies ; 2016 (4):237–254 Christoph Bösch*, Benjamin Erb, Frank Kargl, Henning Kopp, and Stefan Pfattheicher Tales from the Dark Side: Privacy Dark Strategies and Privacy Dark Patterns Abstract: Privacy strategies and privacy patterns are However, online service providers have become more fundamental concepts of the privacy-by-design engineer- and more sophisticated in deceiving users to hand over ing approach. While they support a privacy-aware de- their personal information. Up until now, privacy re- velopment process for IT systems, the concepts used by search has not studied this development. malicious, privacy-threatening parties are generally less An example for this development is the Tripadvi- understood and known. We argue that understanding sor mobile app (depicted in Figure 1), which is a review the “dark side”, namely how personal data is abused, platform for travel-related content. At first glance, the is of equal importance. In this paper, we introduce the starting page asks the user to log in with a personal concept of privacy dark strategies and privacy dark pat- Google+, Facebook, or email account. Taking a closer terns and present a framework that collects, documents, look, one notices that a third option is given that offers and analyzes such malicious concepts. In addition, we the creation of a Tripadvisor account. Furthermore, a investigate from a psychological perspective why privacy “Skip”-button is hidden in the upper right corner, which dark strategies are effective. The resulting framework which skips the login process entirely. When signing in allows for a better understanding of these dark con- with Facebook, Tripadvisor wants to gain access to the cepts, fosters awareness, and supports the development friend list, photos, likes, and other information (cf.
    [Show full text]
  • The Dark (Patterns) Side of UX Design
    The Dark (Patterns) Side of UX Design Colin M. Gray, Yubo Kou, Bryan Battles, Joseph Hoggatt, and Austin L. Toombs Purdue University West Lafayette, IN {gray42; kou2; bbattles; jhoggatt; toombsa}@purdue.edu ABSTRACT We focus specifically on the practitioner-created construct of Interest in critical scholarship that engages with the complex- "dark patterns" and its emergence in the practitioner lexicon, ity of user experience (UX) practice is rapidly expanding, defining a co-opting of human-centered values in the service yet the vocabulary for describing and assessing criticality in of deceptive or malicious aims. practice is currently lacking. In this paper, we outline and While ethics and values have been studied extensively in the explore the limits of a specific ethical phenomenon known HCI and Science & Technology Studies (STS) literature (e.g., as "dark patterns," where user value is supplanted in favor of value levers [63], values at play [25], critical design [10,7, 23], shareholder value. We assembled a corpus of examples of reflective design [60, 61]), these conversations are frequently practitioner-identified dark patterns and performed a content bound to the academic community and related discourses, analysis to determine the ethical concerns contained in these making practitioner access to these conversations difficult and examples. This analysis revealed a wide range of ethical issues activation of their implications problematic. While there are raised by practitioners that were frequently conflated under clear uptakes from these conversations for UX practice, it is the umbrella term of dark patterns, while also underscoring a unclear whether these methods or approaches are used in UX shared concern that UX designers could easily become com- practice to raise or foreground awareness of criticality, an issue plicit in manipulative or unreasonably persuasive practices.
    [Show full text]
  • Are Dark Patterns Anticompetitive?
    044BBC27-503D-4AFB-B1D9-B7BAF6F2C013.DOCX (DO NOT DELETE) 11/5/2020 7:00 PM ARE DARK PATTERNS ANTICOMPETITIVE? Gregory Day and Abbey Stemler INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 2 I. PLATFORMS, ATTENTION, AND ONLINE MANIPULATION ......................... 7 A. The Economic Value of Attention ................................................................. 8 B. The Attention Cycle ..................................................................................... 10 C. Dark Patterns and Online Manipulation .................................................... 14 II. PRIVACY AND PRIVACY PROTECTION .......................................................... 16 A. Privacy and Decisional Privacy..................................................................... 17 B. The Individual and Societal Costs of Online Manipulation .......................... 19 C. The Lack of Regulation of Online Manipulation ......................................... 22 III. PRIVACY AND MANIPULATION IN MODERN ANTITRUST ......................... 24 A. Digital Markets and Antitrust .................................................................... 25 B. Persuasion or Coercion in Digital Markets?................................................. 27 1. Persuasion ............................................................................................ 28 2. Coercion ............................................................................................... 31 C. Anticompetitive
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Patterns': the Case for Regulatory Pluralism Dr M.R
    'Dark Patterns': the case for regulatory pluralism Dr M.R. Leiser1 Abstract ‘Dark patterns’ is a term commonly used by the web collective to describe a user interface that exploits users into doing something that they would not normally do. It is a coercive and manipulative design technique used by web designers when some sort of action is needed from a user - typically to begin the processing of personal data or indication of agreement to a contract. As dark patterns can compromise legal requirements like consent and privacy-by-design and legal principles found in both regimes, like fairness and transparency, this article analyses ‘dark patterns’ from a regulatory perspective. Two frameworks are critiqued: the European Union’s regime for data privacy and consumer protection. The paper also provides an overview of the enforcement measures available for the regulation of dark patterns. It concludes that a pluralistic approach that mixes the strengths of one regulatory regime while compensating for its weaknesses by the use of the other is needed to harness dark patterns. Keywords: dark patterns, consumer protection, data protection, law, regulation Introduction ‘Dark patterns’ are ‘interface design choices that benefit an online service by coercing, steering, and/or deceiving users into making decisions that, if fully informed and capable of selecting alternatives, they might not make’.2 Via specific design choices, many e-commerce and social media platforms prioritize capturing user attention while obfuscating information that might help them make more informed decisions. These techniques, including information overload, fine-tuned personalization, and distorted social cues, pave the way for the manipulation of users and compromise rational decision- making.
