APPENDIX A

Air Masses and Frontal Zones

body of air in which the temperature and moisture is fairly uni• Aform over a large area is know as an air mass. The boundary be• tween a given air mass and its neighbor is usually sharply defined. This discontinuity is termed a front. In the convergence zone between the tropical and polar air masses, winds are variable and high and ac• companied by stormy weather. This zone is called the polar front. A large number of the Earth's cyclonic storms are generated here. The properties of an air mass are derived partly from the regions over which it passes. Those land or ocean surfaces that strongly impress their char• acteristics on the overlying air masses are called source regions. Air masses are classified according to their latitudinal position (which de• termines thermal properties) and underlying surface, whether conti• nent or ocean (determining moisture content). They are summarized in Table A.l and illustrated in Figure A.l.

Table A.l. Properties of air masses0 Major group Subgroup Source region Properties of source Polar Polar Arctic Basin; northern Cold, dry, very stable (including continental Eurasia and northern North arctic) (cP) America; Antarctica Polar Oceans poleward of 40° or Cool, moist, unstable maritime 50° (mP) Tropical Tropical Low-latitude deserts, Hot, very dry, stable (including continental especially equatorial) (c71 Sahara and Australian Deserts Tropical Oceans of tropics and Warm, moist, greater maritime subtropics instability toward (m71 west side of ocean °From Trewartha et al. (1967), p. 105.

135 136 Appendix A. Air Masses and Frontal Zones

Continental tropical ource, cT ¥ ¥"' ¥"' ¥"'

Figure A.l. Source regions of air masses in relation to the polar front and the intertropical convergence zone (lTC). From Elements of Physical Geography, 4th ed., by Arthur N. Strahler and Alan H. Strahler, p. 125. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. APPENDIX B

Common and Scientific Names

Plants

acacia Acacia ash Fraxinus aspen, quaking Populus tremuloides basswood Tilia beech, southern Nothofagus birch Betula black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta bluestem, big Andropogon gerardii bluestem, little Schizachyrium scoparium buffalograss Buchloe dactyloides cactus, prickly pear Opuntina engelmanni cactus, saguaro Carnegiea giganteus cedro espinoso Bombacopsis fendleri chestnut, sweet (American) Castanea dentata creosote bush Larrea tridentata Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii elm Ulmus eucalyptus Eucalyptus fir Abies hemlock Tsuga hemlock, western Tsuga heterophylla hickory Carya hornbeam, American Carpinus caroliniana juniper Juniperus kauri tree Agathis australis larch Larix

137 138 Appendix B. Common and Scientific Names

laurel Kalmia locoweed Oxytropis magnolia Magnolia maple Acer maple, sugar Acer saccharum mesquite Prosopis oak Quercus oak, cork Quercus suber ocotillo Fouquieria splendens pine Pinus pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta pine, ponderosa Pinus ponderosa pinyon Pinus edulis podocarp tree Podocarpus popular Populus red cedar, western Thuja plicata redwood Sequoia sempervirens sagebrush Artemisia smoke tree Dalea spinosa spruce Picea sunflower, common Helianthus annuus tamarisk (salt-cedar) Tamarix gallica tulip tree Liriodendron tulipifera walnut Juglans willow Salix

Animals

antelope (see pronghorn) badger, American Taxidea taxus bear Ursidae bear, polar Thalarctos maritimus beaver Castor canadensis bison, American Bison bison bongo Boocercus eurycerus buffalo, African Syncerus caffer camel Camel us caribou Rangifer tarandus chipmunk Eutamias and Tamias chipmunk, alpine Eutamias alpinus crocodile Crocodylus deer Cervidae elephant, African Loxodonta africana Common and Scientific Names 139 elk, American CeiVus canadensis emu Dromaius novaehollandiae ermine Mustela fox Vulpes and Alopex gnu (wildebeest) Connochaetes taurinus goat, North American mountain Oreamnos americanus guanaco Lama guanacoe hamster Cricetidae hare, arctic Lepus arcticus hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius ibex Capra hircus kiwi Apteryx krill shrimp Euphausia superba lemming Dicrostonyx and Lemmus lemur Lemuridae lion, mountain (puma, panther) Felis concolor marmot, yellow-bellied Marmota flaviventris marten, American Martes americana mink Mustela vison moose Alces alces musk oxen Ovibos moschatus okapi Okapia johnstoni panther (see mountain lion) penguin Spheniscidae pika Ochotona princeps plover Pluvialis and Charadrius prairie dog Cynomys pronghorn antelope Antilocapra americana reindeer (see caribou) sabel (see marten) sea elephant Mirounga leonina turkey, wild Meleagris gallopavo walrus Odobenus rosmarus whale, blue Sibbaldus musculus whale, finback Balaenoptera physalus wolf Canis lupus zebra Equus burchelli APPENDIX C

Conversion Factors

or readers who wish to convert measurements from the metric sys• Ftem of units to the inch-pound-Fahrenheit system, conversion fac• tors are listed below.

Multiply By To obtain

millimeters 0.039 inches centimeters 0.394 inches meters 3.281 feet kilometers 0.621 miles square meters 10.764 square feet square kilometers 0. 386 square miles hectares 2.471 acres centigrade 1.8 + 32 Fahrenheit

141 Glossary of Technical Terms

air mass a large and essentially homogeneous body of air, many thou• sands of km2 in area, characterized by uniform temperature and hu• midity Alfisol soil order consisting of soils of humid and subhumid climates, with high base status and argillic horizons alkali salts found in soils, as in some deserts anadromous fisheries migrating from salt water to spawn in fresh wa• ter, such as salmon Aridisol soil order consisting of soils of dry climates, with or with• out argillic horizons, and with accumulations of carbonates or sol• uble salts arroyo in Southwest United States, steep-sided dry valley, usually inset in alluvium azonal zonal in a neighboring zone but confined to an extra-zonal environment in a given zone; mountains that cut across the lowland ecological zones or regions biomass the dry mass of all living material in an area black prairie soil (also called prairie soil or Brunizem) acid grassland soil bog a wet area covered by acid peat bolson from a Spanish word, meaning pocket, for a basin of inland drainage broadleafed with leaves other than linear in outline; as opposed to needleleafed or grass-like (graminoid)

