Musical Oration: J.S. Bach’s Use of Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia and Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, and the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, BWV 903
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Authors Park, Sangjoon
Publisher The University of Arizona.
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MUSICAL ORATION: J.S. BACH’S USE OF RHETORICAL DEVICES IN THE FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN A MINOR, BWV 904, AND THE CHROMATIC FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN D MINOR, BWV 903
by
Sangjoon Park
______Copyright © Sangjoon Park 2020
A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the
FRED FOX SCHOOL OF MUSIC
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
2020
2
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE
As members of the Doctor of Musical Arts Document Committee, we certify that we have read the document prepared by Sangjoon Park, titled “Musical Oration: J.S. Bach's Use of Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia and Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, and the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, BWV 903” and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the document requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Musical Arts.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………...………4
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES………………………………………………………...……...5
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….…………8
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..………9
CHAPTER II: RHETORIC AND MUSIC………………………………………………...……13
The Study of Rhetoric and Its Influence on Baroque Music……………………….……13 Rhetoric in the Music of J.S. Bach………………………………………………………14 General Principles in Applying Rhetorical Theory to Musical Discourse……………....15
CHAPTER III: FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN A MINOR, BWV 904 ……………………….21
General Features……………………………………………………………...………….21 Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia………………………………………….……………22 Rhetorical Devices in the Fugue…………………………………………………………29
CHAPTER IV: CHROMATIC FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN D MINOR, BWV 903……...…36
General Features…………………………………………………………………………36 Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia……………………………………………….………37 Rhetorical Devices in the Fugue…………………………………………………………41
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION……………………………………………...………………….50
APPENDIX A: J.S. Bach Fantasia and Fugue in A minor, BWV 904….……………………...65
APPENDIX B: J.S. Bach Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, BWV 903……..………73
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..86
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Fantasias of J.S. Bach…………………………….………………...…………………..11
Table 2. Musical-Rhetorical Structure…………………………………………………...…….16
Table 3. List of Affections by Theorists………....………………………………………..…...17
Table 4. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904………………...23
Table 5. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Fugue in A minor, BWV 904……………....….30
Table 6. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903…...37
Table 7. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903……...41
Table 8. Musical Dactyl and Anapest……………………………………………………..……..42
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LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Musical Example 1. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5……………………….………21
Musical Example 2. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-3…………...………………….…22
Musical Example 3. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-15…………………………...…23
Musical Example 4. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 11-35…………………………….24
Musical Example 5. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-99…………………………….26
Musical Example 6. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5……………………….………27
Musical Example 7. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 11-15………...…………………..28
Musical Example 8. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 80-84…………………………….28
Musical Example 9. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-94…………………………….29
Musical Example 10. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904 (a: mm.1-3, b: mm.25-27, c: mm. 36-38, d: mm.47-49)…………………………………………………….………….………………….31
Musical Example 11. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904 (a: mm. 1-3, b: mm. 36-38)………....…33
Musical Example 12. Purcell, “Dido’s Lament” from the opera Dido and Aeneas, mm. 10-18………………………………………………………….………………………….34
Musical Example 13. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 27-31..……….……38
Musical Example 14. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 3-4………....…….40
Musical Example 15. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 8-13…………..………42
Musical Example 16. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 1-7.…………..…..……44
Musical Example 17. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 87-92……………….45
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LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES – Continued
Musical Example 18. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 130-141………….46
Musical Example 19. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903 (a: mm. 59-62, b: mm. 90-92, c: mm. 106-109, d: mm. 130-133, e: mm. 154-157)………………………....…….……….47
Musical Example 20. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5………..……………...…..52
Musical Example 21. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-94……….…………….……53
Musical Example 22. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm.1-4…………………..………….…53
Musical Example 23. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 34-40.……………....…….……….54
Musical Example 24. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903 (a: mm. 1-2, b: mm. 19-20)..56
Musical Example 25. Ravel, Scarbo from Gaspard de la nuit, mm. 1-4...... 56
Musical Example 26. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 27-31……….………57
Musical Example 27. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 32-35…………….....57
Musical Example 28. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 43-49………….……58
Musical Example 29. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903 with written musical notation suggested (a: mm. 33, b: mm. 43-49)………………………………………………..……….58
Musical Example 30. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 50-51…………....….60
Musical Example 31. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 76-77………….……60
Musical Example 32. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 1-7……………….……61
Musical Example 33. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 53-55…………….……62
Musical Example 34. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 87-92…………...……..62
Musical Example 35. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 134-141…………...…..63 7
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES – Continued
Musical Example 36. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 154-157…………….…63
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ABSTRACT
The study of rhetorical theory can lead to a deeper understanding of Baroque keyboard music. As Renaissance artists and philosophers rediscovered the classical culture of the Greeks, partly shaped by Greek rhetoricians, rhetorical study became a central part of the curriculum in
European schools and universities. Many Baroque musicians such as Joachim Burmeister (1564-
1629) and Johann Mattheson (1681-1764) related rhetorical practice to the music of their time.
