Journdo/Likr~arrnnSludnr.Vol. 2, No.4, pp 157 -372 B amo on Prnr ad. 1978. Printed in meat Britain.

ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA*

ROBERT H. CHAPPELL ProJessional Teacher Program, University of Maine

Public schooling has become a prodigious cases religion, only served to warp the natural bureaucratic institution that operates as a goodness and wisdom that is the essence of man rigorous maintenance system. Its function is to and mankind. Consequently, significant educa- inculcate the masses with acceptable ideologies tional change must express the natural sen- and to weed out dissenters whose recalcitrant timents of an unstructured mass who, through behavior and spontaneity are viewed as the association and utilization of intellectual dangerous to the democratic tenets of the communes and cooperatives will arrive at a new United States. As compulsory attendance laws synthesis - a new direction for American surfaced and were enacted, the educational education. monolith became ever more securely entrench- This paper will be primarily concerned with ed in American society. Public education has identification and documentation of the educa- become a breakwater interrupting the dynamics tional viewpoints espoused by the European of inquiry, dissent and innovation which are anarchists of the nineteenth century. A second essential to democracy and to the human condi- section will highlight the ideas of two of the tion. prominent contemporary opponents of public In light of the above it seems timely to schooling, Ivan Illich and the late Paul Good- reevaluate the historical critiques of public man. Following this, a third section will at- education that apparently have largely been ig- tempt to depict the commonalities between the nored, misinterpreted and misconstrued. A European precursors and the contemporary revitalization and reexamination of the major "deschoolers". criticisms of the 19th and 20th century anar- William Godwin (1756- 1836) is considered chists could provide a catalyst which might to be the first European to develop a com- revitalize the arrested development of prehensive anarchistic critique in his Enquiry American education and life. Concerning Political Justice (1793). His blatant The major anarchist critics of education, attack on government, which he viewed as an William Godwin, Peter Kropotkin, Pierre- unnecessary evil that should be introduced as Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, Francisco sparingly as possible, and his belief in man's Ferrer, Leo Tolstoy and Max Stirner, all believ- capacity to develop his intellect independently, ed to varying degrees that man was essentially a were to form the foundations of the anarchistic benign creature with a potential for goodness. tradition.[" His ideal society was egalitarian However, they suggested that the habits and in- and completely anarchistic, but his abhorrence stitutions of authority manifested in of violence precluded revolution as a means to economics, politics, education, and in some this end. Godwin tolerated the idea of a loosely *The original version of this article was prepared for the knit democracy as a transitory phase evolving Summer Research Seminar on the Opponents of Public into an ultimately stateless society. Schooling, held in New York City, June- August 1977, and sponsored by the Center for Independent Education and Godwin's opposition to a system of national the Center for Libertarian Studies. education was based upon a maxim of the ROBERT H. CHAPPELL Enlightenment - social progress could only ing in these technical aspects of law would be come about through the development and ap- superfluous within a proper condition of society. plication of human reason. Godwin believed Because this condition of society was an ideal that human reason and individuality were anti- and not yet a reality, Godwin conceded a thetical to a state controlled educational limited role of social control to the government. system which would serve to bolster the power in his ongoing argument against natianal of the political machinery of the state. education, he declared, in the second edition of . . . the project of a national education ought Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (1796), uniformly to be discouraged on account of its obvious alliance with national government. This is an alliance It is not the business of government . . .to become the of a more formidable nature than the old and much preceptor of its subjects. Its office is not to inspire our contested alliance of church and state. Before we put virtues, that would be a hopeless task; it is merely to so powerful a machine under the direction of so am- check these excesses, which threaten the general securi- biguous an agent, it behooves us to consider well what ty."' it is that we do. Government will not fail to employ it, Godwin was not inclined to deny the urgent to strengthen its hands, and perpetuate its institutions.[" need to improve literacy and to develop a wider and a deeper culture in society. He felt that this Godwin also dismissed the possibility of the could be accomplished through the use of participation of the church in education. The literature[B' and through voluntary discussion church wasan antiquated and dogmatic institu- groups led by cadres of the enlightened which tion that indoctrinated the masses with ideas would disperse knowledge by educating an ever that were static and restrictive. increasing number ot people. Needless to say, . . . even in the petty institutions of Sunday Schools, the Government and the Church would have no the chief lessons that are taught are a superstitious veneration for the Church of England, and to bow to part in this voluntary undertaking.['' every man in a handsome coat. All this is directly con- Godwin detected an inherent problem in his trary to the true interests of mankind. All this must be informal and voluntary system of education. unlearned before they begin to be wise."' He pointed out that it would be difficult to find Godwin's understanding of the Sunday a substantial number of enlightened teachers Schools' role in education is worth noting. In for most had been indoctrinated by the Burton Pollin's thesis, Education and Enlight- teachings of Church and State. Apart from a enment in the Works of William Godwin, the small group of friends who shared his educa- author indicates that there is room to believe tional views (Thomas Holcroft, a liberal that the English Sunday Schools, set up by novelist and playwright; David WilIiams, a Roger Raikes of Gloucester in 1780, were in- spokesman for advanced educational views in tended to imbue poor children with a sense of Lectures on Education, and a handful of discipline through religious and elementary othersP1),the vast majority of pedagogues were education. After the development of the Sun- imbued with a sense of servility to the state, in day School unions (1785), these schools were Godwin's opinion. It should be noted that God- widely regarded as institutions of social control win did make some limited concessions to that did not in any way limit the cheap supply public education in his essay of "Of Public and of child labour."l Private Education" in The Enquirer; Reflec- Godwin's intense polemic against the pro- tions on Education, Manners, and Literature ponents of national education (e.g. George (1797).'0' These concessions on the advantage Dryer, Mary Hayes, Thomas Paine, Edmund of the socializing aspects of public schooling as Burke) dismissed the argument that a national opposed to private education, could have been system could be defended as supplying the prompted by Godwin's realization that the citizen with a rudimentary appreciation of the enlightened teacher was an endangered species. law. Godwin believed that just law was self- It is more likely that his partial acknowledge- evident to the rational man and could be diff- ment of public education was due to the public ferentiated from the technical law manufac- opinion of the time (1797). Because of the tured and interpreted by the courts. The train- dismal failure of the French Revolution, which ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 359 had resulted in autocratic rule by a vicious authority and indoctrination. oligarchy, most of the antigovernment lust as the schoolmen philosophized only inside the literature espousing individual freedom was belief of the church ...without ever throwing a doubt considered by many to be insidious. In upon this belief; as authors fi whole folios on the State without calling in question the fiidea of the February, 1793, An Enquiry Concerning State itself, as our newspapers are crammed with Political Justice was considered by many to be politics because they are conjured into the fancy that a major philosophical treatise worthy of praise. man was created to be a zwn politician -so also sub- jecu vegetate in subjection, virtuous people in virtue, But by the end of the Terror in 1794 and cer- liberals in humanity, without ever putting these rued tainly by 1797, Wordsworth, Coleridge and the ideas of theirs to the searching knife of criticism. Un- dislodgeable, like a madman's delusion, those great majority of the English intellectual com- thoughts stand on a firm footing, and he who doubts munity had ttirned against both the revolution them - lays hands on the sacred."" and Godwin's anarchism. Stirner's central argument was the ownership Godwin's partial acknowledgement of public of self which can be described as absolute in- education could also have arisen from the in- dividuality. To Stirner, liberal humanism was fluence of his wife Mary Wollstonecraft whom as dangerous as any form of government for it he met in 1791 and married in March of had become the church of the secular age and 1797.