143 144 Glossary of Technical Terms

brown forest soil (also called gray-brown podzolic) acid soil with dark brown surface layers, rich in humus, grading through lighter colored soil layers to limy parent material; develops under deciduous forest brown soil alkaline soil having thin brown surface layer that grades downward into a layer where carbonates have accumulated; devel• ops under grasses and shrubs in semi-arid environments calcification accumulation of calcium carbonate in a soil chaparral sclerophyll scrub and dwarf forest found throughout the coastal mountain ranges and hills of central and southern Califor• nia chernozem fertile, black or dark brown soil under prairie or grass• land with lime layer at some depth between 0.6 and 1.5 m chestnut-brown soil short-grass soil in subhumid to semi-arid climate with dark brown layer at top, which is thinner and browner than in chernozem soils, that grades downward to a layer of lime accumu• lation climate generalized statement of the prevailing weather conditions at a given place, based on statistics of a long period of record climatic climax the relatively stable community that terminates on zonal soils climatic regime seasonality of temperature and moisture continental shelf the edge of a continent submerged in relatively shal• low seas and oceans cyclone whirling storm characteristic of middle latitudes; any rotat• ing low-pressure air system deciduous woody plants, or pertaining to woody plants, that sea• sonally lose all their leaves and become temporarily bare stemmed delta the flat alluvial area at the mouth of some rivers where the mainstream splits into several distributaries desert supporting vegetation of plants so widely spaced, or sparse, that enough of the substratum shows through to give the dominant tone to the landscape desertification degradation of the plant cover and soil as a result of overuse, especially during periods of drought desert soil shallow, gray soils containing little humus and excessive amounts of calcium carbonate at depths less than 30 ern desert-like savanna tropical semi-desert with scattered low trees or shrubs Glossary of Technical Terms 145 division as defined for use in this book: a subdivision of a domain determined by isolating areas of definite vegetation affinities that fall within the same regional climate (continents) or areas of simi• lar water temperature, salinity, and currents (oceans) doldrums an area near the equator of very ill-defined surface winds associated with the intertropical convergence zone domain as defined for use in this book: groups of ecoregions with re- lated climates (continents) or water masses (oceans) dry savanna or steppe with six to seven arid months in each year dry steppe see dry savanna ecoregion major ecosystem, resulting from large-scale predictable patterns of solar radiation and moisture, which in turn affect the kinds of local ecosystems and animals and plants found there ecosystem an area of any size with an association of physical and bi• ological components so organized that a change in any one compo• nent will bring about a change in the other components and in the operation of the whole system edaphic resulting from the character of the soil and surface edaphic climax stable community of plants that develops on soils different from those supporting a climatic climax epiphyte organism that lives on the surface of a plant but does not draw nourishment from it erg a very large area of sand dunes within a desert evergreen plants, or pertaining to plants, which remain green in parts the year around, either by retaining at least some of their leaves at all times, or by having green stems that carry on photosynthesis exotic river stream that flows across a region of dry climate and de- rives its discharge from adjacent uplands where a water surplus ex• ists forest open or closed vegetation with the principal layer consisting of trees averaging more than 5 m in height forest-steppe intermingling of steppe and groves or strips of trees forest-tundra intermingling of forest and tundra front the division between two air masses with different origins and different characteristics galeria forest dense tropical, or prairie, forest living along the banks of rivers geostrophic pertaining to deflective force due to rotation of the Earth 146 Glossary of Technical Terms

grassy savanna savanna in which woody plants are entirely lacking gray-brown podzol soil acid soil under broadleaf deciduous forest; has thin, organic layer over grayish bro-Nn, leached layer; layer of deposition is darker brown hamada an eroded rock surface found in deserts Histosol soil order consisting of soils that are organic horse latitudes subtropical high-pressure belt of the oceans humus organic material derived, by partial decay, from the organs of dead plants Inceptisols soil order consisting of soils with weakly differentiated horizons showing alteration of parent materials intertropical convergence zone (commonly abbreviated ITCJ a broad zone of low pressure, migrating northwards and southwards of the equator with the season, toward which tropical air masses converge intrazonal exceptional situations within a zone, e.g., on extreme types of soil that override the climatic effect isotherm line on a map connecting points of equal temperature krummholz zone of wind-deformed trees between the montane and alpine zones landscape see landscape mosaic landscape mosaic as defined for use in this book: a geographic group of site-level ecosystems laterite a residual soil developing in the tropics, containing concen• trations of iron and aluminum hydroxides which stain the soil red laterization process of forming laterite latosol major soil type associated with humid tropics and character• ized by red, reddish brown, or yellow coloring light tayga tayga forest composed of larch and pine or spruce macroclimate large climatic zone arranged in a latitudinal band; cli• mate that lies just above the local modifying irregularities of land• form and vegetation meadow closed herbaceous vegetation, commonly in stands of rather limited extent, or at least not usually applied to extensive grasslands meadow steppe the steppe component of the forest-steppe zone mixed forest forest with both needleleafed and broadleafed trees Glossary of Technical Terms 147

