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Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: Side Effects Defined and Quantified

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Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: Side Effects Defined and Quantified CRITICAL REVIEW Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: Side Effects Defined and Quantified Marvin Heyboer III,* Deepali Sharma, William Santiago, and Norman McCulloch Division of Hyperbaric Medicine and Wound Care, Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York. Significance: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) is an important advanced therapy in the treatment of problem wounds, including diabetic foot ulcers and late effect radiation injury. HBOT remains among the safest therapies used today. Nonetheless, there are side effects associated with HBOT. It is impor- tant for providers to be able to identify, understand, and quantify these side effects for prevention, management, and informed consent. Recent Advances: The past two decades have seen significant advancements in our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of HBOT. This has led to Marvin Heyboer III, MD, FACEP, FUHM, FACCWS a better understanding of the underlying reason for clinical benefit. It has also Submitted for publication December 1, 2016. led to a better understanding of its side effects. Moreover, more recent liter- Accepted in revised form January 26, 2017. ature allows for better quantification of these side effects. This review will *Correspondence: Division of Hyperbaric Medicine and Wound Care, Department of highlight these side effects. Emergency Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical Critical Issues: Wound healing in the case of problem nonhealing wounds re- University, 550 East Genesee Street, Suite 103, quires the use of various advanced treatment modalities, including HBOT. Syracuse, NY 13202 (e-mail: [email protected]). HBOT has been shown to significantly improve healing rates in certain problem wounds, including advanced diabetic foot ulcers and late effect radi- ation injury. It is provided in a variety of clinical settings by providers with varying levels of expertise. It is important for those providing this therapy to understand the potential side effects. Future Directions: Research in HBOT has led to significant advancements in the area of wound healing. At the same time, there remains a variety of treatment protocols used at different institutions. It is important to quantify risk and benefit at different treatment pressures and times to better stan- dardize treatment and improve patient care. Keywords: hyperbaric, oxygen, side, effects SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE usually adverse effect. This review will attempt to describe and quantify these Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) side effects. This should lead to better has been identified as a useful advanced consideration of risk and benefit in dis- adjunctive therapy in the promotion of cussions with the patient when consid- healing in certain problem wounds in ering HBOT. addition to its application to a variety of other medical conditions. As with all medical treatments, HBOT has known TRANSLATIONAL RELEVANCE potential side effects as a result of HBOT works through both pri- treatment. A side effect here is consid- mary and secondary effects. Primary ered a known potential secondary and effects involve both increased pres- 210 ADVANCES IN WOUND CARE, VOLUME 6, NUMBER 6 j Copyright ª 2017 by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/wound.2016.0718 HYPERBARIC OXYGEN SIDE EFFECTS 211 sure and hyperoxia. Secondary effects as a result of result of increased local growth factors and release a controlled oxidative stress include antimicrobial of autologous progenitor stem cells.7 effects, blunting of ischemia–reperfusion injury, It is these very same primary and secondary ef- and wound healing. Wound healing is the result fects that can cause the side effects associated with of both local and systemic effects. Local effects HBOT. These include various forms of barotrauma, include a steepened oxygen gradient, macrophage central nervous system (CNS) and pulmonary ox- recruitment, and release of multiple growth fac- ygen toxicity, and ocular side effects. There are tors. Systemic effects result in progenitor stem cell additionally issues of claustrophobia. It is impor- mobilization and release from bone marrow in ad- tant to understand and quantify these side effects. dition to improved homing to the site of injury by This assists with creating protocols to minimize these cells.1–4 The results of both local and systemic risk in addition to better weighing risk and benefit effects include neovasculogenesis and collagen of treatment for the patient. It is important to note formation, which promote wound healing.1–4 These that HBOT remains among the safest therapies same mechanisms that result in HBOT beneficial used today.8 