['01Mary Wollstonecraft was a proponent therefore suppressed individual initiative and of free government coeducation, the central freedom of will. Stirner's critique of education idea of her major work, A Vindication of the follows suit. The implicit danger of educational Rights of Women (1792). methodology was that the internalization of However, the major anarchistic tenets knowledge served to control the will of the in- developed in Political Justice (1793) later reap- dividual when, in fact, the opposite should oc- peared in The Enquirer. The educational revi- cur. Knowledge should be used by the in- sion that appeared in the latter can be simply dividual when, in fact, the opposite should explained as a concession to Godwin's occur. Knowledge should be used by the in- critics,'"' since his attack on national educa- In The False Principle of Our Education tion was not deleted in the second and third edi- (1842). which appeared in Karl Marx's paper tions of Political Justice in 1796 and 1798. Neue Rheinische Zeitung, Stirner indicated that Godwin's views on education can be sum- knowledge and the school were synonomous marized as follows: the instrument for moral, with life. The free man would educate himself political and basic education cannot be through unstructured experiences, since any associated with any government or eccle- pedagogical influence would impede the path to siastical institution, nor can this education be carried out by any educational bodies freedom and result in a state of submissive- whether secular or religious. Education can ness.ll'' Stirner made a distinction between the free man and an educated man. The educated man only be developed by social interaction and was subservient to his thoughts which were communication guided by groups of enlightened dominated by acceptable social values dictated preceptors who will investigate a variety of by the state. The free man or egoist was respon- topics and share their conclusions. "Their sible only to his individual will. The will was the hearers wilt be instigated to impart their ac- master of his knowledge and thoughts. quisitions to still other hearers, and the circle of Within a historical context Stirner argued instruction will perpetually increase. Reason that, following the Reformation, the exclusive will spread, and not a brute and unintelligent humanistic mode of education based on the sympathy."["' classics raised its beneficiaries above the masses William Godwin's radical critique of society who regarded the educated man as an authori- and national education appears to be relatively benign when compared with the thoughts of ty. Max Stirner (1806-1856). In his profoundly . . . education as a power, raised him who possessed it over the weak, who lacked it, and the educated man original monograph, The Ego and His Own counted in his circle . . . as the mighty the powerful, (1844) Stirner lashed out at any and all forms of the imposing one: for he was an authority.'"' 360 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL The development of universal schooling Joseph Proudhon's political conception of which arose out of the age of the Enlightenment federated producers' cooperatives that would mitigated the authority that had been given to spontaneously arise from below. This concept the classical scholar. This new system of was reiterated by Bakunin in his work Statism popular education was based upon a practical and Anarchy (1873): and useful curriculum that was designed to We believe that the people will be happy and free only prepare the citizen for an operative life. Stirner when they build their own life by organizing rejected the humanist approach because of its themselves from below upwards, by means of autonomous and totally free association, subject to no explicit master-slave connotation. However, tutelage but exposed to the influence of diverse in- universal schooling was as dangerous to the dividuals and parties enjoying mutual freed~m."'~ quest for a free will as was its historical Bakunin rejected national education as it ex- predecessor. The authority manifested in public isted before the coming anarchist revolution. schooling was not based upon the possession of His reason was that a national system of educa- classical knowledge but rather upon the tion served the interests of the state and not of authority of a "practical and useful" ideology the people. These interests were essentially - pragmatism. Stirner believed that the socio-economic as the government acted to socialization process in a system of national preserve the disparities of wealth and class in a education was abhorrent. For any metaphysical country. veneration (in this case the worshipping of pragmatism) would impede if not extinguish the This [governmental oppression of the working class] is natural development of an egoist's free will. the sole aim of a governmental organization, of the Universal education, under the guise of permanent conspiracy of the government against the people. And this conspiracy, openly avowed as such, pragmatism, was a refined system of indoc- embraces the entire diplomacy, the internal ad- trination that maintained the authority of the ministration - military, civil, police, courts, finances, State. This process of inculcation centered and education - and the Church.'''' upon the teacher-student relationship. The stu- Bakunin believed that society, in a natural dent's freedom of will was sacrificed to an in- state, was a collective humanity independent of creasing belief that beneficial education was in- all control. Bakunin's understanding of society extricably linked to the expertise of teacher and as a mutual interdependence of individuals, in~titutions.''~' voluntarily cooperating in all endeavors, was Stirner unequivocally denounced any institu- later to become a central theme in Peter tionalized form of education. He would have Kropotkin's anarcho-communism. Bakunin rejected those attempts at reforming institu- propounded the idea that the only necessary tionalized schooling that held on to the con- authorities for man were the laws of his own cepts of the teacher and the school (e.g. Ferret's nature and those of the environment. And since Modern School, Tolstoy's Yasnaya Polyana, in the ideal society no other form of compul- etc.). Stirner's concept of education was direct- sion would be permissible, man must under- ly related to the idea of unrestricted self stand these natural taws of society and the en- development. Education was life and socializa- vironment. tion was a product of culture not of the schools. The principal function of the post- Mikhail Alexandrovitch Bakunin (1814-1876) revolutionary society would be to educate its is considered by many to be the father of the members in order to preserve the harmonious contemporary ideology of anarchy, at least in and effective operation of the new social order. its collective sense. Bakunin was an ardent Bakunin's educational scheme was to be based revolutionary, who not only professed a doc- upon a scientific inquiry into nature and trine of collective anarchy but also actively par- society. He gave it the name of integral educa- - ticipated in the 1848 revolutions in Paris, tion for it encompassed both the theoretical and Dresden and Prague as well as the insurrection practical aspects necessary for the fullest in Lyons following the Franco-Prussian war. development of an individual's potential."'' Bakunin was profoundly affected by Pierre- The programme of integral education was sub- ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 361 divided into three areas of inquiry, each one a lack. This then will be a sort of intellectual fraternity requisite for the next. The first area was a between educated youth and the people."" theoretical study of the sciences, which would It should be noted that Bakunin's ideal of in- teach each individual the rudiments of the tegral education could only exist in a truly scientific method. After the individual had egalitarian society. Also his