Index

ablation see disbudding Angola, ancestral palms, 147 basal stem rot see Ganoderma abnormal flowering of clones, 212–215 production and exports, 5, 12–13, 15 Beauveria, 406, 452, 453 effect of culture media, 213 prospection, 154 Benin, climate, 55, 62 testing for abnormality, 215, 224 Angola pisifera cf. AVROS, 199 import of palm oil, 20 abortion, 121–124 animal fats-world production, 7 irrigation, 304 effect of fruiting activity, 118 animal feed, from by-products, 482 production, area, yield, exports, 5, 12–15 effect of planting density, 280 kernel cake, 464 smallholders, 24 preferential abortion, 123–124 anisidine value, 476 best management practice, 326–327 timing, 121–123 anthracnose, 400 Binga breeding material, 150 abscisic acid, possible effect on sex anti-palm oil campaigns, 519 origin, 145–146 ratio, 120 ants, leaf-cutting, 438 biochar, 396 stomatal closure, 110 Apanteles sp, 449 biodegradable plastics, 223, 481 abscission, fruit, 49, 132, 182, 310 aphids, 438 biodiesel, 507–518 leaves, 34 apical meristem, 34 carbon balance, 513–514 acid sands, 85 Apiospora sp, 408 characteristics, 511 acid sulphate soils, 75 Apogonia, 439 effect on demand for oils, 484 drainage, 254–255 Arecaceae, 30 energy balance of production, 512 nutrient deficiencies, 391 Armillaria, 400 ethics of production, 517 active weeks: yield forecasting, 135 ASD Costa Rica, 148, 152 see also food supplies, 515–517 additive variation, 164 Costa Rica fuel security, 518 Adoretus, 439 Asia and Oceania: production, area, future demand, 535 advanced planting material, 238, 278 yield, 12 land-use change, 513–514 aerial application of fertilisers, Aspergillus niger: brown germ, 401 production methods, 510–511 302, 397 assisted pollination, 307 subsidies and incentives, 514 aerial spraying of insecticide, 450 Asystasia gangetica, 291 World production and demand, 515 Africa, climate projections, 498 Asystasia intrusa, 459 biodiversity, 29 palm oil imports, 19, 27 available water and water potential, 63 loss from deforestation, 526, 529 production costs, 19 available water capacity, 56 plantations, 528–529 production, area, yield, 12 Malaysian soils, 57 biogas from effluent, 509 soils, 84 site selection for plantation, 243 biological control, caterpillars, 448–550 African spear borer, 443 AVROS pisifera Ganoderma, 423–524 Agrobacterium, 224 comparison with other pisiferas, 198 leaf miner, 451 agroclimatic zones, 63 origin, 143–144 rats, 455–457 agroforestry, 529 biomass, 92 albescens, 31, 153 Bacillus thuringiensis, 448 by-products, 480 carotene content, 187 bacteria in rhizosphere, 344 change with palm age, 501 albino seedlings, 184 COPYRIGHTEDbagworms, 449 MATERIALeffect of removal on yield, 480 algal leaf spot, 400 Bah Jambi pisifera cf. AVROS, 199 energy source, 507–508 allelopathic effects of weeds, 291–292 Bajo Upia wilt, 427 forest, 500–501, 513 aluminium toxicity, 393 bakery fats, 490 grassland, 513 Alurnus humeralis, 438 Bamenda breeding material, 153 relation to biodiversity, 527 amplified fragment length polymorphism Barcella odora, 30 removal affects nutrient balance, 388 (AFLPs), 167 barn owl: rat control, 455, 456, 457 roots, 93, 341 andromorphic inflorescence, 47 basal decay, 400 standing biomass, 91

The Oil Palm, Fifth Edition. R.H.V. Corley and P.B. Tinker. © 2016 R.H.V. Corley and P.B. Tinker. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

627

0002603177.indd 627 9/15/2015 4:37:12 PM 628 Index

birds see also barn owl annual cycle, 116 carbon dioxide, effects on dry matter pests, 457 change with age, 116 production, 112, 505 predators on E. kamerunicus, 458 correlation with bunch weight, greenhouse gas, 495–496 Birthosea bisura, 448 127, 173 rate of photosynthesis, 99

blast disease, 403 effect of irrigation, 304 super-critical CO2 for oil extraction, bleachability, 476 effect of planting density, 280 471 BOD of effluent, 386, 478 heritability, 174 carbon payback time, biofuels, 513 Bogor palms, 6, 139 bunch transport, 312–313 carotene, composition in palm oil, boiler ash as cement replacement, 481 costs, 315 463–464 boron deficiency symptoms, 352 labour requirements, 315 extraction, 477 Brabanta, ancestral palms, 146 mechanisation, 316 genetic variation in content, 187 breeding values, 192 bunch weight, 49 importance in diet, 493 branched palms, 34 bunch analysis, 161 synthesis, 223 Brazil, agroclimatic zones, 64 change with age, 116 Castnia daedalus, 454 breeding programme, 152 components of bunch, 125 castration see disbudding deforestation, 523–524 correlation with bunch number, cation antagonism, 360 development of industry, 21 127, 173 exchange capacity, 83–84, 86–87 E. oleifera collection, 154 dry weight estimation, 94–95 center of diversity of oil palm, 1 palm groves, 1, 3 effect of irrigation, 304 Central America see Latin America planted area, 21 effect of planting density, 280 Centrosema pubescens, 293 production, area, yield, exports, 5, genetic variation, 173 Cephaleuros virescens, 400 12, 14 heritability, 174 Ceramothyrium, 408 soils, 87–88 linked to molecular marker, 174 Ceratocystis paradoxa, 409, 432 breeding see also genetic variation oil/bunch, 318–319 Cercospora elaeidis, 400–401 crossing designs, 158 seasonal variation, 125 Chaetothyrium, 408 disease resistance, 413–415, 425, 434 stalk weight, 126 Chalconycles see Homophylotis mechanised harvesting, 316–317 time of determination, 126 charcoal base rot, 400 objectives, 187–188 bunch-end rot, 434 Chauliops bisontula, 459 programmes, 149–152 burning for land clearing, 256–259 see also China, palm oil imports, 27 time scale, 159 zero-burning Chemara pisifera, 144 trial designs, 158 Bursa Malaysia Derivatives chlorine, deficiency, 358–360 breeding population of restricted origin Exchange, 483 deficiency symptoms, 352 (BPRO), conservation, 155 bush crickets, 450 volcanic soils, 392 definition, 139 chlorotic ring, 400 breeding progress, CIRAD programme, cable system for fuit transport, 313 choke, 435 205 cadang-cadang viroid, 400 cholesterol in blood, 493 Deli dura, 204–205 Calabar, ancestral palms, 147 Chromolaena odorata, 291, 459 future possibilities, 206–207 comparison with AVROS, herbicide resistance, 299 increasing oil to bunch, 317–319 198–199 chromosomes, 41 theory, 203 calcium deficiency symptoms, 352 CIRAD-CP see also Ivory Coast breeding values, calculation, 166 Callosciurus spp., 457 breeding progress, 205 yield and bunch composition, 192 Calopogonium caeruleum, 293 history of breeding programme, 150 Brooksia, 408 Calopogonium mucunoides, 293 Indonesian breeding programme, 151 brown germ disease, 227, 399, 401 cambering–pulverising planting clarification of oil, 471–472 building materials from EFB, 481 system, 262 classification of palms, 30 bunch, development, 130 Cameroons, breeding programmes, 150 classification of soils, 68–69 dry weight, 104 development of industry, 20 clearing for planting, 256–262 growth rate, 126–127 production costs, 486 Clidemia hirta, 296 morphology, 49 production, area, yield, exports, 5, herbicide resistance, 299 nutrient content, 336 12–13, 15 climate, effect on oil/bunch, 320 bunch analysis, 159–163 prospection, 154 effect on yield, 128–129, 135 bunch failure, 124 smallholders, 20, 23 limitations to yield, 64–65 bunch index, 100, 164 canola see rapeseed site selection for plantation, 241 genetic variation, 116 canopy structure and leaflet climate change, 495–497 heritability, 183 arrangement, 97 climate models, 495–496 planting density, 195 carbohydrate storage in trunk, 105 economics, 506 bunch moth, 453 carbon balance, 499–500 effects on palm growth, 112 bunch number, 49 see also sex ratio, biodiesel, 513–514 projections, 497, 505–506 abortion land use change, 500–502 clonal propagation see tissue culture