    [Show full text]
  • DECEIVED by DESIGN How Tech Companies Use Dark Patterns to Discourage Us from Exercising Our Rights to Privacy 27.06.2018 Table of Contents 1 Summary
    DECEIVED BY DESIGN How tech companies use dark patterns to discourage us from exercising our rights to privacy 27.06.2018 Table of contents 1 Summary .............................................................................................. 3 2 Introduction ......................................................................................... 4 3 Background .......................................................................................... 5 3.1 From nudging to exploitation through dark patterns .................................. 6 3.2 European data protection legislation .......................................................... 8 3.3 Methodology .............................................................................................. 10 4 Dark patterns in prominent digital services.......................................... 12 4.1 Default settings - Privacy by default? ........................................................ 13 4.2 Ease - Making the privacy option more cumbersome ............................... 19 4.3 Framing – Positive and negative wording .................................................. 22 4.4 Rewards and punishment .......................................................................... 25 4.5 Forced action and timing ........................................................................... 27 5 Illusion of control ................................................................................ 31 5.1 Facebook: “You control whether we use data from partners to show you ads” ...........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • What Makes a Dark Pattern... Dark? Design Attributes, Normative Considerations, and Measurement Methods
    What Makes a Dark Pattern... Dark? Design Attributes, Normative Considerations, and Measurement Methods ARUNESH MATHUR, Princeton University JONATHAN MAYER, Princeton University MIHIR KSHIRSAGAR, Princeton University There is a rapidly growing literature on dark patterns, user interface designs—typically related to shopping or privacy—that researchers deem problematic. Recent work has been predominantly descriptive, documenting and categorizing objectionable user interfaces. These contributions have been invaluable in highlighting specific designs for researchers and policymakers. But the current literature lacks a conceptual foundation: What makes a user interface a dark pattern? Why are certain designs problematic for users or society? We review recent work on dark patterns and demonstrate that the literature does not reflect a singular concern or consistent definition, but rather, a set of thematically related considerations. Drawing from scholarship in psychology, economics, ethics, philosophy, and law, we articulate a set of normative perspectives for analyzing dark patterns and their effects on individuals and society. We then show how future research on dark patterns can go beyond subjective criticism of user interface designs and apply empirical methods grounded in normative perspectives. ACM Reference Format: Arunesh Mathur, Jonathan Mayer, and Mihir Kshirsagar. 2021. What Makes a Dark Pattern... Dark?: Design Attributes, Normative Considerations, and Measurement Methods. In CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’21), May 8–13, 2021, Yokohama, Japan. ACM, New York, NY, USA, 27 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445610 1 INTRODUCTION Recent scholarship has called attention to dark patterns, user interface designs that researchers deem problematic. The preponderance of academic literature on dark patterns has curated collections of objectionable user interface designs [3, 21] and highlighted the frequency of dark patterns in specific contexts, such as privacy settings [4], online gaming [62], and online shopping [35].
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Patterns at Scale: Findings from a Crawl of 11K Shopping Websites
    81 Dark Patterns at Scale: Findings from a Crawl of11K Shopping Websites ARUNESH MATHUR, Princeton University, USA GUNES ACAR, Princeton University, USA MICHAEL J. FRIEDMAN, Princeton University, USA ELENA LUCHERINI, Princeton University, USA JONATHAN MAYER, Princeton University, USA MARSHINI CHETTY, University of Chicago, USA ARVIND NARAYANAN, Princeton University, USA Dark patterns are user interface design choices that benefit an online service by coercing, steering, or deceiving users into making unintended and potentially harmful decisions. We present automated techniques that enable experts to identify dark patterns on a large set of websites. Using these techniques, we study shopping websites, which often use dark patterns to influence users into making more purchases or disclosing more information than they would otherwise. Analyzing ∼53K product pages from ∼11K shopping websites, we discover 1,818 dark pattern instances, together representing 15 types and 7 broader categories. We examine these dark patterns for deceptive practices, and find 183 websites that engage in such practices. Wealso uncover 22 third-party entities that offer dark patterns as a turnkey solution. Finally, we develop a taxonomy of dark pattern characteristics that describes the underlying influence of the dark patterns and their potential harm on user decision-making. Based on our findings, we make recommendations for stakeholders including researchers and regulators to study, mitigate, and minimize the use of these patterns. CCS Concepts: • Human-centered computing → Empirical studies in HCI; HCI theory, concepts and models; • Social and professional topics → Consumer products policy; • Information systems → Browsers. Additional Key Words and Phrases: Dark Patterns; Consumer Protection; Deceptive Content; Nudging; Manipulation ACM Reference Format: Arunesh Mathur, Gunes Acar, Michael J.