Mollisol soil order consisting of soils with a thick, dark-colored, sur• face-soil horizon, containing substantial amounts of organic matter (humus) and high-base status monsoon forest drought-deciduous trees oceanic polar front in arctic and antarctic regions, boundary between warm and cold water types, associated with a convergence of sur• face currents oceanic whirl circular movement of air around the subtropical high pressure zone open woodland (also called steppe forest and woodland savanna) open forest with lower layers also open, having the trees or tufts of vegetation discrete, but averaging less than their diameter apart orographic precipitation precipitation induced by the forced rise of moist air over a mountain barrier Oxisol soil order consisting of soils that are mixtures principally of kaolin, hydrates oxides, and quartz paramo the alpine belt in the wet tropics parkland areas where clumps of trees alternate with grassland, but where neither becomes an extensive, uninterrupted stand permafrost permanently frozen soil piedmont sequence of landforms along the margins of uplands plankton small, floating, or weakly swimming plants and animals, found in salt and fresh water; primarily microscopic algae and pro• tozoa plant formation class a world vegetation type dominated throughout by plants of the same life form playa a desert lake existing only temporarily after a rain Pleistocene the most recent major ice age. Generally the Pleistocene is considered to have begun approximately two million years ago and to have ended eight to ten thousand years ago podzol soil order consisting of acid soil in which surface soil is strongly leached of bases and clays polar front front lying between cold polar air masses and warm trop• ical air masses prame consists of tall grasses, mostly exceeding 1 min height, com• prising the dominant herbs, with subdominant forbs (broadleafed herbs) red-yellow podzol acid soil under broadleaf deciduous or needleleaf evergreen forest developed in areas of humid subtropical climate 148 Glossary of Technical Terms

regolith layer of weathered inorganic and organic debris overlying the surface of the earth salinity a saline quality salinization precipitation of soluble salts within the soil savanna closed grass or other predominantly herbaceous vegetation with scattered or widely spaced woody plants, usually including some low trees savanna forest the forest component of the savanna sclerophyll or sclerophyllous refers to plants with predominantly hard, stiff leaves that are usually evergreen selva an alternative term for tropical rainforest, originally applied to the Amazon Basin semideciduous forest composed partly of evergreen and partly de• ciduous species semi-desert (also called half-desert) an area of xerophytic shrubby vegetation with a poorly developed herbaceous lower layer, e.g., sagebrush shrub a woody plant less than 5 m in height shrub savanna closed grass or other predominantly herbaceous veg• etation with scattered or widely spaced shrubs sierozem see desert soil site the smallest, or local, ecosystems small-leafed as used here, refers to birch and aspen soil great group third level of classification of soils, defined by sim• ilarities in kind, arrangement, and distinctiveness of horizons, as well as close similarities in moisture and temperature regimes and base status soil orders those ten soil classes forming the highest category in the classification of soils source region extensive land or ocean surface over which an air mass derives its characteristics Spodosol soil order consisting of soils that have accumulations of amorphous materials in subsurface horizons steppe (also called shortgrass prairie) open herbaceous vegetation, less than 1 m high, with tufts or plants discrete, yet sufficiently close together to dominate the landscape Glossary of Technical Terms 149

subtropical high-pressure belts (also called cells or zones) belts of persistent high atmospheric pressure tending east-west and centered at about latitude 30° N and S succession the replacement of one community of plants and animals by another tayga (also spelled taiga) a parkland or savanna with needle-leafed (usually evergreen) low trees and shrubs; a Russian word referring to the northern virgin forests temperate rainforest dense forest, comprising tall trees, growing in areas of very high rainfall, such as the Pacific Northwest of the United States thermoisopleth diagram diagram that shows temperature at a station throughout the day for every day of the year thermokarst the formation of a highly irregular ground surface as a result of the thawing of masses of ground ice topoclimate the climate of a very small space; influenced by topog• raphy toposequence a change of a community with topography trade winds winds blowing from the east on the equatorward side of the subtropical high-pressure cells transhumance the seasonal movement of people and animals to and from fresh pastures tundra slow-growing, low formation, mainly closed vegetation of dwarf shrubs, graminoids, and cryptograms, beyond the subpolar or alpine treeline tundra soil cold, poorly drained, thin layers of sandy clay and raw humus; without distinctive soil profiles upwelling upward motion of cold, nutrient-rich ocean waters, often associated with cool equatorward currents occurring along western continental margins Ultisol soil order consisting of soils with horizons of clay accumu• lation and low base supply wadi in Arabia and the Sahara, dry desert valley westerlies winds blowing from the west on the poleward side of the subtropical high-pressure cells woodland cover of trees whose crowns do not mesh, with the result that branches extend to the ground xerophyte a plant adapted to an environment characterized by ex• treme drought 150 Glossary of Technical Terms

yellow forest soil (also called red-yellow podzol) soils with weakly developed horizons that also have accumulations of sesquioxides of iron and aluminum; transitional between podzols and latosols zonal resulting from the average state of the atmosphere; variation in environmental conditions in a north-south direction zonal soil well-developed deep soils on moderate surface slopes that are well drained Notes

1Terms in bold are defined in the Glossary, p. 143. 2Great soil group according to the 1938 system of soil classification (U.S. Depart• ment of Agriculture 1938). The most nearly equivalent orders of the new soil tax• onomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975) are given in parentheses. Described in the Glossary, p. 143. 3Zones of latitude may be described as follows: from the equator to 30° are low lat• itudes; from 30° to 60° are the middle latitudes; from 60° to the poles are the high latitudes. 4In this book tayga, often spelled taiga, will be written with a "y" following the Russ• ian. 50ther methods for mapping zones at the global scale are those of Thornthwaite (1931, 1933), Holdridge (1947), and Walter and Box (1976). All methods appear to work better in some areas than in others and to have gained their own adherents. The Koppen system was chosen as the basis for ecoregion delineation because it has become the international standard for geographical purposes.