0002603177.indd 628 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM Index 629

clonal seed, 196–197, 220 effect of pruning, 113 Dabou Deli dura origin, 146 clone trials, 217 effect of water deficit, 109–110 Dami breeding programme, 152 clone × environment interactions, 218 copper, deficiency symptoms, 354 Dappula tertia, 449–450 clones, checking identity with molecular toxicity, 393 Darna spp., 447–448 markers, 168 Coragyps atratus, 457 Dasychira sp, 438 commercial planting, 220 coronary heart disease, 492–493 Dasymys incomtus, 454 dry matter production, 115 Corozo oleifera, 50 decanters, 472 flowering patterns, 218 Corticium solani, 400 decanter cake, 478 management of plantings, 218 Costa Rica, breeding programme, 152 deep frying, 490 profitability, 218 development of industry, 21 deficiency demand for nutrients, recycling through culture, 219 E. oleifera collection, 154 330–331, 366, 370–371 varying time of sex determination, 122 early breeding work, 148 deficiency symptoms, 351–352 cloud point, 487 production, area, yield, exports, 5, defoliation see also pruning cockchafers, 439 12–13, 15, 21 pest damage, 447 cocoa under oil palm, 273 soils, 88 deforestation, compared to oil palm cocoa butter, solid fat content, 487 costs, bunch transport, 315 expansion, 523–525 replacers, 490–491 change with time, 301 effect on climate, 499 coconut oil, uses, 491 establishment in grassland or Indonesia, 16 world production, 7 forest, 528 pathways to oil palm planting, 526 Codex Alimentarius code of practice, 472 field planting, 266, 288 Deli dura, breeding progress, 204–205 Coelanomenodera lameensis, 451 irrigation, 306–307 genetic diversity, 169, 199 collante, 402 land preparation for planting, 262 in Africa, 150 Colombia, agroclimatic zones, 64 milling, 475 origin, 6, 139–142 deforestation, 523–524 nursery, 238–239 sub-populations, 140, 169–170 development of industry, 21 reducing fertiliser costs, 398 Deli × AVROS, 149, 151–152, 198 E. oleifera collection, 154 total production costs, 485 genetic variation, 173 early breeding work, 148 Côte d’Ivoire see Ivory Coast Deli × La Mé cf. Deli × Yangambi, irrigation, 304 cover crops, 290–293 see also legume 198, 200 labour requirements, 300 cover crops δ9-desaturase, 222 production costs, 486 benefits, 270–271 Democratic Republic of Congo see production, area, yield and exports, competion with palms, 294 Congo 5, 12, 14–15, 21 effects on yield, 292, 293 detergents, 491–492 soils, 87–88 Oryctes control, 445 Demotispa neivai, 439 Combined Breeding Programme value of cover, 290 Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated exchanges, 150, 152 Cowan ancestral palms, 147 System (DRIS) index, 381 compact palm, origin, 148 breeding values, 192–193 dietary fats and heart disease, 492–493 compaction see soil compaction Crematogaster, 406, 451 digestion before pressing, 470 competition, between regions, 9 critical levels, 356–357 digital elevation model, 252 between palms, 278–279 definition, 354 diglycerides, 460 with other oils, 10 effect of different soils, 357 effect on fractionation, 488 competition and planting density, 195 season and climate effects, disbudding, 307 compost from EFB and effluent, 358–359 changing yield cycle, 128, 308 297–298 critical water deficit, 58, 305 dry matter production, 104, 114 yield responses, 386 crop factor, 56, 58 underplanting, 265 compound fertilisers, 396 crop growth rate, 89 disease resistance: genetic variation, 184 confluent orange spotting, 351 crop modelling, 134, 136–137 distribution of oil palm in Africa, 3 Congo, development of industry, 19 crossing programme design, 158 diwakkawakka, 48 early prospection, 153 crown disease, 404 Djongo, ancestral palm, 143, 145 history of breeding, 150 inheritance of susceptibility, breeding values, 192–193 production, area, yield, exports, 5, 405–406 DNA methylation and abnormal 12–13, 15 crusty spot, 400 flowering of clones, 214 prospection, 154 cryopreservation, 211–212 Dolok Sinumbah pisifera cf. AVROS, 199 soils, 86 culling in nursery, 237 Dominican Republic: production, area, Congo theory of shell-thickness Curvularia eragrostidis, 400 yield, exports, 12–13, 21 inheritance, 149 Cuscuta spp., 459 drainage, effect on yield, 378 conversion coefficient, 90, 98 customary law and land rights, 530–531 fatal yellowing, 432–433 changes with palm age, 112 cutting grass (rodent) damage, 277, 457 layout of drains, 254 effect of fertilisers, 108 Cylindrocladium macrosporum, 400 peat, 81 effect of planting density, 107 Cylindrocorpus inevectus, 458 suitability for oil palm, 72–73

0002603177.indd 629 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM 630 Index

