Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders

May 2011 Virginia Department of Education,Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 Table of Contents V Commonly Used Acronyms ...... 4 User Guide ...... 5 Introduction and Purpose of the Models of Best Practice Document ...... 5 Recommended Use of the Models of Best Practice Document ...... 5 Considerations When Using the Models of Best Practice ...... 6

Foundational Competencies ...... 7 Categories of Autism Spectrum Disorder ...... 7 Educational Definition ...... 7 Individual with Disabilities Education Act (2004) – 34 CFR Part 300.8(c)(1) ...... 7 Virginia Special Education Regulations ...... 7 Goals of Education and Intervention ...... 8 Models of Best Practice ...... 9 A Basis in Research ...... 9 Definition of Evidence-based Practice ...... 9 Research Design and Publication ...... 10 Using a Multimodal Approach ...... 11 Sources ...... 12 Components of a Comprehensive Curriculum ...... 12 Definition of Curriculum ...... 12 Curriculum Considerations for the Student with ASD ...... 13

Providing an Effective Education ...... 13 Understanding Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorders ...... 13 Primary Characteristics ...... 13 Secondary Characteristics ...... 14 Learning Characteristics ...... 14 Strengths ...... 15 Comorbid Disorders ...... 16 Common Medical Conditions ...... 16 Focus Areas for Educational Intervention ...... 16 Social Development and Peer Interaction ...... 17 Communication ...... 18 Play and Leisure ...... 19 Activities of Daily Living ...... 19 Sexuality ...... 21 Motor ...... 21 Cognitive / Learning ...... 22 Academic Performance ...... 23 Sensory Processing ...... 25 Restricted and Repetitive Patterns of Behavior ...... 26 The Educational Environment ...... 26 Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) ...... 27 Inclusion Opportunities ...... 27

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Classroom Management ...... 29 Personnel ...... 30 Organization and Structure ...... 30 Physical Environment ...... 31 Schedules ...... 31 Transitions ...... 33 Rules ...... 33 Curriculum Framework ...... 34 General Curriculum ...... 34 Functional Curriculum ...... 35 Mixtures of Curriculum ...... 35 Assessment Frameworks and Procedures ...... 35 Getting Started ...... 36 Assessment Tools and Strategies ...... 36 Standardized Assessment Tools ...... 36 Curriculum-Based Assessment ...... 37 Data-driven Assessment ...... 37 Developmental and Skill Areas ...... 37 Matching Assessment Tools to Student Characteristics and Learning Styles ...... 39 Increasing the Authenticity, Validity, and Reliability of Assessment ...... 39 Goal Development ...... 40 Instructional Strategies ...... 41 Instructional Considerations ...... 41 Systematic Instruction ...... 43 Intensive Instruction ...... 43 Instructional Format ...... 44 Generalization ...... 44 Modifications and Accommodations ...... 44 Related Services ...... 45 Assistive Technology ...... 46 Augmentative and Alternative Communication ...... 48 Program Evaluation ...... 48 A Framework for Monitoring Student Progress ...... 48 Getting Started ...... 49 Ways to Monitor Progress ...... 49 When to Monitor Progress ...... 50 Summarizing Monitoring Information ...... 50

Addressing Interfering Behavior ...... 51 Conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) ...... 51 Developing and Implementing a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP) ...... 54

Collaboration with the Educational Team ...... 57 Team Meetings ...... 57 Family Members ...... 59 Related Service Personnel ...... 60 Paraprofessionals ...... 60

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Case Studies ...... 61 References ...... 71 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Data Driven Assessments / Data Collection Forms ...... 77 APPENDIX B: Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies for Children and Youth with ASD . . . . 79 APPENDIX C: Modifications and Accommodations ...... 115 APPENDIX D: Assistive Technology Planning Form Example ...... 117 APPENDIX E: Educational Team Planning Form Example ...... 119 APPENDIX F: Home-School Communication Form Example ...... 120

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. The Instructional Process ...... 40 Figure 2. A Framework for Instructional Planning and Evaluation ...... 49 Figure 3. Transdisciplinary Team Model ...... 57 Figure 4. The Teaming Process ...... 58 Figure 5. Prompting Procedures ...... 96

Table 1. Least Restrictive Environment Continuum ...... 27 Table 2. Components of Successful Inclusion ...... 28 Table 3. Schedule Hierarchy ...... 32 Table 4. Types of Visual Schedules ...... 32 Table 5. Four Curriculum Approaches to Teaching Functional Academics ...... 34 Table 6. Assessment Tools Based on Skill Area ...... 38 Table 7. Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies for Children and Youth with ASD ...... 42 Table 8. Assistive Technology Examples ...... 47 Table 9. Examples of Evidence-based Practices Included in a BIP ...... 55 Table 10. Strategies for Maintaining Parent Involvement ...... 60 Table 11. Descriptions and Examples of ABI Strategies ...... 79 Table 12. Differential Reinforcement Procedures ...... 82 Table 13. Functional Communication Replacements ...... 85 Table 14. Mand-modeling Procedure Example ...... 89 Table 15. Modified Time Delay Technique Example ...... 90 Table 16. Considerations for Peer Mediation ...... 91 Table 17. The Picture Communication System ...... 93 Table 18. Prompt Hierarchy ...... 97 Table 19. Schedules of Reinforcement ...... 99 Table 20. Considerations for Social Skills Group Meetings ...... 104 Table 21. Examples of Structured Work Systems ...... 109

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Commonly Used Acronyms V AAC Alternative and Augmentative Communication ABA Applied Behavioral Analysis ADDM Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder AT Assistive Technology BIP Behavioral Intervention Plan CDC Centers for Disease Control DD Developmental Disabilities DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (Fourth Edition, Revised) FAPE Free Appropriate Public Education FBA Functional Behavioral Assessment FCT Functional Communication Training IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) IEP Individualized Education Program IFSP Individualized Family Service Plan JA Joint Attention LEA Local Education Agency LRE Least Restrictive Environment MDT Multidisciplinary Team NET Natural Environment Teaching NOS Not Otherwise Specified PDD Pervasive Developmental Disorder PECS Picture Exchange Communication System PLEP Present Levels of Educational Performance PRT Pivotal Response Training SEA State Educational Agency TEACCH Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication related handicapped CHildren VDOE Virginia Department of Education

V 4 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 User Guide Recommended Use of the Models of Best Practice Introduction and Purpose Document of the Models of Best The information presented herein is designed Practice Document to guide all schools’ practices for educating students with ASD and to promote consistency of Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex programming across educational environments neurologically-based developmental disorder throughout the Commonwealth. This document that affects a person’s ability to communicate and is intended to serve as a resource primarily for interact, both with other people and with their educators, but may also be helpful to parents, environment. At one time ASD was considered to be a medical professionals, and other providers when rare condition, but it is now recognized as one of the they are making informed choices about the most common developmental disorders affecting education of students with ASD. children. Prevalence rates have soared in the past decade. It is now believed to impact 1 in 110 children Continuity across autistic disorders allows this (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], document to address both the specific disability 2009). category of autism, as well as the more broadly defined group of autism spectrum disorders. The ratio of individuals with a diagnosis of ASD has Similarly, the information provided may be used and will continue to affect educational programs across a variety of educational settings from self- throughout the Commonwealth of Virginia. This contained to general education classrooms. increase in numbers of children in Virginia’s schools has created a call for educational services and While this Models of Best Practice document addresses supports that are uniquely suited for those with ASD. students in preschool and elementary school, It is the aim of the Virginia Department of Education it is recognized that ASD is a lifelong disability. (VDOE) to ensure each student, including those with Components of this document may be applied to ASD, reaches his or her full potential. This requires students in middle or high school with discretion. individualized and comprehensive educational Application with older students should be programming, rooted in evidence-based practices. considered individually and incorporate professional judgment and data-based decision-making. The purpose of the Models of Best Practice document is to provide the tools required We have organized this to consistently meet the It is the aim of the Virginia document in a progressive multifaceted needs of students manner. Considerations for with ASD in the educational Department of Education providing an effective education setting. The document outlines (VDOE) to ensure each student, are provided in a logical and comprehensive information on including those with ASD, meaningful order to help the the array of available research- professional make informed reaches his or her full potential. based strategies and supports. decisions. We recommend Content will enable teachers and This requires individualized moving through the manual related services staff to identify and comprehensive systematically beginning with and implement practices educational programming, the first section. This document that have the desired effects should be read in its entirety. both on students’ short-term rooted in evidence-based No section(s) should be read in functioning and long-term practices. isolation from the rest of the independence.

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document. Some chapters may be perceived as more This document includes recommendations for relevant to some school personnel or more applicable assessment and data collection that can generate to certain students. However, it is important for information needed to make informed decisions. school personnel to be familiar with all components of a comprehensive curriculum and all factors that Implementation of practices should not be an contribute to evidence-based practices for students individual decision. Collaboration among educational with ASD. team members is the key to determine a program that will result in achieving the best student There are five major sections: Foundational outcomes. Members, which include the individual Competencies, Providing an Effective Education, with ASD, parents, guardians, and other family Addressing Interfering Behavior, Collaboration with members, must work together to identify the best the Educational Team, and Case Studies. To enhance strategies and supports and develop a plan that will understanding, examples of students with ASD are ensure consistent and effective implementation. This provided at the end of this document. Examples offer requires ongoing and thorough communication. descriptive accounts of principles and evidence-based practice applied in real situations. Case examples are Program review and revisions are a core component to be used only to exemplify a point or illustrate a of educational planning. Frequent evaluation of practice and are not to be directly replicated. progress, practices, and implementation is essential. Team members should use data-based decision- making to direct changes to a plan or strategy Considerations When Using and return to the Models of Best Practice for further the Models of Best Practice information and recommendations.

The Models of Best Practice is based on common The contents of this document represent the strengths and core deficits among individuals with evidence-based practices available at the time of its ASD. Despite some similarities, there will be much creation. Additional information about ASD and the variation among students’ abilities and needs. strategies and supports needed to provide an effective Practices outlined, therefore, are not to be applied education continue to evolve. It is recommended uniformly with every student on the spectrum. The that readers also seek out more recently published adoption of a particular recommendation outlined information to supplement the information in this document must be made while considering contained within this document. the unique needs of the student and the present circumstances. The inherently individual nature of ASD, the broad range and combination of abilities, Implementation of practices should not and the legal mandates for individualized instruction be an individual decision. Collaboration necessitate thoughtful, informed consideration in educational programming design. Implementation among educational team members is of evidence-based practice is complex and requires the key to determine a program that the integration of research with other critical factors. will result in achieving the best student These factors include: outcomes. V Student strengths V Student needs V Student learning style V Student values and preferences V Family values and preferences V Capacity to accurately implement interventions

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Foundational ism Spectrum ut Dis Competencies A or de rs Asperg Childhood Categories of Autism Autistic er’s Disinteg Disorder Disorder rative Disorder Rett’s Spectrum Disorder Disorder PDD- ASD is a descriptive umbrella term that encompasses NOS* five different diagnostic categories. They are: Individual Pe V Autistic Disorder * rvasive Developmental Disorder - V Asperger’s Disorder with Not Othewise Speci ed V Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not Disabilities Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS) Education Act V Rett’s Disorder (2004) – 34 CFR V Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD) Part 300 .8(c)(1)

Each of the five categories is characterized by Below is the definition of autism provided by IDEA: impairment in social interactions, deficits in (i) Autism means a developmental disability communication, and patterns of restricted or significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal repetitive behavior. Despite similarities in core communication and social interaction, areas of impact, each category does have unique generally evident before age three that characteristics and diagnostic criteria. Of the adversely affects a student’s educational five disorders above, autism, Asperger’s Disorder, performance. Other characteristics often and PDD-NOS are the most common; therefore, associated with autism are engagement this document focuses primarily on these three in repetitive activities and stereotyped categories. Although Rett’s Disorder and CDD present movements, resistance to environmental differently than the other ASDs, the characteristics change or change in daily routines, and and educational concerns are similar to those of unusual responses to sensory experiences. students with ASD and may benefit from the same (ii) Autism does not apply if a student’s practices. educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the student has an emotional disturbance, as defined in Educational Definition paragraph (c)(4) of this section. (iii) A student who manifests the It is the Individual with Disabilities Education Act characteristics of autism after age three (IDEA, 2004) that provides the federal educational could be identified as having autism if the definition of the disorder. This federal law uses criteria…of this section are satisfied. the term “autism” to refer to all Autism Spectrum Disorders. Educators use this educational definition Virginia Special Education when determining whether a student is eligible for Regulations special education and should receive such services under the disability category of autism. Using the The definition used by Virginia schools can be found federal definition as a foundation, states may outline in the 2010 Regulations Governing Special Education their own definition and establish specific criteria Programs for Children with Disabilities in Virginia. to determine whether a student has autism and Virginia uses the same definition of autism provided should receive special education services under this in IDEA (2004) but further delineated specific category.

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criteria for eligibility. Below are the criteria outlined motor mannerisms, persistent in the Virginia Special Education Regulations: preoccupation with parts of objects. 1. There is an adverse effect on the child’s b. Students with autistic disorder, in educational performance due to addition to the characteristics listed documented characteristics of autism, as in subdivisions 2 a (1) and 2 a (2) of outlined in this section; and this subsection, also demonstrate impairments in communication, 2. The child has any of the Pervasive such as delay in, or total lack of, the Developmental Disorders, also referenced development of spoken language as autism spectrum disorder, such as (not accompanied by an attempt Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, to compensate through alternative Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative modes of communication such as Disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder gesture or mime). In individuals with – Not Otherwise Specified including adequate speech, marked impairment Atypical Autism as indicated in diagnostic in the ability to initiate or sustain a references. conversation with others, stereotyped a. Students with Asperger’s Disorder and repetitive use of language or demonstrate the following idiosyncratic language, or lack of characteristics: varied, spontaneous make-believe play (1) Impairments in social interaction, or social imitative play appropriate to such as marked impairment in developmental level is noted. the use of multiple nonverbal c. Students with Pervasive behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, Developmental Disorder - Not facial expression, body postures, Otherwise Specified or Atypical Autism and gestures to regulate social may display any of the characteristics interaction; failure to develop listed in subdivisions 2 a (1), 2 a (2) and 2 peer relationships appropriate b of this subsection without displaying to developmental level; a lack all of the characteristics associated of spontaneous seeking to with either Asperger’s Disorder or share enjoyment, interests, Autistic Disorder. or achievements with other people (i.e., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects Goals of Education and of interest); or lack of social or Intervention emotional reciprocity are noted; and At first glance, there may appear to be multiple (2) Restricted repetitive and goals of education. However, there is one absolute stereotyped patterns of behavior, target for all students, including those with ASD: interests, and activities such as Preparation for adulthood. The IDEA was established encompassing preoccupation to ensure all children with disabilities reach this with one or more stereotyped collective goal and are prepared for opportunities and restricted patterns of in postsecondary education, employment, and interest that is abnormal either independent living. in intensity or focus, apparently inflexible adherence to specific, Considerations regarding skill development nonfunctional routines or rituals, designed for current and future success may stereotyped and repetitive include different strategies and practices from

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Definition of Evidence-based There is one absolute target for all Practice students, including those with ASD: According to IDEA (2004) and federal and state Preparation for adulthood. regulations, scientifically-based research means research that involves the application of rigorous, those provided as a part of the standard curricula. systematic, and objective procedures to obtain Considerations may also include different learning reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational objectives. Nevertheless, the goal remains the activities, programs, and strategies. Scientifically- same. Education for students with ASD provides based research: opportunities for acquisition of knowledge and skills that lead to personal independence and social V Employs systematic, empirical methods responsibility (IDEA, 2004). that draw on observation or experiment;

V Involves rigorous data analyses that are Models of Best Practice adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions drawn; A Basis in Research V Relies on measurements or observational Educational interventions must be validated methods that provide reliable and valid through research and scientific evidence (No Child data across evaluators and observers, Left Behind [NCLB], 2001). The terms “scientifically- across multiple measurements and based research” and “evidence-based practice” observations, and across studies by the are often used interchangeably to describe same or different investigators; appropriately validated interventions. The use of evidence-based practices is in the best interest of the V Is evaluated using experimental or student by ensuring educational decisions are based quasi-experimental designs in which on techniques and procedures proven effective. individuals, entities, programs, or activities are assigned to different conditions and The last twenty years have seen an expansion in with appropriate controls to evaluate the available educational interventions for students effects of the condition of interest, with with ASD. Professionals must be knowledgeable of a preference for “random-assignment” the range of validated practices and must be able experiments, or other designs to the to choose and implement appropriately based on extent that those designs contain “within- the strengths, challenges, and characteristics of a condition” or “across-condition” controls; student. Evidence provided by research must be analyzed to make sound programmatic decisions. V Ensures that experimental studies This requires an ongoing inquiry into the growing are presented in sufficient detail and body of research available on intervention. Despite clarity to allow for replication or, at a the requirement of evidence-based practices, minimum, offer the opportunity to build interventions without research support continue systematically on their findings; and to emerge and be used by families and professionals alike. Practices that do not have evidence-based V Has been accepted by a peer-reviewed support are not recommended and should only journal or approved by a panel of be used with extreme caution as they have the independent experts through a comparably potential to prohibit the ability of a student to reach rigorous, objective, and scientific review. his or her maximum potential.

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In accordance with federal regulations and Research Design and Publication thorough analysis of peer-reviewed literature and publications, the National Professional Development To be considered evidence-based, research must Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders (NPDC-ASD) go through an objective and scientific review. It developed a formal definition for evidence-based is often published in a peer-reviewed journal or practices. This definition is based on rigorous criteria publication. Peer-reviewed literature (also known as and is widely accepted as a comprehensive definition refereed literature) is scholarly work that generally to identify effective practices. represents high-quality original research in the field. Prior to publication, the literature is subject The NPDC defines evidence-based practices for to a screening process by the journal based on individuals with ASD as those practices for which predetermined standards of quality. Next, the article efficacy is established through peer-reviewed is reviewed by peer-reviewers who have expertise research in scientific journals using one of the in the area of research. If accepted for publication, following: the manuscript is considered to be high-quality evidence. Several of the current peer-reviewed V Randomized or quasi-experimental journals in the field of ASD include: Focus on Autism design studies: Two high quality and Other Developmental Disabilities, Journal on experimental or quasi-experimental group Autism and Developmental Disabilities, Research in design studies Autism Journal of Early Intervention. j High quality randomized or quasi- experimental design studies do not Knowledge of research methodology is important have critical design flaws that create for examining the quality of research studies. confounds to the studies, and design According to Mitchell and Jolley (2007), the features allow readers/consumers to most common types of educational research rule out competing hypotheses for methodologies include: study findings. (1) Experimental or Quasi-experimental V Single-subject design studies: Three Group Designs are used to examine the different investigators or research groups effectiveness of a particular intervention must have conducted five high quality (or combination of interventions) on a single subject design studies group of students. In these types of designs, j High quality in single subject design the intervention is delivered to a group of studies is reflected by a) the absence students with similar characteristics and of critical design flaws that create traits. Pre- and post-test measurement confounds and b) the demonstration occurs to determine the effectiveness of experimental control at least three (or outcome) of the intervention. These times in each study. results are then compared to the results of another group of students with V Combination of evidence: One high similar characteristics and traits who quality randomized or quasi-experimental did not receive the intervention or may group design study and three high quality have received a different intervention. single subject design studies conducted Participants are randomly assigned by at least three different investigators across the two groups in an experimental or research groups (across the group and group design study; whereas, in quasi- single subject design studies). experimental group designs randomization does not occur.

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(2) Single Subject Designs are experimental (4) Qualitative Designs include various designs in which a participant analysis research methodologies (e.g., case study, occurs (i.e., the individual participant serves ethnography, action research) that can as his/her own group) rather than using be systematically employed to help a between group comparison to examine researchers understand the qualities of a the effectiveness of an intervention, Using particular intervention (or research area of a deductive reasoning approach, single interest). Qualitative research is considered subject design methodology begins with an a type of scientific research in that data is experimental analysis of an intervention on generated through various methods (e.g., a single or small group of participants and interviews, focus groups, etc.) to obtain through systematic replication increases empirical findings. However, the overall the applicability of the intervention to a purpose of qualitative designs is different larger group of participants. Evaluating than other research methodologies. In the effectiveness of the intervention general, qualitative research designs occurs through repeated measurement are not typically used to document the of observable behaviors in the presence effectiveness of an intervention; but rather, and absence of the intervention. An to examine variables, such as the social additional component of single subject validity or other factors that influence the design methodology is the evaluation of effectiveness of that intervention. the acceptability or social validity of an intervention. Using a Multimodal (3) Correlational Designs are quantitative Approach research designs, but differ from experimental research methodology in All students with ASD are unique individuals. that causal relationships between the Characteristics and challenges vary considerably dependent and independent variables across children. These variations within the disorder cannot be inferred. In correlational design have significant implications on educational methodology, randomized assignment of strategies. Current research supports the use of a two groups does not occur. Rather, analyses multimodal approach to intervention (National are conducted that determine the “degree” of Autism Center [NAC], 2009; the relationship in which the changes in the National Research Council There is no single dependent measure(s) are influenced by the [NRC], 2001; Simpson, intervention. Analyses used include multiple 2005). There is no single method that will regression, hierarchical linear modeling and method that will be be successful for all structural equation modeling. Although successful for all students students with ASD. correlational designs are a critical part of with ASD. Further, the research, unfortunately, they cannot be disorder impacts many utilized to determine a causal relationship areas of functioning; therefore, multiple methods between changes in the behavior as a result will be required to serve just one student effectively. of the intervention. They can; however, be The most successful programs incorporate a variety used to identify (or explain) mediating or of objectively verified practices to address the moderating variables that may influence multitude of needs of the student. Interventions individuals’ responsiveness to various should vary considerably based on individual interventions. characteristics, strengths, needs, and learning styles.

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 11 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 Sources National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders (NPDC-ASD). An extensive body of literature is now available Evidence-Based Practices. Available at: outlining comprehensive information regarding http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/ educational practices, supports, and processes that evidence-based-practices are successful for students with ASD. Statutes, case laws, regulations, and policies provide a framework National Autism Center (2009). Evidence-Based for expectations in goals and development of Practice and Autism in the Schools: A Guide individualized programming. Peer-reviewed to Providing Appropriate Interventions educational, medical, and psychological literature to Students with Autism Spectrum informs recommended practices and supports. Disorders. Available at: http://www. nationalautismcenter.org/pdf/NAC%20Ed%20 The abundance of information on approaches Manual_FINAL.pdf for this population can be confusing and even conflicting at times. Recently, the literature related Council for Exceptional Children. (2009). What every to ASD has provided comprehensive reviews of special educator must know: The international current research to determine whether a strategy standards for the preparation and certification or program is effective. These reviews have brought of special education teachers. Content clarity to the discussion as they have identified Standards for Special Education Teachers of the level of scientific evidence available for various Individuals with Exceptional Learning Needs supports and strategies and have provided specific with Developmental Disabilities and/or Autism information about the skills and age groups to (6th Ed.) which these strategies have successfully been applied. Such research efforts have been utilized Components of a to create this document and direct educational components and considerations. Comprehensive Comprehensive Curriculum sources include, but are not limited to: Definition of Curriculum Simpson, R. L. (2005). Evidence-based practices and students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus Curriculum is an organized program of instruction on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, designed by a team of professionals that responds 20(3), 140-149. to the changing needs of an individual and supports growth toward independence and lifelong learning. National Research Council. (2001). Educating children Considerations of the curriculum involve much with autism. Committee on Educational more than what to teach. Comprehensive curricula Interventions for Children with Autism. include the following: Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy V Focus Areas for Intervention Press. V Environment V Structure and Support Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., Kincaid, D. (2003). V Assessment Frameworks Effective Educational Practices for Students V Goal Development and Prioritization with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus on V Instructional Strategies Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(3): V Instructional Format 150-165.

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Curriculum Considerations for the Student with ASD Providing an

Curricula considerations include both what is taught Effective Education and how it is taught. For the student with ASD, curricula considerations are especially important. Understanding Autism and Due to the distinctive learning style and challenges related to communication, social skills, sensory Autism Spectrum Disorders needs, and behavior, a program must provide the To provide an effective educational program, it positive supports necessary to ensure goals are is first necessary to understand the nature of the met. Curricular elements must match individual disorder and characteristics commonly associated. needs, ensure motivation is high, learning rate is ASD encompasses an extremely broad continuum maximized, and behavior is stable. of features in individual students (Anzalone & Williamson, 2000). This results in learning The upcoming section describes the different characteristics that differ widely from typical elements of the curriculum and how each should be students as well as students with other types of designed. It includes an explanation of the unique disabilities (Simpson, 2005). characteristics associated with the disorder and considerations for creating effective learning Primary Characteristics environments. Each element is defined and includes an outline of specific techniques and components, ASDs are a group of complex neurological as well as application of the information to developmental disabilities. It is believed to be teaching situations through case examples. This a chronic, lifelong disorder with no definitive section is best used in conjunction with the rest etiology or cure (Lord & Volkmar, 2002). There are of the document as the cumulative information three primary characteristics associated with enables the professional to create a comprehensive the disorder: Impairment in social interaction; educational program. impairment in communication; and the presence of restricted, repetitive, and stereotypical patterns of behavior. ASD is a “spectrum disorder” meaning that Due to the distinctive learning style and although similar symptoms are shared, each person is affected in different ways. Symptoms can occur in challenges related to communication, any combination and can range from very mild to social skills, sensory needs, and behavior, quite severe. a program must provide the positive Below is a list of challenges associated with the three supports necessary to ensure goals are met. primary characteristics:

V Social Interaction: j Relating to people and social / emotional reciprocity j Developing and maintaining relationships j Demonstrating appropriate social interactions j Using and understanding nonverbal forms of communication j Expressing and regulating emotions

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j Demonstrating appropriate or V Imitation: Imitating gross, fine and/or functional play / leisure skills oral motor movements as well as verbal j Engaging in imaginative activities patterns may be delayed or absent. If j Understanding and following social imitation skills are present, there may rules and norms be difficulty using skills appropriately in context or generalizing to new or novel V Communication: situations. j Understanding others’ verbal and nonverbal language and V Theory of Mind: The individual may have communicative attempts (receptive impairment in understanding the way language) other people think or feel (Baron-Cohen & j Using verbal language / speech Swettenham, 1997). They may understand j Using communication for a variety of simple causes of feelings and emotions, purposes or functions (e.g., request, but have difficulty understanding more comment, question, converse) complex causes. This often results in not j Demonstrating appropriate speech comprehending reasons for behavior or patterns actions of others. j Expanding language beyond rote words or phrases V Executive Functioning: Skills related j Modulating vocal intonations or to planning and executing actions may volume be a challenge. Especially problematic j Understanding language and is completing activities which require vocabulary multiple steps. Also present is impairment j Introducing, maintaining, ending a in controlling behavior as well as self- conversation regulation and response inhibition. Impulsivity is often common. V Restricted, Repetitive, and Stereotypical Patterns of Behavior: V Motor: The individual may have difficulty j Demonstrating stereotyped and performing gross and/or fine motor repetitive movements with body or activities. There may be impairment objects in balance and coordination (Ming, j Demonstrating distress over changes Brimacombe, & Wagner, 2007). j Insisting on following routines j Demonstrating extreme V Sensory: Hyper- or hypo-sensitivity preoccupation with an object or topic to sensory stimulation may be present. of interest Sensory abnormalities may occur in any of j Demonstrating repetitive and the seven sensory systems which include restricted play or leisure activities visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, proprioceptive, and vestibular systems Secondary Characteristics (Rogers & Ozonoff, 2005).

In addition to the primary characteristics, a number Learning Characteristics of secondary characteristics have been identified and are common in this group. Below is a list and The significant neurological symptoms of ASD brief description of other areas in which challenges clearly impact how individuals think and learn may also be seen and which represent secondary (Ritvo, 2005). Cognition involves the perception, characteristics of individuals with ASD: processing, acquisition, retrieval, transformation, use and exchange of information. Cognitive

V 14 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 ability varies considerably from person to person may be difficulty comprehending oral and/ resulting in patterns of strengths and weaknesses or written information—for example, in a student’s academic performance as well as following directions or understanding communication, social interaction, and behavior. what is read. The individual may at times Development of cognitive skills is likely to be uneven appear to be deaf or demonstrate delays or (Verte, Geurts, Roeyers, Oosterlaan, Sergeant, 2006). inconsistencies in responding. Following There may be deficits in many cognitive functions multiple-step directions is especially or few may be affected. In addition, there may be challenging. deficits in complex abilities, yet the simpler abilities in the same area may be intact. Similarly, an V Concept Formulation: Formulation of individual may display a relative strength in one skill ideas generalized from the qualities and area (splinter skill) which results in overestimation relations of objects, events, or ideas may be of overall skills. Such diversity in cognition and impaired (Losh, Adolphs, Poe, Couture, Penn, learning abilities requires teams to make individual Baranek, & Piven, 2009). Categorization, the decisions regarding educational programming. core component of concept formation, may be a challenge. The person may be able to Current research identifies the following cognitive classify simple objects but have difficulty features associated with ASD: understanding more complex groupings.