151 Selected Bibliography

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Humid Temperate Albert, D.A.; Denton, S.R.; Barnes, B.V. 1986. Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 32 pp. with separate map at 1:1,000,000. Borchert, J.F. 1950. The climate of the central North American grassland. An• nals Association of American Geographers 40:1-39. Di Castri, F.; Goodall, D.W.; Specht, R.L., eds. 1981. Mediterranean-Type Shrublands. Ecosystems of the World 11. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 643 pp. Dix, R.L; Smeins, F.E. 1967. The prairie, meadow, and marsh vegetation of Nelson County, North Dakota. Canadian Journal of Botany 45:21-58. Orme, A.T.; Bailey, R.G. 1971. Vegetation and channel geometry in Monroe Canyon, southern California. Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers 33:65-82. Ovington, J.D., ed. 1983. Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests. Ecosys• tems of the World 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 241 pp. Rohrig, E.; Ulrich, B., eds. Temperate Deciduous Forests. Ecosystems of the World 7. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 635 pp. Schultz, J. 1995. see Chapters 3.3, 3.6, and 3.8. 162 Selected Bibliography

Dry Bailey, R.W. 1941. Climate and settlement of the arid region. In: 1941 Year• book of Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 188-196. Coupland, R.T., ed. 1992, 1993. Natural Grasslands. Ecosystems of the World 8A and 8B. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 469 pp. and 556 pp. Evenari, M.; Noy-meir, I.; Goodall, D.W., eds. 1985, 1986. Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands. Ecosystems of the World 12A and B. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 365 pp. and 451 pp. Goudie, A.S.; Wilkinson, J.C. 1977. The Warm Desert Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 88 pp. Hunt, C.B. 1966. Plant Ecology of Death Valley, California. Professional Paper 509. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey. 68 pp. Schultz, J. 1995. see Chapters 3.4 and 3.5. Shreve, F. 1942. The desert vegetation of North America. Botanical Review 8:195-246. UNESCO. 1977. Map of the World Distribution of Arid Regions. MAB Techni• cal Notes 7. Paris: United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Orga• nization. 54 pp. with separate map at 1:25,000,000. West, N.E., ed. 1983. Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts. Ecosystems of the world 5. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 522 pp.

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Mountains Barry, RG. 1992. Mountain Weather and Climate. 2d ed. London: Routledge. 402 pp. Daubenmire, R 1943. Vegetation zonation in the Rocky Mountains. Botanical Review 9:325-393. Merriam, C. H. 1890. Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Moun• tain region and desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona. North American Fauna 3:1-136. Peet, RK. 1981. Forest vegetation of the Colorado Front Range. Vegetatio 45:3-75. Pfister, RD.; Arno, S.F. 1980. Classifying forest habitat types based on poten• tial climax vegetation. Forest Science 26:52-70. Swan, L. W. 1967. Alpine and aeolian regions of the world. In: Wright, Jr., H.E.; Osburn, W.H., eds. Arctic and Alpine Environments. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press: 29-54. Thorp, J. 1931. The effects of vegetation and climate upon soil profiles in north• ern and northeastern Wyoming. Soil Science 32:283-302. Troll, C. 1968. The Cordilleras of the tropical Americas, aspects of climatic, phytogeographical and agrarian ecology. In: Troll, C., ed. Ceo-Ecology of the Mountainous Regions of the Tropical Americas. Bonn: Ferd. Dummlers Ver• lag: 15-56. Troll, C. 1972. Geoecology and the world-wide differentiation of high-moun• tain ecosystems. In: Troll, C., ed. Geoecology of the High-Mountain Regions of Eurasia. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag: 1-21. About the Author

ROBERT G. BAILEY (b. 1939) is a geographer with the U.S. Forest Ser• vice in Fort Collins, Colorado, and leader of the agency's Ecosystem Management Analysis Center. After joining the Forest Service in 1966, he earned a doctorate in physical geography from the University of Cal• ifornia at Los Angeles in 1971. He is the author of Ecosystem Geogra• phy (Springer-Verlag, 1996). He has also published articles in journals devoted to geography, forestry, landscape and urban planning, envi• ronmental conservation, and environmental management.

165 Index

Page numbers with f indicate figures; page numbers with t indicate tables.

Acacia, 88, 109f with, 116-22, 117f, 118t, 119f, Achtuba, Russia, climate diagram 120f, 121f, 122f, 123f, 124-27, for, 86f 125f, 126f, 127f, 128f, 129f, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, climate dia- 130f, 131 gram for, 117f American Desert, 92, 92f, 95 Adelaide, Australia, 80 Andes Mountains, 87, 101, 124 Africa, 109 Animals. See specific African Sahel, 88 common and scientific names of, African savanna, 109f, 109-11, 110f, 138-39 111f, 125f Antarctica, 11, 40 Agulhas Current, 14f, 26 ice sheets of, 53, 54f A horizon, 61 Antarctic Ocean, 14, 16, 21, 22 Air flow, effects of Earth's rotation Antelope, 98f, 99 on, 7 Ants, 113 Air masses, 135 Appalachian Mountains, 69-70, 124 properties of, 135t Arabian Sea, 29 source regions of, 136f Arctic hare, 57 Alaska, 55f, 59f, 62f Arctic needleleaf forest, 60 Alfalfa, 84, 96 Arctic Ocean, 14, 16, 21-22 Alfisol, 49t, 64, 66, 69, 74, 75 Aridsol, 49t, 89, 92, 99, 101 Algae, 53 Argentina, 71, 76, 78, 88, 101, 109 Alkali, 96 Arizona, desert zone in, 7f Allegheny National Forest, 70f Arroyos, 90 Alluvial fan, 102f, 103 Artichokes, 84 Alpine chipmunk, 120 Ash, 69, 73 Alpine zone, 120 Aspen, 77 Alps, 118 Atacama desert, 30, 86f 89, 94f Altitude, as macroclimate control, Atlantic Ocean, 26 40f, 40-42, 41f, 42f currents of, 19 Altitudinal spectra, types of, Australia, 29, 71, 72f, 76, 80, 82, 83, 118t 88, 88f, 99 Altitudinal zonation, M Mountains Avalanches, 115, 116