drought see water deficit Ekona breeding material, 151 evapotranspiration, 56, 303 drought tolerance breeding values, 192 daily values, 59 effect of disbudding, 307 origin, 147–148 Expérience Internationale, 146 genetic variation, 184–185 Ekona pisifera cf. AVROS, 198–199 export duties on palm oil, 485 Drupalm® oil extraction process, 471 El Niño, 67, 496–497 expressed sequence tags (ESTs), 167 dry basal rot, 408 Elaeidobius kamerunicus, 47, 130–132, extinction coefficient, 97 dry bud rot, 400 see also fruit set changes with palm age, 112 dry matter production, 90 contamination of controlled changes under selection, 204 pollinations, 156 family and individual selection, 190–191 effect of disbudding, 104 effect of insecticide spray, 451 fatal yellowing, 430–434 effect of planting density, 280 effects of introduction, 130–131 breeding for resistance, 434 genetic variation, 182 pests, 458 effect on yield, 433 heritability, 183 Elaeidobius subvittatus, 47 predisposing factors, 432–433 non-destructive methods, 93–96 Elaeidophilos adustalis, 439 removal of infected palms, 433–434 roots, 339, 341 Elaeis guineensis, historical symptoms, 430–431 drying of palm oil, 472 descriptions, 30 fats in diet: WHO recommendations, 492 Dumpy Deli dura, 141, 143 Elaeis guineensis × oleifera hybrid, 51 fatty acids, chemical structure, 460–461 comparison with non-Dumpy assisted pollination, 307 hydrogenation, 460–462 Deli, 200 backcrosses, 202 kernel oil, 464 Fusarium wilt resistance, 415 breeding progress, 201–202 oxidation, 460 palm height, 182 ‘compact’ palm, 148 palm oil, 462 Dumpy × AVROS pisifera cf. disease resistance, 427, 434 synthesis, 223 AVROS, 199 kernel oil composition, 187 Felda, 23, 328 dura, 31, 48 oil composition, 186 female inflorescence, 41–43 contamination in D × P crosses, Elaeis melanococca, 50 fertile pisifera, 191 156, 317 Elaeis oleifera, 2, 50 as planting material, 200–201 poor correlation with T fruit distribution, 50 tenera shell thickness, 177–178 composition, 176–177 prospection, 154 fertiliser efficiency, 366 dura × pisifera, see also tenera history seed germination, 232 dependent on site characteristics, 382 of discovery, 148 susceptible to Cercospora, 401 physiological efficiency, 366–369 D × P see tenera uses of oil, 51 recovery efficiency, 366–369, 378 Dynastes centaurus, 439 Elaeolenchus parthenonema, 458 fertiliser experiments, 344–346 Eldana saccharina, 439 response curves, 345–350, 357, 367, economic benefits of palm oil, 531 elephant damage, 457 379–380 Ecuador, breeding programme, 152 Eleusine indica, herbicide resistance, 299 results, 349–350, 367–368 development of industry, 22 Elmina estate Deli dura, 141 summary of regional results, 350 E. oleifera collection, 154 embryo, 31 trial design, 347 irrigation, 304 embryogenesis, 210 fertiliser recommendations, 363–382 production, area, yield, exports, 5, empty fruit bunches see EFB DRIS index, 381 12, 14, 21 energy balance: palm oil and Foster system IV, 382 soils, 86–88 biodiesel, 512 Foster/PORIM system I, 377–380 EFB, benefit of mulching, 276, energy in palm products, 508 Foster/PORIM system III, 380–382 296, 297 environmental impact assessment, French systems, 377 effect on soil properties, 385 240, 250–251 INFERS system, 370–376 energy content, 508 Epimorius adustalis, 450 response prediction from site mulch increases Fusarium wilt, 413 epiphytes on palm trunk, 296 characteristics, 378–380 nutrient content, 384–385 Episibine spp., 448 soil analysis, 363, 382 nutrient recycling, 331, 364–365, erosion, 243–244 fertiliser trial results, 367, 368 384–385 nutrient losses, 374, 389–390 fertilisers, aerial application, 302 possible products, 481 prevention by cover crop, 290 application methods and frequency, effective sunshine-yield forecasting, 135 under intercropping, 272 397 effluent, as animal feed, 482 Erwinia, 430 before replanting, 262–263, 383–384 biogas generation, 509 essential elements for plants, 329 effect on oil/bunch, 319–320, 349 field application, 386–388 EU Renewable Energy Directive, 514 effects on dry matter prodution, 107 limits for discharge, 478 Euclea spp., 448 field planting, 277 no effect on groundwater, 388 Eupalamides cyparissias, 454 mechanised spreading, 301–302 nutrient content, 386 Euphorbia heterophylla, 441, 450 nursery, 234, 237 nutrient recycling, 331, 364–365, Euprostema elaeasa, 448 on peat soils, 82 386–388 Europe, palm oil imports, 26–27 profitability, 348–349, 357 sources and treatment, 477–479 Eurycantha calcarata, 438 smallholders, 328

0002603177.indd 630 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM Index 631

types of fertiliser, 393–396 Fusarium wilt, 409–416 possible problems, 231–232 yield at optimum levels, 247, 380 breeding for resistance, 184, 413–415 T, P and OxG hybrid seed, 232 FFA, 460 chronic and acute forms, 409, 413 under natural conditions, 227 as quality criterion, 475–477 disribution, incidence, spread, 411 wet heat method, 231 increase before processing, 469 effect on yield, 411–412 germplasm collections see also increase during ripening, 310, 465 symptomless infection, 412, 415 prospection programmes fibre, energy content, 508 futures trading, 483–484 utilisation, 155 fuel, 465, 507 Ghana, 20 fibreboard from biomass, 481 Gambia, prospection, 154 breeding programme, 150 field capacity, 56 Ganoderma, 416–426 deforestation, 523 field planting, 266, 275–276 biological control, 423–424 labour requirements, 300 flood-prone land, 270 breeding for resistance, 425 production, area, yield, exports, preparation, 255–270 control at replanting, 420–423 12–13 replacement of missing palms, 277 distribution and spread, 417 smallholders, 23 seedling age at planting, 275 early and late phases, 417 soils, 86 time of planting, 276 early detection, 425 gibberellin, effect on sex ratio, 120 fingerprinting with molecular markers, effect on yield, 420 germination, 227 168–170 following replanting, 261 glycerol, 461 Finschhafen disorder, 400 in successive generations, 423 glycidyl esters formation in refining, 480 fire damage to forest, 527 life cycle, 418–419 Gracilinux fruit form, 31 flooding, 55, 435 mode of infection, 417–419 grasshoppers, 438, 450 flower morphology, 46 mounding, removal of diseased grassland, biomass, 501–502 flowers per spikelet, 126 palms, 424 planting with palms, 528 forest, biomass, 501–502 predisposing factors, 420 grazing under palms, 273–274 clearing for plantations, 259–260 removal of fruiting bodies, 425 greenhouse gases, 495–496 definitions, 525 upper stem rot, 427 GreenPalm ‘book and claim’ fossil oil palm, 1 genetic analysis, 164 system, 485 Foveavirus, 407 genetic distance, conservation grey leaf blight, 405 fractionation, 489 programmes, 156 ground cover see cover crops, legume freckle, 401 relationship to yield, 170 cover crops free fatty acids see FFA genetic diversity, molecular markers, growth analysis, 89 free, prior, and informed consent, 168–170 growth demand for nutrients, 330–331, 530–531 genetic engineering see transformation 364–365, 370–374 fruit, abscission, 49, 132 genetic orange spotting, 400 growth measurements, 93–96, 163 morphology, 47 genetic variation, 173–175 growth regulators: germination, 227 pest damage, 439 critical nutrient levels, 358 gru-gru beetle, 452 fruit bunch see bunch crown disease, 405–406 Guatemala, production, area, yield, fruit development, 131 disease resistance, 184, 413–415, exports, 12–13, 21 fruit set, 49, 126 425, 434 Guinea, prospection, 154 effect of E. kamerunicus, 130 drought tolerance, 184–185 Gunung Melayu Deli dura, 140 effect of male inflorescence dry matter production, 114 number, 132 leaf nutrient levels, 351 Haplaxius pallidus see Myndus crudus effect of weevil population, 131–132 oil composition, 186–187 haploids: use in breeding, 193 effect on bunch weight, 125 oil to bunch, 178–181 hard bunches, 469, 475 Fruit to bunch see also bunch analysis optimal planting density, 281, 285 harvest index, 90, 100 genetic variation, 178–179 root biomass, 341 harvest interval, 310 fruit types and forms, 31 shell thickness, 176–177 harvesting, 308, 312 fruit weight, 126 vegetative growth, 182–183 labour requirements, 299, 300, 311 as selection criterion, 145 genetic yield potential, 322 mechanisation, 313–315 genetic variation, 179 genome sequence of oil palm, 172 standard and frequency, 309 fruiting activity, 117, 118 genomic selection, 172 tall palms, 308–310 effect on abortion rate, 121 genotype × environment interactions, young palms, 308 effects on bunch weight, 126 202–203, 218 haustorium, 31 yield cycles, 128 germination, 32, 225–232 haze, effect on oil/bunch, 320 fuel for processing, 465 design of germinators, 231 effect on photosynthesis, 99 functional foods, 494 dry heat method, 226, 228–230 effect on yield, 62 fungicides, Cercospora control, 401 duration of heat treatment, 231 heart disease, 492–493 Ganoderma control, 424 effect of temperature, 225–226 height, effect of planting density, 107 seed treatment, 228, 233 moisture content of seed, 226 genetic variation, 182 Fusarium oxysporum, 400, 409–410 oxygen requirement, 225 heritability, 183