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Patterns and Their Use in E-Commerce
    Emma Nevala DARK PATTERNS AND THEIR USE IN E-COMMERCE JYVÄSKYLÄN YLIOPISTO INFORMAATIOTEKNOLOGIAN TIEDEKUNTA 2020 ABSTRACT Nevala, Emma Dark patterns and their use in e-commerce Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä, 2020, 33 p. Information systems science, Bachelor’s thesis Supervisor: Kyppö, Jorma Growing competition in the field of e-commerce has led retailers to adopt different strategies to engage users and guide them through the digital buying process. Some retailers use digital nudges that aim to guide user through the shopping process. Some e- commerce sites have resorted to the use of dark patterns – user interface elements that manipulate the user into making a choice they might not have made, had they had the chance to choose freely. This thesis has three research questions: 1.) What are dark patterns? 2.) Why do dark patterns work? 3.) Why are dark patterns used in e-commerce? This thesis defines dark patterns as “intentional, deceptive design decisions that were made to take advantage of psychology, to manipulate the user into making decisions that were unintended and unwanted; creating value for the service that employs them”. There seems to be four factors that explain the effectiveness of dark patterns: technological, cognitive, social and motivational. Each of these factors is looked at in detail. Dark patterns are widely used in e-commerce. The prevalence of dark patterns has created an industrial drift that has led to the adoption of dark patterns on a much larger scale. Dark patterns have also been used to promote customer engagement, which, in turn, has been associated with higher levels of economic success.
    [Show full text]
  • End User Accounts of Dark Patterns As Felt Manipulation
    End User Accounts of Dark Patterns as Felt Manipulation COLIN M. GRAY, JINGLE CHEN, SHRUTHI SAI CHIVUKULA, and LIYANG QU, Purdue University Manipulation defines many of our experiences as a consumer, including subtle nudges and overt advertising campaigns thatseek to gain our attention and money. With the advent of digital services that can continuously optimize online experiences to favor stakeholder requirements, increasingly designers and developers make use of “dark patterns”—forms of manipulation that prey on human psychology—to encourage certain behaviors and discourage others in ways that present unequal value to the end user. In this paper, we provide an account of end user perceptions of manipulation that builds on and extends notions of dark patterns. We report on the results of a survey of users conducted in English and Mandarin Chinese (n=169), including follow-up interviews from nine survey respondents. We used a card sorting method to support thematic analysis of responses from each cultural context, identifying both qualitatively-supported insights to describe end users’ felt experiences of manipulative products, and a continuum of manipulation. We further support this analysis through a quantitative analysis of survey results and the presentation of vignettes from the interviews. We conclude with implications for future research, considerations for public policy, and guidance on how to further empower and give users autonomy in their experiences with digital services. CCS Concepts: • Security and privacy ! Social aspects of security and privacy; • Human-centered computing ! Empirical studies in HCI; Empirical studies in interaction design. Additional Key Words and Phrases: dark patterns, ethics, manipulation, user experience Draft: October 20, 2020 1 INTRODUCTION Digital products create and reinforce structures that guide our modern lives, providing a means to connect with others, share our experiences, perform mundane everyday tasks, and purchase goods and services.
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Patterns: Regulating Digital Design
    May 2020 ∙ Sebastian Rieger & Caroline Sinders Dark Patterns: Regulating Digital Design How digital design practices un- dermine public policy efforts & how governments and regulators can respond Think Tank at the Intersection of Technology and Society Sebastian Rieger & Caroline Sinders May 2020 Regulating Digital Design Executive Summary How easy it is to order a book on an online shop’s website, how intuitive maps or navigation services are to use in everyday life, or how laborious it is to set up a customer account for a car-sharing service, these features and ‘user !ows’ have become incredibly important to the every customer. Today, the “user friendliness” of a digital platform or service can therefore have a sig- ni"cant in!uence on how well a product sells or what market share it gains. Therefore, not only operators of large online platforms, but also companies in more traditional sectors of the economy are increasing investments into designing websites, apps or software in such a way that they can be used easily, intuitively and as time-saving as possible. This approach to product design is called user-centered design (UX design) and is based on the observations of how people interact with digital pro- ducts, developing prototypes and testing them in experiments. These me- thods are not only used to improve the user-friendliness of digital interfaces but also to improve certain performance indicators which are relevant to the business – whether it is raising the number of users who register as new customers, increasing the sales volume per user or encouraging as many users as possible to share personal data.
    [Show full text]