167 168 Index

Avocadoes, 84 California, 80, 83 Azonal macroclimate, 42 Californian coast ranges, 40, 42 Azonal sites, 127 Camel, 95, 95f, 99 Canadian Archipelago, 21 Badgers, 62 Canal Zone, 112f, 113 Baffin Island, 53 Canaries Current, 30 Bahia, 29 Canberra, Australia, formation of Baltic Sea, 15f, 16 gullies near, 3f Bamboos, 72 Capetown, 80 Barents Sea, 23 Cape Verde Islands, 30 Barley, 100, 124 Caribou, 57, 62 Barra Colorado Island, 112/ Carnivores, 113 Basswood, 70 Carrots, 84 Bears, 62, 70 Cattle production, 72 Beavers, 62 Central America, 109 Beech, 69, 71, 73 Central Lowland, 76, 77f Bering Sea, 27 Chaco, 88 B horizon, 61 Chaparral, 82f, 83 Big Horn Mountains, 123/ Chemical weathering, 94 Birch, 69 Chernozem, 78, 79f Birch-lichen woodland, 55 Chestnut-brown soil (Mollisol), 78, Bison, 99 79f Black-eyed Susan, 78 Chile, 30, 73, 80, 89, 94f Black prairie soils, 78, 79f China, 70, 71, 124 Black Sea, 26 Chugach Mountains, 118 Bluestem, 78 Citrus fruits, 84, 96 Blue whales, 23 Climate Bog, 143 in ecosystem differentiation, 6f, Bolivia, altiplano of, 4 6-8, 7f Bolsons, 103 Koppen-Trewartha classification Bongo, 113 of, 43, 44t, 45, 48, 58, 65-66, Boreal forests, 34, 60, 61f, 65, 130f 69, 71, 77, 101 Brazil, 29, 71, 76, 87, 88, 109 Climatic climax, 127 Brazil Current, 14f, 26 Climatic regime, 40 British Columbia, 73 Climatic snow line, 121/ British Isles, 75 Climatic subzones, 39, 39f Broadleaf deciduous forest, 68f Coconino National Forest, 120f Broadleaf evergreen forest, 72 Cold ocean currents, 89 Brown forest soils (Alfisols), 64, 64f Colorado, 41f 74 Colorado Front Range, 1, 2f Brown soils (Mollisols), 89, 99, 129f Colorado Plateau, 47, 48f, 88, 99, Brush fires, 83-84 101 Brush tundra, 55 Colorado steppe, 96f Buffalo, 113 Columbia Plateau, 97 Bushmen, 88 Coniferous forests, 66, 75f Conifers, 118 Caatinga, 88, 109 Continental ecoregions, types of, Cactus, 88, 90, 92 42-45, 44t Calcification, 78, 94 Continental ice sheets, 56 Index 169

Continental position, as macroclimate temperate steppe division, 97f, control, 35-40, 37f, 38f, 39ft 97-100, 98f, 99f, 100f Continental regions, distribution of, tropical/subtropical desert divi• 45, 46f, 47, 48, 48f, 49t, 50, sion, 89-92, 90f, 91f, 92f, 93f, 50t 94f, 94-96, 95f, 96f Conversion factors, 141 tropical/subtropical steppe divi• Coral reefs, 31f sion, 87-89, 88f Corn, 70, 72 Dry region, 37, 38f Corn Belt, 79-80, 80f, 81f Dust storms, 96f, 97 Cotton, 96 Cows, 84 Earthflows, 115 Creosote bush, 92, 93f Earthworms, 14f, 60, 64 Crocodile, 113 East Austral Current, 26 Crozet Islands, 25, 25f East Greenland Current, 14f, 22 Cyclones, 63 East-west mountain ranges, 122 Ecoclimatic zones, types of, 42-45, Darwin, Australia, climate diagram 44t for, 106f Ecoregion divisions Date palms, 91f approximate area and proportion• Dates, 96 ate extent of, 50t Deccan, 108f, 109 general environmental conditions Deciduous forests, 59, 69, 70f for, 49t Deciduous fruits, 84 Ecoregion provinces, 45 Deer, 62, 70, 75, 84, 99, 118 Ecoregions, 2-4 Deforestation, 70 divisions of, 18, 19f Delta plains, 84 Ecosystems, 1-2 Desertification, 89 climate in differentiation of, 6f, Desert tundra, 55, 56, 57 6-8, 7f Dietrich, Gunter, 16 distribution of, 3 oceanographic classification of, hierarchy of, 2 16t, 17-18. 17t, 22 macroscale, 1-2 Doldrums, 31f regions, 2-4 Domains, 18, 47 Edaphic pattern, 129 Douglas fir, 42, 73, 76 Eddy, 26 Droughts, 89, 97 Edmonton, Alberta, climate diagram Dry domain, 47, 85-86, 86f, 87f for, 67f temperate desert division, Elephant, 113 100-101, 102f, 103 Elk, 75 temperate steppe division, 97f, Ellesmere Island, 53 97-100, 98f, 99f, 100f Elm, 70 tropical/subtropical desert divi• El Nino, 30 sion, 89-92, 90f, 91f, 92f, 93f, Emu, 99, 99f 94f, 94-96, 95f, 96f Energy tropical/subtropical steppe divi- climate as source of, 7, 7f sion, 87-89, 88f sources of, 6f, 6-7 Dry ecoregions, dry domain, 85-86, Entisols, 56 86f, 87f Epiphytes, 72, 74, 119/ temperate desert division, Equatorial countercurrents, 28, 100-101, 102f, 103 30-31 170 Index