The following is an exhaustive list of effects can also cause the known side effects in potential side effects, some of which are more com- some patients. mon (middle ear barotraumas [MEB], claustropho- bia) and others that are theoretical risks unlikely to CLINICAL RELEVANCE occur clinically with appropriate screening precau- tions (pulmonary barotrauma [PBT]). The use of HBOT has grown significantly in the past 2 decades. Its application has a variety of recognized indications as outlined by the Undersea DISCUSSION and Hyperbaric Medicine Society,5 although a Effects of pressure majority of patients are receiving treatment for HBOT by definition means treatment with 100% late effect radiation injury and problem wounds oxygen at higher than atmospheric pressure where (primarily advanced diabetic foot ulcers). Treat- increased pressures depend on treatment guide- ment is provided in a variety of clinical settings by lines and indications. Hence, the side effects of providers and staff with differing levels of exper- HBOT are based on the physiologic response to this tise. Having an understanding of the potential side high pressure–high oxygen environment and the effects of HBOT is critical to providing safe medical psychological response that patients experience care with complete patient informed consent. from the closed confines of the treatment chamber— monoplace or multiplace. Boyle’s Law states that BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW the volume of a gas at a fixed temperature is in- HBOT is the treatment of patients with 100% versely proportional to the ambient pressure. Low- 1 ering the ambient pressure causes increased gas oxygen at higher than atmospheric pressure. This is provided in either a monoplace (single person) volume; the converse is also true (Fig. 1). These chamber typically compressed with oxygen or a effects of pressure are experienced within physio- logic and pathologic air cavities, including the mid- multiplace chamber (multiple persons) compressed with air where oxygen is delivered by either a hood dle ear, paranasal sinuses, pathologic dental spaces, or mask. The benefits of treatment are the result of and emphysematous bulla. both primary and secondary effects. Primary ef- fects are the result of increased pressure and hy- peroxia. Indeed, PaO2 can increase from less than 200 mmHg at 1 atmospheres absolute (ATA) room air to more than 2,000 mmHg at 3 ATA. This also translates into significant increases in tissue oxy- gen partial pressure.6 Meanwhile, secondary ef- fects are the result of a controlled oxidative stress. HBOT produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species, which function as sig- naling molecules in multiple pathways, including those involved in wound healing.1 The result is an array of secondary effects that include improved leukocyte function, amelioration of ischemia– Figure 1. Gas volume change with pressure. reperfusion injury, and neovascularization as a 212 HEYBOER ET AL. Middle ear barotrauma. MEB is one of the most Causes of ET dysfunction may be inherent cra- common side effects of HBOT. Patients may report niofacial features such as palatal muscle anomalies difficulty with ear equalization, a feeling of pres- or a result of infectious or allergic reactions. These sure, ear pain, and discomfort during compression, include upper respiratory infections, environmen- which is the initial phase of HBOT.9 tal allergies, or enlarged adenoids, to name a few.14 If not attended to, this can lead to edema in the The reported incidence of MEB in patients un- middle ear, retraction, and in rare cases, rupture of dergoing HBOT varies significantly from *2% to the tympanic membrane with conductive hearing 84% in nonintubated and upward of 94% in in- deficit. In rare cases, MEB can be transmitted to tubated patients, making MEB one of the most the inner ear, with risk of rupture of the round or common side effects of HBOT.8,15 The wide range oval window membranes and impairment of inner of incidence is due to varying criteria used to de- ear function, causing vertigo and sensorineural fine MEB, variations in patient population, and hearing loss.10 MEB is most commonly classified variation in patient instruction of how to equalize using the modified TEED score (Table 1). More pressure in the middle ear.8 A recent publication recently, the O’Neill grading system was proposed of a large number of patient treatments demon- as a newer and more practical grading system.11 strated an overall incidence of 43%. The vast ma- For effective air equalization in the middle ear jority of cases were minor—84% were TEED 1 (TM to occur, the Eustachian tube (ET), which connects injection/retraction) or TEED 2 (TM slight hemor- the middle ear to the nasopharynx, positioned su- rhage) with no episodes of TM rupture.8 perior, posterior, and lateral to the nasopharynx, Rate of compression does play a role in risk of needs to be open and functioning (Fig. 2).12 The
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