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The 2009-2010 Rhombus Wall Rock Falls in Yosemite Valley

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The 2009-2010 Rhombus Wall Rock Falls in Yosemite Valley EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 37, 546–561 (2012) Published in 2012 by John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. Published online 31 January 2012 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/esp.3192 Progressive failure of sheeted rock slopes: the 2009–2010 Rhombus Wall rock falls in Yosemite Valley, California, USA Greg M. Stock,1* Stephen J. Martel,2 Brian D. Collins3 and Edwin L. Harp4 1 National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, El Portal, California, USA 95318 2 Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA 96822 3 U.S. Geological Survey, Landslide Hazard Program, Menlo Park, California, USA 94025 4 U.S. Geological Survey, Landslide Hazard Program, Golden, Colorado, USA 80225 Received 1 June 2011; Revised 3 December 2011; Accepted 5 December 2011 *Correspondence to: G. M. Stock, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park, Resources Management and Science, 5083 Foresta Road, PO Box 700, El Portal, California 95318, USA. E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT: Progressive rock-fall failures in natural rock slopes are common in many environments, but often elude detailed quantitative documentation and analysis. Here we present high-resolution photography, video, and laser scanning data that document spatial and temporal patterns of a 15-month-long sequence of at least 14 rock falls from the Rhombus Wall, a sheeted granitic cliff in Yosemite Valley, California. The rock-fall sequence began on 26 August 2009 with a small failure at the tip of an overhanging rock slab. Several hours later, a series of five rock falls totaling 736 m3 progressed upward along a sheeting joint behind the overhanging slab. Over the next 3 weeks, audible cracking occurred on the Rhombus Wall, suggesting crack propagation, while visual monitoring revealed opening of a sheeting joint adjacent to the previous failure surface. On 14 September 2009 a 110 m3 slab detached along this sheeting joint. Additional rock falls between 30 August and 20 November 2010, totaling 187 m3, radiated outward from the initial failure area along cliff (sub)parallel sheeting joints. We suggest that these progressive failures might have been related to stress redistributions accompanying propagation of sheeting joints behind the cliff face. Mechanical analyses indicate that tensile stresses should occur perpendicular to the cliff face and open sheeting joints, and that sheeting joints should propagate parallel to a cliff face from areas of stress concentrations. The analyses also account for how sheeting joints can propagate to lengths many times greater than their depths behind cliff faces. We posit that as a region of failure spreads across a cliff face, stress concentrations along its margin will spread with it, promoting further crack propagation and rock falls. Published in 2012. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. KEYWORDS: rock fall; progressive failure; sheeting joints; crack propagation; Yosemite National Park Introduction time-dependent propagation of discontinuities in the rock, e.g. cracks, joints, faults, and fissures (Terzaghi, 1962). Time- Progressive failures are common on natural rock slopes and dependent failures along discontinuities can occur for several within excavated tunnels (Eberhardt et al., 2004; Kemeny, reasons, including weathering of the failure surface, viscous 2005; Rosser et al., 2007; Jaboyedoff et al., 2009). The term deformation of fracture-filling material, and subcritical crack ‘progressive’ generally refers to time-dependent structural growth (Atkinson, 1984; Kemeny, 2005; Petley et al., 2005). changes that act to reduce slope stability and ultimately lead Time-dependent failure along discontinuities can also result to slope failure (Terzaghi, 1950). Here, we use the term to from fracture propagation through intact rock ‘bridges’ that describe failure progressions in space as well as time; e.g. separate pre-existing discontinuities (Einstein et al., 1983; subsequent failures that occur along the perimeter of a previous Goodman and Kieffer, 2000; Eberhardt et al., 2004; Kemeny, failure. 