Equatorward trades division, 30 Gray-brown podzols (Alfisols), 69, 75 Equatorward westerlies division, Grazing, effects of, 3/ 23-25 Great Australian Desert, 89 Erg, 94, 95/ Great Basin, 101 Ermines, 62 Great Plains, 2f, 97, 98, 100 Erosion, 5 climatic variations in, 97/ Eskimo culture, 58 Great Smoky Mountains, 119 Ethiopian Plateau, 117 Greenland, 24, 54 Eucalyptus, 71, 72f, 82 ice sheets of, 53 Evaporation, as factor in controlling Guanaco, 120 ocean hydrology, 14, 15/, Gulf of Mexico, 86 16 Gulf Stream, 22, 26, 27 Everglades National Park, 115/ Gullies, formation of, 3/ Evergreens, 59, 118 Exotic rivers, 56 Halophytes, 92 Hamada deserts, 94, 95/ Falkland Island Current, 85 Hamsters, 100 Faroes, 24 Headwater forests, 63 Ferns, 74 Hemlock, 70, 119 Finback whales, 23 Herbaceous plants, 72 Fiords, 74, 74f Herbivores, 113 Fir, 42, 59, 118 Hickory, 70 Flies, 58 Highland climates, 45 Flooding, 63 High salinity subtropical division, 26 Florence, Italy, 27 High salinity tropical monsoon divi- Fog, 89 sion, 29 Forage crops, 84 Himalayas, 118, 122, 124 Forest climaxes, 128/ Hippopotamus, 113 Forest-steppe, 76 Histosols, 56 Fox, 57, 62 Hornbeam, 70 Fronts, 135 Horse latitudes, 25, 26, 30 Hot continental division, 68-71, 70f Galapagos Islands, 30 Humid temperate domain, 47, Galeria forests, 79 63-65, 66f, 67f Garua, 30 hot continental division, 68-71, 70/ Generic regions, need for compara- marine division, 73-76, 74f, 75/ tive system of, 4 Mediterranean division, 80-84, Geomorphic processes, 56 82f, 83/ Glacial troughs, 74 prairie division, 76-80, 77f, 79f, Gnus, 111/ 80f, 81f Goats, 84 subtropical division, 71-72, 72f Gobi Desert, 95/, 101 warm continental division, 65-68, Grains, 96 67f Grand Banks, 22, 24 Humid temperate ecoregions Grapes, 84 humid temperate domain, 63-65, Grasses, 55 66f, 67f Grass prairies, 76 hot continental division, 68-71, Grass savanna, 88 70f Grass tundra, 55, 55/ marine division, 73-76, 74f, 75f Index 171

Mediterranean division, 80-84, Intrazonal sites, 127, 129/ 82f, 83/ Invertebrates, terrestrial, 53 prairie division, 76-80, 77f, 79f, Iowa, 77f, 80f 80f, 81f Irregularity, 47 subtropical division, 71-72, 72f Irrigation, 95-96 warm continental division, 65-68, 67f Jackson Hole, Wyoming, 128/ Humid temperate region, 37, 38/ Jakutsk, Siberia, climate diagram for, Humid tropical and mountain ecore• 53/ gions Japan, 71 boundaries between zones, 130f, Jet stream division, 26-27 131 humid tropical domain, 105 106f, Kalahari Desert, 87, 88 107f, 107-8 Kangaroo rats, 95 rainforest division, 112f, Karstification, 125 112-13, 114f, 115, 115f, 116/ Kauai, 122 savanna division, 108/, 108-11, Kauri tree, 71 109f, 110f, 111/ Kenya uplands, 119/ M mountains with altitudinal Khartum, Sudan, climate diagram zonation, 116-22, 117f, 118t, for, 86/ 119f, 120f, 121f, 122f, 123f, 124 Kinetic energy, 6, 6f patterns within zones, 124-27, Kiwi, 75 125f, 126f, 127f, 128f, 129, Kola, Russia, climate diagram for, 129f, 131 53/ Humid tropical domain, 47, 105 Ki:ippen-Trewartha classification of 106f, 107f, 107-8 climates, 43, 44t, 45, 48, 58, rainforest division, 112f, 112-13, 65-66, 69, 71, 77, 101 114f, 115, 115f, 116/ Korea, 70, 71 savanna division, 108f, 108-11, Krill shrimp, 23 109f, 110f, 111/ Krummholz, 119 Humid tropical region, 37, 38f Kuroshio Current, 14, 14f, 26 Humus, 60-61, 64 Hungary, 76 Labrador Current, 14f, 22 Hurricanes, 30, 71 Lakes, salt, 90 Hydrologic cycle, 56, 63 Land masses, and deflection of cur- Hydrologic regions, types of, 16t, rents, 12 16-18, 17t Landscape mosaics, 125 Landslides, 116, 117f Ibex, 120 Lapp culture, 58 Icecap climates, 45 Laterite, 108 Icecap division, 53, 54/ Laterization, 107f, 107-8 Ice flows, 22 Latosols (Oxisols), 1, 111, 113 Iceland, 24, 54 Latitude Idaho Mountains, 126, 126/ as factor in controlling ocean hy• Inceptisols, 56 drology, 12, 12/ India, 108f, 109 as macroclimate control, 33-35, Inner polar region, 21-22 34/, 35f, 36/ Intertropical convergence zone (lTC), Latitudinal climatic zones, 8f, 9 13, 31f, 34, 105 Laurel, 71 172 Index

