The Physical Layer Chapter 2

Home , Data communication, Multiplexing, Physical layer

• Theoretical Basis for Data Communications • Guided Transmission Media • Wireless Transmission • Communication Satellites • Digital Modulation and Multiplexing • Public Switched Telephone Network • Mobile Telephone System • Cable Television

Revised: August 2011

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 The Physical Layer

Foundation on which other layers build • Properties of wires, fiber, wireless Application limit what the network can do Transport

Network Key problem is to send (digital) bits Link using only (analog) signals Physical • This is called modulation

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Theoretical Basis for Data Communication

Communication rates have fundamental limits

• Fourier analysis » • Bandwidth-limited signals » • Maximum data rate of a channel »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Fourier Analysis

A time-varying signal can be equivalently represented as a series of frequency components (harmonics):

Signal over time a, b weights of harmonics

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Bandwidth-Limited Signals

Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal

8 harmonics

Lost!

Bandwidth

4 harmonics Lost!

2 harmonics

Lost!

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Nyquist’s theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth (B) and number of signal levels (V):

Max. data rate = 2B log2V bits/sec

Shannon's theorem relates the data rate to the bandwidth (B) and signal strength (S) relative to the noise (N):

Max. data rate = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

How fast signal How many levels can change can be seen

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Guided Transmission (Wires & Fiber)

Media have different properties, hence performance • Reality check − Storage media » • Wires: − Twisted pairs » − Coaxial cable » − Power lines » • Fiber cables »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Reality Check: Storage media

Send data on tape / disk / DVD for a high bandwidth link • Mail one box with 1000 800GB tapes (6400 Tbit) • Takes one day to send (86,400 secs) • Data rate is 70 Gbps. Data rate is faster than long-distance networks! But, the message delay is very poor.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Wires – Twisted Pair

Very common; used in LANs, telephone lines • Twists reduce radiated signal (interference)

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Link Terminology

Full-duplex link • Used for transmission in both directions at once • e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction Half-duplex link • Both directions, but not at the same time • e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel Simplex link • Only one fixed direction at all times; not common

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Wires – Coaxial Cable (“Co-ax”)

Also common. Better shielding and more bandwidth for longer distances and higher rates than twisted pair.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Wires – Power Lines

Household electrical wiring is another example of wires • Convenient to use, but horrible for sending data

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Fiber Cables (1)

Common for high rates and long distances • Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home • Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass

Light source Light trapped by Photodetector (LED, laser) total internal reflection

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Fiber Cables (2)

Fiber has enormous bandwidth (THz) and tiny signal loss – hence high rates over long distances

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Fiber Cables (3)

Single-mode • Core so narrow (10um) light can’t even bounce around • Used with lasers for long distances, e.g., 100km

Multi-mode • Other main type of fiber • Light can bounce (50um core) • Used with LEDs for cheaper, shorter distance links Fibers in a cable

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Fiber Cables (4)

Comparison of the properties of wires and fiber:

Property Wires Fiber Distance Short (100s of m) Long (tens of km) Bandwidth Moderate Very High Cost Inexpensive Less cheap Convenience Easy to use Less easy Security Easy to tap Hard to tap

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Wireless Transmission

• Electromagnetic Spectrum » • Radio Transmission » • Microwave Transmission » • Light Transmission » • Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

Different bands have different uses: − Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight − Microwave: LANs and 3G/4G; Networking focus

Microwave

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Light Transmission

Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links • Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth • Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Wireless: + Easy and inexpensive to deploy + Naturally supports mobility + Naturally supports broadcast − Transmissions interfere and must be managed − Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly Wires/Fiber: + Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links − Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances − Doesn’t readily support mobility or broadcast

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Communication Satellites

Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution and anywhere/anytime communications • Kinds of Satellites » • Geostationary (GEO) Satellites » • Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites » • Satellites vs. Fiber »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Kinds of Satellites

Satellites and their properties vary by altitude: • Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO), and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)

Sats needed for global coverage

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Geostationary Satellites

GEO satellites orbit 35,000 km above a fixed location − VSAT (computers) can communicate with the help of a hub − Different bands (L, S, C, Ku, Ka) in the GHz are in use but may be crowded or susceptible to rain.

GEO satellite

VSAT

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Systems such as Iridium use many low-latency satellites for coverage and route communications via them

The Iridium satellites form six necklaces around the earth.