belief in productive gained a general understanding of science, he or communes and cooperatives, voluntarily she would select a specific field in which to associated in a loosely knit federation, tends to undertake a concentrated study. The second preclude my similarities between integral part of Bakunin's proposal was to be technical education and a system of national schooling. training where each individual would be taught Bakunin's abhorrence of public education in a useful vocation. Following this, a third area the bourgeois State can be successfully sum- was concerned with the study of morals and marized in the following quotation: ethics. But you [bourgeois socialists] do not teach them, you Alongside of scientific and industrial education there poison them by trying to inculcate all the religious, will necessarily be a practical education, or rather a historical, political, juridical and economic prejudices seties of experiments in morality, not divine but which guarantee your existence, but which at the same human morality. Divine morality is based upon two time destroy their intelligence, take the mettle out of immoral principals, respect for authority and con- their legitimate indignation and debilitate their will."" tempt for humanity; but human morality, on the con- trary, is based upon contempt for authority and One of Bakunin's contemporaries who respect for freedom and humanity.'"' generally subscribed to the collectivist tenets of Bakunin's system of education was anarchism was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon unavoidably compulsory for he believed so long (1809-1865). Proudhon is popularly recogniz- as there existed two or more degrees of educa- ed for his contributions in the economic realm, tion in society this would result inevitably in namely his proposal of a natural banking class distinctions. He did not deny that some in- system which supported the ideas of free credit dividuals were naturally endowed with a greater and equitable exchange. Proudhon was also in- propensity to learn, but he felt that these directly responsible for the futuristic concep- natural differences were exaggerated and that tion of society as a free federation of working most of them could not be attributed to nature men's cooperatives. It is probable that the but to the educational differences prevailing in social reorganization that Proudhon proposed the existing society.Immediately following the was essentially a restatement of Charles revolution, Bakunin admitted, his system of in- Fourier's concept of the phalansterian com- tegral education would not maintain the then munitie~.[~~'His first major publication was current level of scientific exploration and What is Property? (1840) and in this work, discovery but it would greatly reduce the Proudhon became the first advocate of a number of ignorant people."o' society without government to call himself an Admittedly, Bakunin's system of integral anarchist. education seems to have an authoritarian flavor Proudhon's views on education come about it. However, compulsory attendance was significantly close to those of Mikhail Bakunin. only to be enforced during the initial stages of Proudhon, in his Idea of the Revolution in the the education of the young. Afterward, there Nineteenth Century (1851). suggested that a would be a free entry and exit policy, as witness system of state-controlled education, through the following quotation: its separation of professional and practical in- But these schools [of integral education] should be free struction, served to make a distinction between from even the slightest application or manifestation of classes, resulting in governmental tyranny and the principle of authority. They will not be schools in the subjection of the working class. the accepted meaning, but popular academies, in which neither pupils or master will be known, but Proudhon argued against a sense of where the people come freely to get, if they find it superiority that students gained when they necessary, free instruction, and in which, rich in ex- embarked upon a solely theoretical education, perience, they will teach many things to their pro- fessors who shall bring them the knowledge that they devoid of practical application. When educa- 362 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL tion is integrated or " . . . when it becomes at No revolution henceforward will be fruitful if a recrea- once a matter of training the mind and of ap- tion of public educat~on is not its crowning feature. . . . The organization of education is at once plication to practical affairs in the workshop the condition of equality and the sannion of and in the house . . . ""'1, the government's progress."" control of it would inevitably disappear, for the The theory of mutual aid, which was the disparities between theory and practice would thesis of Peter Alexeyevitch Kropotkin's be dissolved and the corresponding class (1842- 1921) anarcho-communism refuted distinctions would no longer provide fuel for Charles Darwin's evolutionary emphasis on the suppressive government machinery. The natural selection. Kropotkin argued that the following quotations should illustrate this real struggle for existence took place in a collec- point. tive sense. This collectivity was represented by If the school of mines is anvthin~, - else than the actual the adaptation of all individuals to those condi- work in thc mlno, arcompanted by the studlcs ru~tablc tions that were best for the survival of the entire for theminrngmduury, thc i~houlwdl have for 11s ob ject, to make, not miners but chiefs of miners, species. The struggle was between the species aristocrats."" and the environment, not between different and members of a species. Kropotkin believed that the history of man had been characterized by It was not for the People that the Polytechnic, the Nor- cooperation. Voluntary cooperation was mal School, the military school at St. Cyr, the School of Law, were founded: it was to support, strengthen, ultimately the basis of all human development. and fortify the distinction between classes, in order to He asserted that anarcho-communism or com- complete and make irrevocable the split between the munism without government was the synthesis working class and the upper class."" of two ideals that mankind had pursued throughout the ages - economic and political Proudhon supported a complete decen- liberty. tralization of schooling. He felt that the small Kropotkin credited compulsory national communities, workingmen's associations and education with the preservation of state govern- agricultural communes should, at their own ment. He indicated that, for the most part, all discretion, select a teacher who could provide a books and journals, both academic and specific service corresponding to the wants and popular, espoused a veneration of government. needs of the community. The teacher would not Kropotkin foresaw the possibility that com- have to be certified by the state and indeed pulsory public schooling could successfully i,n- could be self-taught. Proudhon specified that culcate values that would eliminate independent the relationship between the community and thinking and criticism. the teacher would be a free contract subject to competition. Proudhon's conception of a free We are so pmcrted by educatbon uhlch from 1nfan.y seeks to kdI in us thc ,putt of revolt, and to dcvclop contract was a working relationship between an that of ,ubm~auontoauthur~ty, wcarc so per\erted b) individual and one or more of his fellow this existence under the ferrule of a law, which citizens. The fulfillment of the contract was not regulates every event in life - our birth, our educa- tion, our development, our love, our friendship -that based upon any legal maxims upheld by the if this state of things continues, we shall lose all in- state, but rather on the individual's moral will. itiative, all habit of thinking for ourselves.'"' It is probable that some of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's contempt for public schooling was The educational approach that Kropotkin due to his personal education. His comprehen- propounded seems to embrace most of the criti- sive knowledge and his expertise in Latin and ques and alternatives that have been expounded Hebrew were acquired through self-education. so far. However, there is always an exception to Proudhon's educational emphasis on decen- any generalization. In Kropotkin's pamphlet tralization and on the integration of the Modern Science and Anarchism (19131, he at- theoretical and practical, were some of the tacked Max Stirner's belief in the full develop- salient characteristics within his revolutionary ment of the individual as a selective educational program. process, that would cater only to the most ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 363 gifted and would therefore have as its result the tion would be carried on by the various process of an existing educational monopoly by cooperatives and associations that were to be the few. Kropotkin added that this educational the social units following the elimination of the monopoly could only be maintained under the state. oppressive wing of a state; ". . . the claims of The following quotations seem to summarize these individualists necessarily end in a return Kropotkin's opposition to public schooling and to the state idea and to the same coercion which his vision of an ideal education. These thoughts they so fiercely attack them~elves".