Lava flows, 116 Moisture-defined zones, 34-35, 36/ Leeward sides, 3 Mojave Desert, 92, 96 Lemming, 57 Mollisol, 49t, 78, 89, 99 Lemur, 113 Mongolia, 102/ Lettuce, 84 Monkeys, 113 Lianas, 72, 113, 114/ Montane forest, 119/ Lichens, 53, 55, 96 Monte, 109 Lima, Peru, climate diagram for, 86/ Montsouris, France, climate diagram Locoweed, 98 for, 67/ London, 73 Moose, 62 Los Angeles, climate diagram for, 67/ Moskva, Russia, climate diagram for, 67f Martens, 62 Mosquitoes, 57-58 Macroclimate, Bf, 9 Mosses, 53, 55, 74 controls of, 33 Mt. Baker National Forest, 75f altitude, 40f, 40-42, 41f, 42f Mountain goat, 120 continental position, 35-40, 37f, Mountain lions, 75 38f, 39ft Mountains, 47 latitude, 33-35, 34f, 35f, 36/ Mountain watersheds, 74 Macroscale ecosystems, 1-2 Mount McKinley, Alaska, 121/ Magnolia, 71 Mulga scrub, 88f Maize, 124 Murmansk, Russia, 23 Mallee, 83 Musk oxen, 57 Manchuria, 71, 76 Muskeg, 62 Manchurian waters, 27 Mangrove forests, 113, 115/ Namib Desert, 30, 89 Man-made ecosystems, 129f, 131 Needleleaf forest, 55, 68f, 73 Maple, 70 Nematodes, 53 Maquis, 83 New Mexico, 88 Marine division, 73-76, 7'4f, 75f New Zealand, 71, 73, 75, 76, 99 Marmot, 120 Nicaragua, 118 Mass wasting, 116 Nomadic herding, 89 Mauritius hurricanes, 30 Norwegian Sea, 22-23 Mechanical weathering, 94 North Atlantic drift, 21-22 Mediterranean division, B0-84, 82f, North Dakota steppe, 100f 83f Northern Hemisphere, 19, 65 Mediterranean Sea, 26, 80, 84 wind direction in, 13, 13/ salinity in, 16 North Korean waters, 27 Mesquit, 91 North Pole, 11 Mexico, 109 Norway Coast, 21-22, 73, 74f Middle East, salinity in, 16 Nuts, 84 Minks, 62 Mississippi Valley, 86 Oak, 70, 71, 73, 84 Mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, Oasis, 90, 91, 91/ 49t, 67f Oats, 100 Mixed waters, 18 Ocean currents, 13, 14/ M mountains with altitudinal zona• Ocean hydrology tion, 116-22, 117f, 118t, 119f, definition of, 11 120f, 121f, 122f, 123f, 124 factors controlling, 11 Index 173

evaporation, 14, 15f, 16 Papua New Guinea, 114/ latitude, 12, 12/ Paris, 73 precipitation, 14, 15f, 16 Parkland, 76 wind systems, 13f, 13-14, 14/ Patagonia, 85, 101 Oceanic ecoregions, 16t, 16-18, 17t Peat, 61 area and proportionate extent of, 20t Peat bog, 61f, 61-62, 62/ polar domain, 21, 22/ Penguins, 25f, 53 inner polar region, 21-22 Permafrost, 56, 57f, 61 outer polar region, 22-23 Peru, 93/ temperate domain, 23, 24/ Peru Current, 14f, 30 equatorward westerlies division, Petrified forests, 7, 7f 23-25 Philippines, 124 high salinity subtropical divi• Pine, 59, 118, 119 sion, 23, 26 Pinyon-juniper woodland, 47, 48f, jet stream division, 23, 26-27 88 poleward monsoon division, 23, Plankton, 21, 23, 24, 26, 30 27 Plant formation class, 39, 39t poleward westerlies division, Plants, common and scientific 23-25 names, 137-38 subtropical division, 23, 25-26 Playas, 90 tropical domain, 27-28, 28/ Pleistocene glaciation, 60/ equatorial countercurrent clivi• Plovers, 58 sian, 30-31 Podocarp trees, 71 equatorward trades division, 30 Podzols (Spodosols), 60, 64, 64/ high salinity tropical monsoon Polar bear, 57 division, 29 Polar climates, 45 poleward trades division, 29 Polar domain, 21, 22f, 47, 51-52, trade winds division, 29-30 52f, 53/ tropical monsoon division, 28 icecap division, 53, 54/ Oceanic polar front, 12 inner polar region, 21-22 Oceanic regions, distribution of, outer polar region, 22-23 18-20, 19f, 20t subarctic division, 58-62, 59f, 60f, Oceanic surface currents, 14/ 61f, 62/ Oceanic whirls, 13, 13/ tundra division, 54-58, 55f, 57f Ocean surface temperatures, 12, 12/ Polar ecoregions, polar domain, Ocotillo, 91, 92 51-52, 52f, 53/ Oil deposits, 58 icecap division, 53, 54/ Okapi, 113 subarctic division, 58-62, 59f, 60f, Orinoco Llanos, 110/ 61f, 62/ Outer polar region, 22-23 tundra division, 54-58, 55f, 57f Oxbows, 113 Polar front, 135 Oxisol, 1, 49t, 111, 113 Polar region, 3 7, 38f Ozarks, 124 Polar waters, 18 Poleward monsoon division, 27 Pacific Ocean, currents of, 19 Poleward trades division, 29 Pack ice, 22, 23 Poleward westerlies division, Palms, 72 23-25 Pampa, 76, 78, 97 Polynesian Islands, 29 Panther, 70 Ponderosa pine, 120/ 174 Index