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Satellite vs. Fiber

Satellite: + Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after satellites have been launched) + Can broadcast to large regions − Limited bandwidth and interference to manage Fiber: + Enormous bandwidth over long distances − Installation can be more expensive/difficult

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Digital Modulation and Multiplexing Modulation schemes use analog signals to represent digital bits; multiplexing schemes share a channel among many users.

• Baseband Transmission » − Directly encodes bits into signals using the original frequency range (i.e., frequencies are NOT modulated into a different frequency range). Signal occupies frequencies from 0 Hz up to the maximum bandwidth (B) used (e.g., Traditional telephony, wires) • Passband Transmission » − Uses ranges of frequencies (i.e., the carrier) that do not start at zero. Carrier is modulated by regulating its amplitude, phase or frequency in order to encode bits (e.g., wireless and optical (fiber) transmissions) • Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDMA) » • Time Division Multiplexing (TDMA) » • Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) » CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011

Baseband Transmission

Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits • NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=“1”, -1V=“0”) • Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions

Issue of clock synchronization with remote peer Used by USB Classic Ethernet (req 2x BW)

Four different line code alternatives

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Clock Recovery To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions • Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 um, 0? er, 0? Strategies: • Manchester coding, mixes clock signal in every symbol • 4B/5B maps 4 data bits to 5 coded bits with 1s and 0s to reduce the number of transmitted 0s for NRZI: Data Code Data Code Data Code Data Code 0000 11110 0100 01010 1000 10010 1100 11010 0001 01001 0101 01011 1001 10011 1101 11011 0010 10100 0110 01110 1010 10110 1110 11100 0011 10101 0111 01111 1011 10111 1111 11101 • Scrambler XORs tx/rx data with pseudorandom bits to reduce the number of long sequences of 0s or 1s CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011

Definitions for Passband Transmissions

• In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted. Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation (AM) to make the carrier carry the radio broadcast. In general telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted.

Source: Wikipedia

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Passband Transmission (1) Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier signal sends bits in a (non-zero) frequency range

NRZ signal of bits

Amplitude shift keying Amplitude varied

Frequency varied Frequency shift keying

Phase shift keying Phase varied

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Passband Transmission (2)

Combine amplitude and phase to form a signal (baud); gray-coding (next slide) used to convert each signal into specific bit values Constellation diagrams are a shorthand to capture the amplitude and phase modulations of symbols:

BPSK QPSK QAM-16 QAM-64 2 symbols 4 symbols 16 symbols 64 symbols 1 bit/symbol 2 bits/symbol 4 bits/symbol 6 bits/symbol

BPSK/QPSK varies only phase QAM varies amplitude and phase

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Passband Transmission (3)

Gray Code = Method of assigning digital values to a QPSK or QAM position so that 2 adjacent QAM locations only vary by a one bit value Gray-coding assigns bits to symbols so that small symbol errors cause few bit errors:

E A C D

Gray-coded QAM-16

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Frequency Division Multiplexing (1)

FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) shares the channel by placing users on different frequencies:

Overall FDM channel

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Frequency Division Multiplexing (2) OFDM leverages the fact that digital data is being represented to eliminate the need for guard bands, thereby enabling more (denser) use of available frequency range.

OFDM (Orthogonal FDM) is an efficient FDM technique used for 802.11, 4G cellular and other communications • Subcarriers are coordinated to be tightly packed

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time division multiplexing shares a channel over time: • Users take turns on a fixed schedule; this is not packet switching or STDM (Statistical TDM) • Widely used in telephone / cellular systems

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Context for Code Division Multiplexing (CDMA)

Summary of elements of Chapters 2 & 3 of George Gilder’s book Knowledge and Power, 2013, Regnery Publishing Background to CDMA

Our CS 450 class during the telephony lecture has described how analog voice data, which was traditionally conveyed using analog waveforms, can be converted into digital data and digital waveforms (and vice-versa), so that computers could process it, by using Nyquist’s Sampling Theory. • In telephony, analog waveforms are multiplexed by Frequency Division Multiplexing • In telephony, digital waveforms are multiplexed by Time Division Multiplexing. • These multiplexing techniques are based on Physics. Code Division Multiplexing (CDMA) is an alternative multiplexing approach that is not based on physics but is rather based on Shannon’s Information Theory. Background to CDMA (2)