0002603177.indd 631 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM 632 Index

herbicide resistance, 299 production costs, 19, 486 KAS-II activity, 221–222 herbicides, cover crop establishment, production, area, yield, exports, 5, 8, kernel see palm kernels 294 12–16 kernel oil see palm kernel oil paths and palm circles, 299 smallholders, 16, 23 kernel to bunch see bunch analysis heritability, 165 yields, 532 kernel to fruit, genetic variation, 181 bunch composition, 180 soils, 84 definition, 164 soil taxonomy, 70 La Mé material, breeding values, 192 vegetative growth, 183 INEAC breeding programme, 150 comparison with AVROS and yield and yield components, 174 INFERS system see fertiliser Yangambi, 198–199 heterosis, 170, 195 recommendations La Mé pisifera, 146, 150 high carbon stock forest, 502, 522 inflorescence, development, 41, labour productivity and requirements, high conservation value forest, 44–45, 117 485 526–527 female, 41–43 field planting, 266, 288 Hispoleptis spp., 438 initiation, 119 mature palm maintenance, 299–300 Homophylotis catori, 438, 450 male, 42–43 mechanisation, 301 Honduras, E. oleifera collection, 154 mixed, 43 nursery, 238–239 production, area, yield, exports, removal see disbudding Lancetilla, 148 12–13, 21 inflorescence abortion see abortion land clearing, 256–262 honeycomb design for breeding insect vectors of disease, 458 Ganoderma control, 421–423 trials, 158 insecticides, blast disease control, 403–404 land evaluation methods, 244 hook leaf, 352 causing pest outbreaks, 440–441 French system, 244 hybrids see Elaeis guineensis × oleifera importance of selectivity, 442 Indonesian system, 245 hybrid marchitez control, 427 Malaysian system, 245–249 hydrogen cyanamide stimulates Pestalotiopsis control, 406 land rights and customary law, 530–531 germination, 227 trunk injection, 442, 449-50 land sparing and land sharing, 529–530 hydrogenation of fatty acids, 462, 490 Institut de Recherches pour les Huiles et land suitability classes, 71 hydrological cycle see water balance Oleagineux (IRHO) see lateritic soil, 76 hydrolysis of triglycerides, 460–461 CIRAD-CP, Ivory Coast Latin America, climate projections, 498 Hystrix brachyura, 457 integrated pest management, 437–442 development of industry, 22 action thresholds, 441 production, area, yield, 12 idolatrica, 38 census systems, 441 soils, 86–87 inheritance, 183 control measures, 442 Latoia see Parasa illegitimacy, checking with molecular intercropping, 271–274, 299 leaching: nutrient losses, 374–376, markers, 157, 168 interesterification, 490 389, 394 commercial planting material, 149, interspecific hybrid see Elaeis guineensis × leaf, biomass, 92 156, 318 oleifera hybrid development and morphology, 35 pedigree uncertainty, 139 iodine value, method, 462 pest damage, 438 SP540, 144 palm oil, 462 leaf analysis, 337, 349, 354–360, 362, import duties in India, 484 palm kernel oil, 465 374, 377 importers of palm oil, 26–27 palm oil products, 488–489 Foster/PORIM system III, 380–382 inbred lines, 193 iron deficiency, 353 water deficit, 358–359 inbreeding, 193–195 irrigation, 303–306 leaf area, change with age, 101, 115 index selection, 188 costs and profitability, 306 heritability, 183 India, development of industry, 18 estimating requirement, 303, 305 light interception, 96 imports, 26–27 frequency and quantity, 306 method of measurement, 93–94 import duty on palm oil, 484 methods, 306 optimal density, 282, 285 production, area, yield, exports, nursery, 234, 236 palm age, 101 12–14 yield response, 304, 306 leaf area expansion, 115, 196 indirect land use change, 504 Ischaemum muticum, 291 leaf area index, 89, 106 Indonesia, agroclimatic zones, Ivory Coast, breeding programme, 150 method of measurement, 94 63–65 development of industry, 20 remote sensing, 327 breeding programmes, 151 irrigation, 304 leaf area ratio, heritability, 183 deforestation, 523–524 labour requirements, 300 leaf bases, 34 development of industry, 10 production costs, 486 leaf base wilt, 435 early D × P planting, 149 production, area, yield, exports, 5, leaf crinkle, 401–402 export tax on palm products, 485 12–13, 15 leaf-cutting ants, 438 Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil, 522 prospection programme, 153 leaf-eating pests, 447–451 labour requirements, 300 smallholders, 20, 23 control, 448 land suitability classes, 71 soils, 86 effect on yield, 447

0002603177.indd 632 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM Index 633