~~"Whether were expressed in a letter from Peter Kropotkin this critique can be justified is a matter of inter- to Fransciso Ferrer, congratulating Ferrer on pretation. Perhaps Max Stirner can clarify the the founding of the educational review, L 'Ecole point. Renovee; In this universal education, therefore, because the lowest and the highest meet together in it, we come Above all, education in the true sense of the word: that upon the true equality of all for the first time, the is to say the formation of the moral being, the active equality of free people: only freedom is equality."'l individual, full of initiative, enterprise, courage, freed from the timidity of thought which is the distinctive Kropotkin agreed with Proudhon and Bakunin feature of the educated man of your period - and at on the necessity of integrating theory and prac- the same time sociable, communistic by instinct, equal with and capable of feeling his equality with every man tice in an educational system to avoid class throughout the universe; starting emancipated from distinction. the religious, narrowly individualistic, authoritarian principles which the school inculcates . . . . We must Repeating the formulation of Proudhan, we say: if a come to the merging of manual with mental labor, as naval academy is not itself a ship with sailors who en- preached by Fourier and the International . . . we will joy equal rights and receive a theoretical education, then see the immense economy of time that will be then it will produce not sailors but officers to supervise realized by the young brain developed at once by the sailors. . . ."'I work of hand and mind."" Kropotkin defended this argument by alluding to the fact that many of the great intellects in For the most part, this paper has dealt with history necessarily combined brain work with critiques of, and hypothetical alternatives to, manual work or innovations with handicrafts. public schooling. It would be fruitful to in- Galileo manufactured his own telescopes; vestigate the practical application of libertarian Newton learned how to grind the lenses for his education. Francisco Ferrer and Leo Tolstoy experiments in optics; Linnaeus became ac- organized libertarian schools in Barcelona, quainted with botany while helping his father in Spain, and at Yasnaya Polyana, Russia, respec- the garden. Kropotkin pointed out that in- tively. Both of these men believed that educa- dustrialization and the inherent division of tion and not social revolution was the proper labor have caused the worker to lose his in- means of implementing social change. tellectual interest in production and therefore Francisco Ferret's (1859- 1909) Modern his innovative capacity. School was established in September, 1901, in Kropotkin advocated a complete education Barcelona.'"' Between 1884 and 1885, Ferrer combining a thorough knowledge of science was involved in a popular republican rebellion and of handicraft. He dismissed attempts to set led by General Villacampa against the op- up schools of technical education because these pressive Spanish regime. The Spanish served to maintain the division between manual republican rebels were subdued and those who and mental labor. Kropotkin emphasized self- escaped persecution and arrest fled to foreign discovery within the scientific schooling of the countries. Ferrer managed to escape to France, young and felt that the educational method of and in Paris he was introduced to the principles combining practical experience with theoretical of the Modern School. The tradition of the insight would facilitate and expedite the learn- Modern School in France was developed by a ing process. His vision of public schooling was group of people, particularly Louise Michel, that it would be free, not compulsory and not who originated the movement within her school limited in the curricular sense.I3" The educa- on Mont-martie; Paul Robin, who set up a 364 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL school for the underprivileged at Cempuis; and publications discussed, special emphasis was Madelaine Vernet and Sebastian Faure who given to Peter Kropotkin's just published Great established a communal school called La Ruche French Revol~tion.~~~ (The Beehive), based on libertarian tenets.[35t Ferrer's system of education, especially the Ferrer's Modern School was financed by one curricular aspects of the Modern School, has of his students, a Mlle. Meunier, who in 1900 been attacked as dogmatic. it is true that the unconditionally bequeathed to Ferrer a sum of teachers in the school and a great deal of the £30,000. Ferrer attempted to provide a private- literature read there were imbued with a sense ly financed system of education that would be of anarchy. "O' However, the school did lay concerned with developing a sense of self- great emphasis on the scientific method, and ownership and social awareness, independent Ferrer always insisted that there was an objec- of the dogmas of state or church. tive set of facts that could be learned without subjecting the student to an ideology.["] If modern pedagogy means an effon towards the Ferrer himself indicated that the Modern realization of a new and more iust form of societv: if it means that ~e propose to instruct thc rlslng generation School was not intended to inculcate revolu- In the cause, uh~hhave brought about and malnrdm tionary ideals in the students: the lack of roctal equhbrtum. tf it means chat uc arc anxious to prepare the race for better days, freeing it I venture to say quite plainly: the oppressed and ex- from religious fiction and from all ideas of submission oloited have a riaht to rebel. because thev have to

to~ ~ an inevitable socio-economic ineoualitv: we cannot . . klaim their rich& until the", eniov,, their fuil share in nor - entrust it to thc >late to other official organisms the rommon patrimony Thc Modern School houcvcr whtch necessarily maintain cxlhtrng pr~vilegesand sup has to dcal with chddren, whom 11 prepares by inairuc port the laur uh~hat present consccratr the exploita- tion for the state of manhood, and it must not an- tion of one man by another...'"' ticipate the cravings and hatreds, the adhesions and rebellions which may be fitting sentiments in the Ferrer believed in the principle of a sliding adult.'"' tuition rate that would allow children from all As was the case with Stirner and Godwin, walks of life to attend the Modern School. A Francisco Ferrer also anticipated the problem private school that demanded exorbitant fees of finding rational educators who were not in- would preserve class privilege and disrupt social doctrinated with the teachings of church and harmony. state. Ferrer, however, solved the problem: The curriculum of the Modern School utiliz- ed the study of the natural sciences in order to Professional teachers have to undergo a special familiarize the students with a scientific mode preparation for the task of impaRing scientific and ra- tional instruction. . . . The solution of the problem of inquiry. "A rigorous logic, applied with was very difficult, because there was no other place but discretion . . . established intellectual harmony the rational school itself for making this and gave a progressive disposition to their preparation. . . . Nevertheless, in order to complete my . .. work, I established a Rationalist Normal School for wills . . . -all were enabled to see the errors of the education of teachers, under the direction of an ex- others as well as their own, and they moved perienced master and with the cooperation of the more and more to the side of common teachers in the Modern S~hool.''