Scarcity of frequency spectrum (bandwidth) was a catalyst for the development of Shannon’s information theory, which has become widely used for wireless communications. • CDMA itself was devised by Andrew Viterbi and Irwin Jacobs, the founders of Qualcomm, which produced popular CDMA products. CDMA is based on Shannon’s Information Theory. Viterbi: a communications system is more capacious and efficient when its contents most closely resemble not a clear channel and a decisive signal but rather a fuzzy stream of “white noise”. • By contrast, FDMA and TDMA are two strategies that seek to maximize channel capacity by increasing the power-to-noise ratio (e.g., speak louder). • John J Pierce showed in 1980: Reducing the power and expanding the bandwidth was over 16x more efficient in the example than increasing the signal power using the same bandwidth. • Paradox of “loudness”: One person can be heard better by speaking at higher volume, but if everyone does it then the communication drowns in the ambient noise.

Terse Introduction to Information Theory Information Theory was proposed in 1948 by Claude E Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing and communication operations such as data compression. • Shannon defined information in terms of digital bits and measured it by the concept of information entropy: unexpected or surprising bits. • Shannon’s entropy is maximized when all the bits in a message are equally improbable and thus cannot be further compressed without loss of information − Entropy = surprisal; Defines and quantifies the information in a message » Information is quantified in terms of probability; by quantifying the amount of information, Shannon was able to define both the capacity of a given channel for carrying information and the effect of noise on that carrying capacity • Concept of Communication: − A source selects a message from a portfolio of possible messages, encodes it by resorting to a dictionary or lookup table using a specialized alphabet, and then transcribes the encoded message into a form that can be transmitted down a channel. » Recognizes that in the real world, channels always have some level of noise or interference. − At the destination, the receiver decodes the message, translating it back into its original form • This concept of communication can occur both in terms of space (for data comm) as well as through time (for data storage and retrieval) • Noise = Change in a channel; An ideal channel is perfectly linear (i.e., what goes in is what comes out) • The Message in the channel can communicate changes. The message of change can be distinguished from the unchanging parameters of the channel • Because Shannon’s Information Theory was rigorous and restrained in its definitions, it can be applied to almost anything transmitted over time or space in the presence of noise or interference

Terse Introduction to CDMA

“Bandwidth” is the apparent physical carrying capacity of a connection.

At the receiving end, we must be able to distinguish between the signal (information) and the “noise” • One way to enhance transmission is by eliminating noise: making the channel as stable as possible so that every modulation of the carrier can be interpreted as “signal” − Both TDMA and FDMA insulates one channel of communications from other channels to explicitly reduce noise and interference • CDMA, by contrast, sought not to eliminate noise but to transcend and transform it into information. CDMA maximizes capacity by allowing all the channels to use all of the frequencies all the time without the wasteful rigidity of TDMA timeslots.

Irwin Jacobs likened CDMA to resemble a cocktail party in which each pair of communicators spoke their own language. They would differentiate their communication not through time slots or narrow frequency bands but through codes. Spread across the available spectrum, these codes would resemble white noise to anyone without a decoder.

With this as background, please read Section 2.5.5 (Pages 135-138) in our textbook which describe how CDMA works or see the following slides. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals called chips (m = 64 or 128 chips/bit) To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence, to transmit a 0 bit, it sends the negation of its chip sequence CDMA shares the channel by giving users a code • Codes are orthogonal; can be sent at the same time • Widely used as part of 3G networks Sender Codes Transmitted Receiver Decoding Signal +1 +1 S x A +2 +2 Sum = 4 A = -1 -1 0 0 A sent “1” +2 0 0 +1 +1 Sum = -4 B = 0 0 S x B -1 -1 -2 -2 B sent “0” -2

+1 +1 S = +A -B S x C +2 Sum = 0 C = C didn’t send -1 -1 0 0

-2 Also see Figure 2-28 on pages 136-138 (next slide)

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 CDMA Example: Figure 2-28 in Textbook (page 137)

Chip transmissions of each station Chips for 4 stations

(a) Chip sequences for four stations. (b) Signals the sequences represent (c) Six examples of transmissions. (d) Recovery of station C's signal. This example shows in part (c) 6 different transmissions from the 4 stations This example shows in part (d) how to see what Station C transmitted for each of the transmission examples of part (c) CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall , 2011 The Public Switched Telephone Network

• Structure of the telephone system » Skipped here; see • Politics of telephones » Telephony Lecture • Local loop: modems, ADSL, and FTTH » (lecture 2) • Trunks and multiplexing »