leaf miner, 451 magnesium, deficiency symptoms, 352 loose fruit collection, 317 leaf mottle, 407 effect on oil/bunch, 349 soil compaction, 302 leaf number, 96 types of fertiliser, 396 Meliola elaeis, 408 leaf nutrient levels see leaf analysis Mahasena corbetti, 449 Meliolinella elaeidis, 408 leaf production, 37, 101 maintenance, nature palms, melting range of oil and fats, 487 effect of fruiting activity, 118 299–300 mesocarp to fruit see also bunch analysis planting density, 107 maintenance respiration, 99, 107 genetic variation, 179 leaf roll, 401, 402 changes with palm age, 113 Metamasius hemipterus, 428, 458 leaf weight, method of measurement, effect of temperature, 112 Metarhizium anisopliae, 446, 453 94–95 Malaysia, agroclimatic zones, 63 methane, greenhouse gas, 499 palm age, 101 ban on seed exports, 151 production from effluent, 509 leaf wither, 405 breeding programmes, 151 Metisa plana, 449 legume cover crops, 292–295 deforestation, 523–524 cause of outbreak, 440 benefits, 292 delayed replanting, 317–318, 321 Mexico, production, area, yield, exports, dry matter production, nutrient development of industry, 16 12–13, 21 uptake, 295 early D × P planting, 149 microsatellites, 167 host for Fusarium, 413 export duty on CPO, 485 microspore culture, 220 maintenance, 295 irrigation, 304 mid-crown yellowing, 351 nitrogen fixation, 294–295 labour requirements, 300 Mikania micrantha, 291, 459 Oryctes control, 445 Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil, 522 mill capacity, peak month, 128 pests, 459 oil extraction ratio, 317–319 milling see palm oil extraction Lemniscomys striatus, 454 overseas investment, 17 minimum ripeness standard, Leptopharsa gibbicarina, 406, 458 palm kernel imports, 27 310–311, 317 lethal bud rot, 430 production costs, 19, 486 mitochondrial activity, 167 lethal wilt, 427 production, area, yield, exports, 5, 8, mixed inflorescences, 43 Leucopholis, 439 12–15 molecular markers, 167-72 Liberia, 20 smallholders, 23 in conservation programmes, 156 production and exports, 15 yields, 532 Mongana, ancestral palms, 146 light compensation point of soils, 82–84 breeding values, 192 photosynthesis, 98 characteristics, 76 monkeys, 457 light intensity and photosynthesis, 98 taxonomy, 70–71 monocrotophos, 449 light interception, 90, 96–97 water holding capacity, 57 Monolepta apicicornis, 439 changes with palm age, 112 yield stagnation, 18 MPOB, 25 fertilisers, 108 male inflorescence, 43 prospection programmes, 153–155 genetic variation, 114 mammalian pests, 454–457 short palms in Nigerian collection, 183 partitioning, 102 mancha anular, 407 Mucuna bracteata, 293 pruning, 113 manganese deficiency, 353 Mucuna pruriens, 293 water deficit, 109 mangrove reclamation, 270 mulching, 276 see also EFB lightning strike, 435 mantled fruit, 31 mycorrhiza, 343, 344 Lincus lethifer, 426, 458 inheritance, 181–182 and Ganoderma, 424 linkage mapping, 170–172 mantled fruit in clones see abnormal Myndus crudus, 426 lipase, genetic variation in activity, 187 flowering Mystrops costaricensis, 47 in ripe fruit, 133, 465 Marasmius palmivorus, 435 Lisombe palm, 31, 147 marchitez letal, 427 Natada spp., 448 little leaf, boron deficiency, 352–353 marchitez sorpresiva, 426 natural habitat of oil palm, 2 disease, 429–430 margarine, 490 NCM1 and NCM2 crossing livestock in plantations, 273–274 mature palm diseases, 400, 404–435 designs, 159 logging, 524–526 Mayumbé, ancestral palms, 146 necrotic spot, 400 effect on biomass, 500–501 breeding values, 192 nematodes, red ring disease, 428 loss of biodiversiy, 527 Mbawsi symptom, 351 parasites of E. kamerunicus, 458 loose fruit ripeness standard, 310 MCPD formation in refining, 480 net assimilation rate, 89 collection, 311–312, 317 mealy bugs, 438 net energy ratio, 507 Lophuromys sikapusi, 454 mechanisation, 301–302 biodiesel NER, 512 low total oxidation (LOTOX) palm bunch transport, 312, 313 nettle caterpillars, 447–448 oil, 407 costs, 301 Ngazi ancestral palms, 145 lycopene, 222 field planting, 288, 289 Nicaragua, E. oleifera collection, 154 harvesting, 313–315 production, area, yield, exports, macrocarya fruit form, 48 changing palm characteristics, 12–13, 21 Madagascar prospection, 154 316–317 soils, 87

0002603177.indd 633 9/15/2015 4:37:13 PM 634 Index

nickel toxicity, 393 root distribution, 342 replanting, 320–321 Nigeria, deforestation, 523 uptake rates, 342, 344 standing biomass, 501 development of industry, 19 nutrients, extractable from soil, 365 trunk nutrient content, 336 import of palm oil, 19 types of fertiliser, 393–396 yield profile, 63–64, 322–323 production, area, yield and exports, 5, palm circles, 299 12–15 Oiketicus kirbyi, 450 palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD), 479 prospection programmes, 153 oil composition, end uses, 490–491 palm groves, 3 smallholders, 23 genetic variation, 186–187 palm kernel, chemical composition, 464 soils, 85 transformation, 221 emphasis in selection, 188 Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research oil extraction see palm oil extraction extraction, 472–473 (NIFOR), 25 oil extraction ratio, 317 genetic variation, 181 bunch analysis method, 159–160 oil losses in processing, 472–475 importing countries, 27 breeding material origin, 147 Oil Palm Genetics Laboratory, 151 international trade, 26 breeding programme, 150 oil palm genome, 221 production and exports, 15 breeding values, 192 oil synthesis, 131, 132, 464–466 palm kernel cake, 480 lack of variation in Deli dura, 173 biochemical pathway, 222–223 energy content, 508 nigrescens fruit type, 31 oil to bunch see also bunch analysis palm kernel oil, composition and nitrogen, content in palm tissues, 334 effect of bunch weight, 318–319 characteristics, 464–466 deficiency symptoms, 352 effect of fertilisers, 349 edible uses, 491 distribution in agroecosystem, 372 effects of weather, 133 extraction, 473–475, 480 fixation by legumes, 294–295 genetic variation, 178, 180–181 international trade, 26–27 in rainfall, 375 heritability, 180 production and exports, 7, 15 response on different soils, 379 palm age, 318–319 synthesis, 131 types of fertiliser, 393, 395 seasonal variation, 133 variation in composition, 187 non-additive variation, 164 oil to mesocarp, genetic variation, 181 world average yield, 11 non-shedding fruit, 182, 317 increase by transformation, 222 palm kernel olein, standard Norape argyrrhorea, 438 Oil Palm Production Simulator specifications, 488 nucleus estate deveopment model, 24 (OPRODSIM) model, 136 palm kernel stearin, standard nursery, 235–239 oil yield, 188 see also yield specifications, 488 costs, 238–239 heritability, 181 palm oil, carbon balance, 499–500 culling, 237 oil + kernel yield, 188 carotenoids, 463–464 diseases, 238, 400-401 oleic acid: changing oil composition, 221 clarification, 471–472 main nursery, 235–237 olein see palm olein composition, 460–462, 466 pests, 238, 442 oleochemicals, 491 composition changes during prenursery, 234 Ooencyrtus sp., 454 ripening, 466 selection for disease resistance, Opsiphanes cassina, 450 CPO as fuel, 509–510 414–415, 425 organic palm oil, 28 crystallisation behaviour, 487 selection in nursery, 166 origin of the oil palm, 1 dietary effects, 493 nursery spear rot, 400 ortet selection, 196, 216–217 drying, storage, transport, 472 nutrient balance, 332 Orthotomus ruficeps, 458 economic benefits, 531 erosion and run-off losses, 374 Oryctes, 443–446 edible uses, 490–491 fertiliser recommendations, control, 445–446 energy balance of production, 512 363–366 effect on yield, 444 energy content, 508 INFERS system, 370–375 over-bearing, 125, 435 environmental damage, 28 nutrient budget, 332 overflow model, 102, 105, 107, 114 future demand, 29, 485, 532–535 nutrient content of palm tissues, oxidation of fatty acids, 460, 476 futures contracts, 483 330–338, 370–374 human health, 28 nutrient cycles, 330–331, 364 Pachycondyla harpax, 453 importing countries, 27 nutrient deficiency, plant nutrient Paecilomyces spp., 406, 450 international trade, 26, 483 content, 354–356 Pakistan, palm oil imports, 26–27 midfraction, 489–490 visual symptoms, 351–352 palm age, abortion rate, 121 solid fat content, 487 nutrient demand see growth demand, critical nutrient levels, 357–358 mineral content, 464 deficiency demand effects on dry matter production, 112 neutralised, bleached oil, 488 nutrient losses, burning of vegetation, fertiliser requirements, 393 phospholipids, 464 256 leaf size, 101 poverty reduction, 29, 531 erosion, runoff and leaching, 374, length of roots, 339–340 production and exports, 13–14 388–390 oil composition, 187 production costs, 485 milling and composting, 385 oil/bunch, 318–319 refined products, 488 nutrient uptake, 336, 368–369 optimal planting density, 282–283 solid fat content, 487 modelling, 369 remote sensing, 327 sterols, 464