~' sense."t3'l It is revealing to note that Ferrer has Ferrer believed that the idea of rational great difficulty in finding educational sources education developed at the Modern School and texts were not riddled with absolute asser- would be a model for other independent educa- tions and rigid principles. When the library of tional institutions in Spain. There were a the Modern School was opened, it contained substantial number of societies interested in but one work-The Adventures of Nono by scientific and rational education, especially The Jean Groue. The Book was a social satire that Republican Fraternities, the Centers of Instruc- dramatically contrasted the social evils of the tion, and various working men's organizations. present with the future delights in the "land of Between 1901 and 1909 Ferrer organized 109 Autonomy". In July of 1909, Ferrer called schools in Spain.'"l Ferrer's influence was not a conference of his teachers to consider book restricted to the Peninsula, as his concept of the selections for the fall semester. Of the new Modern School was adopted in the United ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY IhITOTHi? PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 365 States, specifically in the form of the Modern conscious suggestion manifested in the social Schools in New York City and in Shelton, New and natural environment and in the actions of Jersey. the teacher. Ferrer's life came to an abrupt end in Oc- Education, for Tolstoy, was a process of tober 1909. The Spanish government accused freeing the natural creativity in individuals Ferrer of instigating an insurrection in through learning. Compulsory public schooling Barcelona. Following a mock trial, in which would only impede this process. defense evidence was confiscated by the police, Every pupil is so Long an anomaly at school as he has Ferrer was found guilty and sentenced to be not fallen into the rut of this semi-animal condition. shot. On October 13th he was executed. Yet in The moment the child has reached that state and has lost all his independence and originality, the moment 1912, the Supreme Military Council of Spain there appear in him various symptoms of disease - was forced to declare that no single act of hvmrisv... .. aimless lving. dullness and so forth - he no violence could be directly or indirectly traced to longer is an anomal;: h;: has fallen into the rut, and the Ferrer.["' teacher begins to be satisfied with him.'"' Tolstoy also opposed public schooling The central idea of the new "Libertarian" education because he believed that a great part of the for which Tolstoy and Sebastian Faure have worked, and in behalf of which Francisco Ferrer has died, is practical or vital education that people obtain- that theemphasis of education shall rest on the "draw- ed was disassociated from any form of formal ing out" of the authentic nature of the child. In our schooling. "Maybe it is easier for a workman to schools of today . . . just the opposite principle is recognized. The object of the teacher is tw often to study Botany from plants, Zoology from impose something on the child, to stifle the pupils' real animals, Arithmetic from the abacus, with individuality, to make children as much alike as possi- which he has to deal, than from book^."^'^' He ble, all this must be changed.'"' felt that any system of education had to grow Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828- 1910) is out of the people and could not be directed popularly recognized for his contributions to from a central authority. literature, including Anna Karenina, War and . . . The government seems to be imposing the obliga- Peace, and other works. Tolstoy approached tion of another, unfamiliar education on the masses. anarchism in a non-violent and religious man- removing from them participation in their own affairs. and demanding from them not guidance and delibera- ner. His religion was an entirely ethical one tion, but only s~bmission.''~' which ignored ecclesiastical dogma and affirm- ed universal love and brotherhood. Christiani- Tolstoy detected the populace's attraction ty, as Tolstoy saw it, was incompatible with the towards public education and saw how this de- state and its array of coercive institutions. He mand would be utilized by the state in its sought the solution to society's ills in changing ongoing process of centralization. the morals of individuals, and he considered the The need of education is iust beginnin= freelv to take revolutionary approach of his contemporaries germ in the masses After b he Manifesto of February 19th [the Rursran government's propobal durmg the to be severely misguided. 1890's for publlc educauon], the people everywhereex Tolstoy's ideals of universal welfare and a pressed their conviction that they now need a greater brotherhood of man were to be realized degree of education. ... .This conviction has found its expression in the fact that everywhere free schools have through education. According to Tolstoy, the been risine in enormous numbers. The masses have mission of education was to inspire and in- been advancing on the paths on which the government fluence individuals so that they could ap- would like to see them go.''" preciate truth and beauty and abhor cruelty and Tolstoy criticized the University system as an power. In the ideal stateless order, Tolstoy intolerably rigid and elitist institution that was believed that "men are to be held together in based upon "the dogma of the professors' societies in future by the mental influence papal infallibility". He saw that the university which men who have made progress in alienated the student from his family and com- knowledge exert upon the less ad~antaged".~'" munity (institutions that Tolstoy cherished) and Knowledge was derived from conscious instruc- that most of his educational experience was tion in the pedagogical sense and from un- useless. 366 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL

He comes back to his home; all are strangers to atmosphere of freedom. This did not imply him. . . . Hc shares neither their faith, nor their desires, disorder or indiscipline. Freedom, to Tolstoy and he prays not to their God,but to other idols. His parents are deceived, and the son frequently wishes to "replaces an external artificial order by one unite with them into one familv but he no lonzer- can that is internal, organic and genuine, one that do that But the Jrcd 1%Jonr, and the parents con- springs from life itself like the regular and wlc thcmiehes u~hthe thought that such IS nou the age; that the present education is such that their son spontaneous working of an organism; one that will make a career for himself somewhere else. . . . is not felt as constraint".N5s1Freedom, in this Unfortunately . . . the parents ar~mistaken.. . . sense, would provide a fertile atmosphere for The information which he has acquired is of no use to anybody, no one gives him anything for it. Their only self-expression and self -realization. The School application is in literature and in pedagogy, that is, in at Yasnaya Polyana, according to the accounts the science dealing with the education of just such of Tolstoy, was a successful but fleeting experi- useless men as he."" ment. (The school was closed several years after The real university to Tolstoy, was a volun- its inception. This was largely due to govern- tary community of individuals who investigated ment pressure and public opposition.) topics of common interest that arose from the cultural background of the participants. There Tolstoy explains that no one is ever rebuked for tar- was no compulsion to attend students and diness, but they never are tardy, except some of the - older ones whose fathers, now and then, keep them teachers gathered together freely and discussed back to do some work. In such cases, they come runn- matters that would have some significance, ing to school at full speed, and all out of breath. The either in a theoretical or practical sense, in their teacher may begin with arithmetic and pass over to geometry, or he may start on sacred history and endup own lives. with grammar. At times the teacher and pupils are so Tolstoy believed in educational progress, carried away, that instead of one hour, the class lasts which he understood as a popular evolution three hour~.l'~]' towards equality of knowledge. However, .he There is one other salient characteristic of the disagreed with the thought that one must teach school at Yasnaya Polyana that most visibly in accordance with the demands of the time. distinguishes Tolstoy from other European The progressive demands of the time were anarchists. Tolstoy utilized the Bible, for he essentially those principles that maintained the considered it to be the most comprehensive social standing of the educated gentry, the work available. "There is no book like the educated merchants and the official classes. Bible to open up a new world to the pupil, and Public schooling which inculcated "pro- to make him without knowledge, love gressive" and "acceptable" beliefs and knowledge. . . . All the questions from the behavior was an insidious tool of the upper phenomena of Nature are explained by this classes and/or the Tolstoy declared: book; all the primitive relations of men with each other, of the family, of the state, or . . . we see, on the contrary, that the advocates of pro- gress in this respect, judge precisely as did the old land- religion, are for the first time consciously ed proprietors who assured everybody that for the recognized in this book."'s71 The religious peasants, for the state, and for humanity at large, there