Thus, Baroque composers such as Bach, who were involved in education in schools or churches, considered the art of rhetoric to be linked with music study and may have purposely adopted rhetorical devices, translating them into analogous musical events and processes in their compositions.
The Fantasia and Fugue in A minor BWV 904 and the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in
D minor BWV 903 by J.S. Bach are regarded as important masterpieces in their length and creativity compared with the other fantasias and fugues by many musicologists including David
Schulenberg and Robert L. Marshall. The Fantasia and Fugue in A minor features a strictly contrapuntal texture in the Fantasia and two contrasting subjects in the double fugue. The
Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue is distinctive in terms of the extensive improvisatory styles of the
Chromatic Fantasia and the free treatment of the Chromatic Fugue.
An examination of J.S. Bach's Fantasia and Fugue in A minor BWV 904 and Chromatic
Fantasia and Fugue in D minor BWV 903 demonstrates the ways in which classical rhetorical principles may have influenced J.S. Bach's writing, and leads the performer to a more thorough understanding of Bach's compositional techniques and more intentional, purposeful interpretative choices in performance.
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CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
A fantasia is a type of instrumental composition that has been in use since the
Renaissance; its formal and stylistic characteristics ranged from freely improvisatory to strictly contrapuntal. The fantasia remained a common compositional genre through the Baroque period.
Its lasting use may be attributed to the compositional freedom it offers, which enabled the composer to display a wide variety of keyboard techniques.
Fugue is a term continuously in use since the 14th century signifying both a musical genre and compositional technique involving canonic imitation.1 During the Renaissance the term denoted many types of pieces involving imitative counterpoint including the ricercar, capriccio, and canzona. However, it came to be known as a specific compositional genre with a fully developed contrapuntal structure and remained a central part of keyboard composition in
Bach’s time.
Stylus fantasticus – fantastic style – describes an important element in many Baroque keyboard genres including toccatas and fantasias.
The notable 17th-century German scholar Athanasius Kircher provided this description of the stylus fantasticus:
The fantastic style is especially suited to instruments. It is the most free and unrestrained method of composing, it is bound to nothing, neither to any words nor to a melodic subject, it was instituted to display genius and to teach the hidden design of harmony and the ingenious composition of harmonic phrases and fugues.2
1 Paul M. Walker, “Fugue.” in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, https://doi- org.ezproxy3.library.arizona.edu/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.51678 (accessed September 17, 2019).
2 Paul Collins, The Stylus Phantasticus and the Free Keyboard Music of the German Baroque (Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005), 29. Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, p. 585, is quoted here. 10
Earlier use of stylus fantasticus was concerned with the “fantasy” or imagination of composers in their compositions while later theorists expanded the term to describe a performer’s freedom of interpretation and improvisation.3 This style was an important and widely recognized feature for
Baroque keyboard composers including Frescobaldi, Froberger, Buxtehude and Bach, who put thrust imagination into the structure and figuration of preludes, fantasias, toccatas and even fugues. The fantastic style also refers to a performer’s impulse to interpret the musical text in a free and improvisational manner.
The historical and circumstantial origins of the traditional pairing of separate fantasias and fugues are not definitively known. One possibility is the practice of pairing dance types in the sixteenth century, such as the pavane and galliard. The gradual growth of interest in large fugal composition by many German composers, such as Johann Pachelbel, Georg Böhm, and
Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer, led to significant experimentation in combining the fugue with other musical forms. Examples include the Toccata and Fugue in D minor by Pachelbel, the
Prelude and fugue in C major by Böhm, and Adriadne musica by Fischer.
Bach composed seventeen known Fantasias either specifically for the organ, or for any keyboard instruments, i.e., the organ, harpsichord, or clavichord.