0002603177.indd 634 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM Index 635

synthesis see oil synthesis production, area, yield, exports, 5, Oryctes trapping, 445 tocopherol and tocotrienols, 12–15 Rhynchophorus trapping, 452 463–464, 476 smallholders, 23 Setothosea asigna, 449 traditional cooking oil, 484 yields, 532 Phillipines, production, area, yield, triglyceride composition, 463 soils, 84 exports, 12, 14–15 triglycerides, IV, uses, 489 Parasa spp., 448–449 phosphate sorption by soil, 76–77 world average yield, 11 Paratheresia menezesi, 452 phospholipids, 464 world production, 7 Parodiella circumdata, 400 phosphorus, content in palm tissues, 335 palm oil extraction, 465–472 parrots and parakeets, 457 distribution in agroecosystem, 373 costs, 475 parthenocarpic fruit, 48 leaf and rachis levels, 355 effluent, 478–479 E. guineensis × oleifera hybrids, leaf and root levels, 356 energy requirement, 508 52, 178 peat soils, 392 energy supply, 465 resulting from poor fruit set, soil analysis, 362 losses, 472–475 178, 180 soil sorption, 77 mass balance, 467 partitioning, 90, 100, 102 types of fertiliser, 395–396 process control, 473–475 effect of fertilisers, 108 photoperiod, effect on sex ratio?, 120 quality control, 475–476 effect of pruning, 113 photosynthesis, 98 see also conversion solid wastes, 478–479 effects of water deficit, 110 coefficient traditional methods, 467–469 genetic variation, 116 bunch demand, 102–104 Palm Oil Innovation Group, 522 palm age, 113 genetic variation, 115 palm oil mill, 468 planting density, 107 leaf age, 113 small scale, 473–474 roots, 341 leaf temperature, 111 palm oil mill effluent (POME) see patch yellows, 400 water deficit, 109–110 effluent peat, 77–82 water logging, 111

palm oil prices, 8–9 carbon stock, CO2 emission, 502–504 photosynthetically active radiation, 97 linked to petroleum price, 516 degradation after drainage, 80, phyllotaxis, 35 palm oil production see under country 502–504 Phytomonas staheli, 426 names development costs, 77 phytosanitary regulations, 233 Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia distribution, 78–79 pigs, 457 (PORIM) see MPOB drainage problems, 254–255 Pimelephila ghesquierei, 443 palm olein, cooking oil, 484 fertiliser requirements, 392 Pindi ancestral palms, 146 crystallisation behaviour, 487 fire damage, 504 breeding values, 192 neutralised, bleached olein, 488 forest, 80 pisifera, 31 see also fertile pisifera solid fat content, 487 formation, 77 progeny testing, 190–191, 197 standard specifications, 488 management for oil palm, 81 seed germination, 232 super olein, 489 planting methods, 269 sterility, 48 triglycerides, IV, uses, 489 types, 78, 80 plant demand for nutrients, 330–331, 364 palm stearin, crystallisation peat yellows, 353 estimation in trials, 347 behaviour, 487 Penicillium spp: brown germ, 401 plant failure, 435 neutralised, bleached stearin, 488 permanent wilting point, 56 plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, solid fat content, 487 peroxide value, 476 344 standard specifications, 488 Peru, production, area, yield, exports, plant quarantine, 415, 435 super stearin, 489 12, 14, 21 plantation industry, development since triglycerides, IV, uses, 489 soils, 87 1950, 7 palm wine, 481 Pestalotiopsis leaf spot, 405, 406 history, 4 Palmeraie de la Rive, 145 pesticides: importance of selectivity, 442 plantation layout, 250–255 PalmGHG: greenhouse gas pests see also integrated pest management planting see field planting calculator, 499 ecology, 440 planting density, 278–285 palmitic acid, 222 effect on yield breeding for high density, 195 palmitoleic acic, 222 birds, 458 change with age, 106 Palpexorista coccyx, 449 leaf-eating pests, 447, 451 effect on abortion rate, 121 Panama, E. oleifera collection, 154 Oryctes, 444 effect on inflorescence initiation, 119 planted area, 21 rats, 454 effect on partioning, 100 production and exports, 12–13 life cycles, 441 fertiliser responses, 393 paper from EFB, 481 petiole, 35, intercropping, 272 Papua New Guinea, breeding cross-sectional area, 94–95 leaf area index and light interception, programme, 152 petroleum and palm oil prices, 516 106 deforestation, 523–524 Phellinus noxius, 427 non-triangular planting, 284–285 development of industry, 17 pheromones for pest control, 442 two-tier planting, 287 production costs, 486 Darna trima, 449 platform planting, 266–268

0002603177.indd 635 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM 636 Index