V Attention: The individual often has Strengths difficulty paying attention to relevant cues or information in their environment. As noted above, the cognitive characteristics present Attention may be focused on only a may result in patterns of strengths. These abilities restricted part of the information or and aptitudes can be used to determine curricula environment, to the exclusion of what is content by guiding both what to teach and how relevant. to teach. Using a student’s strengths to provide intervention will maximize learning. Building and V Abstract Thinking: Understanding developing such strengths will increase personal information not presented visually or in independence and improve outcomes (Janzen, 2003). a concrete fashion may be a challenge. The individual may have difficulty with Below is a list of common strengths present in those figurative language including the use of with ASD and a brief description of each: humor, idioms, and sarcasm. V Memory: Information, both relevant V Information Organization: and irrelevant, may be remembered for Information is often not organized and long periods of time. Small details may analyzed in a meaningful way (Williams, be easily recalled. Chunks of information Goldstein, Carpenter, Minshew, 2005). are often stored together and may be This results in difficulty retrieving used functionally to perform tasks and information effectively and efficiently. complete activities. Deficits in this area may impair the ability to make choices, problem solve, and relate information from one experience to Using a student’s strengths to provide intervention another. will maximize learning. Building and developing such strengths will increase personal independence and V Information Processing / Comprehension: Information is often improve outcomes (Janzen, 2003). not processed efficiently or reliably. There

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V Visual Processing: The individual may be help the educator provide a more effective education able to demonstrate intense focus on visual and ensure safety of the student. Medical conditions details. Visual information is often readily documented in individuals with ASD include: understood and applied meaningfully. Presentation of information visually V Seizures and epilepsy may help compensate for attention and V Chronic otitis media auditory processing difficulties. V Chronic gastrointestinal problems V Sleep issues V Intense Focus: There may be a strong ability to concentrate on information, an Focus Areas for Educational activity, or topics for extended periods of time. This may be especially true if it is an Intervention activity or topic of specific interest. Determining what to teach can be a daunting task. Comorbid Disorders The preceding section outlined the tremendous impact ASD has on functioning. Intervention will Many individuals with ASD are also affected by likely address the core characteristics of the disorder comorbid disorders or associated conditions. To but may also target other areas if the student provide an appropriate and effective education, is to acquire knowledge and skills that support understanding the whole person, including any independence, social responsibility, and community other disorders or conditions is essential. Presence integration. Because no two students have the of comorbid disorders often requires additional same strengths and needs, each will require an supports. It may also require the educational team to individualized program. consider whether the student has educational needs requiring services under an additional disability Skill selection should be based on each student’s category. current abilities and determined through rigorous assessment practices. This will be an ongoing process Comorbid disorders may be medical or psychiatric that will need to adjust based on the needs of the and may or may not receive an official medical student as he or she grows both in age and abilities. diagnosis. Some present from an early age while The assessment process is described in detail later others develop over time. Onset during puberty is in this document. In this section, the potential focus common. Frequently reported comorbid disorders areas for educational intervention are discussed. include: When educating a student with ASD, the professional should consider each carefully to determine whether V Anxiety the student requires targeted intervention in the V Depression domain to ensure provision of a comprehensive V Attention Difficulties educational program. V Bipolar Disorder V Obsessive Compulsive Disorder The list below is not comprehensive nor are skills arranged in the order to be taught. The list is not Common Medical Conditions intended to be a scope and sequence of skills to teach, but instead is designed to be a resource to Some individuals may have medical conditions assist planning. Discrete skills are listed but each which impact health and functioning. Further, is complex with an array of applications for any some receive medications to address various student. What is taught, how it is taught, and the symptoms such as attending, hyperactivity, or order in which skills are targeted will vary from heightened anxiety. Awareness of health related student to student. Functional application is issues, medications, and potential side effects will essential.

V 16 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

Social Development and Peer j Recognize conditions which elicit Interaction emotional states

Characteristics of Social Development and Peer V Self-regulation Interaction: j Identify emotional state j Determine the nature of the emotional Students with ASD demonstrate qualitative state (positive or negative emotion) differences in social interaction and often have j Determine the intensity of emotional difficulty establishing relationships. Social ability state ranges from being socially aloof, to being socially j Select and implement appropriate remote, to being overly social but inappropriate coping strategy or odd. The difficulties demonstrated with social functioning should not be assumed to be due to a V Social interactions and social reciprocity lack of interest or unwillingness to interact with j Recognize social cues and initiations others; ineffective interactions may result from j Respond to social cues and initiations an inability to distill social information from the j Initiate interactions situation and a deficiency or absence of appropriate j Maintain back and forth interaction skills to respond (Wong, Kasari, Freeman, & j Turn take with concrete games and Paparella, 2007). Individuals may not notice activities, including waiting turns important social cues and may miss necessary appropriately environmental or personal information needed to j Turn take with conversation be successful. V Emotional reciprocity Instructional Focus Areas: j Identify emotional states in others j Identify antecedents of emotional V Joint attention states j Orient, attend, and respond to adult j Regulate emotional response and peer activities j Offer comfort or gesture of empathy j Initiate social attention with adult and j Help others peer j Maintain attention with joint object V Relationships j Draw attention to an object for j Engage and interact with family purpose of sharing the experience members j Engage and interact with adults V Nonverbal interaction j Engage and interact with peers j Display nonverbal social cues j Develop friendships G Eye contact G Gestures V Group / Activity participation G Facial expression j Share G Body orientation G Space G Proximity G Materials j Interpret nonverbal social cues j Attend to others j Listen V Emotional understanding j Wait j Recognize facial expressions j Turn take j Recognize emotional states in self and j Follow group directions others j Identify and follow social rules, norms, and values

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j Identify and respect the social j Gain attention hierarchy j Greet V Perspective taking / Theory of mind j Label j Interpret environmental cues j Expand use and understanding of j Interpret personal cues vocabulary j Interpret emotional responses G Nouns j Recognize presence of multiple beliefs G Verbs and perspectives G Descriptors (adjectives) j Recognize accidental behavior G Functions j Recognize false beliefs / fantasy / G Features fiction G Classifications j Recognize deception G Pronouns (e.g., personal, j Adjust own behavior to accommodate possessive, demonstrative) the situation G Prepositions G Comparatives (e.g., bigger) and Communication Superlatives (e.g., biggest) G Adverbs Characteristics of Communication: G Multiple meanings G Figurative language All people with ASD experience language and j Comment communication difficulties, although there j Yes / No are considerable differences in abilities among G Preferences individuals. Impairment is present in both G Factual understanding and use of communication. j Assert rights or opinions Communication skills can range from nonverbal, j Share feelings, ideas, thoughts gestural, use of single words, use of phrases, all the j Answer questions way to fluid speech and language. For some with j Gain information Asperger’s Disorder, language skills can even be j Ask questions advanced. Those with extensive language generally j Relate information have deficits in the area of pragmatics which is the j Make prosocial statements use of social language (Twachtman-Cullen, 2000). V Means of communication / Form Instructional Focus Areas: j Interpret and use nonverbal communication measures V Motivation to communicate G Eye contact j Communicate regarding personal G Gestures needs and interests G Facial expression j Communicate regarding social G Body orientation interests G Proximity j Interpret and use spoken language V Function G Vocalizations (voice without j Respond to name conventional words) j Follow instructions G Verbalizations j Terminate G Words j Protest G Phrases j Negate G Sentences j Gain assistance

V 18 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

V AAC Play and Leisure j Communicate / supplement communication through sign Characteristics of Play and Leisure: language j Communicate / supplement Purposeful play, recreation and leisure – the communication through object ways in which we spend our personal time and exchange develop interests that result in relationships and j Communicate / supplement employment choices – may not naturally occur. communication through picture Deficits in communication and imagination and exchange the presence of interfering behavior often inhibit j Communicate / supplement productive play (Rao, Beidel, & Murray, 2008). Instead communication through written text of playing with toys in imaginative or symbolic ways, j Communicate / supplement they may perseverate on objects, use them for self- communication through electronic stimulation, or engage in repetitive acts. Social play device is limited as they may not seek peer interaction or j Communicate / supplement may be excluded from peer activities. communication through computer device Instructional Focus Areas:

V Conversational skills V Toy / activity play skills j Respond j Engage in exploratory play (e.g., j Initiate sandbox, cause-and-effect) j Maintain j Engage in constructive play (e.g., j Repair blocks, train tracks, models) j Terminate j Engage in music activities (e.g., singing, j Converse on topic of interest instruments, iPOD) j Converse on multiple topics j Engage in literacy activities (e.g., books, computer) V Voice quality j Engage in pretend / dramatic play (e.g., j Demonstrate verbal fluency dress up, doll play) j Demonstrate volume appropriate to j Engage in games situation and modulate j Demonstrate appropriate prosody V Social play j Engage in isolated play V Pragmatic communication j Engage in parallel play j Follow social rules of communication j Engage in interactive / cooperative play j Turn take j Interrupt properly Activities of Daily Living j Select appropriate topic j Provide feedback to partner Characteristics of Activities of Daily Living: j Use appropriate utterance length j Use conversational nuances (slang, Activities of daily living refer to personal care metaphors, sayings) activities necessary for everyday living. Although the range of skills can be defined more or less broadly, virtually all categorizations include a focus on self- care skills related to basic biological functions and include such activities as eating and toileting. Other

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activities pertain to personal, home and community j Eat variety of foods living skills, with applicable areas for young children j Prepare simple snack including dressing, grooming, cleaning up, and j Eat neatly safety-related behaviors. Impairment in activities of j Clean up after meal daily living may be present in any student with ASD regardless of ability. For example, the seven-year-old V Schedules student with autism may not sit at a table to eat, j Follow schedule while the seven-year-old with Asperger’s Disorder j Follow visual sequence may have difficulty spearing food with a fork. j Accept changes in routines / schedules

Instructional Focus Areas: V School, home, and community independence V Toileting j Navigate settings safely and effectively j Urinate and defecate in toilet j Complete routines j Use toilet tissue j Manage, prepare, and organize j Request to use the bathroom materials j Complete toileting routine j Complete tasks independently independently j Stay in seat for appropriate periods of j Use appropriate behavior in bathroom, time such as closing the door on a stall j Clean up j Put away personal possessions V Personal hygiene j Follows rules designated for the j Brush teeth setting j Wash hands j Wait j Wash self j Turn take j Groom self j Display appropriate behavior in car / j Comb/brush hair on bus j Demonstrate appropriate bathroom V Dressing behavior j Manage jacket / coat j Display appropriate behavior j Manage shirt regarding social rules, norms, and j Manage socks values j Manage pants j Manage shoes V Safety j Manage fasteners (buttons, zippers, j Stay within perimeters / safe areas / snaps, buckles, clasps) appropriate distance from adult j Tie shoes j Be careful around hot or sharp objects j Adjust clothing as needed j Stay safe distance from the ground (refrain from climbing too high or V Eating jumping from heights) j Feed self j Cross street / parking lot safely j Sit at table for duration of meal / snack j Follow safety instructions j Drink from open rimmed cup G Come here j Eat with spoon, proper handling, G Stop scooping G Don’t touch j Eat with fork, spearing different G Move textures j Use napkin

V 20 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

V Health care j Describe circles of comfort (who may j Indicate when hurt or sick touch the person or ask the person to j Take medication when administered undress) by adult j Report inappropriate touch

Sexuality V Relationships j Describe social relationships Characteristics of Sexuality: j Describe intimate relations j Describe institution of marriage Sexuality is a natural part of life that each person, including those with disabilities, has the right to Motor express. Understanding sexuality and appropriate expression begins early in development and Characteristics of Motor: continues throughout a person’s lifetime. The social, communication, and sensory difficulties present Gross and fine motor deficits are frequently present. can impede sexual development (Stokes & Kaur, In the area of gross motor, the person may appear 2005). Challenges with sexuality can take many to be clumsy or uncoordinated. Participation forms. There may be difficulty with expression as in physical education or group games may be a the individual may not know what is considered challenge. With regard to fine motor, the person appropriate or inappropriate behavior. Issues related may have poor, slow, or labored penmanship. They to time and place, unacceptable social contact, or may have difficulty with activities of daily living problems with privacy are common. such as buttoning, zipping or snapping. Decreased or increased muscle tone may be present making Instructional Focus Areas: performance of everyday activities difficult. Motor planning may also be impacted resulting in V Understanding one’s own body problems executing steps to a motor activity such j Identify / appropriately label body as kicking a ball or tying a shoe. For students with parts motor difficulties, it is often necessary to elicit the j Identify private sections of the body services of an occupational therapist. j Understand there are differences in female and male body parts Instructional Focus Areas:

V Sexual expression V Gross motor j Identify rules for self sexual expression j Demonstrate motor control j Demonstrate appropriate and safe j Sit with stability self-expression (refrain from harming j Balance self) j Demonstrate appropriate physical strength V Privacy j Demonstrate locomotion skills j Identify reasons for privacy for self and j Perform motor activities (e.g., others jumping, running, kicking, throwing) j Respect privacy of others j Demonstrate hand-eye-coordination j Seek privacy appropriately j Demonstrate foot-eye-coordination j Perform playground-related skills V Social contact j Demonstrate appropriate touch to V Fine motor others j Grasp with fist and fingers j Describe good touch versus bad touch

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 21 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

j Manipulate objects (e.g., twist, pull, V Information Organization turn pages) j Understand cause and effect j Transfer objects between hands j Understand means to an end j Establish dominant hand for tasks j Answer why questions j Demonstrate bilateral coordination j Understand inferences V Demonstrate hand-eye-coordination j Relate information from one V Demonstrate precise motor experience to another movements j Predict and prepare for upcoming • Trace events • Handwrite j Organize materials • Color j Complete routines and daily activities • Cut j Sequence tasks and activities • Glue j Make choices • Type j Make decisions V Perform daily living-related skills V Abstract Thinking Cognitive / Learning j Pretend play j Understand others’ perspectives Characteristics of Cognition / Learning: j Understand abstract (nonvisual) concepts (e.g., ideas, beliefs) Unique cognitive profiles include both strengths and j Understand cause and effect as it deficits. As with all things with ASD, there are a wide relates to ideas, beliefs, emotions range of effects. Not all will experience the problems j Understand figurative language, jokes, to the same degree or in the same way; however, sarcasm cognitive elements pertain to all to some degree, j Understand difference between real even those with Asperger’s Disorder. Common are and make-believe atypical patterns of attending and failure to receive j Understand difference between fact relevant information. Processing systems may (or nonfiction) and fiction not function instantaneously and automatically j Tell time resulting in a lack of organization or analysis of this j Understand concepts related to time information. This makes retrieval and integration j Understand past, present, and future extremely problematic. Students will likely have difficulty with abstract concepts and nuances and V Information Processing / Comprehension have a greater ability to learn material by rote than j Respond to name and efforts to gain by symbolism and analogy (Anzalone & Williamson, attention 2000). Deficits in components related to executive j Follow simple and multiple step functioning impact ability to organize, problem directions solve, and plan for future behavior (Lopez, Lincoln, j Sequence Ozonoff, & Lai, 2005). j Retell activities / events j Retell stories Instructional Focus Areas: j Understand cause and effect j Understand emotional relationships V Attending j Sustain attention V Concept Formation j Attend to relevant information or cues j Sort objects j Shift attention j Categorize objects j Categorize events

V 22 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

j Categorize relationships deficits in social and communication skills as well as j Categorize social interactions patterns of interfering behavior create tremendous j Categorize ideas learning challenges (Myles & Simpson, 1998). j Create categories Compounding the issue is the possibility of uneven j Extend concepts to similar items skill development. Abilities may be significantly j Describe similarities and differences delayed in some areas and advanced in others. Some j Understand value, importance, and may even demonstrate advanced development or significance giftedness (Treffert, 2007). j Understand nuance and gradation j Determine the nature of the category Curriculum considerations as it relates to the (e.g., positive, negative, significant, Virginia SOL are discussed further in other sections insignificant) of this document. j Reason to form concepts Instructional Focus Areas: V Imitation j Copy motor actions V English j Copy verbalizations / words j Demonstrate skills related to reading j Copy actions with objects G Identify letters and letter sounds j Copy a sequence of actions with objects G Use phonics to read and spell G Read with fluency and expression V Executive functioning G Expand vocabulary j Set goals comprehension j Plan and execute steps of activity or G Comprehend fiction and task nonfiction reading material j Complete tasks G Ask and answer who, what, when, j Exhibit appropriate pace to complete where, why, and how questions task G Identify characters, setting, and j Make choices and consider options important events j Solve problems G Retell stories and events using j Inhibit responses beginning, middle, and end j Monitor and regulate behavior G Make predictions j Demonstrate reasoning skills G Identify topic or main idea G Organize information and events Academic Performance logically G Make connections between Characteristics of Academic Performance: previous experiences and reading selections Academic performance, for this discussion, refers G Draw conclusions to tasks related to the core content areas of English, G Summarize major points mathematics, science, and history/social science. G Identify cause and effect The Virginia Standards of Learning (SOL) (VDOE, G Compare-and-contrast 2010) outline the curriculum for academic skills as it relationships relates to these areas. This section is not designed to replace the SOL, but to highlight skills in each of the j Demonstrate skills related to writing four areas. G Write letters and numbers G Write words The academic abilities of students with ASD vary G Write sentences significantly. Impairment in cognition coupled with G Develop ideas

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G Sequence thoughts and organize G Perform computations with writing fractions G Use appropriate language and G Perform computations with descriptive vocabulary decimals G Apply grade level writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, j Demonstrate skills related to capitalization, spelling) measurement G Complete writing process G Identify money by name and (Prewriting activity, draft, revise, value edit) G Count money G Write in different forms and for G Make change different audiences G Identify measurements used G Write for different purposes to measure length, weight, and G Collaborate to produce writing liquid G Tell time with digital and V Mathematics analogue clock j Demonstrate skills related to numbers G Use descriptive terms to compare and number sense objects by size, weight, volume G Recognize numbers (e.g., heavier, lighter, longer, G Count with one to one shorter) correspondence G Weigh objects G Count by ones, twos, fives, and tens G Measure using metric and U.S. G Identify ordinal numbers customary units and identify G Identify place value equivalent measurements G Round numbers G Demonstrate skill related to the G Compare numbers and identify calendar greater than, less than, equal, G Demonstrate understanding of some, none, and all time elapsed G Count backwards G Measure perimeter G Identify and represent fractions G Read temperature G Identify even and odd numbers G Identify and represent decimals j Demonstrate skills related to geometry j Demonstrate skills related to G Describe size of geometric figures computation and estimation G Describe the proximity of objects G Add in space (e.g., near, far, below, G Subtract above, up, down, beside) G Recall addition and subtraction G Describe and sort geometric facts figures (triangle, square, rectangle, G Estimate a sum and circle) G Multiply G Identify and draw points, lines, G Divide angles, and intersections G Recall multiplication and division G Classify angles and triangles facts G Compare properties of two- and G Use descriptive terms to compare three-dimensional figures quantities (e.g., closer to, between, a little more than) j Demonstrate skills related to probability and statistics

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G Interpret information displayed in V History/Social Science different types of graphs and tables j Demonstrate concepts related to (e.g., picture, bar) history (e.g., past, present, presidents, G Display information using different Rome) types of graphs and tables j Demonstrate concepts related to G Describe probability geography (e.g., city, state, country, map G Predict an outcome of a simple skills) event j Demonstrate concepts related G Find the mean, median, and mode to economics (e.g., needs, wants, of a set of data employment, goods, services, money) j Demonstrate concepts related to civics j Demonstrate skills related to patterns, (e.g., citizenship, government, freedom, function, and algebra ethnicity) G Sort and classify according to attributes (e.g., size, shape, color, Sensory Processing thickness) G Identify and extend a pattern Characteristics of Sensory Processing: G Demonstrate concepts related to equality There are seven senses we use to perceive our G Describe concept of a variable environment: visual, auditory, olfactory, oral, tactile, proprioceptive (registration of where your body is V Science in space and in relation to objects), and vestibular j Demonstrate skills related to (balance and movement). Differences in sensory investigation processing can be confusing and have a pervasive j Record information and observations effect (Whitman, 2004). Oversensitivity and/or j Describe information and observations undersensitivity to sensory input results in patterns j Predict of behavior which detract from learning experiences. j Draw conclusions Difficulties with regulation create heightened j Demonstrate concepts related to force, arousal and inattention. When the sensory motion, and energy (e.g., push, pull, processing systems are working correctly, the person speed, direction) is able to take in information from the environment, j Demonstrate concepts related to matter organize it, make sense of it and execute a response (e.g., color, size, texture, position, solids, automatically. When they are not functioning liquids) appropriately, there may be interference, distractions, j Demonstrate concepts related to life and difficulty with behavior. processes and living systems (e.g., plants, animals, habitats, communities) Instructional Focus Areas: j Demonstrate concepts related to interrelationships in earth/space V Adaptive skills systems (e.g., shadows, temperature, j Demonstrate coping skills clouds, rainfall) j Demonstrate tolerance skills j Demonstrate concepts related to j Demonstrate positive replacement earth patterns, cycles, and change (e.g., skills weather, earth, moon, sun) j Demonstrate concepts related to V Interests/activities expansion resources (e.g., recycling, conservation, plant products) V Emotional understanding j Recognize emotional state in self

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j Recognize conditions which elicit Instructional Focus Areas: emotional states V Communication V Self-management V Social V Play and leisure V Self-awareness V Sensory processing j Identify sensory needs V Cognitive / learning j Identify positive and replacement V Adaptive strategies V Self-management j Identify problematic environmental V Self-awareness stimuli V Safety V Self-advocacy The Educational j Communicate sensory needs j Communicate positive sensory Environment strategies j Advocate for accommodations The diagnosis of ASD does not dictate a specific placement. ASD may occur by itself or in association Restricted and Repetitive Patterns with other disabilities. Educational placement of Behavior decisions must be based on the assessed strengths, challenges, and educational needs of the student Characteristics of Restrictive and Repetitive rather than on the label of autism. Behaviors: School divisions must provide a full continuum of Unusual and distinctive patterns of behaviors placement options. This requires a flexible model may be demonstrated, including preoccupation that is able to address the individual needs of these with objects or parts of objects, intense interest students. Placement options range from total in specific topics, or an intense need for sameness. inclusive settings where students receive their Students may engage in stereotyped, or repetitive education alongside nondisabled peers to private motor movements, which commonly manifest as placement in residential programs for individuals finger flicking, hand flapping, unusual eye gazing, with disabilities. Within that range, a wide variety or spinning. Often, behaviors impact the student’s of plans can be created to meet the distinct needs education. Stereotypies can interfere with learning of each student. Using the continuum concept new behaviors and perseverations may limit makes it more likely that each student will be placed motivation. appropriately in an environment that is specifically suited for him or her. Many of the restricted and repetitive behaviors may be caused by a number of different factors, such as sensory processing, difficulties in understanding Due to the learning characteristics of social situations, limited play skills, and anxiety (Lopez, Lincoln, Ozonoff, & Lai, 2005). When planning students with ASD, school divisions must instruction, educators need to consider the behavior provide a full continuum of placement and its function for that individual student and options. This requires a flexible model that develop a plan accordingly. Successful teaching strategies should focus on making environmental is able to address the individual needs of adaptations to decrease interfering behavior and these students. help the student learn other more appropriate behaviors that will serve the same function.

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Least Restrictive Environment Table 1 provides an LRE continuum, outlining (LRE) placement from what is considered to be the least restrictive to the most restrictive environment. The IDEA (2004) requires that students with The continuum is fluid allowing students to move disabilities be educated in the “least restrictive between placements based on needs. Regardless of environment” (LRE) appropriate to meet their needs. the placement, individualized supports are required. This requires those with disabilities to be educated This is true even for students accessing the general in the general education environment with children education setting, whether it is for part of or all of who are nondisabled “to the maximum extent the school day. At a minimum, supports in the form appropriate.” When faced with the challenge of of accommodations and modifications must be selecting an appropriate placement for a student, identified and implemented. More information on parents and professionals need to understand the accommodations and modifications is provided in a intent of this law. The IDEA (2004) recommends subsequent section of this document. that consideration of the LRE will begin with placement in the regular education classroom. Inclusion Opportunities However, IDEA recognizes that it is not appropriate to place all students in this setting. What is required Teaching students how to form relationships, is individualized consideration of all settings in understand the feelings of others, and develop terms of what will best meet the learning needs and appropriate social skills is just as important develop the strengths of the student. Placement as academic learning when considering the should never be based on the diagnosis or disability future potential of the individual. Because social category. The following should be considered when development is one of the greatest areas of need determining placement: for a student with ASD, schools carry an important responsibility to work this into the curriculum V Goals and objectives of the student whether the student is in the regular educational V Nature of skills targeted setting or the special education classroom (Church, V Socialization opportunities Alinsanski, & Amanullah, 2000). Failing to provide V Student’s ability to attend and focus students with ASD with social and learning V Teaching methods needed opportunities is likely to substantially impede V Amount of direct instruction required development.

Table 1 . Least Restrictive Environment Continuum

General Education with Special Education Support Services Least Restrictive Pull-Out Resource Room Support

Partial-Day Self-Contained Special Education Class with Mainstreaming Opportunities in General Education

Full-Day Self-Contained Special Education

Home Instruction

Out of Division Placement - Day Schools Most Restrictive Out of Division Placement - Residential Programs or Hospital Schools

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opportunities for inclusion with peers fosters Teaching students how to form the development of relationships and increases relationships, understand the feelings of communication, self-determination skills, and independence. The individual with ASD participates others, and develop appropriate social in the expression and reciprocation of social skills is just as important as academic interactions, the use of communication, and the learning when considering the future following of social rules and norms. Varying levels of support may be required to understand and learn potential of the individual. Because social from these actions but it is vital to consider that development is the greatest area of need, naturally occurring interactions and social events schools carry an important responsibility are more meaningful and beneficial in the long term to work this into the curriculum whether than artificially constructed events.

the student with ASD is in the regular The extent of inclusion should be driven by the educational setting or the special student’s needs as determined by the educational education classroom. team, not by the district’s convenience (Batten, 2005). Teams must assure a balance between inclusion and direct, specialized instruction. For many students with Asperger’s Disorder, for example, Inclusion is the practice of placing individuals with their educational program can be unbalanced disabilities into settings and situations with their with too much time in inclusion and not enough peers without disabilities. Inclusive opportunities direct instruction in social communication and are not about a location but about how a child interaction. Likewise, students with ASD who also is educated and the attitudes, understanding, have a significant intellectual disability could and experiences involved. Providing meaningful frequently experience the opposite: too much inclusion opportunities is crucial to learning socially direct instruction time in self-contained special appropriate behaviors from those with whom they education environments and not enough inclusive will interact throughout their lives. Supporting opportunities.

Table 2 . Components of Successful Inclusion Component for Successful Inclusion Strategies and Skills

Teachers are trained in a wide variety of teaching Priming, prompt delivery, daily schedules, mini-schedules, methods to address diverse student need systematic instruction, peer mediated interventions, Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

Adequate supports are provided so skill development Environmental modifications, visual supports, schedules, is integrated into the general education classroom structured activities, small group instruction, self-management activities strategies

Adequate supports are provided to the student with Peer mediated interventions, peer buddies, Lunch Bunch, visual ASD to foster peer interaction supports, integrated related services personnel, adult support

Parent involvement, parent-teacher conferences, home- Team members collaborate and support the inclusion school communication book, team meetings, parent training, opportunity paraprofessional training

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Inclusion must be implemented with care and adults, often consisting of one classroom teacher requires intensive planning. It is not sufficient to and one or more paraprofessionals, working in a place an individual in an inclusive environment small space. There are frequent transitions between without preparing them with the skills necessary activities and room locations. Teachers are charged to actively and fully participate (Harrower & with ensuring each student receives an appropriate Dunlap, 2001). This is especially critical given the education by individualizing content, strategies, intense challenge students with ASD face in social and format. The need for direct adult attention in functioning. Table 2 outlines the components one-to-one and small group instruction further required for successful inclusion and examples of complicates the matter. specific strategies. Teachers need to spend time to create a classroom Classroom Management management system that will optimize direct instruction of students, engagement, and result in Classroom management, whether it is general or learning, while minimizing chaos or confusion for special education, requires special considerations for staff and students. There are a number of strategies this group of students. Classroom management is to assist with this endeavor: going to be a mix of traditional and nontraditional classroom management techniques. Examples of V Providing a written plan for classroom these strategies include: roles and responsibilities will be helpful in creating an organized and effective Traditional Strategies classroom staff team. V Creating rules V Preparing lesson plans V Establishing a job chart that is visually V Establishing routines displayed will help all teaching staff V Establishing classroom procedures understand their individual responsibilities and shared tasks. Nontraditional Strategies V Using visual supports V Assigning staff to an activity, a location V Providing schedules of the room, or specific students will V Collaborating with many adults in a single ensure all students receive adult attention day as needed and will reduce confusion V Implementing Behavior Support Plans regarding roles and responsibilities.

An important part of managing a classroom is V Providing written instructions for teaming. In many cases, the classroom teacher is implementing programming, whether it a member of a team that includes other adults. is for skill acquisition or behavior support, The classroom teacher is often expected to be and verbally discussing them prior to the case manager or instructional leader. With so many people working with one student, each party involved will need to build their collaboration and Teachers need to spend time to create a communication skills efficiently. Collaboration helps students with ASD function better in the home, classroom management system that will community, and throughout the school building. optimize direct instruction of students, engagement, and result in learning, while For those receiving services in a special education minimizing chaos or confusion for staff classroom for students with disabilities (resource or self-contained) classroom management becomes and students. especially critical. Typically, there are multiple

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instruction, will ensure everyone is knowledgeable of the program. Professionals must be familiar with theory and research concerning best practices for V Matching class activities with staff strengths and interests will create students with ASD. motivation and enhance learning. For professionals and paraprofessionals to V Working together to have each person effectively support this group, there is a strong establish their morning break (if consensus in the research literature that all working applicable) and lunch time during activities with a student with ASD must be qualified to do which can be handled by a smaller amount so (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; of staff members will help ensure staff Leko & Brownell, 2009; Lynch & Adams, 2008; are available during key periods and Scheuermann, Webber, Boutot, & Goodwin, 2003). instructional sessions. Professionals must be familiar with theory and Personnel research concerning best practices for students with ASD including instructional methodologies, Assistive

Technology (AT), Augmentative and Alternative As noted above, in many cases there is a team of Communication (AAC), inclusion, adaptation of parents and professionals who support a student the environment, language interventions, social with ASD. Professionals typically include a general supports, behavior supports, assessment, and the education teacher, special education teacher, speech/ effective use of data collection systems (NRC, 2001). language pathologist, and occupational therapist. Proper education and training can help shape the Others, such as a guidance counselor or physical specific skills needed to work in a class with these therapist, may also be part of the team. Another students and is essential for professionals to provide potential service provider is the paraprofessional. effective and accessible instruction that optimizes Paraprofessionals are essential to the learning learning outcomes. process for these students. Paraprofessionals can play an essential role in supporting students academically, socially and behaviorally. Organization and Structure

Schools are faced with critical and impactful Students with ASD will benefit from an environment decisions regarding staffing of personnel. According that is structured and provides predictability and to the Regulations Governing Special Education organization. Consistency is a key consideration for Programs for Children with Disabilities in Virginia (2010), all educational settings regardless of whether it is a when providing services to a student with ASD, general education or special education classroom or there should be one teacher for every six students another setting in the school such as the cafeteria, or one teacher and one paraprofessional for every art room, or eight children. Careful consideration must be given playground to the pervasive and tremendous needs of this (Panerai, Individuals with group of students. The challenge is how to provide Zinagle, Trubia, ASD benefit from an differentiated curricula that are adapted to the Finocchiaro, environment that is social, cognitive, and communication needs of Zuccarello, Ferri, students. Low student-teacher ratios are frequently & Elia, 2009). structured and that needed to provide an appropriate education. It is provides predictability strongly recommended that each student’s needs and organization. are evaluated on an individual basis to make staffing determinations (Simpson, 2004).