2005; Kim and Kemeny, 2009). Here we consider a related Progressive slope failures have long been recognized in the mechanism, that of propagation of sheeting joints (also field of soil mechanics, wherein failure initiates at a point along known as ‘exfoliation’ joints) driven both by areal tensile a potential sliding surface and propagates outwards from it, stresses perpendicular to a sheeted cliff face and by localized with propagation driven primarily by redistribution of shear stress concentrations arising from geometrical changes to the stresses (Bishop, 1967; Bjerrum, 1967). A similar phenomenon cliff face resulting from previous rock falls. involving progressive rupture along faults is referred to as ‘stress Sheeting joints are opening mode rock fractures that form triggering’ in the field of seismotectonics (Stein et al., 1997). (sub)parallel to topographic surfaces. They are gently curved, In hard rock slopes, progressive failure typically involves the occur most commonly where the topography is convex, and PROGRESSIVE FAILURE OF SHEETED ROCK SLOPES 547 can extend in plane at least 200 m (Gilbert, 1904; Matthes, the surrounding area (Matthes, 1930; Huber, 1987; Matasci 1930; Jahns, 1943; Bahat et al., 1999). Sheeting joints occur et al., 2011). Although these regional discontinuities play an from within a meter of the modern surface to depths in excess important role in controlling the local topography, the most of 100 m and typically develop independent of the grain scale common fractures exposed in Yosemite are sheeting joints rock structure (Jahns, 1943). They are most widespread in formed (sub)parallel to modern topographic surfaces (Matthes, granitic rocks and gneisses, but have also been observed in mafic 1930; Huber, 1987; Bahat et al., 1999; Martel, 2006, 2011). intrusive rocks, sandstones, marbles, and tuffs (Holzhausen, Rock falls in Yosemite Valley commonly detach along sheeting 1989). High compressive stresses parallel to the surface joints (Wieczorek and Snyder, 1999, 2004; Stock et al., 2011). consistently have been either inferred from field observa- Sheeting joints are ubiquitous at the site of the Rhombus Wall tions (buckling of rock slabs bounded by sheeting joints) rock falls (Figure 1), although other regional fractures and dikes or measured where sheeting joints are prominent (Martel, are also present there. 2006, 2011). Sheeting joints have been observed to form A review of historical rock falls (Wieczorek and Snyder, in quarries (Jahns, 1943; Holzhausen, 1989), and several 2004, and additional unpublished observations) yields numer- lines of evidence suggest that many sheeting joints in ous examples of progressive rock falls in Yosemite Valley, in Yosemite are geologically young, with some nucleating, which a series of two or more rock falls occurred from adjacent opening, and propagating historically (Martel, 2006, 2011, locations on a cliff face (i.e. the failure surface of each subse- and references therein). We suggest that the geometry of quent rock fall shared a perimeter with a previous rock fall) sheeting joints, and the mechanical factors controlling how within a 1-year time period. Most of these rock falls originated sheeting joints grow, are important considerations when an- along sheeting joints; recent examples include the 1998–1999 alyzing progressive rock slope failures, and present as an Glacier Point rock falls above Curry Village (Wieczorek and example a well-documented sequence of rock falls in Snyder, 1999), rock falls from Half Dome in July of 2006, the Yosemite Valley. October 2008 Glacier Point rock falls above the Ledge Trail Although progressive slope failures are relatively common, (Stock et al., 2011), and rock falls from El Capitan in October quantitative field studies remain scarce, particularly for natural of 2010. In addition, several historical rock falls in Yosemite rock slopes. This is probably due to the difficulty in anticipating Valley have been associated either with observed crack propa- these events and ensuring that quantitative reference points are gation or with cracking sounds – presumably reflecting crack in place and accurately located prior to failure. Recent studies propagation – prior to failure. Following the third rock fall from of progressive slope failures have utilized terrestrial laser scan- Glacier Point between November 1998 and June 1999, Wiec- ning (lidar), which provides high-resolution topographic data zorek and Snyder (1999) observed crack propagation occurring (Rosser et al., 2007; Jaboyedoff et al., 2009; Kemeny and Kim, in an adjacent sheet of rock, probably due to stress redistribu- 2009). Laser scanning is a valuable tool for quantitative, high- tion in the cliff after the 13 June 1999 rock fall. Audible crack- resolution investigation of slope failures, particularly when ing preceded the 16 November 1980 rock fall from above the repeat scans bracket failure events (Collins and Sitar, 2005, Yosemite Falls Trail, which caused three fatalities and at least 2008; Rosser et al., 2005; Abellán et al., 2006; Oppikofer 11 injuries (Wieczorek and Snyder, 2004), and also the et al., 2008; Rabatel et al., 2008; Stock et al., 2011). October 2008 rock falls from Glacier Point, which damaged Here we describe a 1.2-year-long sequence of 15 rock falls 25 visitor cabins in Curry Village and caused minor injuries from the Rhombus Wall, a sheeted granitic
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