Platygenia barbata, 438 Pueraria phaseoloides, 293 Restriction fragment length Ploceus cuculatus, 458 Pyroderces sp., 47 polymorphisms (RFLPs), 167 Ploneta spp., 447–448 Pyrrhochaleia iphis, 450 Retracus elaeis, orange spotting mite, 438 pneumatodes, 39–40 Pythium splendens, 403 retrotransposons, 167 PNPs in Indonesia, 10 Rhabdionvirus oryctes, 445 Pobé material, breeding values, 192, 193 quality control in mill, 475–477 Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, 428 dwarf palms, 182 quantitative trait loci (QTLs), 172 rhinoceros beetle see Oryctes origin, 146 quantum yield of photosynthesis, 98 Rhizobium inoculation of legumes, 293 Poissoni, 31, 181–182 Rhizoctonia lamellifera, 403 pollen, 43 rachis, nutrient content, 355 rhizosphere relations, 344 collection and storage, 157 length and optimal density, 285 Rhynchophorus palmarum, 428, 444, viability, interspecific hybrids, 51 potassium and yield, 355 451–452, 458 viability testing, 157 radiation use efficiency see conversion Rhyzomis sumatrensis, 454 pollination, 47, 130–132 see also assisted coefficient ricinoleic acid, 222 pollination rainfall, climate change and oil ripeness standard, 310–311, 317 controlled pollination, 156–158 palm, 505 bunch analysis, 161 polyhydroxyalkanoates, 223, 481 effect on yield, 55, 66, 129, 135 ripening, 131–133, 309–312 porcupines, 457 nitrogen content, 375 harvesting standard and frequency, 309 potassium, behaviour in soil, 360–361 nutrient losses in runoff, 374 oil to bunch, 311–312 content in palm tissues, 333 oil palm-growing areas, 55 oil to mesocarp, 181, 310 critical level and soil type, 357 seasonal distribution, 55 road systems, 252–254 deficiency symptoms, 351 through palm canopy, 55 root absorption, herbicides, 432 distribution in agroecosystem, 372 RAPDs, 167 insecticides, 442 effect on oil/bunch, 349 rapeseed oil, world production, 7 root pests, 453 Fusarium wilt, 411 yield, 11, 533 roots, anatomy, 38–40 leaf, rachis and root levels, 355–356 rats, 454–457 biomass, 92–93, 341 nutrient balance, 364 biological control, 455–457 depth on peat soils, 82 peat soils, 392 control by baiting, 455–457 die-back in dry season, 102 soil analysis, 361–362 damage, 454–457 distribution in soil, 38–39, 338–342 types of fertiliser, 396 Rattus spp., 454–455 dry weight and soil type, 339 volcanic soils, 391 RBD palm oil, 479 effect of disbudding, 114 white stripe, 407 standard specifications, 488 genetic variation, 116 potential evapotranspiration, 56 RBD palm olein, standard growth rate, 101, 341 potential water deficit, 58 specifications, 488 length and palm age, 339–340 precision agriculture, 240 RBD palm stearin, standard mounding for Ganoderma control, 424 precocity as breeding objective, 175 specifications, 488 pest damage, 439 preferential abortion, 123–124 Recilia mica, 403, 458 respiration, 102 prenursery, 234 reciprocal recurrent selection, 149, rooting depth, 242, 305 price of palm oil, 8–9, 516 189–190 turnover, 101, 341 primary thickening meristem, 34 red palm weevil, red-stripe weevil, 452 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil Prinia atrogularis, 458 red ring disease, 428–429 (RSPO), 240, 485, 520 Procecidochares connexa, 459 red spider, 438 future development, 536 process control in mill, 473–475 Reduced Emissions from Deforestation principles and criteria, 520–527 processing of fruit see palm oil extraction and Degradation (REDD), 528 smallholders, 532 Proctolaelaps sp., 459 refining, 478–479 runoff: nutrient losses, 374, 389–390 production costs, 19, 486 in Malaysia, 16 competing oils, 486 range of products, 488 Sabah, early plantings, 6 Promecotheca cumingi, 438 remote sensing, 327 timber and oil palm expansion, promoter genes, 223 nutrient deficiencies, 354 524–525 Prosoestus spp., 439 replanting, 320–321 Sabah Breeding Programme, 151 prospection programmes, 152–155 clearing old stand, 257, 260–263 Sagalassa valida, 426, 453 genetic analysis, 153–154 delay in Malaysia, 317–318 salinity, 75, 111 protoplasts, 220 Ganoderma control, 417, 420–423 suitability for oil palm, 73 pruning, 295 nutrient recycling, 261, 383–384 sandy soils, 76 effects on dry matter production, 113 palm age at replanting, 261 saturated fatty acids and health, 493 Psittacula longicauda, 457 palm wine production, 481 scale insects, 439 Psittinus cyanurus, 457 research institutes, 25 Scapanes australis, 439 Puccinia spegazzinii, 459 respiration, 99–100 screw press designs, 471 pudrición del cogollo, 430 roots, 102 sea level and climate change, 506

0002603177.indd 636 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM Index 637

seed, fungicide treatment, 233, 415 slope, effect on yield, 378 SP29/36 pisifera, 144 germination see germination limits for oil palm, 77 SP540 ancestral palm, 143 morphology, 31 planting on terraces, 266–269 spear rot–little leaf disease, 429, 430 number required per hectare, 232 site selection for plantation, 241–242 SPB palm oil, 477 planting in nursery, 233 suitability for oil palm, 73–74 spikelet number, 126 storage, 228 slug caterpillars, 447–448 spines, bunch, 37 viability testing, 228 slugs, 438 leaf, 36 seed parents, management, 158 smallholders, 22–25, 327 Spodoptera spp., 438 seedling diseases, 400–404 illegitimate planting material, 149 SQ palm oil, 407 seedling growth, 32 Indonesia, 16, 23 squirrels, 457 Segestes decoratus, 450 RSPO certification, 532 standard crosses in clone trials, 217 Segestidea spp., 450 yields, 532 in CIRAD programme, 205 selection see breeding SOCFIN Deli dura, 142 standing biomass, 92 ortets for tissue culture, 216–217 Social Impact Assessment, 240 stearic acid, 222 self pruning, clone abnormality, 215 soil see under country names stem see trunk Senegal, prospection, 154 changes under oil palm, 390–391 stem pests, 443–446, 451–453 Serdang Avenue Deli dura, 139–142, differences in palm nutrient content, stem wet rot, 400 156 372–373 Stenoma cecropia, 450 Setora nitens, 447–448 effect on yield, 72 sterilisation of fruit, 468-70 Setothosea asigna, 447–448 nutrient supplies, 375 sterols, 464 sex ratio, 119–121 respiration, 102 stomata, 109 aborted inflorescences, 123 rooting depth, 242 available soil water, 59 effect of planting density, 280 site selection for plantation, 241–243 distribution, 34, 37 time of sex determination, 120–122 soil analysis, 360–361 effect of temperature, 111 Sexava grasshoppers, 450 burning and zero-burning, 258 Stomoxys calcitrans, 459 shade in nursery, 237 fertiliser recommendations, 363 storage of palm oil, 472 blast disease control, 404 nutrient deficiency, 361–362 Strategus aloeus, 446 shell, energy content, 508 soil compaction, 302 stripping fruit from bunch, 470 as fuel, 465, 507, 512 before planting, 81 subsidies and market distortion, 484 shell thickness, 31, 175 fatal yellowing, 432–433 sudden wither or sudden wilt, 426 inheritance, 175–178 importance for peat planting, 269 Sufetula spp., 439 interspecific hybrids, 52 soil erosion see erosion sulfur deficiency symptoms, 352 molecular markers, 171–172 soil maps, 72 sunflower oil, world production, 7 pisifera fertility, 177–178 soil pH: effect of fertilisers, 363 yield, 11, 533 poor correlation of duras and teneras, soil sampling, 70 sunshine hours, 62 176–177 soil survey, 74, 241 supplying missing palms, 277 unusual segregation in Congo, 176 soil taxonomy, 68–69 surfactants, 492 shifting cultivation, 527 soil texture: suitability for oil palm, 73 surgery for Ganoderma treatment, 424 shortenings, 490 soil water content: relation to water Surinam: E. oleifera collection, 154 Sibine spp., 448–449 potential, 63 Susica malayana, 448 Sibiti breeding material, 150 soil water deficit, 57–59 suspension culture, 219 origin, 146 soil water potential: relation to water sustainability, 519–523, 536 Sierra Leone, 20 content, 63 soil changes with time, 243 production and exports, 5, 12–13, 15 solar radiation, 90, 96 sustainable palm oil, 485 prospection, 154 effect on yield, 61, 129, 135 Systropus nitidus, 449 Silvanus sp., 438 effects on oil/bunch, 133 simple sequence repeats (SSRs), 167 relation to sunshine hours, 62 Taisha E. oleifera material, 154 single nucleotide polymorphisms solid fat content, 487 Tanzania, prospection, 154 (SNPs), 167 Solomon Islands, production, area, yield, Technical standards for oil and sink see source and sink exports, 12–14 kernels, 477 SIRIM standard for Malaysian seed solvent extraction, 471 Temnoschoita spp., 439 production, 178 sooty mould, 408 temperature, breeding for low site characteristics and feriliser reponse, source and sink, 90, 103, 105, 173 temperatures, 185 377–380 South America see Latin America climate change and oil palm, 505 site selection for plantation, 240–250 South east Asia: climate projections, 498 effect on photosynthesis, 111 site yield potential, 248–249, soya bean meal, 484 limits for oil palm, 53–54 321–326 soya bean oil, price, 516 tenera, 31, 48 INFERS system, 370–371, 375 world production, 7 discovery of inheritance, 148 slip point, 487 yield, 11, 533 seed germination, 232