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Physical Environment V Create clear physical boundaries for each area A well organized physical environment is V Visually define areas for each activity critically important as it provides the structure V Provide learning locations and predictability that many students with ASD V Provide designated area for breaks and need to understand expectations and participate sensory activities (Blakeley-Smith & Carr, Cale, Owen-DeSchryver, V Provide visual reminders of classroom 2009). The physical environment must be simplistic expectations and organized with a strong visual component. The V Provide adequate spacing to allow for room should be free of clutter. Auditory and visual personal space preferences distractions are to be limited as much as possible. For V Provide location for student belongings example, wall hangings that are solely decorative are V Organize materials kept to a minimum. V Place materials in an accessible location V Use strategies to foster independence with The environment is designed to support student materials (e.g., color coding, labeling) independence. Intended paths of travel and material locations are obvious and accessible. The physical Students will drastically range in the amount of structure of the environment indicates and supports support they require to be successful in various expected behaviors. Different tasks occur in specific, environments, therefore it is best to structure obvious locations and are visually labeled to convey and organize to the maximum extent in order to the purpose of the area. For example, the reading accommodate the range of skills. corner may be physically defined by a reading couch and bookshelves with a rug while also visually marked Schedules with a picture of a person reading a book. Schedules assist the student in being informed about Organization of materials is required to help the their routine and increasing independence (Sterling- student prepare for activities, work on assignments, Turner & Jordan, 2007). Schedules take an abstract and complete daily routines. Each student must have concept, such as time, and present it in a concrete and a designated location for belongings. Arrangement manageable form. Visual schedules allow students to of materials is carefully planned to orchestrate anticipate upcoming events, predict change, develop accessibility and easy management. Organization an understanding of time, and reduce fear of the measures such as labeling or color coding may be unknown. Ultimately, a schedule can make the day helpful. more predictable and less anxiety provoking. This in turn can not only reduce interfering behavior but can Educators must design learning locations in the lead to increased independence. classroom. Specific configurations may be needed for individual instruction, small group instruction, Schedules may be presented in a notebook, poster, or workstations designed for independent work. or even on a computer, handheld device (iTouch, Students with ASD often require areas designated for iPad) or smart phone. They can be stationary and in taking a break, engaging in sensory related activities, a centralized location that is easily accessible at all or calming. The physical environment must account times during the day or may be portable, remaining for all of these needs and must be strategically with the student at all times. The schedule can be designed to increase on-task behavior and reduce presented using a variety of formats. Table 3 presents distractions. For example, it may be problematic the schedule hierarchy moving from concrete to to put the individual instruction area next to the abstract representation. The complexity of a schedule computer. Below is a list of other considerations for depends on the needs of the individual and what the physical environment: strategies may best foster success and independence.

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Table 3 . Schedule Hierarchy Item Used Description Example Object Schedule Real or miniature objects A plastic cup indicates snack time. A red ball indicates recess. Concrete Picture/ True to life images A picture of student’s bus represents time Photograph (photograph) for home.

Icon/ Color Color drawings or symbols A color drawing of a book represents reading center.

Icon/ Black and Black and white drawings or A black and white drawing of a computer White symbols indicates computer time.

Icon with word Drawings or symbols paired with the A picture of a desk paired with the written written word word “desk” represents work. Abstract Written word Written or typed words without Written word “lunch” indicates time for picture symbols lunch and to line up.

Table 4 . Types of Visual Schedules Length Description Example

Week or Month Calendar is provided that outlines Weekly schedule contains the following: outings and events for the week or Mon: School, gymnastics month Tues: School, home Wed: School, speech Thurs: School, home Fri: School, home Sat: Soccer, McDonalds Sun: Grandma’s house

Full day Schedule is available from school arrival Schedule begins at 8:30 and ends at 3:30 and to departure in its entirety. contains icons representing all major activities.

Half Day Schedule is available for only half the Morning schedule is from 8:30- 11:30. Afternoon day then rebuilt for the remainder of Schedule is from 11:30-3:30. the day.

Partial Day Schedule outlines upcoming 3-5 events First: Mathematics to assist with shorter intervals of the Next: Bathroom day. Schedule is rebuilt as time elapses. Then: Recess

Mini-Schedule A schedule is provided for a task or The activity to be completed is mathematics. activity that provides the sequence of The schedule contains the following: steps. • Turn in homework • Do page # 5 in workbook • Sort coins • Put away materials • Take a 5 minute break

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Schedules can vary in length and can be formatted be provided to an individual student or class. to present any time frame. Common schedules represent the entire day, partial day, or a specific When choosing how to prepare for a transition, activity or task. For students who require more consideration should be given to how the student information, a weekly or monthly schedule depicting best receives information and reasons for the important events can be used. Table 4 outlines transition difficulties. Strategies to assist with different types of schedules. Please note, a schedule transitions include: should reveal whether it is a typical day or a day with unusual events. In the case of unusual events, V Provide a consistent and clear timekeeping preparation should take place well before its actual method. occurrence. V Provide multiple warnings of pending transition. The ultimate goal is for students to manipulate V Provide predictable visual and and use schedules independently. It is unreasonable environmental supports to facilitate to expect a student to automatically know how transitions (e.g., timer, schedule, wait to use it. The concept and its implementation station, transition object). must therefore be taught. Explicit instruction and V Establish routines to support transitions modeling of how and when to use the schedule between activities, people, and must be provided until data supports student environments. independence. V Provide clear beginning and ending to tasks or activities. Transitions Rules Transitioning is a significant issue for this population (Banda & Kubina, 2006). This may include Class rules are an important component of an transitioning from one activity to another or from orderly educational environment. Rules express one setting to another. There may not be awareness and objectify underlying social and behavioral of naturally occurring environmental cues signaling expectations which can be difficult for a student a change, whether routine or unusual. Further, with ASD to ascertain. Rules should be posted students may not be aware of what is happening throughout the room in multiple locations at the next. Advanced preparation for a transition and the student’s eye level for easy reference. Different rules pending activity can prevent students from feeling may be necessary for specific tasks and should anxious, frustrated, and overwhelmed. Clearly be posted in the related area (e.g., computer rules defined expectations can increase knowledge of the posted at the computer area). rules, while reinforcement for appropriate behavior may provide the necessary motivation. Rules should be minimal (no more than five) and easy to comprehend and apply. They are to be Difficulty with understanding temporal relations represented in a format that is readily understood or the passage of time is one reason why transitions which may include pictures, icons, and/or words. It may be a challenge. Providing also may be helpful to have an appropriate timekeeping pictures of the behavior you device or strategy to indicate Advanced preparation for a desire posted with the rule. the length of an activity can transition and the pending For example, a picture of a reduce anxiety and support person sitting quietly at their activity can prevent students independence. A clock, seat with their hand raised stopwatch, alarm, and hour/ from feeling anxious, frustrated, may add clarification. In minute glass are examples of and overwhelmed. the case that written words timekeeping pieces that can are used, the rule should

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 33 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 be written as simply as possible using clear and Curriculum Framework concrete language. In Virginia, the curricular expectations for academic Steps should be taken to ensure the student knows, achievement are found in the Virginia Standards understands, and can apply the rules in a variety of Learning (SOL) Curriculum Framework or the of situations. Proactive and frequent review will Aligned Standards of Learning (ASOL) Curriculum provide a reminder of the expectations. Practice will Framework (VDOE, 2010). It is important for the team strengthen their use and application. Verbal praise to consider the type of curriculum through which or other reinforcement based on appropriately a student will acquire academic skills. The team following the rules will help students to recognize must determine the skills and curricula necessary the behaviors they are to be demonstrating. to maximize future levels of independence. Snell and Providing a review before transitioning to another Brown identified four potential ways to address the activity will assist the student in knowing what the curricular needs of students with disabilities (2006). expectations are between activities and settings. They are presented in Table 5 with a description of the relevant Virginia curriculum that might be It is recommended to overlap rules in different delivered through the classroom. settings to the maximum extent possible. For example, if a student must raise his hand to use General Curriculum the restroom, this same rule should be applied in the cafeteria and music room. When rules change The Virginia SOL are considered to be the “general based on setting and context the student should curriculum” which guides the educational content be instructed of the change to avoid confusion. All of all students unless otherwise specified. Students staff must be knowledgeable of rules and ensure with ASD must have access to this curriculum to consistent enforcement.

Table 5 . Four Curriculum Approaches to Teaching Functional Academics (Snell & Brown, 2006)

Curriculum Learning Outcome Related Virginia Standards

General education curriculum with Student will master grade level Virginia Standards of Learning or without adaptations material with outcomes similar to classmates.

Functional, generalized skills usable Student will master critical skills for Virginia Standards of Learning across life routines use in home, community, school, and or Virginia Aligned Standards of work settings. Learning depending on age of student and current level of performance.

Embedded academic skills usable in Student will acquire academic skills in Virginia Aligned Standards of specific life routines the context of their daily routine, e.g.,: Learning reading the menu choices at lunch, counting the coins to make a vending machine purchase.

Adaptations to bypass academic Students will use community-based Virginia Aligned Standards of skills functional adaptations to academic Learning skills such as matching coins and bills to a money placket, using picture menus to order food at restaurants, following picture schedules to read.

V 34 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 the greatest extent possible. While adhering to style, and interests. For example, a student who has this requirement, the team will determine what is strength in mathematics might receive instruction appropriate for the specific student and determine from the general curriculum with adaptations, instructional methodologies, modifications, and while that same student might receive instruction accommodations required for student success from a functional curriculum in reading. A mixed curriculum is most likely to be built around the existing general curriculum and involve teachers’ A functional curriculum is one focused alterations, modifications and enhancements. The on practical life skills and usually taught intent of a mixed curriculum is to maximize each in community-based settings or natural student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is and assisting in the environments with concrete materials learning process. that are a regular part of everyday life. Assessment Frameworks and Procedures Functional Curriculum The purpose of an educational assessment is to Students who have intellectual disabilities in identify each student’s strengths and needs to addition to ASD or students with ASD whose learning assist in determining individualized goals and abilities are impacted by some of the secondary outcomes for developing an appropriate IEP. An characteristics mentioned previously (such as educational assessment is typically conducted by a attention or processing) may receive their education multidisciplinary team with representation from using a functional curriculum. In this case, the a variety of professionals (e.g., educators, speech- Virginia ASOL will be the dominant curricular language pathologists, occupational therapists, focus. A functional curriculum is one focused on behavior specialists, family members, and other practical life skills and usually taught in natural professionals as appropriate). environments with concrete materials that are a Due to the idiosyncratic regular part of everyday life. Teams embed academic communicative and social Due to the idiosyncratic content into functional activities to assure students characteristics of individuals communicative and have their immediate and long-term needs met. The with ASD, accurate assessment social characteristics purpose of this type of instruction is to maximize can be a challenge (Prelock, the student’s generalization of his/her skills to real 2006). Students may not of individuals with ASD, life. Learning with a functional curriculum is critical always be able to understand accurate assessment to helping some students reach their potential as instructions associated with can be a challenge. active participants in home, school, and community standardized assessments environments. and may also have difficulty responding to test items. Mixtures of Curriculum They may exhibit off-task behaviors, distractibility and variable motivation Often there is a balance that needs to be met when to complete tasks. Therefore, the use of a variety addressing the educational needs of students with of assessment strategies that can most accurately ASD. There is not one curriculum mode that suits (and authentically) identify an individual student’s each person. It is possible for any given student skills across a variety of instructional settings is to receive instruction in different curriculum for recommended. This section is designed to provide different subjects. It may be necessary to use a educational teams with strategies for conducting mixed-method curriculum to recognize a student’s assessments that serve as the foundation for designing individual knowledge, readiness, language, learning effective instructional programs for these students.

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Getting Started process, this type of assessment tool is most appropriately used when assessing a student’s skills Students with ASD generally demonstrate deficits in a variety of core areas: cognition, preacademics, or challenges across a variety of skill areas. When academics, speech, language and communication, conducting assessments to assist in the educational and adaptive behavior. Only a few standardized planning process, the team must select tools based assessment tools have been developed specifically for on several factors: use with students with ASD. They include:

V What developmental and skill areas need to V Psychoeducational Profile - Third Edition be assessed? (PEP-3; Schopler, Lansing, Reichler, & Marcus, 2005) V Do skills related to the core and secondary characteristics of ASD need to be assessed V Adolescent and Adult Psychoeducational (e.g., social, pragmatic communication, Profile (AAPEP; Mesibov, Schopler, Schaffer, sensory, cognition)? & Landrus, 1988)

V What tools or methods are best suited for Because of this, the educational team may choose assessing those skills? a standardized assessment tool designed to assess a particular skill area, but one that has not V What methods provide an authentic necessarily been normed on students with ASD. evaluation of the student’s ability to apply In this case, adjustments may need to be made skills in real life situations? on the administration and interpretation of the information obtained. Educators may select V Are these assessment tools or strategies evaluations based on a number of factors including: appropriate for use based on the student’s individual characteristics and learning V Purpose of the assessment style? V Population on which it was normed V How can the assessment be conducted (disability, age, race, ethnicity, gender) or modified in order to obtain the most authentic, reliable, and valid information? V Testing format (Is it appropriate for the student?) Assessment Tools and Strategies V Appropriateness for both the chronological Depending on the individual, a variety of assessment and mental age of the student tools and strategies are typically used to obtain an accurate and authentic assessment. These Although standardized assessments can be tools include (1) standardized assessment tools, useful for determining skill levels, it is also (2) informal and curriculum-based assessments, important that school personnel are cognizant and (3) data driven assessments. Across these tools that standardized tests (particularly IQ or other are also different formats, which include: direct assessments of intellectual functioning) often assessment of skills, rating scales, interviews, and provide inaccurate results for these students. As direct observation. a result, IQ and other standardized intellectual measures often underrepresent an individual’s skills, Standardized Assessment Tools including intelligence (NRC, 2001). It is important to consider such variables when interpreting Although standardized assessment tools can be scores. Furthermore, to gain an accurate profile of useful in helping with the educational planning a student, teams will find it useful to administer

V 36 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 the standardized assessment for the purpose method for data-driven assessments is the use of of obtaining norm-referenced scores, then direct observational procedures; however, interviews supplement the information using modifications or ratings scales completed by individuals who to the standardized tests or other types of observe students across settings can also be useful nonstandardized assessment listed below. in gathering pertinent information. Data-driven assessments are typically conducted to examine Curriculum-Based Assessment the use of functional skills, such as functional communication, social competence, self-help, and Informal assessments, including curriculum- activities of daily living. Additionally, a data-driven based assessments (CBA), can often provide a assessment is often used to examine the functions more authentic and accurate assessment of a of challenging behaviors that may interfere with student’s ability across a variety of environments an individual’s learning (commonly referred to and settings. CBAs provide an assessment of an as a Functional Behavioral Assessment [FBA]). individual’s abilities, preferences, strengths, and Through the use of direct observational procedures needs. In particular, CBAs provide an assessment of (and interviews or rating scales) of an individual’s an individual’s progress and needs in relation to a strengths and needs across various settings and particular curriculum and can be used to document the demands of these settings, the educational progress toward mastery of learning objectives. The team is able to gather information for designing following are examples of several informal and CBAs an individualized curriculum to help facilitate educators may find beneficial: functional use of skills across natural contexts. For examples of data-driven assessments, see Appendix V The Assessment of Basic Language and A. Learning Skills - Revised (ABLLS-R; Partington, J., 2006) Developmental and Skill Areas

V The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment Determining the most relevant areas to assess is and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) based on the student’s individual developmental (Sundberg, M.L., 2008). strengths, learning characteristics, and deficits. Many students with ASD may have strengths in V Assessment of Social and Communication one skill area (e.g., memory); yet, have difficulties Skills for Children with Autism (Quill et al., in another area (e.g., pragmatic language skills). 2000) Therefore, a variety of assessment strategies may be appropriate across different areas of development V Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Basic (Gabriels & Hill, 2002). Prior to starting the Skills (Brigance, 1983). assessment, it is critical for the educational team to decide: (1) what developmental skill areas need Data-driven Assessment to be assessed; and (2) who should be part of the assessment and intervention team. For example, if Standardized and CBAs provide valuable a student demonstrates sensory deficits, it would information; however, the use of assessments that be important to conduct an occupational therapy include ongoing data collection is one of the most evaluation and include an occupational therapist useful approaches toward obtaining a valid and on the team. Likewise, if the student demonstrates authentic assessment (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). This gross motor deficits, a physical therapist would be an type of assessment is instrumental in assessing true important part of the team as well. A comprehensive ability and performance in the educational arena. assessment of all skill areas should be conducted to In other words, a data-driven assessment answers gain an overall “picture” of the student’s individual the question “How does this individual function in strengths, characteristics, and needs. his/her natural environment?” The most common

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Cognition, Preacademic and Academic Skills data-driven strategies that assess a student’s demonstration of these skills can be most helpful Typically, standardized, norm-referenced in identifying skills in a variety of environments. assessment tools are used to assess a student’s Additionally, a thorough assessment of the cognition; however, informal assessments can also environments that encourage (or inhibit) and be used to examine how students use their cognitive reinforce these behaviors can assist the team in abilities. Gaining an accurate understanding of a structuring a learning environment that promotes student’s cognitive processes is essential in helping adaptive behaviors while decreasing the occurrence to design instructional programming and is linked of behaviors that interfere with learning. to other development areas as well (e.g., social competence, language, and communication skills). Speech, Language, and Communication Skills

Given the unique learning styles of students with Similar to social and behavioral competence, ASD, both standardized and informal tools are often speech, language, and communication skills occur used to assess pre-academic and academic areas throughout the day and across a variety of contexts. (i.e., mathematics, early literacy). Standardized tools Thus, assessing a student’s speech, language, and can help assess the student’s knowledge base and communication abilities within context is essential potential; whereas informal assessments, such as for creating an effective instructional program. CBAs, can provide useful information on a student’s Standardized, informal, CBA, and data-driven learning style (or how best a student learns) and assessment tools and procedures can all provide measure a student’s skills based on the classroom information on an individual’s speech, language, and curriculum. communication abilities as well as how they use these skills across a variety of situations and people. Social and Behavioral Competence Sensory Processing Social and behavioral skills are context specific and often vary depending on situations, settings, When differences in sensory processing are present, and people. Although standardized assessments students often engage in repetitive behaviors and/ can be useful, the use of direct observations and or even challenging behaviors that interfere with

Table 6 . Assessment Tools Based on Skill Area

Skill Area Standardized CBA Data-driven Assessments Tools Interviews Rating Scale Direct Observation Cognition 4 4 4 4

Pre-academics and Academics 4 4 4

Social and Behavioral Competence 4 4 4 4

Language/ Communication Skills 4 4 4

Sensory Deficits 4 4 4 4

V 38 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 their learning. Sensory processing differences V What communication forms does the may also interfere with a student’s ability to learn student use to communicate with others within a certain environment (such as humming (e.g., spoken words, gestures)? lights) or under certain conditions (such as having a movement-seeker seated at a desk for extended V Is the student motivated to engage in periods of time). A comprehensive assessment the assessment? If not, what would help of a student’s sensory processing abilities by an motivate the student to participate in the occupational therapist is an important tool for assessment? designing an effective instructional program, schedule, and environment. This may also include V Is the assessment environment conducive an assessment of the function of these behaviors to for conducting the assessment? Are there assure that they are sensory-based. distractions in the environment that may interfere with the assessment? Other Developmental Areas V Is the assessment an appropriate match Similar to all students receiving special education for the student’s attention span? Are services, a comprehensive educational assessment there modifications or accommodations should include any areas of development that to the assessment process or materials may interfere with their learning. Therefore, that should be made to help increase the an assessment of an individual’s vision, hearing, authenticity of the assessment? and motor abilities should be evaluated by team members with expertise in these areas. Table 6 V Does the student demonstrate challenging outlines the types of tools and strategies that may be behaviors that are interfering with most appropriate to use to obtain an accurate and the assessment? Can these behaviors authentic assessment across skill areas. be prevented or minimized during the assessment? Matching Assessment Tools to Student Characteristics and Increasing the Authenticity, Learning Styles Validity, and Reliability of Assessment Prior to beginning the assessment, the educational team will want to identify the individual student’s To increase the authenticity, validity, and reliability characteristics and learning styles. This information of the information obtained from the educational will help the team plan the assessment and increase assessment consider the following suggestions: its authenticity. The following are several factors the team will want to consider and adapt the format of V Assure that all persons who administer the assessment as needed: assessments are professionally trained in the assessment tool and have training and V Does the student have any visual, auditory, expertise in using assessment tools with or medical concerns that may interfere individuals with ASD. with the assessment? If so, how can the assessment be adapted to accommodate V Conduct assessments across several these areas of concern? different sessions in order to obtain a representative sample of the student’s V What is the best means of communicating behavior and skills. Remember that you with the student (e.g., pictures, spoken want to obtain accurate information about words, gestures)? the student’s strengths and needs. Based on

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the student’s level of engagement, attention Team members should consider and prioritize the level, and cooperation, this may take following when developing goals: repeated assessments across several times or days. V skills needed to be involved and make progress in the general education V Conduct the assessment in a familiar curriculum; setting with familiar people. Students with V functional independence; ASD often have difficulty with change and V communication; generalizing skills across settings. Therefore, V access to the community; it is important for the assessment to be V type, frequency, nature, and reciprocity of conducted in familiar settings with familiar interactions; people and materials. V work habits and learning skills; V interfering behaviors; and V Increase engagement and decrease V safety concerns. challenging behaviors. Students may need to be motivated to engage in the assessment. School teams must collect data and provide ongoing Using rewards and reinforcement for assessment to verify acquisition of skills and the engagement in assessments may increase appropriateness of goals. It is possible for goals the student’s level of cooperation and to require revision throughout the school year. engagement and decrease challenging Figure 1 shows how data and assessment informs behaviors. educational practice through the instructional process.

Goal Development Figure 1 . The Instructional Process The role of assessment is to improve student learning by highlighting areas of strengths, needs, as well Plan as emerging skills. Once the educational team has conducted a thorough assessment, the next task is to Revise convert results into goals. The ability to determine Teaching appropriate goals is one of the most important roles Strategy of the educational team. After all, a student’s goals Teach Instructional comprise the skills a student will master in the school Process year and defines the specialized instruction that he or she will receive. Goals should address all areas of student need, regardless of whether or not they are Evaluate Success of commonly associated with the identified disability. Strategy Collect Data

The ability to determine appropriate goals

is one of the most important roles of the The design of the goal is very important. Goals must educational team. After all, a student’s goals be written in measurable terms to ensure the team comprise the skills a student will master in can assess progress. A measurable goal has five components. They are: the school year and defines the specialized instruction that he or she will receive. 1. The condition under which the student will perform the skill;

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2. The student’s name and future tense universally applied to any skill. Finally, it is important modifying verb; to verify the success of the strategy through data collection. Not all strategies will be effective with all 3. The skill written in observable terms; students. Progress must be evaluated on an individual basis and changes made accordingly. 4. The criterion that the student must demonstrate to master the goal; and The table on the next page outlines the 24 evidence- based strategies for students with ASD according 5. The amount of times the student must to the National Professional Development Center maintain the mastery criterion to confirm on Autism Spectrum Disorders. The table depicts mastery. the type of skills best matched to the methodology. Additionally, Appendix B provides a detailed Below is an example of a measurable goal that meets description of the steps for implementation of each. all of these requirements for Megan who is in a More information on how to implement a specific functional skills curriculum: strategy can be found at http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/ content/briefs. V When purchasing juice in the cafeteria, Megan will independently count and The evidence-based strategies outlined are the provide the coins needed to make the ones available at the time of publication of this purchase with 100 percent accuracy on four document. The reader, once again, is encouraged to out of five measured opportunities. seek information regarding other evidence-based strategies that may now be available. Next is an example of a measurable goal for Ishaan who is in a general education with modifications curriculum: Instructional Considerations V When asked to identify how he feels, Ishaan will state how he feels and will describe There are important instructional considerations why with 80 percent accuracy on four out that must be taken into account to ensure student of five measured opportunities. learning. Given the difficulty individuals with ASD have with acquiring skills incidentally, it is crucial to provide carefully planned and predictable instruction. Instructional Strategies Students will benefit from direct teaching of skills and concepts as well as strategies to encourage active There are a number of instructional strategies engagement. Instructional considerations that make identified as evidence-based for this population. teaching effective capitalize on learning strengths Prior to implementing instructional strategies, there and interests to compensate for predictable learning are several important considerations that must be problems (Heflin & Alaimo, 2007). taken into account by the team. First, teachers can feel confident implementing any evidence-based strategy provided they are able to implement the strategy with fidelity. In other words, instructional Instructional considerations that strategies chosen for students with ASD should be implemented by knowledgeable and skilled make teaching effective capitalize individuals. Second, teachers must ensure they are on learning strengths and interests using the strategy to teach an appropriate skill or to compensate for predictable skill set. Individual strategies may be effective only learning problems. when used to teach identified skills and not when

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Table 7 .Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies for Children and Youth with ASD (Source: The National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2009).

Academics Evidence-based Strategy & Cognition Behavior Communication Play Social Antecedent-Based Interventions 4 4 4 4 4 Computer Assisted Instruction 4 Differential Reinforcement 4 4 4 Discrete Trial Training 4 4 4 4 4 Extinction 4 Functional Behavioral Assessment 4 4 Functional Communication Training 4 4 Naturalistic Intervention 4 4 4 Peer Mediated Instruction 4 4 Picture Exchange Communication Systems (PECS) 4 4 4 Pivotal Response Training 4 4 4 4 4 Prompting Procedures 4 4 4 Reinforcement 4 4 4 Response Interruption/Redirection 4 4 Self-Management 4 4 4 4 4 Social Narratives 4 4 4 4 4 Social Skills Groups 4 4 Speech Generating Devices (Voice Output 4 Communication Assistance, VOCA) Stimulus Control 4 4 Structured Work Systems 4 4 Task Analysis 4 4 4 4 Time Delay 4 4 4 4 Video Modeling 4 4 4 4 Visual Supports 4 4 4 4 4

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Systematic Instruction area and be delayed in another. Further, as students age, their educational needs will change. Educators Systematic instruction refers to instruction that should be careful not to assume instruction should is carefully planned and orchestrated (Wolfe & be provided according to standard developmental Neisworth, 2005). It requires educators to clearly markers or in a conventional progression. It may be state a teaching objective and follow a defined beneficial for many not to teach in a direct linear instructional sequence. When providing systematic fashion but instead to teach based on the actual instruction, the following questions should be needs and strengths of the student. carefully considered for each skill targeted: 1. How is the skill defined? Intensive Instruction 2. What are the steps for teaching the skill? 3. How will instruction be delivered? Intensive instruction is needed to address the 4. Where and when will instruction take multitude of needs and must be carefully matched place? to the student. Many will require intensive 5. What prompting / cueing will be used to instruction in all learning domains. At a minimum, teach the skill? students, regardless of category, will require 6. What reinforcers will be used to provide intensive instruction in language and social motivation? functioning (NRC, 2001). 7. What will happen when the student responds correctly? Incorrectly? When planning intensity of instruction, the first 8. How will progress be measured? thing often thought of is the amount of instruction 9. When will it be known when the student provided. This is an important consideration has achieved the skill? for educators as it is generally agreed that more 10. What is the next step? intervention produces better outcomes (Lovaas, 1987; NRC, 2001; Nelson & Huefner, 2003; Wolfe & Maximizing learning opportunities creates the Neisworth, 2005). While quantity of instruction is a foundation for the instructional process. Systematic critical component of intensity, a more important instructional episodes involve: factor is quality of the instruction. The NRC recommended students with ASD receive 25 hours of V pacing a lesson appropriately instruction per week across the entire year; however, V allowing adequate processing time instruction must be systematic and intensive for it V providing feedback to be meaningful. One of the challenges educators V providing skillful error correction procedures V encouraging frequent student responses One of the challenges educators face is V practice providing sufficient opportunities ensuring all learning activities provide V monitoring throughout a lesson. the type of instruction that will result in Systematic instruction is organized and follows a active engagement of the student and logical order. The sequence proceeds methodically progress towards goals. Educators must from the easiest and most basic elements to more plan for the implementation of intensive difficult and complex material. This may require educators to break complex tasks down into instruction across the myriad of school subtasks and teach in small, manageable steps. activities rather than expect students to become engaged with or learn from It is important to remember, while the premise of instruction is to teach in a sequential order, students typical learning experiences. with ASD may have highly developed skills in one

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face is ensuring all learning activities provide the type V Time – maintenance of the skill over of instruction that will result in active engagement time, especially after the conclusion of of the student and progress towards goals. Educators instruction. must plan for the implementation of intensive instruction across the myriad of school activities V Settings – ability to apply the skill rather than expect students to become engaged with outside of the environment in which it was or learn from typical learning experiences. acquired, for example, in other areas of the school building or division, at home, and in Instructional Format the community.

Instruction may be provided through a full range of V Materials – ability to transfer the skill to formats. These include one-to-one instruction, small other examples of the same item. group instruction, student-initiated interactions, teacher-initiated interactions, and play and peer- V Persons – ability to apply the skill mediated interactions. Most students will likely regardless of who is in the environment benefit from multiple formats. Some may be better and with whom the student is interacting. served using the full array, while others may not benefit from a group situation with distal instruction For many students, careful planning must occur and greater distractions. For example, a student with to ensure generalization of skills. Planning should Asperger’s Disorder in a general education classroom begin as soon as a skill is targeted. When assessing may learn using each format, while a student with skill mastery, generalization should be included autism may require more instructional time using in data collection. The generalized environment one-to-one teaching. The student’s learning style, is the final testing ground for mastered skills in especially as it relates to attending, communication intervention. The following strategies may assist in skills and social functioning are core considerations fostering skill generalization: when determining format. V Include realistic environmental features For students requiring individual instruction, in skill instruction and teaching whether needed for all domains or specific areas of environments. difficulty, delivery of instructional episodes can take place in a variety of settings. For example, instruction V Conduct skill instruction in natural can take place in a situation where only the child and environments as much as possible. teacher are present or in a situation in which a child is in a group and an adult delivers an evidence-based V Conduct skill instruction in a variety of practice within the group setting. In either case, settings with a variety of instructors. systematic instruction is provided. V Pair skill instruction with naturally Generalization occurring, positively rewarding consequences. Students with ASD have difficulty applying learned skills in new or novel situations, a concept known as V Transfer mastered skills to a variety of “generalization.” Accounting for performance of skills environments. in natural environments should be a core component of the educational curriculum. The student’s ability Modifications and Accommodations to generalize should be considered across a variety of circumstances: time, settings, materials, and persons. Modifications and accommodations are tools and Each is explained below: procedures that provide equal access to instruction and assessment for students with disabilities.