Popular, 77 Savanna division, 108f, 108-11, Potato, 124 109f, 110f, 111f Prairie division, 76-80, 77f, 79f, 80f, Sclerophyll, 81-82, 83f 81f Scorpions, 95 Prairie dog, 100 Scrub, 92 Prairies, 76, 77f Scrub woodland, 108/ Prairie soils (Mollisols), 78 Sea elephants, 25/ Precipitation, as factor in controlling Seal, 57 ocean hydrology, 14, 15f, 16 Sea of Japan, 27 Puszta, 76 Sea of Okhotsk, 2 7 Sedges, 55, 61 Rabbits, 84 Selva, 82, 112f, 112-13 Rainforest, 71 Semi-arid climate, 45 Rainforest division, 112f, 112-13, Shanghai, climate diagram for, 67f 114f, 115, 115f, 116/ Sheep, 84 Rainforests, 37 Shortgrass prairie, 98, 98f Red cedar, 73 Shortgrass steppes, 76 Red Sea, 26 Shrubs, 72 Red-yellow podzols (Ultisols), 70, Shrub woodland, 88, 88f 71, 113 Siberia, 59 Regolith, 56 Sierozem (Aridisols), 89, 92, 99, 101 Regularity, 4 7 Sierra Nevada, 118 Reindeer, 57, 62 Singapore, climate diagram for, 106/ Resource management, 83-84 Sites, 126 Rice, 71, 72, 124 Smoke tree, 92 Rio Puerco, New Mexico, 90f Snakes, 95 Riparian forests, 127, 128/ Snowfields, 121/ River beds, dry, 89-90, 90f Solar radiation, 6f, 6-7 Rivers, exotic, 56 Sonoran Desert, 89, 92, 92/ Rocky Mountains, 42, 42j, 124 Source regions, 135, 136/ Rodents, 84 South Africa, 76, 80 Ruby Mountains, 123/ South Dakota, 81f, 98f Russia, 76 Southern Hemisphere, 19, 23 Rye, 100, 124 wind direction in, 13, 13f South Indian Ocean, 25 Sables, 62 South Pole, pattern of land, water, Sagebrush, 99, 101 and ice near, Bf, 9 Sahara Desert, 89, 91/ Soybeans, 71 Sahelian zone, 89 Sphagnum moss, 61 Salinity, 14, 15f, 16, 17 Spiders, 113 surface, 14, 15f, 16 Spitsbergen, 54 Salinization, 92, 94, 96 Springtails, 53 Salt lakes, 90 Spodosol, 49t, 60 Sandpipers, 58 Spruce, 42, 59, 118, 119 Sangre de Christo Mountains, 41/ Squirrel, 62, 70 Santa Valley, 93/ Steppe climate, 45 Sargasso Sea, 26 Steppe grassland, 92, 100J, 101 Savanna, 37, 39, 92. See also Steppes, 47 African savanna Strawberries, 84 Index 175

Subalpine zone, 42, 119-20 Timberline, 119 Subarctic division, 58-62, 59f, 60f, Topoclimates, 126, 127f 61f, 62f Toposequence, 126, 127f Subtropical division, 25-26, 71-72, Tortoises, 95 72f Trade winds, 26, 34 Subtropical dry-summer climate, 45 Trade winds division, 29-30 Subtropical high-pressure cells, 13, Transhumance, 124 13f Transition zones, 130f, 131 Subtropical humid climate, 45 Tree farming, 72 Succession, 149 Tree ferns, 72 Sugar maples, 70f Tree line, 55-56, 122 Sunflower, 98 Tropical cyclones, 71 Sweet chestnut, 70 Tropical domain, 27-28, 28f equatorial countercurrent division, Taiwan, 71 30-31 Tamarisk, 91 equatorward trades division, 30 Taschkent, Uzbekistan, climate dia- high salinity tropical monsoon di- gram for, 86f vision, 29 Tasmania, 71, 73 poleward trades division, 29 Tayga, 34, 59 trade winds division, 29-30 Tea, 72 tropical monsoon division, 28 Temperate continental climate, 45 Tropical forests, 113 Temperate continental ecoregions, 3 Tropical monsoon division, 28 Temperate desert division, 100-101, Tropical rainforests, 1 102f, 103 Tropical savanna, 37, 76 Temperate domain, 23, 24f Tropical/subtropical desert division, equatorward westerlies division, 89-92, 90f, 91f, 92f, 93f, 94f, 23-25 94-96, 95f, 96f high salinity subtropical division, Tropical/subtropical steppe division, 23, 26 87-89, 88f jet stream division, 23, 26-27 Tropical waters, 18 poleward monsoon division, 23, 27 Tropical wet-and-dry climate, 45 poleward westerlies division, Tropical wet climates, 1, 45 23-25 Tulip, 70 subtropical division, 23, 25-26 Tundra climates, 45 Temperate oceanic climate, 45 Tundra division, 54-58, 55f, 57f Temperate rainforest class, 73 Tundra soils, 56 Temperate steppe division, 97f, Turkestan, 101 97-100, 98f, 99f, 100f Typhoons, 30 Termites, 113 Terrestrial invertebrates, 53 Ukraine, 100 Texas, 88 Ultisol, 49t, 64, 113 Thar Desert, 89 Ungulata, 62 Thermal efficiency, 52 Upwelling, 14, 15f, 26, 30, 31f Thermally defined zones, 33-34, 34f, Uruguay, 71, 76 35f Utah, 48f Thermokarst origin, 56 Thorntree savanna, 88 Valley glaciers, 121f Thunderstorms, 71 Vegetables, 84, 96 176 Index

Veldt, 97 West Indies, 30 Venezuela, 110/ Wheat, 70-71, 100, 124 Vladivostok, Russia, 27 White tayga, 59 Volcanic activity, 116 Wildfires, 81, 82f, 84 Wild turkeys, 70 Wadis, 90 Wind systems, as factor in control• Walnut, 70 ling ocean hydrology, 13f, Walrus, 57 13-14, 14/ Walter, Heinrich, 50 Winter monsoon, 27 Warm continental division, 65-68, 67/ Wolves, 57, 62 Warm continental zones, 5/ Woodland savanna, 109f, 109-10 Water, climate as source of, 7, 7f Wyoming, 102/ Waterfowl, 58 Waterlogging, 96 Xerophytes, 92 Weathering Xerophytic shrub, 88 chemical, 94 mechanical, 94 Wein, Austria, climate diagram for, Yellow forest soils (Ultisols), 64, 64/ 67f Yellowstone National Park fire, West Australia Current, 14f, 30 124 Westerlies, 13, 26 Western cedar, 76 Zebras, 111/ Western hemlock, 76 Zonal sites, 127, 128/ Additional material from Ecoregions, ISBN 978-0-387-98311-0, is available at http://extras.springer.com