• Switching » Covered in Lecture 2 but additional detail also provided here

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Trunks and Multiplexing (1) Calls are carried digitally on PSTN trunks using TDM • A call is an 8-bit PCM sample each 125 μs (64 kbps) • Traditional T1 carrier has 24 call channels each 125 μs (1.544 Mbps) with symbols based on AMI

= least significant bit Robbed-bit for in-band signaling every 6th frame is why DS-0 is only 56 kbps for data (8000 * 7) but 64 kbps for voice (i.e., human ear can’t detect the loss of one bit of information every 6 frames CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, ©but Pearson data Education can).-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Trunks and Multiplexing (2) SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) is the worldwide standard for carrying digital signals on optical trunks • Keeps 125 μs frame; base frame is 810 bytes (52Mbps) − Continuous Data Stream – 810B (9 rows of 90 columns) every 125 usec • Payload “floats” within framing for flexibility -- Can begin anywhere in frame

Fixed pattern for Synch first 2 frame bytes Ptr to First Byte of SPE located User Data CN5E by Tanenbaumin first & Wetherall row, © Pearson of line Education overhead-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Trunks and Multiplexing (3)

Hierarchy at 3:1 per level is used for higher rates • Each level also adds a small amount of framing • Rates from 50 Mbps (STS-1) to 40 Gbps (STS-768)

SONET/SDH rate hierarchy

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), another name for FDM, is used to carry many signals on one fiber:

PSTN uses circuit switching; Internet uses packet switching

PSTN:

Internet:

Note: PSTN = Public Switched Telephone Network POTS = Plain Old Telephone System PSTN = POTS Two acronyms for the same entity

Circuit switching requires call setup (connection) before data flows smoothly • Also teardown at end (not shown)

Packet switching treats messages independently • No setup, but variable queuing delay at routers

Circuits Packets

Comparison of circuit- and packet-switched networks

• Generations of mobile telephone systems » • Cellular mobile telephone systems » • GSM, a 2G system » • UMTS, a 3G system »

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 Generations of mobile telephone systems

1G, analog voice − AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) is example, deployed from 1980s. Modulation based on FM (as in radio). 2G, analog voice and digital data − GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is example, deployed from 1990s. Modulation based on QPSK. 3G, digital voice and data − UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is example, deployed from 2000s. Modulation based on CDMA 4G, digital data including voice − LTE (Long Term Evolution) is example, deployed from 2010s. Modulation based on OFDM

All based on notion of spatial regions called cells − Each mobile uses a frequency in a cell; moves cause handoff − Frequencies are reused across non-adjacent cells − To support more mobiles, smaller cells can be used

Cellular reuse pattern Smaller cells for dense mobiles

CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications (1) 2G Tech – Digital Voice and Text Messaging • Mobile device is divided into handset and SIM card (Subscriber Identity Module) with credentials • Mobiles tell their HLR (Home Location Register) their current whereabouts for incoming calls • Cells keep track of visiting mobiles (in the Visitor Location Registry (LR))

Supports ID and encryption

BSC = base station controller cell radio resources & handoffs MSC = mobile switching center routes calls and connects to POTS CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011 GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications (2)

Air interface is based on FDM channels of 200 KHz divided in an eight-slot TDM frame every 4.615 ms • Mobile is assigned up- and down-stream slots to use • Each slot is 148 bits long, gives rate of 27.4 kbps

124 pairs of simplex frequency channels of 200 KHz each that have 8 slot TDMs

8 shaded timeslots in same CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherallconnection,, 2011 4 each direction 3G Mobile Phone Networks (1)

3G is Made for both Digital Voice and Data 3G network is based on spatial cells; each cell provides wireless service to mobiles within it via a base station

Base stations connect to the core network to find other mobiles and send data to the phone network and Internet RNC = Radio Network Controller MSC = Mobile Switching Center GMSC = Gateway MSC MGW = Media Gateway HSS = Home Subscriber Server

Note how both circuit-switched (CONS; voice) and packet-switched (CLNP; data) are supported

As mobiles move, base stations hand them off from one cell to the next, and the network tracks their location

Handover

Air interface based on CDMA over 5 MHz channels • Rates over users <14.4 Mbps (HSPDA) per 5 MHz • CDMA allows frequency reuse over all cells • CDMA permits soft handoff (connected to both cells)

CDMA = Code Division Multiple Access Soft handoff

Chapter 2