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They provide necessary supports for learning, curriculum. Modifications and accommodations becoming independent, and demonstrating social must be provided to allow a student to successfully responsibility. Although the terms modifications and access the curriculum (or portions thereof) within a accommodations are often used interchangeably, general education classroom as appropriate. they are, in fact, separate considerations. A modification means a change in what is being Related Services taught to or expected from the student. Making an assignment easier so the student is not doing Many students will benefit from a range of related the same level of work as other students is an services and supports (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). example of a modification. An accommodation is According to the 2010 Regulations Governing Special a change that helps a student overcome or work Education Programs for Children with Disabilities in around the disability. Accommodations are the Virginia, “related services” means developmental, supports or alterations required to allow a student corrective, and other supportive services that are to demonstrate their learning or knowledge required to assist a student with a disability to effectively. Allowing a student who has trouble benefit from special education. Related services may writing to give his answers orally is an example of include, but are not limited to: an accommodation. This student is still expected to know the same material and answer the same V speech-language pathology and audiology questions as fully as the other students, but he does services; not have to write his answers to show that he knows V interpreting services; the information. V psychological services; V physical and occupational therapy; What is most important to know about V recreation, including therapeutic modifications and accommodations is that both recreation; are meant to help a child to learn. Both can be V early identification and assessment of used to help the student advance toward attaining disabilities in students; goals, be involved and make progress in the general V counseling services, including education curriculum, participate in extracurricular rehabilitation counseling; and other nonacademic activities, and participate V orientation and mobility services; with children without disabilities (IDEA, 2004). V medical services for diagnostic or According to results from the National Transitional evaluation purposes; Longitudinal Study, regardless of the educational V school health services and school nurse placement, most students with ASD will require services; curricular modifications and accommodations V social work services in schools; and throughout their educational career (Levine, Marder, V parent counseling and training. & Wagner, 2004). Appendix C provides a number of modifications and accommodations that address The National Transitional Longitudinal Study found critical considerations for this group of students. that students with ASD receive related services to This is not an exhaustive list. Further, supports will address a wide range of educational issues including vary significantly based on the student. speech-language therapy to ameliorate language and social deficits and occupational therapy to When determining modifications and improve activities of daily living and provide accommodations, special consideration must be strategies for managing sensory abnormalities given to the requirement of educating students with (Levine et al., 2004). School health services and disabilities within the Least Restrictive Environment special transportation assistance are other examples (LRE). LRE allows students with disabilities greater that can help eligible students participate more fully access to the general education classroom and and successfully in the learning process.

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Assistive Technology 6. Training or technical assistance for professionals (including individuals Assistive Technology (AT) refers to tools and providing education or rehabilitation strategies that provide students with disabilities services), employers, or other individuals access to applications that assist with interactions who provide services to employ or are and learning (VDOE, 2008). AT gives students with otherwise substantially involved in the disabilities greater access to the general education major life functions of that student. curriculum and settings and greater possibilities to master content, interact with others, and increase Typically, children with ASD process visual independence. In addition, AT can significantly information more easily than auditory information. impact self-expression, self-esteem, and overall Any time AT devices are used, information is provided quality of life (Mirenda, 2001). through their strongest processing area (visual). Therefore, various types of technology from “no” tech According to IDEA (2004) and the 2010 Regulations to “high” tech, should be incorporated to improve Governing Special Education Programs for Children with the functional capabilities of students. Care must be Disabilities in Virginia, Assistive Technology means taken to consider AT for the range of learning needs. any item, piece of equipment, or product system, AT considerations should not be limited to expressive whether acquired commercially off the shelf, communication. Below is a list of areas to evaluate modified, or customized, that is used to increase, when determining whether AT is required and will maintain, or improve the functional capabilities provide student benefit. Appendix D provides an of a person with a disability. Assistive technology “Assistive Technology Planning Form” which can be services refer to any service that directly assists the used to help the team identify specific areas of need. person with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or use of an AT device. The term includes: V Writing V Spelling Typically, children 1. The evaluation of the needs of a student V Reading with a disability, including a functional V Mathematics with ASD process evaluation of the student in the student’s V Fine motor visual information customary environment; V Gross motor easier than auditory V Study skills / information. Any 2. Purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing organizational for the acquisition of AT devices for skills time AT devices are students with disabilities; V Listening used, information is V Communication provided through their 3. Selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, V Socialization adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, V Behavior strongest processing or replacing AT devices; V Dressing area (visual). V Toileting 4. Coordinating and using other therapies, V Eating interventions, or services with AT devices, V Sensory such as those associated with existing V Recreation, leisure and play education and rehabilitation plans and V Positioning and seating programs; V Routines / activity completion V Computer access 5. Training or technical assistance for a student with a disability or, if appropriate, Assistive Technology can be of different levels and that student’s family; and complexities and can be considered no-tech, low-tech, or high-tech tools. It is not the complexity of the tool

V 46 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 that is the consideration, but the impact on the applicable skill areas are identified. Keep in mind, the student. Table 8 provides examples of AT based on skill areas are suggestions. AT tools and strategies the level of technology. For each example provided, may have utility beyond the areas indicated. Table 8 . Assistive Technology Examples

Examples of Tools and Strategies Tech Level Tech Academic/ Academic/ Writing Comm/ Social Activities of Living Daily Independence Sensory Behavior Pictures 4 4 4 4 4 4 Picture Exchange Communication System 4 4 Social Narrative 4 4 4 4 4 4 Wait card 4 4 4 4 Break card 4 4 4 4 4 Universal “No” card 4 4 4 Highlighter tape 4 File folder activity 4 Writing grips 4

No-Tech Scribe 4 Topic card 4 Schedule 4 4 4 4 4 4 Workstation 4 4 Checklist 4 4 4 4 Self-assessment scale or thermometer 4 4 4 4 4 Therapy balls / swings 4 4 Chewy items 4

One Message Voice Output 4 4 4 Communication Aid (e.g., Key Chain Talker, Picture Frame Talker, Clip Talk) Multiple Message Voice Output 4 4 4 Communication Aid (e.g., Cheap Talk, Four Frame Talker: Go Talk) Language Master 4 4 4 4 4 Tape recorder 4 4 4 4 4 Switch (e.g., BIGmack) 4 4 4 4 4

Low-Tech Timer 4 4 4 4 4 Electronic reminder 4 4 4 4 4 4 Watch 4 4 4 4 4 Speaking Speller 4 Pager

Voice Output Communication Aid with dynamic display or icon sequencing (e.g., Springboard, Dynavox, Tango) 4 4 4 Talking Word Processing programs (e.g., Speaking Dynamically Pro, Write: OutLoud) 4 4 4 Video camera 4 4 4 4 4 Computer 4 4 4 Word Processor 4 4 Software (e.g., reading, mathematics, vocabulary, thinking) 4 4 4 High-Tech Web sites 4 4 4 Adaptive Hardware (e.g., Touch Window, Intellikeys, track ball) 4 4 Scanner 4 PDF 4 4 4 4 4 4 Smart Phone 4 4 4 4 4 4

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Augmentative and Alternative words). Technological advances in AAC have provided Communication a “voice” to many individuals through voice output communication aids and talking word processors. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) is a type of AT. Difficulty with communication is a Choosing the appropriate AAC system depends critical issue for students with ASD. Communication upon a proper assessment of an individual’s current impairments can impact an individual’s ability level of communication, abilities, performance to communicate with others (expressive related to receptive communication, and his or communication) and/or receive communication from her potential for change through instruction. others (receptive communication). AAC interventions Determination of AAC interventions requires a assist individuals with communication impairments team approach and careful analysis of the student’s to increase skills in this area and to become more specific communication needs. Immediacy of need competent communicators. for increased or improved communication is a vital consideration and may often be a decisive factor. It is critical for educational teams to consider AAC for Refer to Table 8 for examples of AAC systems. any student with ASD. For some students, AAC may act as the primary mode of communication. For others, it may be a secondary form. AAC may supplement or Program Evaluation augment verbal communication providing the means for the student to communicate more effectively and Evaluating students’ progress toward reaching efficiently. In many instances, it even fosters increased their individual goals is one of the most important verbal communication. Research has demonstrated components of educational programming that that AAC often results in increased verbal production teachers and educational teams can do! Not only is (Schlosser & Wendt, 2008). monitoring student progress a legal requirement under IDEA, but it serves as the foundation of There is not one single AAC system appropriate to individualized educational programming. By all students. An array of technologies and systems continually evaluating if students are learning is available. Each draws on different skills and takes and making progress toward their IEP goals and advantage of different strengths. Individuals with ASD objectives, teachers and team members can best have been successful using no-tech AAC systems such address the students’ individual needs and maximize as gestures or sign language as well as concrete visual- their learning potential. It is only through close spatial systems (e.g., photographs, pictures, written monitoring that a teacher or team member can determine whether a skill has been mastered and a student is ready for the next level or whether a student is not progressing at an acceptable rate and It is critical for educational teams to consider AAC for a program change is warranted. Through careful any student with ASD. For some students, AAC may act scrutiny, a teacher or team member can make as the primary mode of communication. For others, determinations regarding implementation of all aspects of the IEP including frequency and duration it may be a secondary form. AAC may supplement or of intervention. augment verbal communication providing the means for the student to communicate more effectively and A Framework for Monitoring Student Progress efficiently. In many instances, it even fosters increased verbal communication. Research has demonstrated There are many ways to monitor student progress. that AAC often results in increased verbal production As discussed in the “Assessment” section of this manual, standardized tools and curriculum-based (Schlosser & Wendt, 2008). assessments can be helpful in determining students’

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Figure 2 . A Framework for Instructional Planning and Evaluation are only available for certain

Assess skills Plan / revise Implement Collect data Mastered- types of tasks/skills where and needs instruction instructional on progress Choose a the outcome is a tangible, program new skill / level to permanent change to the teach environment.

Not Mastered Direct Observational Recording . Direct - Program observational recording is a means of measuring revision ability levels. However, data driven change in a behavior by directly observing the assessments that include ongoing data behavior when it happens and recording the collection is the most appropriate for monitoring occurrence (or nonoccurrence) of the behavior. student progress across a variety of skill areas There are several types of direct observational and competencies and to determine if he or she is recording methods that can be used depending on meeting the IEP goals. Collecting direct, systematic, the behavior or skill being measured: and objective data on students can help to most accurately determine progress, and evaluate the V Event recording: Used to measure the effectiveness of instructional strategies. number of times a simple, discrete behavior occurs (e.g., raising hand, greeting) Data-driven assessment, instructional planning, program implementation, and progress monitoring V Duration: Used to measure the length of has been a long standing technique. Figure 2 above is time the skill / behavior occurred (e.g., an illustration of how this process works. social interaction, out of seat)

As you can see above, collecting data on progress V Latency: Used to measure the length of toward achieving goals and objectives helps to time elapsed between an instructional cue inform teachers and team members whether the and performance of the skill / behavior (e.g., student has mastered the goal or if the program compliance following a teacher request) needs to be revised to meet the student’s needs. Another important aspect of progress monitoring Getting Started is measuring the amount of assistance the student may need to complete the task / skill. Instructional After selecting the target skills or behaviors to prompts are often used while teaching students increase (or decrease) and designing an instructional new skills or behaviors. Thus, recording the amount program to teach those skills, instruction and of assistance required can help the teacher or team progress monitoring begin. One of the first steps member know how independent the individual is is to determine the most appropriate method to when performing a skill. accurately measure and evaluate the change in these target skills and behaviors. Typically, there are two Ways to Monitor Progress methods for monitoring progress: (1) a permanent product recording and (2) direct observational Once a measurement system is determined, the recording. teacher or team member will need to develop a monitoring form that can help them collect the Permanent Product Recording . A permanent information they will need in order to evaluate product is a means of measuring change in a student progress toward individual goals and behavior by evaluating a lasting product that objectives. In general, there are several different the student has developed (e.g., completing a types of progress monitoring forms that can be mathematics or spelling assignment on paper, helpful: event recording forms, duration or latency assembly of a puzzle). Clearly, permanent products forms, task analysis forms, running record forms,

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and trial sampling forms. Samples of forms are based decisions regarding changes in instructional available in Appendix A. However, to assure that strategies (i.e., if the student is not making progress) these forms are useful and regularly used, the form or targeting of a new skill or behavior (i.e., if the should match the target objectives, measurement student has mastered the skill). These types of system, and context in which progress is monitored. ongoing programmatic decisions are essential for Therefore, it may be best to adapt standardized maximizing the student’s potential for growth forms to meet the unique needs of the situation and and development and teacher’s use of effective the student. instruction.

When to Monitor Progress One of the most common means of summarizing progress monitoring data is to provide a visual Progress monitoring takes time. If monitoring display of the information through a graph. Graphs systems are developed and organized in a manner can be constructed by hand or on a computer. By that is user-friendly and feasible, it is well worth depicting learning on a graph, teachers and team the investment. Students learn all day long! And, members can most easily determine the trend of the monitoring their progress on an ongoing basis data -- that is, determine if learning is accelerating, throughout the day or week is one of the most staying level, or decreasing. Again, if progress is efficient means of determining whether they not being adequately made, the teacher (or team are meeting their goals and objectives. Progress member) should adjust instructional programming monitoring does not need to be difficult. If progress or strategies accordingly. monitoring is organized in a user-friendly and efficient manner, it can often save valuable time for Progress monitoring need not be cumbersome. teachers and team members. Often selecting when Often this information is organized in a student to monitor progress is determined by when targeted notebook (by learning objective) where daily/ goals and objectives are taught. When students weekly summaries can easily be filed to examine are beginning to work on a skill or beginning a progress over a longer time period, such as new behavioral intervention, it is most helpful to quarterly. To illustrate, a student notebook may monitor changes in their behaviors more frequently be organized according to learning domains, such during this acquisition stage (i.e., daily). However, as communication, social competence, academics, once a student has mastered a skill and the concern self-help, and challenging behaviors. This type of is for generalization or maintenance, progress individualized, systematic progress monitoring monitoring of this skill may be less frequent (i.e., will serve as a valuable resource for the teacher and weekly). Progress monitoring need not be an team members to evaluate the student’s progress arduous task. Again, one of the most important and help to communicate to the family all the aspects of monitoring progress is to design a system accomplishments of their child. that accurately reflects a student’s learning and progress but also is efficient and effective for use by those collecting the data.

Summarizing Monitoring Information

Once teachers and team members have collected information about what the student has learned or the behaviors that have changed, it is important to summarize that information on an ongoing and frequent basis (i.e., daily, weekly, monthly). Summarizing the information is helpful for teachers to see learning trends and make data-

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replaced. A BIP that addresses the function of the Addressing behavior by focusing on teaching skills or providing motivation will be more effective than plans that Interfering attempt to simply control behavior (Carr, Levin, Behavior McConnachie, Carlson, Kemp, & Smith, 1994). In the following sections, the steps required to Some students with ASD will display challenging implement an FBA and to create and implement a BIP behavior that may interfere or be a barrier to are outlined. Steps of the process are adapted from the successful inclusion and learning. Interfering National Professional Development Center on Autism behavior can take many forms and range in severity. Spectrum Disorders (2009). An important aspect of educational planning is to address such behavior through conducting a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) and Conducting a Functional incorporating a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP). Behavioral Assessment (FBA)

In order to change interfering behavior, it is necessary 1. Establish a multidisciplinary team. The team first to assess the underlying function or purpose of should minimally consist of the student’s the behavior through an FBA. According to the 2010 teacher(s), related service personnel, Regulations Governing Special Education Programs for paraprofessionals, and parents. The student Children with Disabilities in Virginia, an FBA should be should also be included, if developmentally conducted when a student has behavior that impedes appropriate. his or her learning or the learning of peers. An FBA consists of describing the interfering or problem 2. Identify the interfering behavior to be behavior, identifying antecedent or consequent targeted. Team members identify the events that control the behavior(s) that is most problematic for behavior, developing A BIP that addresses the the student and create a definition of the a hypothesis of the behavior by following these steps: function of the behavior behavior, and testing the a. Teams consider the following when by focusing on teaching hypothesis. Data collection determining whether a behavior is skills or providing is an important part of interfering: the FBA process and may G Is the behavior dangerous to the motivation will be more include existing or new student or others? effective than plans that data as determined by the G Does the behavior interfere with attempt to simply control IEP team. learning of the student or peers? G behavior (Carr, Levin, Does the behavior interfere with As the function of the socialization? McConnachie, Carlson, behavior becomes G Is the behavior disruptive or Kemp, & Smith, 1994). apparent, teams develop intense on a frequent basis? interventions to reduce b. Record review, observations of the the occurrence of the student, and/or interview of relevant interfering behavior. Teams incorporate proactive people are conducted to help to and preventative strategies and teach functional identify the interfering behaviors and skills that will accomplish the same outcome for the determine the potential variables that person. With this view, it is important to understand may be influencing the behavior. that problem behavior is not something that has to be c. Before determining the techniques to be suppressed. Instead, teams understand that behavior used to conduct a functional behavioral serves a purpose and should be appropriately assessment, the FBA team defines

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the problem behavior in observable interviews of behavior include: and measurable terms. Description 1. The Functional Assessment statements, such as “Jack was angry.” Screening Tool (FAST; Iwata & or “Juanita had a meltdown.” are Deleon, 1995) subjective and unhelpful. Below are 2. Problem Behavior Questionnaire examples of concrete statements. It (PBQ; Lewis, Scott, & Sugai, 1994) is essential that anyone observing 3. Questions about Behavioral the behavior is able to agree on an Function in Mental Illness (QABF- occurrence of a behavior, so that MI; Singh et al., 2006) meaningful data can be collected. 4. Functional Assessment Interview (FAI; O’Neill et al., 1997) Descriptive/Subjective Observable/Objective 5. Student-Directed Functional Statement Statement Assessment Interview (Student- Max shut down Max put his head on his FAI; O’Neill et al., 1997) table and covered his eyes. 6. Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS; Durand & Crimmins, 1992). Janell had a tantrum Janell threw his worksheet e. Conduct direct assessments. After to the floor and attempted to completing the indirect assessments, hit the teacher three times. a direct assessment is necessary to Shari was excited Shari jumped up and narrow the data and gather more down and laughed loudly. specific information. Direct measures lead to a more accurate hypothesis 3. Collect data regarding the variables regarding the behavior. Direct impacting behaviors. Teams gather assessments consist of observing the information needed to understand and student and collecting data on the identify the antecedent or consequent interfering behavior. There are several events that control the behavior and considerations to be made: determine the function by following these G The FBA team must determine steps: what variables are important a. Gather data on the function of the to assess. The collection of behavior as well as times, places, data must be individualized conditions, events of possible to fit the situation. Data must behaviors. Also, include individuals yield information needed to present. Be as specific as possible when determine the precise function gathering data. and maintaining variables for this b. Gather data from multiple sources so particular student and problem the FBA team can better understand behavior. when and where the behavior is likely G The FBA team must determine to occur. how direct assessment data will be c. Review previous and current records taken. Options include: to gain further insight into the child, 1. ABC data charts - The observer strengths, challenges, and behavioral notes what happens right patterns. before the behavior occurs (A d. Conduct indirect assessments. = the antecedent) and what Informal and formal interviews may happens directly after the be used to help gather information behavior (C = the consequence). about the behavior from multiple The following is an example of perspectives. Examples of formal an A-B-C data collection chart.

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A (Antecedent) B (Behavior) C (Consequence) last? What is the intensity of the (activity / event (what the (events that followed behavior? preceding the behavior or results of behavior) G When is the behavior most likely behavior) looked like) and least likely to occur? (upon Joe was told to line Joe hit a peer Joe was moved to arrival? just before lunch?) up for mathematics in line. the end of the line. G Where is the behavior most likely/ class. least likely to occur? (classroom? Joe was told to line Joe pulled a Joe was moved to gym? lunchroom?) up for lunch. peer’s hair. the end of the line. G In what conditions does the behavior occur/not occur? (group work? free time?) 2. Scatterplots – The observer G Who is present when the behavior notes instances of behaviors is most/least likely to occur? on a chart or grid, sometimes (certain teachers/aides? certain allowing patterns of behavior students?) to be more quickly observed. G What are other students/teachers/ 3. Standardized rating scales – adults doing when the behavior The observer uses scales to starts? rate the degree of severity of a G What is the number of and behavior. proximity of other people when the • The FBA team must determine behavior is likely to occur? when data will be taken. Consider G Is there anything noticeable taking data in a variety of about the environment when the settings and variety of times to behavior occurs? (consider noise best understand the variables levels, lighting, doors open or contributing to the behavior. closed, etc.) • The FBA team must determine who b. The team considers the following items will conduct the direct assessment which are crucial to developing an and collect data. effective intervention plan: 1. It is important that more G Function – What is the function than one person is involved of the behavior? What is the in collecting data to allow for student communicating by different perspectives on the demonstrating the behavior? behavior. 1. Is the student trying to obtain 2. It is essential that any something, such as attention, individuals collecting data activities, objects, or internal understand behavioral stimulation? If so, what exactly definitions and data collection is he or she trying to obtain? methods. 2. Is the student trying to escape or avoid something, such as 4. Analyze the data and begin to formulate attention tasks, activities, a hypothesis. Using information gathered, or internal stimulation? If the team is to identify patterns of behavior so, what exactly is he or she across time and environments. The following trying to escape or avoid? steps help with data analysis: G Skill deficit – What a. The team answers these questions: communication, social, adaptive, G How often does the problem or academic skills does the student behavior occur? How long does it lack which might contribute to

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 53 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 the frequency of the behavior? For Developing and example, if a student hits a peer in a conflict situation, the student may Implementing a Behavioral not know how to resolve the conflict Intervention Plan (BIP) verbally. In this case, a BIP should address how the skill will be taught 1. Identify appropriate evidence-based and supported. practices that address the function of G Maintaining variables – What the student’s interfering behavior. A are the setting events, immediate comprehensive BIP will generally include antecedents, and immediate several intervention strategies designed to consequences that surround the increase positive behaviors and reduce those interfering behavior? considered to be problems. Strategies include the following: 5. Develop a hypothesis. After careful analysis a. Address areas of skill deficit. Teach the of all the data, create a firm hypothesis about student a more acceptable behavior the interfering behavior. The hypothesis that serves the same function as the will be used to drive the BIP. The hypothesis inappropriate behavior (also known as should describe: replacement behavior or functionally a. The setting events, immediate equivalent behavior). Examples include antecedents, and immediate asking the teacher for help, a break, consequences that surround the or attention or using effective self- interfering behavior. management or coping strategies. b. A restatement and refinement of the b. Modify the setting events in the description of the interfering behavior environment (the situations that that is occurring. make the inappropriate behavior more c. The function of the behavior. likely to occur) that will likely lead to d. Any other relevant information, a problem behavior. Examples include including skill deficits. changing the seating arrangements to e. Some examples of hypothesis statements minimize distractions, decreasing work include: demands when the student has not G Tricia swears out loud when asked slept the night before, or altering the to answer a question during history sequence of academic instruction. class. She is most likely to do this if c. Manipulate the antecedent events (the the question is difficult. When Tricia things that happen right before the swears, she is taken to the principal’s behavior occurs). Examples include office. Tricia’s swearing behavior providing warnings, countdowns, is likely an attempt to escape the or times, to assist with and signal demand of answering a question in transitions or discussing reinforcement front of the classroom. or break options prior to presentation of G Jake screams loudly when the a difficult task. teacher is working with another d. Modify aspects of the curriculum and/or student during morning work. instruction. Examples include shortened When Jake screams, the teacher first instructional sessions or allowing oral, tells him to be quiet and do his work, rather than written responses. then will go to him and provide e. Find strategies to enhance student physical assistance to do his work. motivation. Examples include Jake’s screaming is likely an attempt incorporating preferred materials to gain attention from the teacher.

V 54 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

into activities or allowing the learner many instances, teachers and other to engage in a preferred activity when practitioners will ignore the interfering completing an activity contingent on behavior when it occurs so that students absence of interfering behavior. with ASD are no longer reinforced for f. Modify the consequent events for the engaging in it. In some cases, delivery positive, appropriate, or replacement of consequences may be necessary. behaviors. Examples include precise Examples include reviewing of rules, praise, shaping, and reinforcing redirecting, or removal of token. incompatible behaviors. b. In the event that problem behavior is severe or creates a safety issue, 2. Determine the response to the interfering teams may also need to outline a crisis behavior. Different responses may need to management plan to ensure safety and be outlined for varying levels of the behavior. quick de-escalation of the behavior. Considerations include: a. Modify the consequent events (the Table 9 outlines specific functions of interfering things that happen, in response behaviors and examples of appropriate to the inappropriate behavior). In evidence-based practices that might be used to reduce

Table 9 . Examples of Evidence-based Practices Included in a BIP

Function of Prevention / Antecedent Possible Reactive Interfering Behavior Strategies Replacement Behavior Strategies

Gain access to item, • Give noncontingent • Establish an appropriate • Extinguish behavior activity, or attention reinforcement response (Functional (discontinue • Give positive attention Communication Training reinforcement of when appropriate to request item, activity, or problem behavior) • Set up routines and schedule attention) • Do not provide item, reinforcing activities activity or attention throughout the day if problem behavior • Provide reinforcement for is present not engaging in behavior

Escape or avoid tasks/ • Reduce or eliminate • Establish an alternative, • Extinguish behavior attention activities or demands that appropriate method of (discontinue trigger behavior escaping the task (Functional reinforcement of • Alternate tasks (i.e., number, Communication Training problem behavior) difficulty, novelty, etc.) asking for break, termination) • Continue to repeat • Set up routines so • Strengthen compliance and the demand and do reinforcing activities follow tolerance to task through not allow access to harder ones behavioral momentum and preferred activities • Provide reinforcement for task interspersal until task is complete not engaging in behavior

Sensory/autonomic • Enrich the environment • Establish an alternative • Block • Engage the student in sensory seeking behavior that preferred activities is more appropriate or less • Provide sensory oriented disruptive breaks • Establish a method for the • Provide reinforcement for student to ask for a break or a not engaging in behavior or time or place in which behavior for engaging in alternative is permissible (Functional behavior Communication Training)

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interfering behaviors. new replacement behaviors. Outline when, where, by whom, and how data are collected. 3. Create observable and measurable When: once a week, daily, on Tuesdays and objectives that can be used to measure the Thursdays effectiveness of the intervention to indicate Where: during snack, on the playground, in progress. The objectives can be drawn from reading group the student’s IEP or drafted when writing By Whom: special education teacher, speech- the BIP. Examples include: language pathologist, paraprofessional G Juan will complete tasks in reading How: checklist, self-management checklist group without talking. completed by student with ASD G If Sammy needs to leave class, he asks for a break during whole class 6. Evaluate fidelity of the implementation instruction using his “Break” card. of the plan. Once a BIP has been developed, G When Kara hears the timer, she will it is essential that the consistency and transition between activities by accuracy of the implementation of the plan walking directly to the next activity on is monitored. Checklists, scripts, and lists can her visual schedule. help support staff in achieving consistency. Implementation of the plan should also be 4. Determine how to implement the BIP. There observed by a team member across settings are numerous considerations to ensure it is and staff to ensure accuracy. implemented across environments and with fidelity. Teams must outline the following: 7. Evaluate the effectiveness of the BIP. Develop a. Determine additional materials needed, a system to analyze data on a regular basis. such as data collection sheets, timers, Subsequent review of the data or student visual supports, support staff, etc. behavior is essential to determine the b. Determine environmental effects of the intervention across time. modifications needed c. Identify reinforcers for the student to 8. Modify the BIP. Revise the BIP anytime enhance motivation the IEP team feels it is in need or anytime d. Provide information and training to all data supports an adjustment (IDEA, 2004). individuals who will need to implement Ultimately, the FBA and BIP process is not the plan complete until the team’s efforts result e. Provide training on any specific in positive behavioral changes in student evidence-based practice that may be performance. The circumstances that used warrant a review and/or revision include: f. Determine any additional personnel a. The student has reached his or her resources that may be needed behavioral goals and objectives and g. Determine a safe, quiet location for the new goals and objectives need to be student should crisis behavior occur established. h. Determine strategies for the b. The situation has changed and the plan maintenance, durability, generality, no longer addresses the student’s needs. and longevity of appropriate student c. The IEP team determines during behavior a manifestation determination review that the BIP strategies are not 5. Create a data collection plan to monitor consistent with the student’s IEP or progress. Data should be collected once a placement. week at a minimum. Take data on both d. The BIP is not producing positive the interfering behavior as well as the changes in the student’s behavior.

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disciplinary boundaries. The transdisciplinary team Collaboration with uses a coordinator to facilitate the team process. Families are at the heart of transdisciplinary teams the Educational and are empowered by the collaborative process in the decision-making. Figure 3 demonstrates Team the transdisciplinary team process as outlined by Ogletree, Bull, Drew, & Lunnen (2001). The large size of Successfully educating students with ASD requires the center circle with the child and family represents collaboration amongst a variety of professionals their importance to this team structure. There is an and stakeholders. Friend and Cook (2007) define absence of disciplinary boundaries of team member interpersonal collaboration as “a style for direct circles. The two bidirectional lines connecting interaction between at least two co-equal parties the team member and coordinator to the family voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as demonstrate the significance of indirect services. The they work toward a common goal.” There are three lines connecting the team members to one another primary team models that currently exist in service imply the significance of interdependent training and delivery systems. The oldest and most well known collaboration. is the multidisciplinary team. A multidisciplinary team provides input to team members through the Figure 3 .Transdisciplinary Team Model team leader, often the special education teacher. The leader assimilates and directs final outcomes and recommendations. In this model, not all the team Team members are connected to the child and family, nor Coordinator are they connected to one another except by way of Team the team leader. This model, while common, is not Member optimal for this group of students. Team/Family Member The second model is the interdisciplinary model. This Child/Family model emphasizes team member interdependence and collaboration. Interdisciplinary teams are comprised of individuals who represent multiple Team disciplines that rely on one another and are equal Member Team decision-making partners. This type of model Member includes parents as equal members of the team in addition to professionals. A team leader, again typically the special education teacher, gathers input Team Meetings and facilitates decisions. This model, given the equal partnership and interdependence is much more Team meetings should be held on a regular basis. Of appropriate for this population but still contains course, IEP meetings are to be held at a minimum of some limitations. once a year, however, for these students, additional meetings designed to share The third model, the successes and problem solve may be transdisciplinary team model, For these students, needed (Gabriels & Hill, 2007). Keep is the model teams should additional meetings in mind that the student with ASD strive for. This is the most newly is typically not sharing important developed type of team structure. designed to share educational information with his Transdisciplinary teams work successes and problem or her parents. Therefore, the team together from equal standing, solve may be needed. must meet as often as needed to train each other, and easily cross ensure families are informed and

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appropriate services and supports are being provided. Prior to concluding the meeting steps should be taken There are a number of recommendations for helping to address how the team will follow-up on decisions meetings be productive and collaborative: made. Scheduling a follow-up meeting is always a good plan to ensure the team can come together at V Do not wait until there is a problem to have a mutually specified time. Other ways to follow up a meeting. include checklists of steps completed, sharing data, and phone calls. Appendix E provides an example of a V Send home a draft agenda for each meeting Team Planning Form. The teaming process should go allowing time for parents to add their needs as follows: and concerns. Figure 4 .The Teaming Process V Be on time to the meeting and sit next to the parent. MEET Discuss concerns, problems and V Provide positive comments and highlight successes Share progress made. Evaluate outcomes Data Revise plan V Show the parents the meeting is important The to you and avoid giving the impression that Teaming you have other more pressing matters to Process

attend to. Evaluate Make a decision Provide ongoing Document data collection V Ask parents for input throughout the decisions

meeting not just at the beginning and end. Implement Strategies V Share progress information in a format easily understood by the parents. The optimal education experience for families and V Invite parents to come to the school to teachers alike is one with minimal conflict. However, review the data and assessments or observe. in working together, conflict will arise from time to time. It is essential to use proactive strategies to V Invite parents to meet one-on-one to discuss minimize conflict as much and as soon as possible. progress or concerns. Boutot and Myles (2011) outlined the following strategies to be implemented to resolve conflict in the During the teaming process it is essential for all educational setting. members of the team to provide input and for input to be documented. It is especially critical that V Upon discovering there is an issue or a documentation is provided regarding the decisions potential issue, arrange a meeting as soon as that have been made as well as the strategies and possible with all involved parties. steps needed for implementation. Everyone at the j Schedule a meeting rather than table should leave the meeting knowing what is addressing conflict on the fly. This to be done, by whom, and by when. It is helpful allows time to investigate the problem to outline timelines for completion of specific and prepare for it. components. If questions arise, the documentation is j Keep written documentation of any essential to clarifying roles, responsibilities, and any meeting or conversation involving a misconceptions about the events at the meeting. conflict. j VDOE offers mediation services to parents and school personnel to resolve

V 58 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

disputes before the issue escalates to a challenges. Navigating the level where collaboration is threatened. medical and educational The pervasive nature Information regarding these services field can be taxing on of ASD and difficulties is available at VDOE’s Web site: http:// families, especially those generalizing from school www.doe.virginia.gov/special_ed/ new to the diagnosis. resolving_disputes/index.shtml Further, the family dynamic to home and community is often challenged by a environments make V Give all parties the opportunity to share child with ASD, impacting parents essential partners concerns. Listen with an open mind. siblings and extended in the educational process. family members. It is V Give all parties the opportunity to share essential that educational steps to resolve the conflict and give professionals support and consideration to all those that are within acknowledge the difficulties faced by the family and the school and division policies. be sensitive to the comprehensive family unit. As educators, we must respect and support the level of V Make a plan for resolution and create a involvement in the educational program families can list of responsibilities for each action to be contribute with consideration given to the range of taken including steps to be taken, by whom, obligations and demands they are faced with on a and the time frame. daily basis (Dunlap, 1999).