flavor of Tolstoy's anarchism should not be was nothing more advantageous than serfdom and manorial labor; the only difference is that the faith of misconstrued as ecclesiastical dogmatism. For the landed proprietors is old and unmasked, while the Tolstoy, Christianity was anarchy based on faith of the progressists is still fresh and in force."'] love. We come now to the salient critiques and In the 1860s Tolstoy implemented his pro- alternatives to contemporary public schooling posed alternative modes of teaching, by suggested by Paul Goodman and Ivan illich. establishing a school at his estate, Yasnaya We offer not a comprehensive enquiry but Polyana. The school dismissed traditional rather a succinct exposition of their thoughts on authority, whether in the form of a required a public system of education. curricutum, examinations or punishments and The late Paul Goodman (1911 - 19711, rewards. Tolstoy believed that the initiative and ardently opposed the bureaucratic and stultify- originality of children could only develop in an ing proliferation of public schooling in the ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 367 United States. Goodman recognized the viabili- variety of educational opportunities. ty of a system of compulsory schooling in Jef- Teacher certification can be dismissed as a fersonian times when people were taught to state system of rubber stamping. Its inherent display "citizenly initiative", and revolutionary function is to insure the systematic indoctrina- zeal. "Everybody had to become literate and tion of state preceptors and to control the study history, in order to make constitutional elements of supply and demand in the teaching innovations and to be fired to defend free in- profession. Incidental education would utilize stitutions, which was presumably the moral the expertise of druggists, storekeepers, that history taught."['" mechanics, etc. to introduce students to the Goodman perceives compulsory public realities of vocations or professions. There schooling as an unnecessary evil that should be would be significant emphasis on science and introduced as sparingly as possible. The con- technology. temporary "school-monks": the adminis- Finally contemporary education must inevitably be trators, professors, academic sociologists heavily weighted toward the sciences. . . . Our aim and licensed teachers have developed into a vast must be to make a great number of citizens at home in a technological environment, not alienated from the intellectual monolith that is venerated by socie- machines we use, not ignorant as consumers, who can ty. This absurd worship of public schooling is enjoy the humanistic beauty of the sciences, and above based on the belief that social and economic ad- all, who can understand the morality of a scientific vancement are inextricably related to the quali- way of life.'." ty of education received."'' Goodman believes The ideal schools would take the form of that the compulsory education system or any small discussion groups of no more than twenty similar form of formal education is designed to individuals. As has been indicated, these groups inculcate a sense of subservience in the student, would utilize any effective environment that and to shape acceptable patterns of behavior would be relevant to the interest of the group. and thought. Such education would be necessarily non- compulsory, for any compulsion to attend It is in the schools and from the mass media, rather than at home or from their friends, that the mass of places authority in an external body our citizens in all classes learn that life is inevitably disassociated from the needs and aspirations of routine, depersonalized, venally graded; that it is best the students. Moreover, compulsion retards to toe the mark and shut up; that there is no place for spontaneity, open sexuality and free spirit. Trained in and impedes the students' ability to learn. the schools they go on to the same quality of jobs, The basic intention behind the compulsory culture and politics. This is education, miseducation attendance laws is not only to insure the socializing to the national norms and regimenting to the nation's "needs" . . . . '"I socialization process but also to control the At present when formal education swallows up so labour supply quantitatively within an in- much time of life and pretends to be practical prepara- dustrialized economy characterized by tion for every activity, the ideological processing is especially deadly. Those who succumb to it have no unemployment and inflation. The public wits of their own left and are robots.'"' schools and universities have become large holding tanks of potential workers. Goodman claims that one's most valuable The universities are no longer free intellectual educational experiences occur outside the communities that participate actively on socie- school. Participation in the activities of society ty. Goodman feels that they.have evolved into should be the chief means of learning. Instead academic corporations that have alienated of requiring students to succumb to the students and professors through formal ad- theoretical drudgery of textbook learning, ministrative procedures. Goodman recommends that education be My argument, then, is a simple one. The colleges and transferred into factories, museums, parks, universities are, as they always have been, self- department stores, etc, where the students can governing communities. But the personal relations in actively participate in their education. With an such communities have come less and less to consist in growing up, in the meeting of veterans and students, in emphasis on voluntary education and intrinsic teaching and learning, and more and more in every motivation, it is essential that there be a large kind of communication, policing, regulation, and 368 ROBERT H.CHAPPELL

motivation that is relative to administration. The com- analogous lo those which occur in the breakdown of munity of scholars is replaced by a community of ad- established Churches . . . we will see struggles for in- ministrators and scholars with administrative men- vestiture, struggles for local control and strugglesfor talities, company men and time servers among the freedom from dogma. We will experience the rise of teachers, grade seekers and time servers among the lay preachers, sectarianism, heresies, inquisitions and students. And this new community mans a machine religious wars.'." that, incidentally, turns out educational products.'*" Illich charges public schooling with institu- Goodman's intense polemic against com- tionalizing acceptable moral and behavioral pulsory public schooling can be summarized by standards and with constitutionally violating the following quotation from his C'ompulsory the rights of young adults. "Children are Mis-education and The Community of neither protected by the 1st amendment or the Scholars: 5th when they stand before the secular priest. Thc school system as a *hale, -8th itr mcrcasmgly The teacher is at once the guide, teacher and ad- scr curr~culum,strater grad~ng.mcred~ble amounts of ministrator of a sacred rit~al.""~] testing, is already a vast machine to shape acceptable responses. Programmed instruction closes the windows In the economic spectrum, the school a Little tighter and it rigidifies the present departmen- alleviates the burden of unemployment by de- talization and doema.- But worst of all it tends to mum- taining significant numbers of would-be miry the one lively vlrtuc that any school does have. workers. Illich feels that compulsory public that a a community of youlh and of youth and adulu.''" education is economically unsound and a Ivan Illich (1927- ) is popularly useless waste of time.