0002603177.indd 637 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM 638 Index

terminal inflorescences, 215 method of measurement, 94–95 water balance, 56–57, 60, 303–305 termites, 453 nutrient content, 336, 383–384 water deficit, 303 terraces, 266–269 pest damage, 439, 443–446, abortion rate, 121 Thailand, breeding programmes, 152 451–453 dry matter production, 108 deforestation, 523 storage of carbohydrate, 103–105 IRHO method of calculation, 58, development of industry, 17 trunk injection of insecticides, 442, 305-6 irrigation, 304, 306–307 449, 451 irrigation, 304 labour requirements, 300 two-tier planting, 287 oil/bunch, 133 production, area, yield, exports, 5, Tyto alba, barn owl, 455–457 potassium critical level, 358 12–15 sex ratio, 119 smallholders, 23 ultra-basic soils, 393 yield, 60-1, 129, 135 yields, 532 Ulu Bernam yield forecasting water table depth and yield, 378 Thielaviopsis paradoxa, 432 system, 134 water uptake and root distribution, 341 thinning of high density plantings, Ulu Remis Deli dura, 141, 155 water use efficiency, 111 and CO 285–288 breeding values, 192, 193 2 level, 112, 505 Thirathaba rufivena, 457 lack of variation, 173 waterlogging, 111 Thosea see Birthosea, Setothosea underplanting, 263–265 weaver birds, 458 Thosea vetusta, 448 Ganoderma, 421–423 weeds, 291 Thrips hawaiiensis, 47 nutrient recycling, 384 biological control, 459 Thryonomys swinderianus, 457 United Fruit Company, 6, 148, 152 food plants for arthropods, 440 damage, 277 United States, palm oil imports, weevil pollination see Elaeidobius Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 450 26–27 West African Institute for Oil Palm Tiquadra spp., 439 unmanned aircraft, 242, 327 Research (WAIFOR), 25 Tirathaba rufivena, 453, 454 upper stem rot, 427 breeding material origin, 147 tissue culture, 208–212 uptake efficiency: fertiliser recovery wet process for oil extraction, 471 abnormal flowering, 212–215 efficiency, 366 white stripe disorder, 407 history, 208 Uranomys ruddi, 454 WHO recommended fat consumption, methods, 209–211 urea volatilisation, 375–376, 390 492 storage of cultures, 211–212 Widikum breeding material, 153 success rates, 209–210 Valanga nigricornis, 438 wind: breeding for resistance, 183 suspension culture, 219 vanaspati, 490 workers per hectare, 485–486 time scale, 209 vapour pressure deficit, 109–111 World production, area, yield, exports, yield of clones, 217 genetic variation in sensitivity, 115 12, 14–15 tocopherol and tocotrienols, 463, 476 stomatal closure, 109–110 extraction, 477 variation see genetic variation xylitol from EFB, 481 importance in diet, 493 vascular bundles, 35 Xylotrupes gideon, 438 topography see slope vascular wilt, 409–416 total leaf cations, 380–382 vegetable oil: world production, 7 Yangambi material: origin, 145 Totox value, 476 vegetative dry matter production, 100 pisifera cf. AVROS and La Mé, trade in palm oil: history, 3 vegetative growth, effect of inbreeding, 198–199 transesterification of triglycerides, 194 Yawenda ancestral palms, 145 462, 490 effect of planting density, 280 yield, advanced planting material, 278 trans-fatty acids, 461–462, 490 genetic variation, 182 age profile, 63–64, 322–323 trans-free products from palm oil, 491 on terraces and platforms, 268 agroclimatic zones, 64 transformation, 220–224 vegetative measurements: methods, best families and clones, 206 methods, 223–224 93–95 burning and zero-burning, 258–259 objectives, 221 Venezuela: production, area, yield, climate effects, 128–129, 135 transport of palm oil, 472 exports, 12, 14, 21 clones, 217 Trichoderma for Ganoderma control, Venturia palmaris, 454 comparison of countries, 66 423–424 viability testing, pollen, 157 correlated with palm height, 183 triglycerides seed, 228 duration of recording, 159 chemical structure, 460-61 virescens fruit type, 31 future improvement, 535 composition and end use, 463, 487 Nigeria, 147 gains from underplanting, 264–265 crystallisation behaviour, 487 rare in Ivory Coast, 153 genetic variation, 173–175 hydrolysis, 460–461 viroid: genetic orange spotting, 400 heritability, 174 transesterification, 462 virus diseases, 400, 407 increase over time, 17, 536 truncated leaf syndrome, 215 vivipary, 38 increase reduces costs, 485 trunk, anatomy, 34 volcanic ash soils, 76 leaf nutrient levels, 356 biomass, 92 volcanic soils-potassium responses, 391 linked to molecular markers, 172 growth, 34, 101 vultures, 457 losses avoided by culling, 238

0002603177.indd 638 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM Index 639

optimum fertiliser levels, 247 yield potential, 321–326, 535, 536 irrigation, 304, 306 other oil crops, 533–534 yield responses leaf-eating pests, 447 prediction from leaf nutrient biomass removal, 480 planting density, 279–285 levels, 357 cover crop, 270, 292 pruning, 296 prediction from site characteristics, disbudding, 308 thinning, 286–288 378–380 disease losses, 285–286 water deficit, 60–61 prediction in INFERS system, 376 Cercospora, 401 white stripe, 407 recovery from nutrient deficiency, 331 crown disease, 405 Yocoboué breeding material, 150, 153 shell thickness gene, effect, 175 fatal yellowing, 433 site yield potential, 323–326 Fusarium wilt, 411–412 zero-burning, 256–259 smallholders, 532 Ganoderma, 42 Oryctes, 446 soil effects, 72 Pestalotiopsis, 406 replanting, 262 solar radiation, effects, 61 white stripe, 407 zinc deficiency symptoms, 353 yield cycles, 127 EFB mulch, 276, 296–297 Zonoceros variegatus, 438 yield forecasting, 133–135 fertilisers, 367–368, 381–382, 392 Zophiuma butawengi, 438 yield gap, 535–536 inbreeding, 194 Zophiuma lobulata, 400

0002603177.indd 639 9/15/2015 4:37:14 PM