V End the meeting on a positive note by The pervasive nature of ASD and difficulties stating something positive about the child. generalizing from school to home and community environments make parents essential partners in V Follow up the meeting with a phone call, the educational process. It is necessary to include e-mail, or note expressing appreciation for and support the family through multiple means. the opportunity to discuss the issue and Communication regarding the student’s educational reiterate actions to be taken. programming, progress, and daily accomplishments is often welcome and enlightening. Sharing resources V Keep data on the actions as they are and information can provide much needed direction accomplished and share with the parent and and help maintain a working relationship. An IEP team. example of a Home-School Communication Form is provided in Appendix F. V Schedule a follow-up meeting after all actions have been completed or if actions Parents can enhance involvement in their child’s need revision in order to achieve success. education by engaging in activities at home. Many learning opportunities naturally occur at home or when the family is in the community. Providing Family Members information and training to parents can increase Developing and maintaining collaborative working the skills of the student as well as improve family relationships with the family is a necessary functioning. Remember, that while training and component of designing and implementing support may be offered, it is the family’s discretion on successful educational programs. Family members their level of involvement. It is the role of the educator, can be the most stable, influential and valuable people however, to help the family with this endeavor should in a student’s environment. Family members are they choose to participate. It is also important to often the first to recognize that a student may have remember that families will require different levels an ASD. From recognition and diagnosis to getting of assistance to carry over educational strategies in services families face insurmountable numbers of the home. Supports and training initiatives must be individualized.

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Educators can foster family knowledge and and implement a plan to assist a student with oral involvement in many ways. The National Autism motor challenges. Additionally, as members of the IEP Center (NAC, 2009) identified strategies to address team, the related service personnel collaborate and parent needs and maintain involvement. They are assist families in their specialized areas. Collaboration presented in Table 10. among service providers ensures consistent programming among all. Related Service Personnel Paraprofessionals The core deficits and secondary characteristics of the disorder often rely on the specialized services Typically, programs supporting the education of speech-language pathologists, occupational of students with ASD are more saturated with therapists, physical therapists, in addition to paraprofessional support than other programs educational personnel. The nature of these services or disability categories (Hess, Morrier, Heflin, depends on the needs of the individual. The role of & Ivey, 2008; Simpson, 2003). Paraprofessionals related service personnel is multifaceted. They are who directly work with these students provide specialized in their profession and target specific considerable information and insight regarding the aspects as outlined in the IEP. They also serve as student’s daily educational experiences and abilities. collaborators and develop strategies and methods Paraprofessionals should be considered a team to assist the teacher in providing ongoing services member and should be included in discussions and in the absence of the related service personnel. collaborative efforts. Often, it is the paraprofessional Related service personnel also collaborate with who observes and supports the student in multiple each other to target skills that influence other environments, such as the general education major areas. For example, a speech therapist and an classroom, music room, and cafeteria, making their occupational therapist may work together to develop input invaluable to the educational process.

Table 10 . Strategies for Maintaining Parent Involvement (adapted from NAC, 2009)

Opportunities for Maintaining Parent Involvement Opportunities to Consider Informal meetings

Formal meetings

Information sharing

Volunteering

Advisory board Information gathering forms

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j Display nonverbal social cues Case Studies G Gestures – point Below are three case studies of students with ASD. V Social interactions and social reciprocity These examples offer descriptive accounts and j Turn take with concrete games and outline the curricular considerations for each. Case activities examples are to be used only to exemplify a point or illustrate a practice and are not to be directly V Relationships replicated. j Engage and interact with family Case Study: Classic Autism members Ben, Age 4 j Engage and interact with adults V Motivation to communicate Ben is a four-year-old boy who was diagnosed with j Communicate regarding personal an ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) at two years needs and interests and six months. Ben has significant language delays; j Function of communication only recently has Ben begun to imitate vocal sounds, j Respond to name but he has never executed a formed word. Ben’s j Follow instructions inability to communicate his wants and needs likely j Terminate contribute to aggressive behaviors toward others, j Negate including biting, hitting and scratching. Ben’s social j Gain assistance skills are described by his parents and teachers as j Expand use and understanding of limited. Ben will spontaneously make eye contact vocabulary during mealtimes and social play, but rarely makes G Nouns eye contact other times, even when his name is G Verbs called. In his preschool class Ben is able to engage in parallel play with peers with prompting from an V Interpret and use spoken language adult. Ben has emerging play skills and is beginning j Vocalizations (voice without to engage with a variety of cause-and-effect toys. conventional words) When the play area becomes too loud, Ben will often j Verbalizations place his hands over his ears and hum, possibly j Words indicating a sensory sensitivity to sound. Unlike many children with autism, Ben does not seem to V Interpret and use AAC have any challenges with food. He eats a variety j Communicate / supplement of foods, but needs assistance utilizing his spoon communication through sign and fork and remaining at the table through the language duration of the meal. During instructional activities, j Communicate / supplement Ben needs prompts to attend and participate. He will communication through picture often engage in self-stimulatory behaviors which exchange include flapping, spinning, and high pitched squeals. Ben enjoys shaking his favorite beaded necklace, V Toy / activity play skills watching videos, watching computer games, and j Engage in exploratory play (e.g., eating chips. sandbox, cause-and-effect) j Engage in constructive play (e.g., Focus Areas for Intervention V Joint attention blocks, train tracks, models) j Orient, attend, and respond to adult V Toileting and peer activities j Urinate in toilet

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V Personal hygiene Curriculum Framework j Wash hands Ben is only four years of age so the curriculum V Dressing framework is not a consideration at this time. j Manage jacket / coat Ben’s current teacher will work with his receiving j Manage pants educational team as he enters kindergarten to ensure j Manage shoes they have a thorough understanding of Ben, his strengths and need, and will provide an appropriate V Eating curriculum. j Feed self j Sit at table for duration of meal / snack Assessment and Goal Development j Drink from open rimmed cup j Eat with spoon, proper handling, Standardized Assessment scooping Ben underwent the Eligibility process at age 3. At that time, a variety of standardized assessments were V Schedules performed. As Ben’s teacher prepares for the start of j Follow schedule the school year, she reviews the results of the testing j Follow visual sequence and carefully reads all descriptions of the testing j Accept changes in routines / schedules process as she knows standardized testing results must be considered with caution. Ben has high levels V School, home, and community of self-stimulatory behavior and attends for short independence periods of time. Such factors may have influenced the j Complete routines results. Through her reading, she learns that the team j Complete tasks independently conducted testing in short intervals lasting no longer j Display appropriate behavior in car / than 15 minutes, modified some of the directions to on bus better suit Ben, and also used reinforcement to keep him motivated. Ben’s teacher feels the results are V Fine motor indicative of Ben’s abilities and determines not to j Manipulate objects (e.g., twist, pull, conduct further standardized testing at this time. turn pages) j Transfer objects between hands Data-driven Assessment j Demonstrate bilateral coordination Ben’s teacher wants to ensure he is provided an appropriate education. She has his IEP goals and V Attending objectives, but wants to make certain it addresses j Sustain attention with task his individual needs. She determines that a data- driven assessment will provide useful information V Imitation as it will help her and the team to fully understand j Copy motor actions Ben’s strengths, needs, and abilities as they occur in j Copy verbalizations / words the natural environment. During the first week of j Copy actions with objects school, Ben’s teacher sets up multiple opportunities to observe his skills. She also interviewed the teacher he had last year and the speech therapist, reviewed data from that school year, and read his quarterly reports. Based on the information obtained, she was able to put together an appropriate program that incorporates goals related to increasing functional communication, play skills, social interactions, time on task, and adaptive daily living skills.

V 62 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

Educational Environment - Placement and Environmental Organization and Structure Services A variety of environmental modifications Partial-Day Self-Contained Special Education Class and structure is provided to increase Ben’s with Mainstreaming Opportunities in General understanding and independence. Supports include: Education Kindergarten Class. V Visual supports used for beginning a work Ben receives speech language therapy three times task, transitioning to the bathroom, and per week. 60 minutes is direct, individualized identifying where to stand in line to exit instruction while 30 minutes is integrated with the room other students. V Bookcases create a boundary around the Ben receives occupational therapy one time per computers and quiet area week. 30 minutes is direct therapy. The OT provides an additional 15 minutes of consultation to his V Individual work area is set up in the corner teacher. of room

There are six students in the self-contained class. V Picture schedule depicts two daily activities The class is supported by one teacher and two at a time paraprofessionals. V Mini-schedule is used for preparing for Ben participates in the general education classroom lunch, unpacking, and packing during the following times: V Routines are consistent throughout the day V Reading Rotations creating a predictable schedule

j Small group reading with general V Timers and verbal warnings indicate education teacher - Ben works on termination of a preferred activities identifying objects and actions while kindergarten students work on V Token reinforcement board used for work reading tasks

j Partner reading – Kindergarten student reads to Ben and offers Ben choices and opportunities to request

j Letter center – Ben takes turns with a letter matching activity with a peer while the peer provides assistance G Recess

j Ben’s class attends recess with the kindergartners and Ben is paired with a peer volunteer during 15 minutes of recess

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Instructional Considerations Focus Areas Strategies Formats Evaluation

Joint attention • Natural interventions 1:1 and 1:2 instruction Data collected 2 Social interactions • Reinforcement sessions per week Relationships • Peer mediated intervention Imitation Motivation to communicate • Natural interventions 1:1 instruction Data collected daily Respond to name • Functional Communication Follow instructions Training Communication skills • AAC Vocabulary expansion • Picture Exchange Communication System • Discrete trial training Toy / activity play skills • Natural interventions 1:1 and 1:2 instruction Data collected 2 • Prompting sessions per week • Reinforcement • Response interruption / Redirection Toileting • Reinforcement 1:1 instruction Data collected daily Personal hygiene • Task analysis Dressing • Prompting Eating • Discrete trial training Schedules • Antecedent based interventions 1:1 and 1:2 instruction Data collected 2 Independence • Task analysis sessions per week Attending • Structured work systems • Reinforcement Fine motor • Prompting 1:1 and 1:2 instruction Data collected 1 • Reinforcement session per week • Natural interventions

Assistive Technology and Augmentative and Alternative Communication Modifications and Accommodations

Pictures Short movement breaks between activities Picture Exchange Communication System Quiet independent work area Schedule Minimized auditory and visual distractions Workstation Quiet area in room Therapy balls / swings Touch Window Timer Adaptive cup and eating utensils One Message Voice Output Tangible item or activity for positive reinforcement Touch Window Token board Motivating sequence of events Choices Peer tutors Verbal and visual cues regarding transition Timer for terminating a preferred activity Daily schedules Mini schedules Visual supports for understanding and independence Oral-motor chew items

V 64 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

Case Study: Autism (mid- spectrum) V Emotional understanding Tomeika, Age 6 j Recognize emotional states in self

Tomeika is a six-year-old student who was diagnosed V Social interactions and reciprocity with ASD at the age of four. Tomeika has been j Respond to social cues and initiations able to remain included in a general education j Initiate interactions first grade classroom with the assistance of an j Continue with back and forth instructional aide who provides support to her and interaction one other student. Tomeika is verbal, but typically j Turn take with concrete games and speaks in three to four word sentences. She uses activities communication primarily to request wants and needs. She will, on occasion, make comments and V Relationships will answer basic what, who, and where questions. j Engage and interact with peers She can follow most one step directions but j Group / Activity participation struggles with completing multiple steps. Tomeika j Share materials will greet both adults and peers with minimal j Wait prompting. She responds to adults consistently and j Turn take will even initiate interactions, but often does not j Follow group directions respond to the social bids presented by her peers. Tomeika plays appropriately with many toys and V Communication demonstrates emerging skills in socio-dramatic play. j Communicate regarding social Negative behaviors such as screaming and crying interests may occur when presented with an activity that j Expand use and understanding of involves turn taking and/or sharing. Tomeika has a vocabulary poor ability to recognize and express emotions. This G Nouns can be a major communication and socialization G Verbs challenge as she struggles with exhibiting G Descriptors (adjectives) frustration appropriately as well as accepting signs G Functions of displeasure in others. Tomeika does engage in j Gain assistance self-stimulatory behavior which includes chewing j Answer yes/no on her hair. Tomeika is completely toilet trained. She j Answer questions is able to manage her own clothing in the bathroom. j Use sentences when communicating Tomeika is able to read at a first-grade level and is j Improve conversational skills able to use phonics for both reading and writing. She struggles with mathematics but has recently started V Play performing basic addition with manipulatives. j Engage in pretend / dramatic play j Engage in interactive / cooperative play Focus Areas for Intervention V Independence V Joint attention j Manage, prepare, and organize j Initiate social attention with adult and materials peer j Complete tasks independently j Maintain attention with joint object j Stay in seat for appropriate periods of time V Nonverbal interaction j Clean up j Display nonverbal social cues (body j Put away personal possessions orientation, gestures)

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V Cognitive Educational Environment - Placement and j Sustain attention Services j Understand concepts related to time General Education with Special Education Support j Understand past, present, and future Services in a First-Grade Classroom and Pull Out in a j Sequence Resource Room. j Retell activities / events j Retell stories Tomeika is in the first-grade classroom the majority j Sort objects of her school day. She goes to a special education j Categorize objects resource room to participate in a social skills group j Plan and execute steps of activity or two times per week and to receive individualized task instruction in mathematics for 15 minutes a day. Tomeika receives speech language therapy two V Academic times per week. 30 minutes is direct, individualized j General education kindergarten instruction while 30 minutes is integrated with curriculum other students.

Curriculum Framework She receives occupational therapy one time per week. 30 minutes is direct therapy. The OT provides Tomeika accesses the general curriculum at an additional 15 minutes of consultation to her this time. Tomeika excels at reading, but her teacher. team understands the difficulty she has with mathematics. They plan to continue with the Environmental Organization and Structure general curriculum at this time with modifications in mathematics, but will carefully monitor her A variety of environmental modifications and progress to ensure this remains appropriate. structure is provided to increase Tomeika’s understanding and independence. Supports include: Assessment and Goal Development V Visual supports used to help with sharing Curriculum-Based Assessment materials and turn taking At the end of the last school year, Tomeika’s teacher conducted the Verbal Behavior Milestones V Visual rule card is provided during Assessment and Placement Program. Her teacher cooperative activities will conduct this assessment again at the end of her first-grade year. The team uses the results to drive V Text schedule depicts her entire sequence of IEP goals and to ensure she is progressing in such daily activities skills as communication, motor imitation, social, and group and classroom skills. V Mini-schedule used for packing to go home, going through the lunch line, completing Data-driven Assessment art projects, and recess Tomeika’s teacher uses data-driven assessments to evaluate her work habits including attending and V Routines are consistent throughout the day ability to perform tasks independently. She also uses creating a predictable schedule data-driven methods to assess her use of language and communication in the natural environment. V Timers and verbal warnings indicate termination of a fun activity

V Behavior chart is used for work tasks to evaluate time on task

V 66 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

Instructional Considerations Focus Areas Strategies Formats Evaluation

Joint attention • Natural interventions Small group Data collected 2 Social interactions • Reinforcement instruction sessions per week Relationships • Peer mediated intervention Cooperative play • Antecedent based interventions • Visual supports • Social narratives • Social skills group

Communication • Natural interventions 1:1 and small group Data collected daily Conversational skills • Pivotal response training instruction • Visual supports

Emotional understanding • Natural interventions 1:1 and small group Data collected 2 • Pivotal response training instruction sessions per week • Computer assisted instruction

Group activity participation • Natural interventions Small and whole Data collected 2 Independence • Prompting group instruction sessions per week • Reinforcement • Response interruption / Redirection

Cognitive • Reinforcement 1:1 and small and Data collected 2 Academic • Prompting whole group sessions per week • Discrete Trial Training instruction • Task analysis

Assistive Technology and Augmentative and Alternative Communication Modifications and Accommodations

Pictures Short movement breaks between activities Computer and software Modified assignments Schedule Assignments broken into small parts Timer Manipulatives for mathematics Intellikeys Written directions Social narrative Vocabulary file Checklist Quiet area in room Topic card Adapted computer equipment Social praise and activities for positive reinforcement Token board Rule card Motivating sequence of events Choices Peer tutors Verbal and visual cues regarding transition Timer for terminating a preferred activity Daily schedules Mini schedules Visual supports for understanding and independence Oral-motor chew items

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Case Study: Asperger’s Disorder V Emotional understanding Zack, Age 8 j Recognize facial expressions j Recognize emotional states in self and Zack was diagnosed with Asperger’s Disorder one others year ago at age seven. He has had a diagnosis of j Recognize conditions which elicit Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder since the emotional states age of four. However, his parents became increasingly concerned with his social isolation, inability to adapt V Self-regulation to even simple schedule changes, and clumsiness. j Identify behavior Zack is articulate and formal with his speech and j Select and implement appropriate has an impressive vocabulary. His voice fluctuation coping strategy is irregular, however, as he often talks very fast and in a monotone manner. Zack has difficulty V Social Interactions understanding the gestures and facial expressions j Take turns in conversation of others as well as identifying their emotional state. j Converse on multiple topics This creates tremendous difficulty with his ability to respond to others appropriately. Zack has an V Relationships impressive memory and is extremely knowledgeable j Engage and interact with peers in his favorite subject, oceanography. His fixation on ocean life often inhibits his ability to interact V Group / Activity participation appropriately with peers. Zack is in the top group in j Attend to others his class for mathematics and reads on grade level. j Listen Recently, his teacher has seen him struggle with j Turn take reading comprehension. Prediction and making j Identify and follow social rules inferences are especially problematic. For the most part, Zack is independent in the classroom but V Communication often has difficulty organizing materials and being j Improve conversational skills ready for instruction. He is observed still putting away supplies when the teacher is ready to start a V Perspective taking / Theory of mind new subject. Homework is a particular challenge j Interpret environmental cues as he often does not write down the assignment, j Interpret personal cues take home the correct materials, or return it to j Interpret emotional responses school. Zack has a difficult time completing group assignments which require collaboration. He does V Independence not want to listen to the opinions of his peers and j Manage, prepare, and organize believes his answers are the only correct option. materials Zack has challenges in the area of handwriting and often becomes frustrated when he has to write V Fine motor long passages. This frustration often results in j Write Zack refusing to work and engaging in disruptive j Type activities. V Cognitive Focus Areas for Intervention j Understand others’ perspectives j Understand nonconcrete or visual V Nonverbal interaction concepts (e.g., ideas, beliefs) j Display and understand nonverbal j Understand cause-and-effect as it social cues relates to ideas, beliefs, emotions

V 68 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

j Understand figurative language, jokes, functioning and pragmatic communication skills sarcasm in the classroom and throughout the school. The j Predict speech language therapist, therefore, conducts data- j Make inferences driven assessments. He gives a checklist to Zack’s j Plan and execute steps of activity or mother and teacher to complete. He also conducts task three observations in the classroom.

V Academic Environmental Organization and Structure j General education curriculum A variety of environmental modifications and structure is provided to increase Zack’s Curriculum Framework understanding and independence. Supports include:

Zack accesses the general curriculum. His teacher is V Visual rule card is provided during meeting with Zack’s parents to discuss the possibility cooperative activities of having him tested for the gifted program. V Self-management chart is used to evaluate Assessment and Goal Development performance in cooperative activities

Standardized Assessment V Text schedule written in a smart phone Standardized testing will be conducted to assess depicts the entire sequence of daily Zack’s performance in cognition, processing, activities academic achievement, speech, language and communication, and adaptive behavior. V Materials are organized, color coded, and stored in a bin next to his desk for easy Data-driven Assessment access The speech language therapist will conduct standardized testing to assess his abilities in this V Work area is on the end of the row to area; however, he knows that standardized testing provide extra space will not provide an accurate look at Zack’s social

Instructional Considerations Focus Areas Strategies Formats Evaluation

Social interactions • Natural interventions Small and whole Data collected 2 Relationships • Prompting group instruction sessions per week Nonverbal • Reinforcement Communication • Peer mediated intervention Conversational skills • Video modeling • Social narratives • Social skills group

Emotional understanding • Natural interventions 1:1 and small group Data collected 2 Perspective taking • Computer assisted instruction instruction sessions per week • Visual supports • Social skills group

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Instructional Considerations continued Focus Areas Strategies Formats Evaluation

Group activity participation • Natural interventions Small group Data collected one Cooperative work • Prompting instruction session per week Self-regulation • Reinforcement • Response interruption / Redirection • Self-management

Independence • Task analysis 1:1 and whole group Data collected one • Visual supports instruction session per week

Fine motor • Prompting 1:1 and whole group Data collected one • Reinforcement instruction session per week • Self-management

Cognitive • Reinforcement Small and whole Data collected with Academic • Prompting group instruction the other general education students

Assistive Technology and Augmentative and Alternative Communication Modifications and Accommodations

Pictures Directions on assignment highlighted Computer and software Copy of lecture notes provided Schedule Social praise and activities for positive reinforcement Writing grips Rule card Social narrative Peer tutors Checklist Smart phone for schedule and to assist with material Topic card organization Video camera Daily schedule Word processor Storage bin for materials Smart phone Color coded materials Word processor for writing assignments Extra set of materials at home Long-term assignment outline Behavior chart for self-management activities Emotion indicator scale Specific seating assigned in classroom, cafeteria, and music room

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Church, C., Alinsanski, S., & Amanullah, S. (2000). The References social, behavioral, and academic experiences of children with asperger Anzalone, M. E., & Williamson, G. G. (2000). Sensory syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other processing and motor performance in autism Developmental Disabilities, 15, 12-20. spectrum disorders. In A. M. Wetherby, & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism Spectrum Disorders: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). A Transactional Developmental Perspective. (pp. Autism information center. Retrieved November 143-166) Paul H. Brookes Publishing. 26, 2009 from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/

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Harrower, J.K., & Dunlap, G. (2001). Including children Lopez, B. R., Lincoln, A. J., Ozonoff, S., & Lai, Z. (2005). with autism in general education classrooms: Examining the relationship between executive A review of effective strategies. Behavior functions and restricted, repetitive symptoms Modification, 25(5), 762-784. of autistic disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 445-460. Heflin, L.J. & Alaimo, D.F. (2007). Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Effective Educational Practices. Lord, C., & McGee, J. P. (2001). Educating Children with New Jersey, Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Autism. National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Hendricks, D.R. & Wehman, P. (2009). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with Lord C., & Volkmar, F. (2002). Genetics of childhood autism spectrum disorders: Review and disorders: XLII. Autism, part 1: Diagnosis and recommendations. Focus on Autism and Other assessment in autistic spectrum disorders. Developmental Disorders, 24(2), 77-88. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1134-1136. Hess, K.L., Morrier, M.J., Heflin, L., Ivey, M.L. (2008). Autism treatment survey: Services received by Losh, M., Adolphs, R., Poe, M.D., Couture, S., Penn, children with autism spectrum disorders in D., Baranek, G.T. & Piven, J. (2009). The public school classrooms. Journal of Autism and neuropsychological profile of autism and the Developmental Disorders, 38(5), 961-971. broad autism phenotype. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(5), 518-526. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Amendments of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., Kincaid, D. (2003). young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Effective educational practices for students Clinical Psychology, 55(1), 3-9. with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), Lynch, S., & Adams, P. (2008). Developing standards- 150-165. based Individualized Education Program objectives for students with significant needs. Janzen, J. E. (2003). Understanding the Nature of Autism: Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(3), 36-39. A Guide to the Autism Spectrum Disorders (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: PsychCorp. Mesibov, G.B., Shea, V., & Shopler, E. (2004). The TEACCH Approach to Autism Spectrum Leko, M.M., & Brownell, M.T. (2009). Crafting quality Disorders. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/ professional development for special educators: Plenum Publishers. what school leaders should know. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(1), 64-70. Ming, X., Brimacombe, M., & Wagner, G.C. (2007). Prevalence of motor impairment in autism Levine, P., Marder, C., & Wagner, M. (2004). Services spectrum disorders. Brain and Development, 29(9), and supports for secondary school 565-570. students with disabilities. A Special Topic Report from the National Longitudinal Mirenda, P. (2001). Autism, augmentative Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI communication and assistive technology: What International. do we really know? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(3), 141-151.

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Mitchell, M.L. & Jolley, J.M. (2007). Research Design Prelock, P.A. ( 2006). Autism Spectrum Disorders: Issues Explained. (6th Ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson in Assessment and Intervention. Austin TX, Pro-Ed. Wadsworth. Rao, P.A., Beidel, D.C. & Murray, M.J. (2008). Social Myles, B. S., & Simpson, R. L. (1998). Asperger Syndrome. skills interventions for children with Asperger’s Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations. Journal of Autism and National Autism Center (2009). Evidence-Based Developmental Disorders, 38(2), 353-361. Practice and Autism in the Schools: A Guide to Providing Appropriate Interventions to Ritvo E.R. (2005). Understanding the Nature of Autism Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. and Asperger’s Disorder: Forty Years along the Retrieved on May 11, 2010 at http://www. Research Trail. Jessica Kingsley Publishers: The nationalautismcenter.org/pdf/NAC%20Ed%20 Guilford Press: New York. Manual_FINAL.pdf Rogers, E.L. (2002). Functional behavioral assessment National Professional Development Center on and children with autism: Working as a Autism Spectrum Disorders. (2009). Evidence- team? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Based Practice Briefs. Retrieved on July 1, 2010 Disabilities, 16(4), 228-31 from http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/ briefs Rogers, S.J., Ozonoff, S. (2005). Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? National Professional Development Center on A critical review of the empirical evidence. Autism Spectrum Disorders (No Date). Evidence- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1255- Based Practices. Retrieved on July 10, 2010 1268. from http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/content/ evidence-based-practices Scheuermann, B., Webber, J., Boutot, A., & Goodwin, M. (2003). Problems with personnel in autism Nelson, C. & Huefner, D.S. (2003). Young children with spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other autism: judicial responses to the Lovaas and Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), 197-206. discrete trial training debates. Journal of Early Intervention, 26(1), 1-19. Schlosser, R.W., & Wendt, O. (2008). Effects of augmentative and alternative communication No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. 70 6301 intervention on speech production in children with autism: A systematic review. American Ogletree, B.T., Bull, J., Drew, R., Lunnen, K.Y. (2001). Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17, 212-230. Team-based service delivery for students with disabilities: Practice options and guidelines for Simpson, R. L. (2003). Policy-related research issues success. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36(3), and perspectives. Focus on Autism and Other 138-145. Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), 192-196.

Panerai, S., Zinagle, M., Trubia, G., Finocchiaro, M., Simpson, R. L. (2004). Finding effective intervention Zuccarello, R., Ferri, R. & Elia, M. (2009) Special and personnel preparation practices for education versus inclusive education: the role students with autism spectrum disorders. of the TEACCH program. Journal of Autism and Exceptional children, 70(2), 135-144. Developmental Disorders, 39, 874-882.

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Simpson, R. L. (2005). Evidence-based practices and Virginia Department of Education (2008). Assistive students with autism spectrum disorders. Technology: A Framework for Consideration Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, and Assessment. Last retrieved on July 3, 2010 20(3), 140-149. at http://www.vcu.edu/ttac/images/VA_ Framework_for_Assistive_Technology.doc Simpson, R.L., & Zionts, P. (2000). Autism: Information and Resources for Professionals and Parents (2nd Virginia Department of Education (2010). Regulations edition). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Governing Special Education Programs for Students with Disabilities in Virginia. 8VAC20-81. Retrieved Snell, M. E. & Brown, F. (2006). Designing and on May 11, 2010 from: http://www.doe.virginia. implementing instructional programs. In M. E. gov/special_ed/regulations/state/regs_ Snell & F. Brown (Eds.) Instruction of Students with speced_disability_va.pdf Severe Disabilities, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Virginia Department of Education (2010) Testing and Standards of Learning. Retrieved on July 17, 2010 Sterling-Turner, H.E., & Jordan, S.S. (2007). from: http://www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/ Interventions addressing transition difficulties index.shtml for individuals with autism. Psychology in Schools, 44(7), 681-690: Webber, J. & Scheuermann, B. (2008). Educating Students with Autism: A Quick Start Manual. Stokes, M. A., & Kaur, A. (2005). High-functioning Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. autism and sexuality: A parental perspective. Autism, 9(3), 266-289. Whitman, T.L. (2004). Development of Autism: A Self- Regulatory Perspective. New York, NY: Treffert, D.A. (2007). The autistic artist, “special Jessica Kingsley Publishers/The Guildford Press. faculties,” and savant syndrome. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 16, 13-23 Williams, D.L., Goldstein, G. Carpenter, P.A., Minshew, N.J. (2005). Verbal and spatial working memory Twachtman-Cullen, D. (2000). More able children with in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental autism spectrum disorders: Sociocommunicative Disorders, 35(6), 747-756 challenges and guidelines for enhancing abilities. In A. M. Wetherby, & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism Wolfe, P., & Neisworth, J. T. (2005). Autism and applied Spectrum Disorders: A Transactional Developmental behavior analysis. Exceptionality, 13(1), 1-2. Perspective. (pp. 225-249). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Wong, C.S., Kasari, C., Freeman, S. & Paparella, T. (2007). The acquisition and generalization of Virginia Autism Council. (2005). Skill competencies joint attention and symbolic play skills in young for professionals and paraprofessionals in children with autism. Research & Practice for Virginia supporting individuals with autism Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(2), 101-109. across the lifespan. Retrieved on July 3, 2010 from www.autismtrainingva.org.