[&']He suggests that tax recognized for his critical expos&, Deschooling revenues allocated to public education would be Society. Illich was born in Vienna and was unquestionably put to better use by developing educated in Rome's Gregorian University, skill centers and an educational voucher system where he received a master's degree in theology or edu-credit cards, as Illich refers to thew and philosophy, and at the University of Skill centers would be set up so that anyone Salzburg, where he received a doctorate in the at anytime could choose instruction. among philosophy of history. The most complete hundreds of available skills. These centers biography of Illich can be found in Francine would be publicly financed, and each citizen's Gray's Divine Disobedience. Illich's intense edu-credit card would entitle the holder to their argument against compulsory public schooling use. Illich emphasizes on-the-job training and generally reiterates Paul Goodman's critique, contends that trade schools should be a part of but Illich adds a revolutionary flavor to related industries rather than remain indepen- deschooling: the dismantling of the public dent of them. education system would coincide with a per- Instead of the trade school, we should think of a sub- vasive abolition of all the suppressive institu- sidized transformation of the industrial plant. It tions of society. should be possible to obligate factories to serve as Illich condemns public schooling for a varie- training centers during off-hours, for managers to spend part of their time planning and supervising this ty of reasons. The general theme is that the training, and for the industrial process to be so nature of man is incongruent with the centraliz- redesigned that it has educationa! value. If the expen- ed and institutionalized society of the ditures for present schools were partly allocated to technocrats. The paradigm of the technocratic Sponsor this kind of educational exploitation of ex- isting resources, then the final results - both society is the public school. It is venerated in a economic and educational - might be incomparably religious sense for it makes futile promises of greater.'"' economic advancement and social mobility to IIlich subscribes to Goodman's belief that most the modern proletariat. Illich maintains that of the useful education that people acquire is a this new world religion has to be disestablished by-product of work or leisure and not of the from the state and that this will be a violent school. Illich refers to this process as "informal process. education". Only through this unrestricted and unregulated form of learning can the individual The time of reformation, dexcularization and the gain a sense of self-awareness and develop his disestablishment of the school will bring processes creative capacity to its fullest extent. Illich also ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTOTHE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 369 concurs with Goodman's opposition to teacher The intellectual precursors of the contem- certification for similar reasons. Licensing porary opponents of compulsory public school- serves to discriminate between those who have ing, were for the most part the European anar- acquired diplomas from public schooling and chists of the nineteenth century. Ivan Illich has those who have not. Illich believes that industry indicated that, and educational systems should not As far as my criticism of schooling is concerned, the discriminate because of licenses but should pro- most important direct influence of which I am aware is that of Mr. Everett Reimer. . . . The intensity of our vide performance tests for specific job-related joint exploration puts - in my opinion - other direct skills. influences in the shadow. Among those l%h century Illich's ideal educational system would in- authors whom you mention, Proudhon, Bakunin, Kropotkin and Stirner were certainly points of clude the edu-credit cards and skill centers in reference in our con~ersation.'~~' addition to the central concept of "learning Everett Reimer reiterates Illich's deschooling webs". This educational system would have theme in his only major publication, School is three purposes: to provide access to available Dead: Alternatives in Education (1971). It resources to all who want to learn: to empower would appear that Reimer did not directly in- all who want to share what they know; to find fluence the work of lllich, but rather that their those who want to learn it from them; to fur- relationship was of mutual benefit. In the nish all who want to present an issue to the foreword to School is Dead, Reimer stated, public with the opportunity to make their challenges known. The system of learning webs This bwk is the result of a conversation with Ivan II- lich that hascontinued for fifteen years. We have talk- is aimed at individual freedom and expression ed of many things, but increasingly about education in education by using society as the classroom. and schwl, and eventually, about alternatives to There would be reference services to index ~chools.'~'' items available for study in laboratories, This would seem to indicate that the educa- theatres, airports, libraries, etc.; skill ex- tional viewpoint of the European anarchists of changes - which would permit people to list the 19th century was the major influence upon their skills so that potential students could con- the contemporary critique espoused by Ivan II- tact them; peer-matching, which would com- lich. municate an individual's interest so that he or Paul Goodman indicated in the introduction she could find educational associates; reference to Peter Kropotkin's Memoirs of a Revolu- services to educators at large, which would be a tionist (1970 edition) that "Kropotkin's runn- central directory of professionals, para- ing critique of the system of formal education professionals and free-lancers.'68]Illich's "web also continually strikes home"."" system" is a well-thought-out alternative to In a general survey, all of these opponents of public schooling. Its emphasis on a prodigious public schooling criticized the institution supply of educational resources, individual because of its perverse relationship with the freedom of choice, unrestricted accessibility, government. The schools inculcated beliefs and and self-development, all seem to provide a behavior that were politically and economically solution to the problems of compulsory public beneficial to the power structure of the state. schooling. However, the viability of Illich's The emphasis on the need to integrate "web system" is dependent upon the principle theoretical and practical education is supported of centralization. Centralization implies the by Bakunin, Proudhon and Kropotkin, and this creation of a bureaucracy that coordinates and belief is reiterated in the proposals of Illich and manages a comprehensive system. In the case of Goodman. Proudhon's idea that both the the web system it appears that its management theoretical and practical aspects of technical could be undertaken by a small group of peo- education should be carried out in the factories ple. This could lead to a system of education and in workingmen's associations is similar to more frightening and Orwellian than the pre- Illich recommending that industry incorporate sent state of affairs. This reasoning is pure sup- the trade schools of contemporary times. position and should be taken as such. Goodman's support of the thesis of integral 370 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL education is evidenced by the following: to another. Within this spectrum of anarchy, II- Dispense with the school building for a few classes; lich and Goodman would probably come provide teachers and use the city itself as a school, its closest to Ferrer and Tolstoy. Both groups streets, cafeterias . . . and factories. Where feasible, it recognized that compulsory public schooling certainly makes more sense to teach using the real subject-matter than to bring an abstraction of the was designed to maintain the inherent class subject-matter into the school building as structure of society, but they also emphasized curriculum.'"' the negative effect that compulsory public schooling had on the individual. Godwin's con- And other commonality is the basic belief ception of anarchism would place him much that education is synonymous with life and that closer to the individualist strain of Stirner than the most useful learning experiences are ac- to the socialistic principles of Bakunin, Proud- quired outside the confines of the classroom. hon and Kropotkin. Goodman's and Illich's recognition of informal Another common element subscribed to by or incidental education is significantly close to these opponents of public schooling was the Max Stirner's proposition that knowledge and belief in utilizing small educational groups. In school were integrated into life and could only many cases this would correspond to the social be discovered through social interaction. organization in a stateless society. All of the Tolstoy follows suit, in his polemic against European anarchists supported the principle of public schooling which refuted the necessity of a federation of small associations and it follows learning to read and write. naturally tbat this idea would be applied to Among people who stand at a low level of education, education. we notice that the knowledge or ignorance of reading ' and writing in no way changes the degree of their The problem of finding adequate educational education. We see people who are well acquainted with resources not imbued with the dogmatism of all the facts necessary for farming and with a large the state is explicitly indicated in the works of number of interrelations of these facts, who can neither read nor write; as excellent military com- Godwin, Ferrer, Stirner, and Kropotkin: manders, excellent merchants . . . and people simply We may open any book of sociology, history, law, or educated by life who possess a great store of informa- ethics: everywhere we find government, its organiza- tion and sound