Verte, S., Geurts, H.M., Roeyers, H., Oosterlaan, J., Sergeant, J.A. (2006). Executive functioning in children with an autism spectrum disorder: can we differentiate within the spectrum? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 351-372.

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APPENDICES

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V 76 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 APPENDIX A: Data Driven Assessments / Data Collection Forms

Frequency of Behavior Recording Form

In the form below, indicate the total amount of time of the observation and the total number of times the behavior occurred.

Student Name: Observer:

Date(s):

Learning/Behavioral Objectives

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Total Time of Observation

Frequency of skill/behavior

Total Number of Behavior (Rate)

Sample Duration Recording Form

In the form below, indicate the total amount of time observed, when the behavior begins and the time that the behavior ends. Summarize the total amount of time the behavior occurred during the observation by using the index “percentage of time.”

Student Name: Observer:

Date(s):

Learning/Behavioral Objective:

Length of Session Start Stop Percentage of Time

Total

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Sample Prompt Delivery Progress Monitoring Form

In the form below, indicate the activity observed. Record the level of prompting required to complete the behavior.

Date(s):

Student:

Instructor:

Activity Objective # 1 Objective # 2 Objective # 3

+ = Completed skill independently vp = Completed skill with verbal prompt pp = Completed skill with physical prompt - = Did not complete

V 78 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 APPENDIX B: Evidence-Based Instructional Strategies for Children and Youth with ASD Source: The National Professional Development Center on Step 1 .Identify the Interfering Behavior Autism Spectrum Disorders (2009) Identify the behavior for a student with ASD that is interfering with learning (e.g., self-stimulation, self- Antecedent-Based Interventions (ABI) injurious,). Typically, educators complete a Functional Behavioral Assessment to identify the function of the Skills or intervention goals addressed interfering behavior. ABI are most often used with students who exhibit interfering behaviors, especially self-injurious, Step 2 .Collect Baseline Data repetitive, and stereotypical behaviors. ABI are also Collect baseline data to determine how often the used to promote on-task behaviors. student is currently engaging in the interfering behavior. Overview ABI are a collection of practices in which Step 3 .Implement ABI environmental modifications are used to change Identify and implement one of the following ABI the conditions in the setting that prompt a student strategies that directly addresses the function of the to engage in an interfering behavior. The goal of interfering behavior: ABI is to identify the conditions in the setting that are reinforcing the interfering behavior and then 1. use highly preferred activities/items to to modify the environment or activity so that increase interest level; the environmental conditions no longer elicit the 2. change schedules/routines; interfering behavior. 3. implement pre-activity interventions (e.g., provide a warning about the next activity, This practice is most often used after a Functional provide information about instruction); Behavioral Assessment (FBA) has been conducted 4. use choice-making; to identify the function of the interfering behavior. 5. alter how instruction is delivered; or ABI strategies often are used in conjunction with 6. enrich the environment to provide access other evidence-based practices such as functional to sensory stimuli that serve the same communication training (FCT), extinction, and function as the behavior (e.g., fidget toy, reinforcement. objects that require motor manipulation).

Table 11 . Descriptions and Examples of ABI Strategies ABI Functions Strategy Description addressed Examples Use student Tasks/activities are modified Escape/ avoid • Incorporate dinosaurs into mathematics activity preferences to increase interest. • Use Spiderman notebook for journal entries

Alter the Routines and schedules Escape/ • Change seating environment are changed to decrease avoid • Change line-up procedures interfering behaviors. • Provide activities during wait time • Provide snack after nonpreferred activity • Clearly mark areas of the classroom (e.g., work, leisure) • Provide timer during nonpreferred tasks

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Table 11 . Descriptions and Examples of ABI Strategies continued ABI Functions Strategy Description addressed Examples

Implement Intervention is implemented Escape/ • Provide warning about upcoming activity pre-activity before a task associated with avoid • Go over assignment before class starts interventions the interfering behavior. • Provide information about schedule changes • Use activity schedules

Use choice- Choice of materials or tasks Escape/ • Choose where to sit at snack making is offered during times when avoid • Choose which activity to complete first interfering behavior occurs. • Choose toy to play with during free play • Choose writing tool

Alter how Instruction is modified so Escape/ • Provide written rather than verbal instruction is student clearly understands avoid instructions delivered what is expected. • Provide instructions in a checklist rather than paragraph • Require completion of fewer problems

Enrich the Access to appropriate Get/obtain • Allow quiet play with clay or doodling during environment behaviors (rocking chair) is lectures provided. • Allow chewing gum instead of playing with saliva • Provide break to jump on trampoline

Table 11 provides descriptions and examples of ABI The steps for implementation of computer-aided strategies. instruction are actually guidelines for the general use of computer software for instructional purposes. Step 4 .Monitor Student Progress Thus, the steps for the use of specific software will Educators use progress monitoring data to evaluate vary according to the instructions that accompany whether the interfering behavior is decreasing as purchased software. result of the intervention. Step 1 .Identify the Target of Instruction Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) Identify the skills or behaviors to be taught via the computer. Skills or intervention goals addressed CAI can be used effectively to address academic Step 2 .Collect Baseline Data skills, including vocabulary and grammar; Collect baseline data to determine current communication/language skills, including functions performance on the skill. and initiations; and recognition and prediction of emotions in others. Steps 3 and 4 . Identify Technology Support and Available Computers to Use Overview Identify and contact persons in the building who CAI includes the use of computers to teach academic provide computer support. Also, identify available skills and to promote communication and language computers and information needed for use, development and skills. It includes computer including the type of computer, operational system, modeling and computer tutors. and access to the Internet.

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Steps 5 and 6 .Identify, Select, and Install Differential Reinforcement (DR) Appropriate Software Determine the program that may be used to provide Skills or intervention goals addressed instruction. Install and/or set up needed components DR procedures are most commonly used to reduce and ensure proper operation. challenging or interfering behaviors (e.g., tantrums, aggression, self-injury, stereotypic behavior) as Step 7 .Learn the Software well as increase pro-social or desired behaviors (e.g., Learn to operate software or Internet-based communication/language skills). programs. Overview Step 8 .Complete a Task Analysis of Steps for DR is a special application of reinforcement designed Using Software to reduce the occurrence of interfering behaviors. Complete a task analysis of the steps for accessing and The rationale for DR is that by reinforcing behaviors using the designated program so he or she can use the that are more functional or incompatible with the computer more independently. interfering behavior, the functional behavior will increase, and interfering behavior decrease. A variety Step 9 .Teach the Program to Others Who of differential reinforcement strategies can be used to Support the Student increase positive behaviors and decrease interfering Teach those who support the student how to use behaviors. the program, including other teachers, classroom assistants, peers, and family members. Step 1 .Identify the Interfering Behavior Define the behavior that interferes with learning and Step 10 .Teach the Student Basic Computer gather relevant information including topography, Skills, if Necessary frequency, and intensity to provide a thorough Provide opportunities for students to learn basic description. computer skills. Skills include: Step 2 .Determine the Function of the V sitting at the computer; Interfering Behavior V wearing headphones (if necessary); Conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment and V looking at, listening to, and responding to identify the function of the interfering behavior. the computer screen; V using a mouse and/or keyboard (and Step 3 .Identify Data Collection Measures and possibly other equipment, such as a touch Collect Baseline Data screen); Identify data collection measures to be used to assess V taking turns; or the interfering behavior and collect baseline data to V treating the computer equipment with care. determine the frequency, topography, and intensity/ severity. Steps 11, 12, and 13 .Introduce Student to the Program, Provide Opportunities for Use, and Step 4 .Select a Differential Reinforcement Offer Ongoing Support Procedure Teach student to learn how to use the program using Determine one or more of the following differential the task analysis and targeted instruction. reinforcement procedures to use to address the function of the interfering behavior: Step 14 .Collect Data on Acquisition of Target Skill 1. differential reinforcement of other Collect and analyze data on the acquisition of the behaviors (DRO; e.g., reinforcing singing to target skill. replace screaming);

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2. differential reinforcement of alternative 4. differential reinforcement of low rates behaviors (DRA; e.g., reinforcing shaking of behavior (DRL; e.g., reinforcing hand hands to replace slapping); raising, which rarely happens) 3. differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors (DRI; e.g., reinforcing appropriate Table 12 provides information that may be helpful language to replace swearing); and in making decisions about which differential reinforcement procedures to use.

Table 12 . Differential Reinforcement Procedures Severity/ Procedure to Topography intensity Frequency Impact on environment consider

Unacceptable/ Very severe/ Constant Severe (very distracting or DRI dangerous/ intense (dangerous) disruptive) student looks extremely odd (e.g., twirling in circles in the lunch room)

Odd/bizarre or Pretty severe Frequent Significant (disrupts DRI or DRL different (potentially environment but not severely) dangerous)

Slightly odd but not Somewhat severe Occasional Tolerable (environment DRO or DRA enough to cause (causes problems but is impacted to a tolerable stigma is not dangerous) amount)

Within what would be Not at all severe Rare Minimal (minor impact on DRO or DRA expected for a similar (annoying or environment) aged student distracting)

Step 5 .Create an Intervention Plan Step 7 .Collect Outcome Data Write a detailed DR intervention plan that Regularly collect and analyze data. describes the type of reinforcement, schedule of reinforcement, replacement or alternative skills, Step 8 .Review and Modify the Intervention steps for implementation, and data collection Plan procedures. Modify the intervention plan by determining the progress towards reduction of the interfering Step 6 .Implement the Intervention behavior and increase of replacement or alternative Implement the intervention plan that has skills. been developed by following the schedule of reinforcement outlined and explicitly teaching the replacement or alternative skills.

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Discrete Trial Training (DTT) V a place for documenting prompt level, V key for abbreviations, Skills or intervention goals addressed V criteria for mastery, DTT has been shown to have positive effects on V places to record dates when the skills are children’s academic, cognitive, communication/ introduced and mastered, and language, social, and behavioral skills. Some learning V graphing sheets. objectives are better taught using DTT than others. Objectives that involve fine and gross motor skills, Step 4 .Designate Location(s) recreation, self-care, academic, attending, imitation, Determine the possible locations where teaching will and symbolic play skills are often appropriate for DTT. take place.

Overview Step 5 .Gather Materials DTT is a method of teaching in which the adult Assemble materials to be used during the teaching. uses adult-directed, often massed trial instruction, Consider the use of the following materials when reinforcers chosen for their strength, clear setting up a DTT program: contingencies, and repetition to teach new skills. DTT is a particularly strong method for developing V Notebooks/ binders for data collection and a new response to a stimulus. Its limitations involve team communication lack of reinforcement of student spontaneity and V Preference list or menu based on preference difficulty with generalization. Thus, once a skill is assessment learned in the DTT format, it is important to develop V Variety of tangible reinforcers (edible and plans for teaching generalized use of the new skill nonedible) across environments, materials, and people, and also V Pictures or icons of preferred social activities to develop teaching plans for student initiation of the (reinforcers) new skill. V Instructional materials (letters, shapes, colors) Step 1 .Decide What to Teach: Assess and V Object related materials (blocks, toys, real life Summarize Results materials) Determine the goals to be taught using DTT and V Pens, pencils, markers create learning objectives that clearly state the V Bins for storage which can be clearly labeled desired antecedent, behavior, and criterion for mastery. Step 6 .Deliver the Trials Deliver DTT by completing the following steps: Step 2 .Break the Skill Down into Teachable Steps 1. Transition the student to the teaching Complete a task analysis of the skill, breaking the location skill into small teachable steps. Identify each step of 2. Obtain the student’s attention and, together, the skill and list in sequential order from entry to select reinforcers (e.g., toy, edible, action, mastery level. token to be exchanged for an item or activity) Step 3 .Set Up the Data Collection System 3. Provide instruction or other discriminative Select or create data sheets specifically designed for stimulus (antecedent) the skill being taught that will provide for collection 4. Provide a prompt if appropriate of trial by trial data and a visual summary of the data. 5. Wait for student response Include the following: 6. Provide consequence a. If the student responds appropriately, V a place for recording the outcome of the trial deliver a reinforcer and mark the trial as (e.g., correct or incorrect), correct

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b. If the student does not respond, provide Step 9 .Review and Modify corrective feedback and begin the trial Review data and modify the program to reflect again with the same level of prompting the progress or lack of progress made. If progress c. If the student responds incorrectly, is not at an unacceptable level, alter instruction. If record the trial and begin the trial progress has occurred, add learned skills to the list again with increased prompting of maintenance items to be reviewed and target skills for generalization by practicing skills in other Step 7 .Conduct Massed Trial Teaching settings, with other adults, and with other stimuli. Conduct teaching using massed trials, by repeating the same learning trial several times in a row, Extinction ensuring that the student is successful multiple times at whatever step of the skill is being taught. Conduct Skills and intervention goals addressed massed trials by completing the following steps: Extinction is used to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of an interfering behavior, especially 1. Begin the teaching episode with a harmful behaviors. maintenance trial (demonstration of a skill already mastered) and record the result Overview 2. Present instruction on the teaching target Extinction is a reinforcement strategy that is used (move to this step only if the student passed with students exhibiting interfering behaviors the maintenance trial) in order to eliminate the behavior. When using 3. If the student responds correctly on the first extinction, reinforcement is withheld when the trial, repeat the instruction several more interfering behavior occurs in an effort to reduce times and record the results or eliminate the reoccurrence of the interfering 4. If the student is unsuccessful, repeat the behavior. It is based on the principle that if the trial multiple times adding an increased reinforcement for the behavior is withheld then level of assistance (e.g., physical rather the behavior is likely to stop as it is no longer being than verbal prompt) to assure the student reinforced. performs the skill 5. If the student reaches mastery criterion for Extinction usually occurs with differential the teaching target (e.g., 90 percent success reinforcement as desired behaviors are differentially for three consecutive teaching sessions), reinforced while interfering behaviors experience move to a more difficult level or skill (e.g., extinction. During the use of extinction it is likely reduce level of prompting, introduce next that the interfering behavior will experience a step of the skill) temporary increase. This increase is known as 6. If the student is unable to progress, alter extinction burst. instruction 7. Review mastered steps or skills Step 1 . Identify the interfering behavior (maintenance trials) once or twice during Identify the interfering behavior and its function each session and teach new steps or skills through a Functional Behavioral Assessment. following the massed trials format until all steps of the skill have been mastered Step 2 .Identify the reinforcer Determine what is reinforcing the behavior and Step 8 .Conduct Discrimination Training effectively avoid delivering the reinforcer to the Teach the student to discriminate the teaching interfering behavior. Ensure everyone who interacts target from other similar items by systematically with the student with ASD avoids delivering the presenting the mastered item with distracters. reinforcer. Teach the student to generalize a concept or item by reteaching the concept with several different stimuli.

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Step 3 .Differentially reinforce communicative function and that is being reinforced Differentially reinforce the desired behavior (perhaps unknowingly) or a subtle communicative by providing the reinforcer following the attempt that can be replaced with a more demonstration of a positive or replacement behavior conventional form of communication. while simultaneously not delivering any type of reinforcement to the interfering behavior. Step 2 .Conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment Functional Communication Training (FCT) Conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment to determine the function of an interfering behavior. Skills and intervention goals addressed Identify specifically the communicative intent of the FCT is used in teaching expressive communication problem behavior (e.g., I want to eat. I don’t want to skills that are functionally equivalent with an work.) Also, identify the antecedents and maintaining interfering behavior. Functional Communication is consequences of the behavior. more effective than just teaching expressive language skills in general as they serve a specific purpose for Step 3 .Identify a Replacement Behavior as a the student. Substitute for the Interfering Behavior Determine the Functional Communication that will Overview serve the same purpose as the interfering behavior FCT relies on communication to reduce interfering (e.g., Teach the student to say, “I need a break.”) behaviors and therefore involves teaching a student Determine the strategy that will be used to teach the a socially acceptable replacement behavior that Functional Communication. accomplishes the same outcome or function as the interfering behavior. It is important that the new 1. Select a form of communication replacement behavior match the function of the appropriate for the student (e.g., verbal, interfering behavior. Additionally, the variables that signing, picture). maintain the interfering behavior must be accessed 2. Select a replacement behavior that is through a functional-based assessment procedure efficient, acceptable, and recognized by all in order to adequately reinforce the replacement who interact with the student. behavior. FCT strategies can be used to teach both 3. Determine when the Functional verbal (teaching a particular phrase) and nonverbal Communication will be taught based on (sign language, picture exchange) methods of the results of the Functional Behavioral communication. Assessment.

Step 1 .Identify the Interfering Behavior Table 13 provides examples of student behavior and Identify an inappropriate behavior (e.g., hitting, Functional Communication replacements. falling to the floor) that is serving some type of

Table 13 . Functional Communication Replacements Student behavior Function of behavior FCT strategy Outcome Yells and bangs head Teacher attention Teach to use a Yelling and head banging “I need help” card decrease because student to request attention is receiving teacher attention when using the card. Hits Escape from work Teach to say “I need Student receives break when a break” using new phrase and returns to work when calm.

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Step 4 .Teach the Replacement Functional Step 6 .Monitor Student Progress Communication by Manipulating the Data collection is monitored to ensure the student Environment and Using Effective Prompting replaces the interfering behavior and is able to Procedures generalize the Functional Communication. The Teach the replacement behavior in the environments following questions may be helpful during this where the interfering behavior occurs. Steps include: problem-solving process:

1. Manipulate materials or activities to provide V Has the function of the behavior been opportunities for the repeated practice identified correctly? of the replacement behavior. Extensive V Did the communicative act serve as a opportunities to use the Functional replacement for the behavior? Communication are essential. For example, V Was the replacement behavior efficient, the teacher might serve a small portion at appropriate, and recognizable? snack so the student must present a picture V Was instruction provided in environments of “cracker” multiple times or the teacher where the interfering behavior typically may purposefully engage in another activity occurs? so the student has to gain attention by V Was the instruction provided in multiple raising her hand. environments and with multiple people? 2. Prompt the student to use the replacement V Were the prompting procedures behavior using a prompt that ensures appropriate for the student? errorless learning. 3. Shape the production of the replacement Naturalistic Interventions behavior by reinforcing closer approximations until it is the desired Skills and intervention goals addressed production. Naturalistic intervention can be used to facilitate 4. Remove reinforcement from the interfering communication and social skills, which may behavior should it occur. include things like expressive vocabulary, speech 5. Provide reinforcement for the occurrence of intelligibility, use of gesture, shared attention, and the replacement behavior. turn taking. 6. Target generalization of the Functional Communication by teaching the Overview replacement behavior with multiple Naturalistic Intervention is a collection of practices communication partners and in multiple including environmental arrangement, interaction settings. techniques, and strategies based on Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) principles. These practices are Step 5 .Design and Implement a Data Collection designed to encourage specific target behaviors System based on students’ interests by building more Design and then implement data collection complex skills that are naturally reinforcing and procedures that are functional, meaningful, and appropriate to the interaction. useful for determining effectiveness of the FCT. Data collection focuses on: By definition, Naturalistic Intervention is used in daily routines throughout the day to develop skills. V antecedents, A key feature of this strategy is using materials, V prompts required to produce the toys, and activities that will motivate the student replacement behavior, to engage in the target behavior and will promote V frequency of the replacement behaviors, and generalization of skills. Motivation is maintained by V frequency of the interfering behavior. reinforcing the target behavior as well as attempts. Techniques based in ABA can be used to elicit the

V 86 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 target behaviors. These behavioral techniques Step 4 .Arrange the Environment to Elicit the include modeling, mand-models, time delay, and Behavior incidental teaching. Use information from Step 3 and materials / resources within learning environments to capture Step 1 .Identify a Target Behavior students’ attention and teach the target behavior. Do Identify a specific target behavior/skill to be the this by: focus of the intervention. This target behavior may focus on prelinguistic or linguistic communication 1. Choose motivating materials/activities to and/or social skills. Examples of specific skills are: engage students and promote the use of V Connor will use the pronouns he, she, and it targeted skills. correctly. 2. Manage and distribute teaching materials V Jay will respond to a question asked by a in a way that encourages students to learn peer. the target skill. The teacher should be “the keeper of the goods” and distribute the Step 2 .Collect Baseline Data materials in a manner that elicits student Determine the student’s current use of the target performance. For example, communication skill through data collection. can often be elicited by “forgetting” to provide a pencil, putting a doll’s hat on her Step 3 .Identify Contexts and Instructional feet as if by accident, or having two children Format for Intervention share markers during an art activity. Such Identify where and how Naturalistic Intervention organization is likely to elicit a request or will be implemented. Consider the following: comment from the student. 3. Arrange the intervention context and 1. Identify the contexts in which to embed environment to encourage the use of the Naturalistic Intervention. Naturalistic target behavior/skill and maintain the Intervention should take place throughout student’s interest. the day in the context of daily routines / schedules. Some examples follow: 2. Plan to implement three instructional strategies within daily routines / schedules V LaTisha’s team has identified her target to teach desired skills using Naturalistic behavior to be pointing to request. Her Interventions: teacher knows she loves to complete a. Student-directed activities. In these puzzles. She takes LaTisha’s puzzles off the activities, students select what table, and puts them on a bookshelf that they want to do within a specific LaTisha cannot reach. The intention is for environment and the teacher LaTisha to point to the puzzles to request follows the student’s lead to provide them. instruction. b. Routine activities. Embed instruction V Ruby’s team has identified her target in routine activities that take place on behavior to be increased turn taking. She a regular basis. enjoys manipulatives. Her teacher replaces c. Planned activities. Planned activities the standard manipulatives (e.g., counting are set-up in advance to provide bears) with turn taking games that involve structured opportunities for students the manipulation of small parts, like to practice the target behavior. Ants in the PantsTM, StacrobatsTM, and KerplunkTM. The intention is for Ruby to be enticed by the small pieces and then engage in turn taking while playing the game.

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Step 5 .Elicit the Target Behavior This provides a model and helps the Elicit the target behavior using interaction student know that attention is being techniques and, if necessary, behavioral strategies shared. For example, a student may be like prompting and modeling. Steps include: trying to open a juice box and say, “Aah!” The teacher can respond, “Open!” 1. Engage the student in a language-rich and e. Expand the student’s utterances. When student-centered interaction in which the a student is verbal, especially at the teacher is highly attuned and responsive one- to three-word phrase level, the to the communicative attempts of the teacher can build on what the student student. Use the following techniques: says, thereby demonstrating more a. Follow the student’s lead. Following linguistically sophisticated options. the student’s lead involves allowing 2. Use strategies based on ABA to elicit the him or her to direct the interaction target behavior within intervention and the activity. Rather than a teacher contexts and arranged environments. having a set lesson plan (e.g., to play in Select one of the following interventions: the toy house), the teacher waits and a. Modeling, sees what the student wants to do. b. Mand-modeling, For example, if the student goes to the c. Modified time delay, or toy house, engagement occurs there. d. Incidental teaching. But if the student goes to the block area, engagement occurs in the blocks. Modeling: Modeling involves demonstration of the Remember the environment has desired behavior. Implement modeling by: already been arranged to elicit specific targets (Step 4), so either activity a. Establishing shared attention, should lead to the desired behavior. b. Presenting a verbal or physical model, Another example is to provide a c. Repeating the response and providing the student with several items known requested material if the student responds to be motivating, such as dinosaurs, correctly, trains, and markers. Allow the student d. Providing another model if the student to choose the desired item then does not respond or responds inaccurately, provide engagement with the item e. Continuing these steps until student chosen. Again, each item should lead to demonstrates mastery with the target the desired behavior. behavior, b. Be at the student’s level. The teacher f. Fading the use of the model, and is positioned to share face-to-face g. Expanding the model provided and the interactions in order to facilitate response desired from the student. shared attention. c. Respond to the student’s verbal and Mand-modeling: Mand-modeling incorporates nonverbal initiations. Be vigilant and questions, choice, direction into the activity prior to observe the student watching for any initiating a modeling procedure. Implement mand- communicative attempts. Be aware of modeling by: even the most subtle communicative attempts and respond to these a. Establishing shared attention, attempts. b. Presenting a verbal direction (mand) or d. Provide meaningful verbal question, feedback. Respond to the student’s c. Repeating the response and providing the communicative attempts with words. requested material if the student responds correctly,

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d. Providing another model if the student behavior, and does not respond or responds inaccurately, g. Expanding the verbal direction and e. Modeling the appropriate behavior and questions provided and the response providing the material/activity if the desired from the student. student attempts to respond but does not meet the target level, Table 14 illustrates how mand-modeling can be used f. Continuing these steps until the student to teach the use of two-word utterances. demonstrates mastery with the target

Table 14 . Mand-modeling Procedure Example Steps Example Establish shared attention Sasha and her teacher are having snack at the table where enticing snacks are located. Provide a verbal direction Teacher says, “Tell me what you want, Sasha” or gives a choice question, (mand) or question “Do you want apples or crackers?”

Student responds correctly When Sasha says the target response (“Want crackers”), her teacher provides the crackers and repeats her utterance by saying, “Want crackers!” Student does not respond or When Sasha points to the crackers instead of verbalizing, her teacher does not respond accurately prompts her by saying, “Say, ‘Want crackers’.” Student gives the target response When Sasha repeats, “Want crackers,” her teacher provides the crackers and repeats her utterance by saying, “Want crackers!”

Modified Time Delay: Modified time delay, or behavior, and waiting for a pre-determined amount of time, before g. Expanding the response desired from the providing a prompt allows students to initiate the student. behavior and encourages them to become aware of nonverbal cues. Implement modified time delay by: The following table illustrates how modified time delay can be used to teach a student with ASD how to a. Establishing shared attention and create use two-word utterances to request. an opportunity for the student to respond (e.g., hold the juice, shake the marker box), Incidental Teaching: Incidental teaching uses b. Waiting three to five seconds for the questions, directions, modified time delay, and student to demonstrate the target modeling to encourage elaboration of a student’s behavior, behavior or response. Implement incidental teaching c. Repeating the response and providing the by: requested material if the student responds correctly, a. Setting up the environment, establish d. Providing another model if the student shared attention, and create an opportunity does not respond or responds inaccurately, for the student to respond, e. Modeling the appropriate behavior and b. Waiting for student to initiate the behavior, providing the material/activity, if the c. Responding with a request for the behavior, student attempts to respond but does not if the student does not initiate the target meet the target level, response, f. Continuing these steps until the student d. Prompting for elaboration until the student demonstrates mastery with the target responds appropriately if the student does

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Table 15 .Modified Time Delay Technique Example Steps Example Establish shared attention John’s teacher is pushing him on the swing, facing him.

Wait for student to make a request The teacher lets the swing come to a stop. She waits, with her hands up as if to push, and has an expectant look on her face.

Student demonstrates behavior at John says, “Push me!” the teacher says, “Push me really high!” the target level and pushes the swing.

Student does not initiate at the John grunts instead of verbalizing. The teacher gives a mand, “Tell me target level what to do.” or gives a model, “Say ‘Push me’.”

After the mand or model is provided, John says, “Push me!” the teacher says, “Push me really high!” and student responds correctly pushes the swing.

Student does not give the target John says, “Puh,” the teacher says, “Push me!” and pushes him on the response but makes an attempt swing.

not initiate the target behavior, and ASD in both naturalistic and structured settings. e. Using model, mand-model, or modified Peers assist students with ASD in learning new social time delay procedures depending on the skills by increasing social opportunities in learning needs of the student if the student does not environments. Peers are systematically instructed demonstrate the expansion. in ways of engaging with students in both teacher directed and student directed activities. PMI can be Step 6 .Use Data Collection to Monitor Student used across all age ranges and developmental levels. Progress and Determine Next Steps Peer mediated strategies include: Review data and modify the program to reflect the progress or lack of progress made. If progress V Peer tutoring is not at an unacceptable level, alter instruction. If V Peer modeling progress has occurred, add learned skills to the list V Classwide peer tutoring of maintenance items to be reviewed and target V Cooperative groups skills for generalization by practicing skills in other V Incidental teaching settings, with other adults, and with other stimuli. V Peer assisted learning strategies V Peer initiation training Peer Mediated Instruction Step 1 .Select Peers Skills and intervention goals addressed Select peers who will provide social support to the PMI is frequently used to address social behaviors student with ASD. Select peers who demonstrate good and communication skills including eye contact, social skills, language, and are typically well liked by play activities initiating conversation, offering others. They also should share a common schedule or requesting help, maintenance of conversation, or academic grouping as the student with ASD and expanding content of conversations, and demonstrate a willingness to participate. demonstrating affection. Step 2 .Train Peers Overview Train peers to support the student with ASD. Content PMI is a strategy that is used to teach typically for peer training varies according to the age of the developing peers ways to interact with students with student. For elementary students:

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1. Teach specific behaviors used to facilitate Step 3 .Support Peers social interactions which include: Provide ongoing support and feedback to the peer G Initiating interactions throughout the process. The follow-up support, like G Responding to initiations training, is dependent on the age of the students. For G Maintaining interactions elementary students, following the initial training, G Greetings/topics hold sessions to demonstrate and model for the G Giving/receiving compliments peers specific strategies (see #2 above) that can be G Turn taking/sharing used to support the student with ASD during social G Helping and asking for help interactions. As peers become more comfortable and G Including others in activities proficient in providing support to the student with 2. Teach to learn to recognize and appreciate ASD, decrease the level of involvement allowing the individual differences peer to assume the primary role of social support. 3. Provide basic strategies that can be used to interact and support the student with ASD Step 4 .Implement in Classroom Setting and in social contexts, including: Throughout the Day G Providing frequent and positive Implement PMI throughout activities across the feedback to the student school day. Consider environmental factors when G Modeling relevant communication developing peer mediated interactions to optimize skills learning. The table below outlines considerations for G Facilitating interactions with other implementing PMI. peers

Table 16 . Considerations for Peer Mediation Factor What it looks like Supportive social environment The environment fosters social interaction through small social groups and by seating trained peers next to student with ASD during whole-class activities

Learning opportunities Small academic groups, class centers, special areas such as library and PE, and structured games provide interaction opportunities

Monitored social interactions Feedback is provided to peers on an ongoing basis at the end of each activity, class period, or during weekly meetings

Step 5 .Extend Across the Day Picture Exchange Communication System Extend peer networks across settings and people (PECS) so that the student with ASD begins to generalize the skills they have practiced and learned. Provide Skills and intervention goals addressed extension of activities in natural social settings with The Picture Exchange Communication System a minimum of two to three different routines each (PECS; Frost & Bondy, 2002) is used to teach day. Maintain peer groups during generalization to communication, social, and behavior skills. promote interpersonal connections and friendships.

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Overview student moves to and chooses the PECS was developed for students with ASD and correct picture/symbol from the two other sociocommunicative disorders with the aim pictures. of teaching communication within a social context. Phase 3B: Teaching Simultaneous PECS is used in a variety of environments including Discrimination of Pictures the home, school, and community. The strategy Pictures are added to increase the consists of six distinct phases. These phases are number of discriminations the composed of a variety of Applied Behavior Analysis student must make. Error correction (ABA) teaching strategies including backward procedures are used to teach picture chaining, incidental teaching, shaping, discrete discrimination. trials, delayed prompting, and discrimination training. Phase 4: Building Sentence Structure It is time to move to Phase 4 when the Step 1: Conduct a Reinforcer Assessment student is able to use 12 to 20 pictures and is Conduct a reinforcer assessment to determine able to discriminate among them to select items that are highly preferred, preferred, and the desired item. In this phase, the student nonpreferred by the student. is taught to use the “I want” symbol with one of the mastered pictures/symbols on Step 2: Initiate the Phases and Steps of the a sentence strip during a communicative PECS exchange. Initiate the phases of the PECS systematically, moving from one step to another as each is Phase 5: Responding to “What do you mastered. Below is the list of the phases. Each phase want?” requires implementation of specific steps. Phase 5 instruction is focused on encouraging initiations and teaching the Phase 1: Teaching the Physically Assisted student to answer the question, “What do Exchange you want?” The focus of Phase 1 is on teaching students with ASD how to look at, reach for, pick Phase 6: Commenting in Response to a up, and hand the picture/symbol to a Question communication partner. The purpose of Phase 6 is to teach labeling and naming objects. Phase 2: Expanding Spontaneity The outcome of Phase 2 is to increase the Phase 6A: Commenting in Response student’s generalization and spontaneity of to a Question the picture exchange. The student responds to “What do you see?” Phase 3: Simultaneous Discrimination of Pictures Phase 6B: Commenting in Response In Phase 3, the student must discriminate to a Question – Differentiating and choose from one or more pictures/ Responses to Questions symbols during communicative exchanges. An “I see” symbol is placed below the “I want” symbol in corner of the Phase 3A: Discrimination between communication book. The student a Highly Preferred Icon and a learns to discriminate between the Distracter Icon Two pictures (one two questions. preferred and one nonpreferred) are provided at some distance so the

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Phase 6C: Commenting in Response Step 3: Expand Use of the PECS to a Question – Promoting Using the PECS principles students are taught Spontaneous Commenting a variety of language concepts and how to use and Building in Attributes and communication spontaneously in different Modifications environments. As the student demonstrates the ability to make requests and answer questions, questioning is eliminated to promote spontaneous commenting.

The table below provides a description of the PECS.

Table 17 .The Picture Communication System Phase Supplies Proximity Goal

Phase I: Teaching the • Two people (one Close Have the child spontaneously Physically Assisted to receive the pick up picture, reach toward Exchange communication teacher and place picture into the and one to assist the teacher’s open hand student) • Communication Board • Reinforcers

Phase II: Expanding • Communication Distance is increased Expand spontaneity through Spontaneity Board between child and increasing communicative • Reinforcers communication board persistence (child goes to board, and child and teacher. finds the teacher, and releases the picture)

Phase III: Simultaneous • Communication Any distance Discriminate between pictures Discrimination of Board (selects correct picture from an Pictures • Reinforcer array)

Phase IV: Building • Communication Any distance Make a request using the carrier Sentence Structure Board phrase “I want.” (selects picture • Sentence Strip and places it on sentence strip • Reinforcers with picture depicting “I want”)

Phase V: Responding to • Communication Any distance Respond to phrase “what do you “What do you want?” Board want?” using delayed prompting • Sentence Strip (spontaneously requests and • Reinforcers responds to “What do you want?”)

Phase VI: Commenting • Communication Any distance Comment, label, and name in Response to Board objects and respond to different Questions • Sentence Strips questions (spontaneously • Reinforcers answers questions and comments)

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Pivotal Response Training (PRT) Step 3 .Use Student Choice Allow the student to choose the materials or toys Skills and intervention goals addressed they want to work or play with. In order for this to be PRT focuses on pivotal behaviors of motivation, effective the teacher must complete a series of tasks: responding to multiple cues, self-management, and self-initiations. Through the learning and 1. Observe the student engaging in the development of these pivotal skills improvements environment when they have free access to occur in a variety of academic, social, materials to identify preferences. communication, and self-management areas. 2. Arrange the environment with student- preferred, age-appropriate objects and Overview activities. PRT is a systematic method of applying scientific 3. Allow the student to select materials, topics, principles of applied behavior analysis to teach or toys during the teaching activity. students with ASD. PRT is naturalistic intervention 4. Follow the student’s lead during that builds on student initiatives and interests. PRT interactions and learning opportunities. targets a small set of pivotal behaviors that lead 5. Incorporate choice making into naturally to the development of skills in other important occurring routines and activities. areas. Pivotal behaviors for students with ASD include motivation, responding to multiple cues, Step 4 .Vary Tasks and Responses self-management, and increased incidence of self- Vary tasks throughout learning opportunities to initiation through peer mediation. These behaviors maximize student motivation and engagement. are pivotal in that they are the foundational Additionally, vary instructions and environmental skills upon which widespread and generalized conditions to foster continued learning and improvements can be made in many other domains. responding to a range of stimuli. Students will Strategies to address the two pivotal behaviors of typically indicate when a change is necessary. For motivation and responding to multiple cues are example, a student who is bored may repeatedly provided below. Self-management and increased sign or say, “All done” or vocally protest. In this case, incidence of self-initiation through peer mediation intersperse newer tasks with familiar ones to are described in other sections of this document. increase interest.

Pivotal Behavior: Motivation Step 5 .Intersperse Acquisition and Maintenance Tasks Step 1 .Establish Student Attention Combine and intersperse new tasks with old tasks Obtain student attention prior to providing a that have been mastered to maintain motivation learning opportunity. Once student attention is and engagement. This interspersing of tasks obtained proceed with brief and clear instructions. provides a sense of success in using a variety of skills. V Tap student on shoulder V Make eye contact Step 6 .Reinforce Response Attempts V Say student’s name Reinforce attempts at responding. By providing a consequence-based strategy that allows for all Step 2 .Use Shared Control and Turn Taking attempts and approximations of the target response To increase the student’s motivation to interact to be reinforced through positive reinforcement, with the learning materials, use shared control by the probability that the student will try the task in allowing the student to determine which parts of future opportunities is increased. For example, if Sid the routine they will complete and which parts the reaches for a ball and says “Buh” (the target is “ball”), teacher will complete. As students become more Sid is reinforced for the approximation while the proficient with the skills, shift more responsibility teacher says “ball” and hands him the ball. for completing the task to the student.

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Step 7 .Use Natural and Direct Reinforcers Prompting Use natural occurring items and activities as reinforcement. Identify materials and activities that Skills and intervention goals addressed can be used during the teaching session that have a Prompts are visual, gestural, or physical stimuli used direct relationship to the goal or desired outcome. to increase the likelihood that a behavioral response For example, a student who likes cars is given a is learned. Prompting can be used to teach virtually closed plastic bag with a car inside. Once the student any skill. asks or approximates “help” the bag is opened and the student is allowed to play with the car for a brief Overview period. The car in this case is the natural reinforcer. Prompting includes any help given to students that assist them in using a specific skill. Prompting is Pivotal Behavior: Responding to Multiple used to teach new skills and in the generalization Cues of skills after they are learned. There are different types of prompts that can be applied in a systematic Step 1 .Vary Stimuli and Increase Cues fashion to help students with ASD acquire target Incrementally teach a student to respond to skills. A prompting procedure will be used to multiple cues until he or she responds to a more methodically apply and fade the prompts when complex task. Do this by: teaching a skill.

1. Identify a variety of cues (properties Step 1: Identify the Target Skill or Behavior or attributes) that are associated with Define the target behavior or skill that the student the target skill and can be used during a with ASD is to acquire. teaching activity. For example, select cues such as colors, size, or shape to teach a Step 2: Identify the Target Stimulus receptive language task. The target stimulus is the event or thing that cues 2. Target at least two cues (e.g., the student to engage in the target behavior. It may overemphasizing feature of object, color, also be known as the instruction or antecedent. size) so the student learns to use the target Clearly specifying the target stimulus allows the skill in response to more than one cue. For teacher to ensure students are attending and example, the student can identify the big, responding to the environment, and helps the red car not just the red car. teacher refrain from delivering too many prompts. 3. Gradually increase the number of cues Target stimuli include: associated with an object, material, or toy so that the student can respond to a V Naturally occurring event. Examples: variety of stimuli. For example, the student Having dirty hands after finger painting obtains the big red car that is outside is the target stimulus for hand washing; the toy garage. As the student responds needing to use the bathroom is the target appropriately, make the tasks more stimulus for asking to use the restroom or complex and involve more cues. moving to the bathroom and using it.

Step 2 .Schedule the Reinforcement V Completion of an event or activity. Use different schedules of reinforcement to teach Examples: Completing an instructional the student to respond to multiple cues. Identify activity is the target stimulus for putting numerous reinforcers and provide reinforcement for materials away, cleaning up the area, and every attempt to use the target skill successfully. moving to the area for the next activity; returning from lunch is the target stimulus for sitting at the desk and beginning mathematics.

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V An external signal. Examples: A ringing bell Step 4: Select the Type(s) of Prompts to Use may signal it is time to go to the next class; Select the types of prompts that will be used to teach the teacher telling the whole class it is time a skill. Any number or combination of prompts may for snack is the target stimulus for putting be used. Be aware of how intrusive prompts may be away work and retrieving the snack. and select the appropriate prompt or prompts based once again on the student’s learning profile as well Step 3: Select the Type of Prompting as the skill to be taught. Table 18 shows the prompt Procedure to Use hierarchy from the least intrusive to the most Select the type of prompting procedure based on the intrusive. Keep in mind, verbal prompting is often student’s learning profile and the skill to be taught. the easiest and most convenient to use but is often The following questions may be helpful when not the most appropriate as it can lead to prompt attempting to determine the type of procedure: dependency.

V Which types of prompts have been used to Step 5: Select the Number of Levels in the teach a student new skills? Prompting Hierarchy V Has the student been taught how to use Select the number of prompt levels to be used in the this type of skill before? prompt hierarchy. With the least-to-most, most-to- V What types of prompts have been most least, as well as time delay prompting procedures, successful when teaching the student a the hierarchy often has at least three levels, but it variety of skills? may have more. One level is always the independent V How quickly is the student likely to learn level (no prompts are used) and one level is the the target skill? controlling prompt (one that ensures the student V Is the student likely to become prompt with ASD responds correctly). The other prompt dependent? levels, called intermediate levels, provide more help than the independent level and less help than the The figure below depicts different types of controlling prompt. prompting procedures and provides a brief definition of each. Step 6: Implement the Intervention Utilizing the Predetermined Prompts and Prompting Figure 5 . Prompting Procedures Procedure Using the prompting procedure outlined, implement Most to Least: Graduated the intervention to teach the desired behavior or Moving from more Guidance skill. Use data to determine when to move to a more intrusive to less Providing a controlling or less intrusive prompt. intrusive prompts prompt that ensures contingent on student correct response, then Step 7: Monitor Student Performance needs for less support moving from more to Track student responses and type and number of less physical support prompts required to perform the targeted behavior or skill. The prompting required provides valuable Least to most Time Delay information about the student’s performance and Moving from less Inserting wait time progress. Review data and modify the program between the target intrusive to more to reflect the progress or lack of progress made. If intrusive prompts stimulus and the prompt contingent on student and gradually increasing progress is not at an unacceptable level, consider need for more support the amount of time altering prompting used. If progress has occurred, until student performs target skills for generalization. independently

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Table 18 . Prompt Hierarchy Prompt Definition Example

Visual Pictures, objects, or symbols that provide students Transition card used to show the with information about how to use the target skill student where to go after reading or behavior group

Gestural Movements that cue students to use a particular The teacher gestures (points) to behavior or skill what is to be done

Model Performance or demonstration of the target skill The teacher demonstrates taking a or behavior. Full model prompts can be verbal if the turn in a game skill being taught is verbal, or they can be motor responses if the skill being taught involves moving a body part.

Partial Physical Light touch or physical guidance given to students to The teacher moves the students help them use the target behavior or skill hand gently to help him make the first part of the letter “w” and has him finish making the letter

Full Physical Full physical support or guidance to complete the The teacher provides full physical entire target behavior or skill assistance to help the student brush his teeth

Verbal Statements that provide a verbal cue to complete the The teacher says, “Get your coat.” target behavior or skill after he has reminded the student it is time for recess

Reinforcement skill/behavior. The goal of this practice is to increase skills while gradually fading reinforcement strategies Skills and intervention goals addressed to promote maintenance and generalization. Reinforcement is used to teach new skills, increase the rate by which the student learns, and teach The three categories of reinforcement include positive challenging or difficult skills. Reinforcement can be reinforcement (something that is desired is delivered used to teach any skill or behavior. following a behavior), negative reinforcement (something that is aversive is removed following a Overview behavior), and automatic reinforcement (the behavior Reinforcement is defined as a situation or event that results in some type of physiological sensation that is follows a particular behavior resulting in an increase either positively or negatively reinforcing). in the likelihood that the behavior will happen again in the future. Ultimately, reinforcement is the key There is not a universal reinforcer therefore it is to increasing appropriate behaviors. Reinforcement necessary to conduct reinforcer assessments to is a fundamental practice that is almost always determine what is reinforcing for each individual used with other evidence-based practices such as student. Often, it is required to think creatively prompting, time delay, functional communication and out of the box for reinforcers for students with training, and differential reinforcement of other ASD. It is often helpful to consider the individuals behaviors. Reinforcement is most effective when it is preoccupations, desired objects, and sensory needs individualized for a particular student and when it when creating a menu of reinforcers. is presented in response to a student’s use of a target

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Step 1 .Identify and Gather Potential V Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, Reinforcers refers to the removal of an object or activity Identify and gather a diverse selection of items and the student with ASD finds aversive such activities that the student prefers. The following as washing tables, doing work, or staying activities can be used to identify reinforcers: seated. When the student uses the target skill/behavior (e.g., requesting a break, V Identify potential reinforcers by asking the raising hand, taking a bite of food), the student what he/she would like to work for aversive object or activity is removed. The (if appropriate) goal of negative reinforcement is to remove V Identify potential reinforcers by observing the aversive stimulus so that the student’s the student in natural settings and use of the target skill/behavior will increase. identifying activities, objects, and foods that the student selects when allowed free Step 4 .Select the Type of Reinforcement to Use choice Select the type of reinforcement to use. Consider the V Identify potential reinforcers by age of the student and the target skill or behavior. interviewing parents or other staff Also, consider potential natural reinforcers, or V Identify potential reinforcers by the typical results of a behavior in the natural conducting a reinforcer assessment environment, that can be used to teach the skill. Below are three general categories of reinforcers: Step 2: Identify the Target Skill or Behavior Define the target behavior or skill that the V Primary reinforcers satisfy a physical need student with ASD is to acquire. Define exactly by making the individual feel good (e.g., food, what the student needs to do in order to receive liquids, sleep). reinforcement. V Secondary reinforcers are objects or Step 3: Identify the Type of Reinforcement activities that individuals have grown to like, Strategy to Use but do not need biologically (e.g., computer, Identify the type of reinforcement strategy to use toy, ball). to teach the target behavior or skill. There are three primary possibilities: V Social reinforcers are motivational items, words/phrases, or actions that individuals V Positive reinforcement refers to the have grown to like due to the social addition of something positive such as meaning (e.g., smile, Good Job!, tickle). receiving a cookie, time on the computer, Social reinforcers often must be taught to or a high five. Positive reinforcement is those with ASD because they may not be generally the strategy used first when inherently reinforcing. trying to teach new skills. Step 5 .Select the Schedule of Reinforcement V A token economy program is a type of Select a schedule of reinforcement based on the skill positive reinforcement strategy that is to be taught. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the referred to as such because they are based frequency or timing of the delivery of reinforcement upon a monetary system in which tokens following a target skill/behavior. For example, a are used to acquire a desired reinforcer. For reinforcer can be delivered either on a continuous example, a student receives tokens when he or on an intermittent schedule. Typically, the newer uses a target skill/behavior appropriately. or more difficult a skill, the more reinforcement When he acquires a certain number of required to teach it. The following table outlines the tokens, they can be exchanged for objects or different schedules of reinforcement. activities that are reinforcing.

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Table 19 . Schedules of Reinforcement

Type of Reinforcement Function Definition Example

Continuous Produces a high steady Behavior is reinforced after Student is reinforced every rate of responding every correct response time he matches pictures correctly

Fixed ratio Produces a high steady Behavior is reinforced after Student answers three rate of responding a set number of responses questions correctly and is reinforced with a bite of cracker

Variable ratio Produces a high steady Behavior is reinforced after Student answers two rate of responding an unpredicted number of questions and is reinforced responses then is not reinforced again until after five more questions

Fixed Interval Consistent amounts Behavior is rewarded only Student is reinforced after of responding for a after a certain amount of five minutes of working designated interval time has passed appropriately

Variable Interval Produces a slow steady Behavior is rewarded after Student is rewarded at rate of responding an unpredictable amount of two minutes then at seven time has passed minutes following on task behavior

Step 6 .Organize Reinforcers and Determine Step 7 .Deliver the Reinforcer Presentation Deliver the reinforcer contingent upon the desired Organize a system for presenting reinforcer options behavior or skill. This is critical for the effective use to the student with ASD so the student may make of reinforcement and for learning to occur. choices regarding the reinforcer received. It may be beneficial to present the options visually either Step 8 .Monitor Student Progress and Move through text or pictures. For example, a reinforcer Towards Natural Reinforcement menu may be useful, allowing the student to Track student progress and review data and modify choose the desired item. When providing choices to the program to reflect the progress or lack of the student, the following considerations may be progress made. If progress is not at an unacceptable beneficial: level, consider altering the reinforcement used. If progress has occurred, fade the level and type of V Display two to three reinforce options at a reinforcement until the student is able to perform time the skill using natural reinforcement. V Lay them out so they are equally easy to get V Let the student take whatever they choose Response Interruption and Redirection (RIR) in any order they choose V Provide noncontingently so the student Skills or intervention goals addressed does not have to ask or say please to get the RIR is used to decrease interfering behaviors, item predominantly those that are repetitive, stereotypical, and self-injurious in nature. RIR is

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particularly useful with persistent interfering Step 3 .Implement RIR behaviors that occur in the absence of other Implement the response interruption and people, in a number of different settings, and redirection components of the intervention by during a variety of tasks. These behaviors often following these steps: are not maintained by attention or escape. Rather, they are more likely to be maintained by 1. When a student exhibits an interfering sensory reinforcement and are often resistant to behavior interrupt the attempts by using: intervention attempts. G Physical blocking - Physically Overview prevent the student from engaging RIR contains two main components: (1) response in a motor stereotypy. Use the least interruption and (2) redirection. During the response amount of physical assistance interruption component of the intervention, necessary to stop the student from teachers/practitioners stop the student from engaging in the interfering behavior. engaging in the interfering behavior. This is usually EXAMPLE: A teacher places her hand accomplished by physically and/or verbally blocking about an inch from a student’s mouth a student’s attempts to engage in a stereotypical or when he attempts to put his hand in repetitive behavior (e.g., teacher puts her hand at his mouth. a short distance from the student’s mouth when he tries to engage in hand mouthing). Redirection, G Verbal blocking - Prevent the the second component of the intervention, focuses student from engaging in the on prompting the student to engage in a more interfering behavior by issuing a appropriate, alternative behavior. verbal directive. EXAMPLE: A teacher says “No, don’t” when a student Step 1 .Conduct a Functional Behavioral attempts to put her hand in her mouth Assessment or asks the student a known question, Conduct a Functional Behavioral Assessment to such as, “What color is your shirt?” determine the function of an interfering behavior as well as the antecedents and maintaining 2. Next, redirect the student to the alternative consequences of the behavior. behavior by: G saying his or her name in a neutral Step 2 .Identify a Replacement Behavior as a tone of voice, Substitute for the Interfering Behavior G establishing eye contact, and Identify a more appropriate, alternative behavior G using the system of least-to-most to take the place of the interfering behavior. When prompts to help the student engage in identifying an alternative behavior, especially those the alternative behavior. that are maintained by sensory reinforcement, it is important to identify a behavior that provides the 3. Praise and reinforce the use of the same sensory reinforcement to the student with alternative skill. ASD, but in a more appropriate way. For example, an alternative behavior for a student who engages Step 4 .Monitor Student Progress in motor stereotypy may be holding a desired Data is collected and monitored to ensure the object (squishy ball) or putting hands together. A student replaces the interfering behavior and is able replacement behavior for a student who engages in to use the alternative behavior. verbal stereotypy may be saying “hello.”

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Self-management 5. Select the self-monitoring recording and cueing device. The strategies chosen should Skills or intervention goals addressed reflect the needs of the student and fit Self-management interventions can be used to within the context it will be used without reduce inappropriate and interfering behaviors and being intrusive. to increase social, adaptive, and communication skills. Specific examples of skills that can be Examples of devices used to cue the student to assess targeted by self-management interventions are his or her behavior include: giving compliments, responding to others, sharing, increasing on-task behavior, initiating interactions, V Alarm clocks reducing interfering behaviors, promoting daily V Stopwatches living skills, increasing play skills, and conversing. V Wristwatches V Visual timers Overview V Teacher tapping student’s desk Self-management interventions help students V Natural transition periods with ASD learn to independently regulate their V Termination of an activity (e.g., reading) own behaviors and act appropriately in a variety of settings. Students learn to discriminate between Examples of devices for the student to record the appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, monitor occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior their own behaviors with accuracy, and reinforce include: themselves for behaving appropriately. V Pencil and paper Step 1 .Prepare the Self-management System V Clicker Prepare a self-management system by completing V Token board the following steps: V Moving paper clips from one pocket to the other 1. Identify and operationally define the target V Moving rubber bands from one wrist to the behavior in observable and measureable other terms. This is necessary so the occurrence and nonoccurrence of the target behavior Step 2 . Teach Students to Use the Self- can be identified. management System 2. Identify reinforcers that are rewarding for Teach the student to implement a self-management the student. system. Students should be able to demonstrate 3. Develop a data collection system. Generally elements of the self-management system before the type of data collection system will be actually implementing it. based on an interval or frequency system. In an interval system, the student will record 1. Students should demonstrate the target whether the target behavior occurred behaviors (or not demonstrate if the during a designated interval of time. With a behaviors are targeted for reduction). frequency system, the student will indicate Students must be able to demonstrate the how many times the behavior occurred. appropriate behaviors consistently and 4. Identify the initial criterion for the target independently prior to implementation. behavior. The initial criterion is based on They should also be able to demonstrate the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the correct behavior upon request. behavior prior to the implementation of the 2. Students should discriminate whether the intervention and should be set low enough target behaviors have or have not occurred for the student to successfully use the target through self-monitoring. This can occur by skill. modeling examples and nonexamples of

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the behavior and actively teaching correct Social Narratives identification through prompting and reinforcement. Skills or intervention goals addressed 3. Students should be able to accurately Social narratives are typically used to address record when they have and have not behavioral difficulties, teach social skills, and demonstrated the target behaviors. This promote effective and appropriate communication. can be done through modeling the use of the recording device and active teaching Overview through prompting and reinforcement. Social narratives are interventions that describe 4. Students need to manage the reinforcers. a social situation in detail highlighting cues and Students learn to identify when a offering examples of appropriate responding. They reinforcement should be delivered, obtain are written to facilitate understanding of social and consume the reinforcement, and situations and events and the perspectives of others. return to the appropriate task upon They combine the use of written word to enhance completion. understanding. The social narrative breaks the steps and behaviors of the interaction down into smaller Step 3 .Implement the Self-management understandable components for skill acquisition. System They may come in many forms (e.g., paper, sentence Once the student is fluid at the above outlined skills, strips, computer) and must be suitable to the implement the self-management system. This is student based on individual needs. Social narratives accomplished when the student independently are written using six types of sentences (descriptive, (without adult prompting) records behaviors at the directive, perspective, affirmative, cooperative, and appropriate time with at least 80 percent accuracy. control) that answer specific questions (who, what, During the implementation of the self-management when, where, and why). system the student is taught to obtain materials needed to use the system independently. The student Step 1 .Identify the Social Situation for the is taught to use the system in the context of the Intervention natural routine. Prompting is faded as soon as the Select a social behavior for change based on the student consistently and independently acquires the student IEP and current needs. The targeted target throughout the process. Step 3 is similar to behavior should result in positive social interactions, Step 2 except now the student is performing all the a safer environment, additional social learning skills together in the targeted setting. opportunities, or a combination of all three.

Step 4 .Promote Independence with the Self- Step 2 .Define the Target Behavior or Skill management System Define the target behavior in measureable and Provide steps to ensure the student is able to use observable terms to increase the ease by which the system independently across settings. Ongoing the skill is taught and data is collected on the skill. and intermittent checks are used to determine if Clearly defining the target behaviors will also the student continually used the self-management increase the student’s ability to understand and system accurately. Initially the checks are frequent learn the expected skill. but fade as the student becomes more accustomed to the system. As the student demonstrates accuracy Example with the system the criterion, session length, and V Vague: Tamar will interact appropriately. interval length are gradually increased. V Correct: Tamar will greet others by saying hello, waving, or giving a high five.

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Step 3 .Collect Baseline Data Step 8 .Monitor Student Progress Prior to writing and implementing the social Collect data to measure the effectiveness of the narrative, collect baseline data on the occurrence intervention on the target skill or behavior for a or absence of the target behavior or skill. This minimum of two weeks. will provide a starting point from which student progress may be measured. Baseline data should be Step 9 .Review Data and Modify the Narrative obtained across settings and people. if Necessary Review the data regularly to determine the level of Step 4 .Write the Social Narrative progress being made. If the student is not making Write the social narrative by combining two adequate progress then changes to the narrative important features. First, include words appropriate may be necessary. Change only one component of for the student’s age and comprehension level. the narrative at a time. For example, a student who Second, write using first or second person. reads the story silently may read the story aloud to V First Person: I will raise my hand to get the the teacher or a peer for a time period to see if any teacher’s attention. changes occur in progress. V Second Person: Jill will raise Jill’s hand to get the teacher’s attention. Step 10 .Address Generalization and Maintenance of Learned Behavior or Skill Step 5 .Choose the Appropriate Length of the Promote the generalization of the skill by including Story multiple peers or adults in the process. In an effort Write a story that is appropriate for the student and to promote maintenance of the behavior or skill the skill to be addressed. The number and length the narrative is systematically faded by increasing of sentences per page in the social narrative will time between readings or changing the method of vary based on the student’s age and comprehension reading the narrative (read aloud to silent). If the ability. student begins returning to baseline levels following the fading of the narrative the narrative can be Step 6 .Include Photos, Picture Icons, or Hand reintroduced into the daily routine. Drawn Pictures Incorporate visuals to enhance understanding and Social Skills Group learning. Use any type of visual that may facilitate comprehension of the social narrative. It may be Skills or Intervention goals addressed helpful to include actual pictures of the student Social skills groups target the acquisition, performing the target behavior. performance, and generalization of social skills in students with ASD. Specifically, social skills groups Step 7 .Implement the Social Narrative are used to target perspective taking, conversation Incorporate the narrative into the daily routine of skills, friendship skills, problem-solving, social the student. There are several strategies to ensure competence, emotion recognition, emotion it is used throughout the day. The narrative may regulation, theory of mind, interaction skills, and be read to the student, the student may read the problem solving. narrative silently, or the student may read the narrative aloud. Provide multiple opportunities for Overview review. Incorporation is often done as a precursor Social skills groups may include two to eight to an upcoming event (i.e., the social situation students and an adult facilitator. Groups include identified in step one). For example, if a student has instruction on the target skill or skills, role playing a social narrative to support him during recess, the or practice, and feedback to assist students in teacher may choose to have him read the social story acquiring and practicing skills to promote positive just before going outside. social interactions with peers.

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Step 1 .Identify the Social Skills Targeted for Table 20 . Considerations for Social Skills Instruction Group Meetings Select the student behavior or behaviors for change When • Convenient for all members of based on the IEP and his or her current needs. the group Despite instruction occurring in a small group • Appropriate based on the format, skills targeted are still individualized based characteristics of the student on student need. Objectively define the target skill in • Does not interfere with other observable and measurable terms. critical learning activities Where • Safe, supportive setting Step 2 .Organize Training Groups (e.g., counselor’s office) Organize students according to similar goals. For • Minimal distractions example, students focused on conversational skills • Allows for practice of the skills can be arranged in one group, while students focusing on emotion identification are arranged in How long • Between 10-90 minutes another. Adult helpers familiar with ASD are enlisted How many • Ongoing if appropriate and to support the development and functioning of the needed by student social skills group. The ratio of students to adults • Minimum of 12 sessions if should be three or four to one to maximize learning temporarily offered opportunities. • Meet weekly at a minimum • Meet multiple times a week (2-5) if appropriate and needed by student Step 3 .Collect Baseline Data Create data sheets and collect baseline data. Data sheets are prepared according to the goals of the student and data is maintained for each member of V beginning and ending times the group rather than the group at large. The data V location should be periodically collected, summarized, and graphed to identify student progress or if changes Include the following components in the social skills need to be made to the goals or group. group structure:

Step 4 .Schedule Group Meetings V introduction/warm-up . In this phase, Schedule group meetings at a time that is mutually everyone settles into the group time. convenient and optimal for both students and Introductions are made initially, but may adults. Considerations for meeting schedules are need to be repeated for at least the first few provided above. sessions if group members do not already know one another. At subsequent meetings, Step 5 .Create a Training Format or Structure participants can be asked to introduce one Create the training format and group structure another or the time may be used to discuss that will be used to create instruction. Social skills experiences in using the target social skills groups should be formatted to coincide with the from the previous meeting. developmental needs of the students with ASD. In organizing the structure of the group the following V topic focus .The group leader introduces should be outlined: the topic or focus of instruction for the session. This component of the session may V dates/times for meetings also be a good time to review skills that V purpose of the sessions were previously learned and to ask about V members in the group questions or concerns. V expectations for the session

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V modeling . Once the topic for the week has V free/snack time . Because the social been clearly identified, the target skill is skills group should remain a positive modeled. Modeling may be done by group and motivating activity for participants, leaders and helpers, with group members provide reinforcers as a regular part of the themselves, or with video modeling. The session. Reinforcement may be provided goal of this phase is for group members to at the end of the session, or it may be observe the target behavior or skill being embedded within the training sessions practiced correctly and successfully. Some during a slightly less structured snack time groups may find it helpful to have both that allows participants to interact with good and bad examples of the behavior one another without being evaluated. and/or target skill component. Step 6 .Organize Topics for Instruction V practice . Time is provided for practice of Determine the topics to be addressed during the the new skill or behavior, often through social skills groups. Break topics of discussion into role-playing. Students are provided several smaller increments that can be taught sequentially. opportunities to practice the new skill or For example, conversation will need to be broken behavior in the safety of the group. The down into smaller components (e.g., initiations, turn students may be video recorded (with taking, asking questions, terminating). By the end of permission of the student and his/her the group meetings the entire set of skills will be put parent/guardian) as they practice so that together to complete the complex skill of having a they can watch the videos and talk about conversation. what they did right and what they might do differently the next time. Videos may Step 7 .Specify Embedded Instructional also be sent with students so that they can Strategies or Materials review them outside of group time. Identify and incorporate other evidence-based instructional strategies within the social skills V coaching/prompting .The students group to teach social skills (e.g., social narratives, receive coaching from the leader, helpers, video modeling). Also use motivational materials or from each other while practicing. and activities to increase student motivation and Depending on the skills being taught, the increase meaningful learning opportunities. group may go into another environment (e.g., library) and practice the skills Step 8 .Train Helpers Prior to Implementing while receiving coaching. Regardless of the Group Instruction the setting, group members must have Ensure all staff is prepared to provide group someone available to provide support and instruction and support. Helpers should possess a prompting as needed. basic knowledge and understanding of social skill deficits and strategies used to address these deficits. V feedback/problem solving .The Additionally, an understanding of the data collection students receive feedback and problem systems is necessary. solve while practicing. To be successful, participants must receive detailed feedback Step 9 .Implement Social Skills Group on their use of the target skill or behavior. Training Leaders and helpers emphasize skills that Implement the social skills group as planned. The the participants implemented correctly. For group meets and functions on a regular basis behaviors/skills that need improvement, working toward the targeted individual goals of leaders help students identify corrective the group members. Avoid cancellations unless an strategies and alternative responses. emergency occurs.