reasoning, based on that informa- tion, its deeds, playing so prominent a pas that we tion. . . ."" grow accustomed to suppose that the state and the The concept that a system of national educa- political man are everything. . . "" tion serves to maintain class disparities is This problem is implied by both Goodman generally accepted by the European anarchists and Illich, for both recognize and identify the and by the contempory deschoolers. However, process of indoctrination tbat occurs in the there are specific ideological differences within public schools which utilize "acceptable" this general consensus. The mutualist, collec- educational textbooks. tivist and communist strains of anarchy as pro- The curricular emphasis on science or upon pounded by Proudhon, Bakunin and developing a working knowledge of the scien- Kropotkin strongly emphasized the principle tific method seems to be a general trait of the that national education would cater to the the European anarchists. This emphasis has middle class and would be detrimental to the largely been adopted by both Goodman and 11- urban and agrarian proletariat. Ferrer and lich, although it has evolved into an affirmation Tolstoy recognized the principle of class strug- of technical education."" Mikhail Bakunin gle but they were also concerned with the pro- clearly indicated the necessity of acquiring an blem of self-ownership within the suppressive education based on science. educational environment of the public schools. Since no mind . . . is capable of embracing . . . all the The individualist anarchism of Max Stirner was sciences, and . . . since a general knowledge of all based upon the concept of an absolutely free sciences is absolutely necessary for the complete development of the mind, instruction divides naturally development of the individual, and consequent- into two parts: the general one, giving the principal ly disregarded the argument that a system of elements of all sciences . . . and the special pan, national education would cater to one class or necessarily divided into several groups or faculties, ANARCHY REVISITED: AN INQUIRY INTO THE PUBLIC EDUCATION DILEMMA 371

every one of which embraces a certain number of Max Stirner, The False Principle of Our Educarion. mutually complementary sciences."" Translated by Robert Beebe (Colorado Springs: Ralph Myles, Publisher, 1967). pp. 23, 26. This paper has been concerned with depicting Ibid., p. 12. the common elements between the 19th century Joel H. Spring. A Primer of Liberrorion Educarion (New York: Free Life Editions. 1975). pp. 49-50. anarchistic opponents of public schooling and Marshall S. Shatz, ed., The Essenriol Works of Anor- two contemporary counterparts - Paul Good- chism (New York: Quadrangle Books Inc., 1972), p. man and Ivan Illich. All held to varying degrees 158. Irving L. Horowitz, ed., The Anorchkrs (New York: that education was experientially synonymous Dell Publishing Company Inc., 1964). p. 132. with life. Pedagogy should be viewed as an The term "integral" does not here mean the essential unfettered and ongoing enquiry into those areas part of a whole entity. Instead, Bakunin conceptualiz- ed integral as halislic, and hence aimed at con- of individual and collective interest(s), which in solidating and harmonizing learning experiences their entirety define the perimeters of their associated with bath the vocational and intellectual culture or cultures. Educational authority, im- realm, - manual and mcnlal labour. Furthermore. Bakunin's csn;cpl "1 mcgral meant lh3l no mere par1 posed from above, and manifest in governmen- *auld be ~bdrmedoul from [he lotalw of the :h~ld'\ tal or ecclesiastical institutions, only creates a learning experience. synthetic environment that is antithetical to G. P. Maximoff. ThePoliricalPhilosoohv ofBakunin: Scienrfic ~norihism(New York: fh; Free Press. learning. Educational authority and organiza- 1953), p. 332. tion should be an internal function and respon- Ibid., p. 334. sibility of freely formed communes and Ibid., P. 336. George Woodcock, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon; His Life cooperatives, i.e. those social units envisioned and Work (New York: Schocken Books Inc.. 1972). p. as the basic units of a new and liberated social 13. order. Shatr, ed., The Essential WorksofAnorchism, p. Ill. Ibid., p. 111. Although there are many dissimilarities bet- Ibid., p. 111. ween these thinkers, it appears that the central Woodcock, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon; His Life and Work, pp. 79 - 80. arguments against public schooling developed Peter Kropotkin, Kroporkin'r Revolurionary Pom- by the anarchists in the nineteenth century have phlers; A Collecrion of Wrirings by Perer Kroporkin, been rejuvenated and reiterated in the works of Roger N. Baldwin, ed. (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927). p. 197. Paul Goodman and Ivan Illich. Ibid., p. 161. Stirner, The False Principles of Our Educarion, p. 26. NOTES Kroootkin. Focrorv... Fields and Worksho~sTomor- row, Colin Ward, ed. (New Yark: Harper and Row. I. William Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Poliricol Jusrict 19751, p. 190. and Its Influence on Morols andHappiness (Baltimore: Ibid.. p. 186. Penguin Books Ltd., 1976), p. 556. Peter Kropotkin, "The Formed School", Morher 2. Ibid., pp. 616-617. Earth (New York: Emma Goldman and Alexander 3. Ibid, pp. 614-615. Berkman, Vols. 3, 6, August, 1908). p. 261. 4. Burton Ralph Pollin. Educarion and Enlighrenmenr in Emma Goldman. Anarchism ond Other Essavs (New rhe Works of Williom Godwin (New York: La: York: Dover ~ublications,Inc., 1969). p. 155: Americas Publishing Company, 1962), p. 134. Ibid., pp. 148-153. 5. Ibid., p. 121. 36. Francisco Ferrer, The Origins and Ideals of rhe 6. William Godwin, The Enquirer; Refleerions on Educo. Modern School, translated by Joseph McCabe (Lan- rion, Manners, and Lirerarure (London: Paternoster- don: Watts and Co., 1913). P. 34. Row, 1797). pp. 30-31. 37. Ibid., p. 6. 7. Pollin. Educarion ond Enlighrenmenr in rhe Works oj 38. Ibid., p. 62. William Godwin, p. 145. 39. 'Goldman, Anorchism ond Orher Ews, p. 161. 8. Ibid., p. 130. 40. Ferrer, The Origins and Ideals of rhe Modern School. 9. Godwin. The Enquirec Reflecrions on Educalion p. 67. Monners, ond Literature, pp. 56 - 64. 41. Spring, A Primer of Libertarian Educarion, p. 45. 10. Godwin, Enquiry Concerning Polifical and 11s In- 42. Ferrer, The Origins and Ideals of Modern School, p. fluences on Morals and Happiness, p. 14 (Introduc- 33. tion.) 43. Ibid.. pp. 41 -42. 11. Pollin, Educorion and Enlighrenmenr in the Works of 44. Goldman, Anarchirm and Other Essays, p. 159. Williom Godwin. p. xv (Introduction.) 45. Ferrer, The Origins and Ideals of the Modern School 12. Ibid., p. 145. (Introduction), p. ix. 13. Max Stirner, TheEgo and Hk Own. John Carral, ed. 46. Leonard Abbot, "The Ideal of Libertarian Education", (New York: Harper and Row, 1971). p. 60. Morher Earth, Vals. 6, 4, p. 118. 372 ROBERT H. CHAPPELL

47. Sarla Mittal, Tolstoy: Social and Polilical Ideas Corholic Radicalism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,

(Meerut, 1966). p. 104. 1970).,. .o. 316.~~~ 48. Leo Tolstoy, Tolsloy On Education, translated by Leo 66. lvan lllich, Deschooling Sociely (New York: Harper Wiener (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967). and Row, 1971). p. 46. p. 17. 67. Ibid., pp. 21 -22. 49. mid.. o. 38. 68. lvan lllich, Celebrations of Awareness; A CallFor In- 50; bid.,' p. 106. slirurional Revolufion (New York: Doubleday and 51. Ibid., p. 103. Company, inc., 1971), p. 107. 52. Ibid., pp. 137- 138. 69. lllich, Deschooling Society, pp. 103- 150. 53. Ibid.. LID. 161- 180. 70. Unpublished Lelter; lvan lllich to Robert Chappell, 54. Ibid., b: 170. July 1977. 55. Mittal, Tolstoy: Social and Polilical Ideas, p. 104. 71. Everett Reimer. School is Dead; Allernolives in Educa- 56. Tolstoy. Tolstoy on Education, pp. 251 -252. tion (New York, 1971) (Foreword), 57. Ibid., pp. 310-311. 72. Peter Kropotkin, Memoirs of o Revolulionist, ln- 58. Paul Goodman, Compulsory Mu-educalion and The troduction by Paul Goodman 2nd Barnett Newman Community of Scholors (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, (New York: Grove Press. Inc., 1968), p. xxii. 1962). p. 19. 73. Goodman. Compulsory Mu-education and The Com- 59. Ibid.. P. 16. munity of Scholars, p. 32. 60. Ibid.. p. 23. 74. Tolstoy, Tolsloy on Education, p. 35. 61. Paul Goodman, "The Present Moment in Education", 75. Kropotkin, Kroporkin's Revolulionory Pamphlefs, p. 165 Anorchy. Val. 10, (January 1, 1970). .-A. 62. Paul Goodman, Compulsory Mir-education and The 76. Goodman, Compulsory Mir-educorion and The Coni- Communily of Scholars, p. 62. muniry of Scholars, p. 62. 63. Ibid., p. 238. 77. Maximoff, The Polilical Philosophy of Bakunin, M. Ibid.. P. 87. Scienrific Anarchism, p. 332. 65. Francine Gray, Divine Dirobedience; Profiles in