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Step 10 .Collect and Use Data on Target 1. Conduct a proper assessment to ensure the Behaviors to Inform Instructional Decision selected system offers a functional and Making meaningful method of communication. Collect data on the target skills and the intervention Consideration is given to the student’s on a regular basis. The data should be periodically needs, strengths as well as the features of summarized to identify student progress or if the technology, characteristics, demands, changes need to be made to the goals or group. and suitability for the student and family. 2. Acquire the device and program it to Speech Generating Devices / Voice Output provide the communication used by the Communication Aids (VOCAs) student. 3. Introduce the device to the student by Skills or Intervention goals addressed having a device with only a few symbols VOCAs are used as either a supplement or primary and/or buttons initially. Gradually increase method of communication to address challenges the number of symbols/buttons. with communication in ASD. Areas that may be addressed using VOCAs are teaching the child Step 2 .Introduce Direct Support Persons to to become a better communication partner by the Device targeting tacts, mands, and interverbal behavior, Identify team members and direct support persons creating opportunities to lessen the student’s and train them how to use the identified device. social, communicative, and behavioral difficulties, Persons using the device participate in training and developing skills and opportunities to support offered by the manufacturer. Designate one team the student’s participation in learning and social member as the primary contact. activities. Step 3 .Identify Environments Where Overview the Device Will Initially Be Used and the VOCAs are portable augmentative and alternative Communication Partners communication (AAC) devices that produce Introduce the device during familiar routines which synthesized or digitized speech. The devices are allow for frequent communicative attempts (e.g., designed to be a component of a functional and circle time, English class, snack, lunch, free play). effective communication system. The devices Initial environments should involve routines that provide a typical and understandable message and provide opportunities for frequent communicative can be programmed to deliver very exact and precise attempts and that are generally positive for the messages to eliminate guessing by the listener as to student. the speaker’s intention. VOCAs are considered high tech AAC devices due to the complex and electronic Step 4 .Identify Vocabulary Appropriate to the generated communication they provide. Due to the Student and the Environments external device that is required for the production of Focus on identifying meaningful vocabulary that speech and the inclusion of picture communication can be used in the identified environments. boards VOCAs are categorized as Aided AAC systems. For examples of VOCAs, see the section in this Step 5 .Set Up Communicative Opportunities document titled “Augmentative and Alternative and Teach the Use of the Device Communication.” While VOCA use should take place in natural environments, some level of individualized Step 1 .Identify and Set Up the Device instruction is required to introduce and teach the Identify the technology-related needs of the student device. Teach the use of the device by: to determine what equipment, if any, is needed to support the student’s communication. Complete the 1. Arranging opportunities within naturally following steps: occurring environments that provide

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cues and motivation necessary for Step 1 .Teach the Stimulus communication. Facilitate opportunities Teach the student to discriminate between stimuli through material arrangement and and how to respond in the presence of the stimuli. questioning. This requires systematically introducing the control 2. Teaching peers to use the device. by doing the following: 3. Using prompting. 4. Honoring communicative attempts. V Begin with one cue (e.g., red versus the red car on the table) Step 6 .Expand Vocabulary V Begin with functional skills that can be Systematically increase the number of symbols in a used in routines single field and increase the number of overlays as the V Use simple language (e.g., say “stand up” student becomes more proficient with the device. versus, “Ty, I want you to put that down and then I want you to stand up.”) Step 7 .Monitor Student Performance V Rotate materials to avoid unexpected During implementation, monitor and evaluate the stimuli control (e.g., when working on red, system to ensure the appropriateness of fit and that use many different red items to teach the the communication program is producing desired stimulus control) results. Use prompting to teach the appropriate response Stimulus Control and fade the prompts appropriately as the student begins to show mastery. Skills or intervention goals addressed A behavior is under stimulus control if it only Step 2 .Reinforce Appropriate Responding occurs when a particular stimulus is present. Many Reinforce the student for demonstrating the behaviors may be under stimulus control at any given appropriate behavior of the stimulus control. time. Safety behaviors (stopping at a crosswalk upon seeing the no walk sign) and compliance behaviors Step 3 .Expand Opportunities (when told to line up the student lines up) are known Provide multiple and repeated opportunities to to be under stimulus control. Stimulus control is also practice the skill and receive reinforcement. Practice used in teaching methodologies such as discrete trial the skill across environments, across people, and training (DTT). across materials. Gradually make the stimulus itself more natural helping the student to generalize to Overview other forms of the stimulus. For example, when the Stimulus control is controlling behavior by the use student is working on “red,” eventually expand the of a stimulus or cue that indicates the expected stimulus to “get red” or “where is red.” For a student behavior should occur. Behaviors will start and stop working on responding to “stand up” expand to “time when these stimuli or cues are present. to stand up” or “let’s stand up.”

It is possible, especially with students with ASD, Structured Work Systems to attend to unexpected stimuli rather than the appropriate stimulus control. For example, a student Skills or intervention goals addressed learning colors may be able to respond correctly Structured work systems target adaptive behavior when a particular set of cards are used but appear skills including on-task behavior, task completion, to lose the skill when generalized to other color transitions between tasks, increasing response stimuli. It is possible that the student has learned chain length, and independent performance across characteristics of the card, such as the red card has curriculum area (e.g., play skills, self-help skills, a bent corner and the green card has a tear in the academic skills). Work systems provide organized middle. strategies for approaching a variety of tasks and

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situations in a way that makes them meaningful V ability to match colors, numbers, and/or based on the student’s individual learning level. Work shapes, systems address the difficulty students with ASD V ability to move from one area of the have with time (i.e., beginning, middle, and end) by environment to another with little or no making the concepts concrete and predictable. adult V support, Overview V understanding of finished, and Structured work systems are an element of V ability to participate in organizing his/ structured teaching developed by Division her work system each day (e.g., written TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and checklist). Communication related handicapped CHildren). The work system is defined as a visually organized Step 2 .Create the Work System space where students independently practice skills Determine components of the work system based on that have been previously mastered under the direct the student’s age and work habits. Select one of the supervision of an adult (Mesibov, Shea, & Schopler, following work system formats: 2004). Work systems are critical tools for assisting the student with ASD in understanding the task or a. Left-to-right. With this format, tasks are activity, staying focused, and completing the task placed to the left of the student and the with maximum independence. Work systems answer student completes them in any order. the following four critically related questions. Finished tasks are placed in a clear location to the student’s right. No sequencing or 1. What task or activity is to be completed? matching is required. 2. How much work or how many tasks are b. Matching work system. The student required during the work period? matches visual symbols to containers 3. When is the activity finished? holding tasks and completes them by 4. What happens next after the work or following the sequenced visual cues. activity is completed? Sequencing and matching are required. c. Written list work system. With this format, Work systems are typically taught during one-to- students follow a list of written activities one teaching situations using a combination of and complete them in order. Sequencing demonstration, hand over hand assistance, visual is required. This format is appropriate prompts, verbal cues, and social praise. The activities for students who are able to read and and tasks vary during the teaching phase but comprehend basic directions. the system remains constant until the student can follow it independently. Once the student has Complete a task analysis of the work system to obtained independence, work systems can be used in identify all of the materials needed to create it. Set one-to-one teaching sessions to learn new tasks and up the work system in a quiet area of the room with in independent work areas to practice previously minimal distractions. Identify the tasks or activities learned tasks or activities. the student will perform in the work system keeping in mind work system activities should Step 1 .Identify Student Learning Skills and offer opportunities to practice previously mastered Needs skills, not to learn new skills or content. Identify Identify the method by which the student best the optimal number of activities performed in the processes and understands visual information (i.e., work system to ensure the student’s success. Table pictures, objects, written words). Complete a series of 21 provides descriptions and examples of structured assessments to determine the student’s: work systems. V reading ability,

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Table 21 . Examples of Structured Work Systems

Type of System Question Example

Picture/icon/ What task? Different colored cards are placed left-to-right at the object top of the table. Student matches a colored card to a plastic container of the same color holding the work to be completed. How much work? The student knows how much work by the number of colored cards and plastic containers. When is work finished? The student knows work is finished when all cards have been removed and all plastic containers are in the finished basket. What happens next? A picture is placed next to the color cards indicating what the student is to do next.

Written What task? Written list of tasks on whiteboard correspond to written words on file folders holding student work. How much work? The student knows how much work by the number of words written on white board and the number of corresponding folders. When is work finished? The student knows work is finished when all the labels of work are crossed off and all folders are placed in the finished tray. What happens next? A written explanation of what the student is to do next is at the bottom of the list on the whiteboard.

Step 3 .Teach and Monitor the Work System 5. Collect and analyze data to ensure the Teach the student how to use the work system and student is learning to use the work system monitor his or her progress. This is accomplished by independently and is able to maintain completing the following tasks: independence over time

1. Establish periods of the day when the Step 4 .Generalize the Activities student practices previously mastered Generalize by introducing new tasks and skills during “Independent Work Time” independent work in the work system. 2. Teach the student to transition to the work area through use of a directive, schedule, or Task Analysis other visual support 3. Stand behind the student during work Skills or intervention goals addressed sessions and provide prompts as needed, Task analysis is used for any skill that can be broken providing the least intrusive prompts down in smaller components for teaching in areas possible of academics, behavior, communication, and social 4. Provide reinforcement for successful domains. completion of the work system

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Overview m. Puts juice mix in cabinet Task analysis is the process of breaking large complex n. Wipes down workspace with cloth skills into smaller more manageable components in order to teach the skill. Other practices such as Step 3 .Confirm the Steps of the Task Analysis reinforcement, video modeling, and time delay Prior to having the student complete the task are incorporated into task analysis to facilitate analysis, test it on someone else to ensure accuracy. the learning of smaller steps. As smaller steps Have the person read and follow the steps verbatim are mastered the student becomes increasingly to determine if all steps are there and if any independent in performing the larger skill or task. modifications need to occur.

Step 1 .Identify the Target Skills Step 4 .Determine How the Skill will be Taught Using the student’s IEP and current needs identify Determine how the steps in the task analysis will be the skill to be targeted using task analysis. The task taught based on the student’s qualities, goals, and should be composed of a series of discrete steps. experiences. Identify the following: Keep in mind that a single discrete skill may not 1. The evidence-based strategy that will be require a task analysis. Also, a complex skill with used to teach the steps many component parts or multiple outcomes is not 2. The types and schedule of prompting to be suitable for just one task analysis. used Example: 3. The types and schedule of reinforcement to Too simple: Turning on a light switch implement Just Right: Making a sandwich 4. The best format for the task analysis (e.g., Too Complex: Washing, drying, and written, pictured based, video model) folding clothes 5. Whether to use forward or backward chaining to teach the steps in the task Step 2 .Break the Skill into Components analysis Break the skill into smaller more manageable component steps so the student completes one step Step 5 .Implement the Task Analysis and at a time of the larger skill. It is important not to Monitor Progress overlook small steps when breaking the skills down. Implement the task analysis based on the steps It is often necessary to perform the task or observe outlined. Use the identified evidence-based strategy another person completing the task while writing to teach the steps in the sequence. Monitor and down the steps. evaluate the task analysis to ensure appropriateness and accuracy of steps. Collect data on the student’s Example of a Task Analysis: Making Juice progress. Analyze data to ensure the student is a. Obtains jug, juice powder, measuring cup, progressing. and spoon b. Measures water Time Delay c. Pours water in jug d. Takes cap off powdered juice mix Skills or intervention goals addressed e. Measures powdered juice mix Time delay can be used to teach virtually any f. Pours juice mix into jug of water skills, including academic, play/leisure, language/ g. Places lid back on powdered juice mix communication, and social skills. container h. Stirs jug of water with long spoon Overview i. Puts spoon in the dishwasher Time delay is a practice that focuses on fading the j. Puts measuring cup in dishwasher use of prompts during instructional activities. k. Puts lid on juice jug This practice is always used in conjunction with l. Puts juice in refrigerator prompting procedures such as least-to-most

V 110 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 prompting and graduated guidance. With this V Naturally occurring event .Examples: procedure, a brief delay is provided between the initial Having dirty hands after finger painting instruction and any prompts. There are two types is the target stimulus for hand washing; of time delay procedures: progressive and constant. needing to use the bathroom is the target With progressive time delay, teachers and other stimulus for asking to use the restroom or practitioners gradually increase the waiting time moving to the bathroom and using it. between an instruction and any prompts that might be used to elicit a response. For example, a teacher V Completion of an event or activity . provides a prompt immediately after an instruction Examples: Completing an instructional when a student with ASD is initially learning a skill. activity is the target stimulus for putting As the student becomes more proficient at using the materials away, cleaning up the area, and skill, the teacher gradually increases the waiting time moving to the area for the next activity; between the instruction and the prompt. Similar returning from lunch is the target stimulus to progressive time delay, with constant time delay, for sitting at the desk and beginning there is no delay between the instruction and prompt mathematics. when a student is first learning a skill. However, with constant time delay, a fixed amount of time is always V An external signal .Examples: A ringing used between the instruction and the prompt as he or bell may signal it is time to go to the next she becomes more proficient at using the new skill. class; the teacher telling the whole class it is time for snack is the target stimulus for Both progressive and constant time delay procedures putting away work and retrieving the snack. include the following three components that comprise a trial: (1) a cue and target stimulus that Step 3: Select the Controlling Prompt to Use tell students to use the target skill/behavior, (2) From the array of prompts available (see Prompting target skill/behavior, and (3) feedback. These three section above) select a prompt which ensures that the components are critical to implementing time delay student with ASD performs the target skill/behavior procedures effectively. Descriptions of each of these correctly. This prompt is referred to as the controlling components are provided in the following sections. prompt. A controlling prompt elicits the correct behavior on a very consistent basis – nearly every Step 1: Identify the Target Skill or Behavior time it is used. Define the target behavior or skill that the student with ASD is to acquire. Time delay can be used Step 4 .Determine the Type of Time Delay and during didactic instruction to teach discrete skills Response Interval (e.g., answer questions, point to numerals) during Determine how to use time delay and the procedures individual work or small group time. However, it to follow by: also can be embedded into ongoing activities and routines and can be used to teach chained tasks (e.g., 1. Determine whether to use constant time putting on coat, washing hands) that are often taught delay or progressive time delay. Consider the whenever the skill is needed. differences between the two procedures: G Constant Time Delay - the response Step 2: Identify the Target Stimulus interval is a fixed (constant) number The target stimulus is the event or thing that cues the of seconds, usually three, four, or five student to engage in the target behavior. It may also seconds. The same delay is provided be known as the instruction or antecedent. Clearly between the target stimulus and the specifying the target stimulus allows the teacher to controlling prompt. ensure students are attending and responding to the environment, and helps the teacher to refrain from G Progressive Time Delay - the delivering too many prompts. Target stimuli include: response interval gradually

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(progressively) increases across blocks correct responses. At this time, the response interval of trials or sessions as the student is increased and a delay is provided before delivery demonstrates improvement. The of the prompt. If students do not respond at the schedule for increasing the response end of the response interval, deliver a controlling interval can take a variety of forms. prompt to help students use target skills/behaviors The easiest is to increase it by one correctly. These sessions are used for the remainder of second each session until it gets to the instruction until the student achieves criterion level maximum number provided (typically responding. five or six seconds). V With constant time delay, implement a fixed 2. Determine the length of the response delay (i.e., three to five seconds) after using interval. This decision is based on: the zero second delay over a predetermined a. Student characteristics. Consider number of trials. The delay provides an factors such as how long it usually takes opportunity for the student to use the the student to respond when he or she target skill/behavior independently before knows how to do the behavior. Adding being offered support from the teacher or a couple seconds to this usual time is practitioner. generally adequate for determining the length of the response interval. V With progressive time delay, gradually b. Other students. Consider how long it increase the delay (e.g., one second intervals) takes another student with ASD to as students become more proficient at using use a similar skill. For example, if it the target skill/behavior. takes another student four seconds to respond to a verbal prompt, then the Step 6: Monitor Student Performance teacher might try using four seconds as Track student responses and type of prompts the response interval for this particular required to perform the targeted behavior or student with ASD. skill. The prompting required provides valuable c. Task characteristics. Consider the information about the student’s performance and amount of time a student will be progress. Review data and modify the program allowed to begin a task as well as how to reflect the progress or lack of progress made. If long the student will have to complete progress is not at an unacceptable level, consider the task. For tasks that take a longer altering prompting used. If progress has occurred, amount of time to complete, a longer target skills for generalization. response interval may be appropriate. For tasks that require more than one Video Modeling step (e.g., washing hands), use the same response interval for each step. Skills or intervention goals addressed Video modeling can be used to enhance social Step 5 .Implement the Time Delay interactions, communication, leisure activities, or Implement the prompting procedure outlined daily self-care routines. Additionally, video modeling to teach the desired behavior or skill. Use data to is a tool that can be used to reduce anxiety in students determine when to increase the response interval. and challenging behaviors. When first teaching a skill, a fixed zero-second delay is used with both constant and progressive time Overview delay. That is, there is no wait time between the cue Video modeling is a mode of teaching that uses video and the delivery of the controlling prompt. These recording and display equipment to provide a visual sessions are provided for one or two sessions, or until model of the targeted behavior or skill. Types of video the student responds with 100 percent prompted modeling include basic video modeling, video self-

V 112 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 modeling, point-of-view video modeling, and video a. Determine how the exchange will begin prompting. Basic video modeling involves recording and end. someone besides the student engaging in the target b. Keep the script short. behavior or skill. The video is then viewed by the c. Use age appropriate language and skills. student at a later time. Video self-modeling is used d. Involve input from parents, teachers, and to record the student displaying the target skill or the child in the development of the script behavior and is reviewed later. Point-of-view video and video. modeling is when the target behavior or skill is 5. Determine the actors and prepare them for recorded from the perspective of the student. Video the video. prompting involves breaking the behavior skill into steps and recording each step with incorporated Step 4 .Make the Video pauses during which the student may attempt Make the video that will be used to teach a specific the step before viewing subsequent steps. Video skill during the video modeling intervention. Make prompting may be done with either the student or the video short and include only the steps in the task someone else acting as a model. analysis. Do not include distractions and ensure the background is focused on relevant cues. The actors Step 1 .Select and Define the Behavior to need to do the following when recording the video: Enhance or Develop Operationally define the behavior to be targeted in 1. Speak clearly and slowly the video so that it is measurable, observable, and 2. Exaggerate the target behavior(s) specific to the student. 3. Face the camera 4. Be clear and distinguishable Step 2 .Complete a Task Analysis Itemize the steps of the skill or behavior and Edit the video and remove any errors and/or prompts determine the sequential order of the actions and and if necessary, complete voice-overs. Voice-overs scripting to be used in the video. may be used to further support the video and increase student comprehension by including narration of the Step 3 .Determine the Details of the Video steps. Determine the aspects of the video to be used to provide video modeling by completing these steps: Step 5 .Arrange the Environment for Watching the Video 1. Identify the kind of video modeling that Arrange the environment so the student can watch the is appropriate for the student (basic video video and learn how to use the target skill. Determine modeling, video self-modeling, point-of- how often, where, and when the video will be shown. view modeling, video prompting). The goal of video modeling is to provide opportunities 2. Consider the theme of the conversation or for the student to demonstrate the behavior, therefore, task that is being modeled. ensure the materials for the performance of the target 3. Determine the focal point of the video. For behavior are available and match those on the video. example, targeting emotion may require placement of the camera to strategically Step 6 .Watch the Video and Practice the Skill capture the face, while a video on a self- Show the video multiple times with support. Pause help skill may be focused on the hands the video during the observation to point out target performing the task. behaviors and ask questions about the content to 4. Outline the scripting for the video. The increase awareness and understanding. Following actors in the video should be provided a the conclusion of the video, debrief with the student script that explicitly details what is to be to review what has been seen and heard and provide said, facial expressions, body posture, and opportunities for the student to perform the target eye contact. skill.

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Step 7 .Monitor Progress V Is the activity, event, or concept difficult for Review data and modify the program to reflect the the student to understand when only verbal progress or lack of progress made. If progress is not at information is provided? an unacceptable level, alter instruction. If progress is appropriate, work on generalization of skills. Conduct individualized assessments of students’ comprehension skills to select one of the following Visual Supports forms of visual representation:

Skills or intervention goals addressed V objects (e.g., an empty glue bottle to Visual supports target a number of adaptive behavior represent art) skills, including task engagement, independent performance, transitions across activities, and V photographs (e.g., a photo of cafeteria to increasing response chain length. Visual supports represent lunch) have also proven effective in increasing skills across curriculum areas, including the demonstration V drawing or picture symbols (e.g., drawings of of play skills, social interaction skills, and social a bus to represent going home) initiation. In addition, visual supports have been beneficial in reducing self-injurious behavior. V words (e.g., the word “reading” can represent time for reading centers) Overview Visual supports are visual elements added to the V combination of the visual forms environment or instruction to increase awareness and understanding. Visual supports are less fleeting Step 2 .Organize Visual Supports than auditory information as they hold information Organize the visual supports and related elements “still” to allow more time for processing. Visual for the student required for the activity/ event / supports include the use of pictures, written words, target behavior (e.g., classroom labels are properly and objects to communicate information using the positioned, calendars are in place, curriculum visual-spatial strengths of students with autism. supports are paired with academic materials).

Step 1 .Develop Visual Supports Step 3 .Implement Visual Supports Determine WHAT information should be presented Show the student the visual support and teach him or visually for the student. For example, this may include her to use it by: providing information about an upcoming event, 1. Establishing periods of the day when the the location of people or classroom materials, or an student practices the skill or uses the academic concept. Consider the following questions support when determining what activities, events, or concepts 2. Providing prompts as needed and fading may require the use of a visual support: systematically 3. Providing reinforcement for successful use V Does the activity, event, or concept cause frustration for the student? Step 4 .Monitor Student Progress Collect data on the successful use of the visual V Does the activity, event, or concept cause support. If the student continues to struggle with anxiety for the student? understanding and comprehension then it will be necessary to re-evaluate the visual presentation V Is a great deal of adult support required for method. the student to be successful with the activity, event, or concept?

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APPENDIX C: Modifications and Accommodations

Pacing for social interactions V Allow short breaks between activities V Use cooperative learning groups V Modify workload or length of assignments / V Alternate quiet and active time tests V Provide circle of friends V Allow additional time for assignments V Provide peer buddies V Assign specific tasks within specific time V Provide counseling or social skills groups period V Teach about differences/disabilities V Vary activities V Allow opportunities to help other students V Provide home set of text/material for Behavior preview/review V Make expectations concrete and visual V Pre-teach material V Use rule cards (picture or text) V Avoid timed activities V Provide visual cues for appropriate behavior V Break material into small parts (chunk V Provide reinforcement (see section on information) Motivation and Reinforcement) Environment V Offer choices V Provide preferential seating (classroom, V Provide breaks lunchroom, bus, resources, auditorium, etc.) V Use schedules V Provide specialized seating V Use timer V Alter room arrangement V Use behavior chart V Define areas concretely (work, personal, V Use token board materials, etc.) V Use emotion / personal state indicator (e.g., V Reduce/minimize distractions: visual, thermometer, scale) auditory, spatial, movement Transition V Use study carrels or room dividers V Give notice, warning before change in V Use headsets or earphones activities V Provide quiet corner/room V Provide verbal and visual cues regarding V Modify equipment transition V Provide space for movements or breaks V Use timer or other indicator of termination Motivation and Reinforcement of activity V Provide verbal and nonverbal social V Use daily and mini schedules reinforcement V Utilize specific routine sequences V Provide tangible (item or activity) positive V Use rule cards (picture or text) reinforcement V Utilize transition item (e.g., small toy, gel V Use token board ball) V Plan motivating sequences of events Materials V Offer choices V Rearrange material on the page V Use varied reinforcement systems V Use taped texts and/or other class materials V Provide noncontingent reinforcement V Highlight texts / study guides V Create a valued task/job V Color code materials Socialization V Provide supplementary materials (e.g., V Train and use peer tutors additional book, pictures) V Structure activities to create opportunities V Use large print

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V Use assistive technology (AT) including V Use calendars special equipment, calculators, electronics, V Provide agenda book video recorders, software, Web sites V Provide checklists V Use augmentative and alternative V Use PDAs or smart phones for monitoring communication (AAC) V Provide visual cues for appropriate on-task V Use manipulatives behavior V Use pictures V Use timer V Break task or assignment into small parts Testing V Allow activity breaks V Allow tests/ projects to be taken orally V Use long-term assignment timelines V Add pictures/visuals to test V Follow routines or schedules V Read test to student V Provide daily check-in with case manager, V Give applications in real setting mentor or special education teacher V Modify format (multiple choice, essay, true / V Use self-monitoring and self-management false) V Use reinforcement (see Motivation and V Shorten length of test Reinforcement) V Extend time frame; allow untimed testing V Plan motivating sequence of events V Modify grading V Allow for oral responses Presentation of Subject Matter V Allow frequent rest breaks V Teach to student’s learning style: linguistic, V Allow open book or open note tests logical / mathematics, musical, spatial, V Provide study guide prior to test bodily / kinesthetic V Highlight key directions V Tape lectures / discussion for replay V Give test in alternative site V Provide note-taking support V Allow calculator, word processor V Provide copy of lecture notes (peer or adult provide) Assignments V Utilize manipulatives V Give directions in small, discrete steps V Highlight / underline critical information V Give directions in alternate format (written, V Pre-teach content taped, pictures) V Make/use vocabulary files V Allow student to record or type assignments V Reduce language levels or reading levels of V Adapt writing utensils assignments V Use wedges or clip boards V Use visual sequences V Shorten length of assignments V Use assistive technology (AT) including V Reduce paper and pencil tasks special equipment, calculators, electronics, V Adapt worksheets/packets video recorders, software, Web sites V Change difficulty level of assignments V Use augmentative and alternative V Highlight response locations or directions communication (AAC) on assignment V Use cooperative learning groups V Adapt assignment to accommodate use of V Provide peer tutoring large print V Utilize resource staff V Break assignment into small parts (chunk information) Home support / Homework V Allow sensory breaks or provide sensory V Provide a second set of materials for home input V Provide parent training V Complete assignment in quiet location V Use a home-school communication log V Have parents preview or review materials Self- and Time Management V Provide homework description V Use visual daily and mini schedules

V 116 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 APPENDIX D: Assistive Technology Planning Form Example

Select instructional areas from the first column which are appropriate for the student. Specify skills needed in each area (e.g., copy assignment from board, complete mathematics assignment, turn take with peer) and indicate the manner in which the student currently performs these skills. In the fourth column, specify the AT tools that will increase student performance in this area. In the final column, indicate any additional services or supports that may be needed to implement the AT effectively.

Student Name:______Grade:____ Date:______

Instructional What do you want What does the student AT tools and Additional AT Area the student to do? currently do? strategies needed services needed

Writing

Spelling

Reading

Mathematics

Fine Motor Tasks

Gross Motor Tasks

Study Skills

Listening

Communication

Socialization

Behavior

Dressing

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 117 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011

Assistive Technology Planning Form Example continued

Student Name:______Grade:____ Date:______

Instructional What do you want What does the student AT tools and Additional AT Area the student to do? currently do? strategies needed services needed

Toileting

Eating

Sensory

Recreation and Play

Positioning and Seating

Routines / Activity Completion

Computer Access

V 118 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 APPENDIX E: Educational Team Planning Form Example

Student: ______Date: ______

Team Members Present:

Name______Position______

Name______Position______

Name______Position______

Issue to be Suggested By By Date Resolved Resolution Options Steps to Resolution Whom When Completed

Johnny does 1. Limit amount of 1. Teacher providing Mrs. Adams 3/24/11 not turn in homework support in homework in classroom to write mathematics. 2. Special education down homework teacher goes to and gather general education supplies. classroom at 3:15 to help him write 2. Teacher writes down homework and homework gather supplies. assignment in daily 3. Teacher writes communication homework log. assignment in communication log.

Follow Up Meeting scheduled for 3/24/2011 to review homework progress. Alternate options will be discussed if progress has failed to be achieved through support of special education teacher.

Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services V 119 V Models of Best Practice in the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders : Preschool and Elementary V May 2011 APPENDIX F: Home-School Communication Form Example

SCHOOL NOTES HOME NOTES Daily Events Daily Events

Skills Targeted / Progress Made Accomplishments

Behavior (Positive and Negative) Behavior (Positive and Negative)

Related Service Notes Notes for Related Service Personnel

Other Notes Other Notes

V 120 V Virginia Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Student Services © 2011 Commonwealth of Virginia Department of Education

The Virginia Department of Education does not discriminate on the basis of race, sex, color, national origin, religion, age, political affiliation, veteran status, or against otherwise qualified persons with disabilities in its programs and activities.