3 Terence Charlston, “Now Swift, Now Hesitating: the Stylus Phantasticus and the Art of Fantasy,” Musica Antiqua, April 2012, 32-36. 11
Table 1. Fantasias of J.S. Bach
BWV Title Key Instrument Additional info 537 Fantasia and Fugue C minor Organ 542 Fantasia and Fugue G minor Organ 562 Fantasia and Fugue C minor Organ Fugue unfinished 563 Fantasia con Imitazione B minor Organ 570 Fantasia C major Organ 572 Fantasia G major Organ 573 Fantasia C major Organ Incomplete 903 Chromatic Fantasia D minor Keyboard and Fugue 904 Fantasia and Fugue A minor Keyboard 905 Fantasia and Fugue D minor Keyboard 906 Fantasia and Fugue C minor Keyboard Fugue unfinished 907 Fantasia and Fughetta Bb major Keyboard 908 Fantasia and Fughetta D major Keyboard 917 Fantasia G minor Keyboard 918 Fantasia C minor Keyboard 920 Fantasia G minor Keyboard 944 Fantasia and Fugue A minor Keyboard
These Fantasias reveal the diverse styles of contrapuntal procedures that Bach actively explored throughout his life. They include improvisational arpeggio-filled sections as well as old-fashioned polyphonic writing. Most evident are personal characteristics, deriving from
Bach’s own experimentation with highly controlled contrapuntal textures. Johann Nikolaus
Forkel, the first biographer of J.S. Bach, enumerated the characteristic features of Bach’s
Fantasias: extensive use of counterpoint; independent, single-minded musical progression; and contrasting thematic materials effectively merged with each other.4
4 Hans T. David, Arthur Mendel, and Christoph Wolff, eds., The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and Documents (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 441- 52. 12
The Fugue was brought to the peak of its development by Bach. He produced numerous compositions exploring diverse styles of fugal writing throughout his career. As C.P.E. Bach stressed, Bach already had a strong propensity for fugal writing in his youth.5
J.S. Bach’s paired works – Fantasia and Fugue, Prelude and Fugue, and Toccata and
Fugue – are the product of efforts to break the traditional multi-sectional form of toccata/präludium/canzone into separate movements and unify them in character and content.6
Already observed in precursors such as Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722), the general trend of matching contrasting elements, the spontaneous and the controlled, reached a compositional summit in Bach’s writing, most notably in the Fantasia and Fugue.
Among the Fantasias listed above, the Fantasia and Fugue in A minor BWV 904 and the
Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor BWV 903 are widely viewed as his most masterful examples of this type. They are notable in their length, daring flights of imagination, and contrapuntal sophistication.
5 Friedrich Blume and Wilburn W. Newcomb, “J.S. Bach’s Youth,” The Musical Quarterly 54, no.1 (January 1968): 16.
6 David Ledbetter, Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier: The 48 Preludes and Fugues (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 51-55.
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CHAPTER II: RHETORIC AND MUSIC
The Study of Rhetoric and Its Influence on Baroque Music
“Rhetoric” is a term referring to the art of discourse that has been used in a broad range of cultural contexts since ancient times. For ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, rhetoric was initially concerned with cases of public political practice. Comprehensive studies of rhetoric reveal, however, that its application extended to every profession involving human communication. Aristotle himself defines rhetoric as “the faculty of discovering all the available means of persuasion in any given situation.”7 The relationship between rhetoric and music continued to be recognized throughout the Medieval and Renaissance periods and became the essence of rhetorical studies of Baroque theorists.8
Many notable Baroque theorists studied the relationship between rhetoric and music.
Joachim Burmeister attempted to establish the use of rhetorical terminology to describe musical devices. Athanasius Kircher emphasized the theoretical basis of the affective and rhetorical nature of music, and stressed the expression of various affections as the primary objective of musical-rhetorical figures. Johann Mattheson related specific compositional devices to rhetorical processes such as inventio, dispositio, and elocutio or decoratio. Additionally, he sought out other relationship between music and rhetoric: their goals, methodologies, principles, and devices.9
7 Aristotle, Rhetoric, trans. W. Rhys Roberts (Mineola: Dover Publications, 2004), 6.
8 Dietrich Bartel, Musica Poetica: Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German Baroque Music (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 19-30.
9 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 93-164. 14
Rhetoric in the Music of J.S. Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach’s strong connection to rhetoric stems from his upbringing. His early education at a Lutheran Latin school included rhetoric and Latin as integral parts of the standard curriculum. Later, as a Lutheran cantor, Bach was required to teach rhetoric and Latin in addition to his musical duties.
Research into Bach’s application of rhetorical technique in his compositional practices was done by several contemporary scholars of his time. John Abraham Birnbaum, an instructor of rhetoric at the University of Leipzig, stated that Bach applied skillful rhetorical direction to his composing, and was fully aware of the close relationship between rhetoric and music.10
Furthermore, during Bach’s years in Weimar, he had frequent contact with his cousin, Johann
Gottfried Walther, and may have been exposed to Walther’s rhetorical treatise, Praecepta der
Musicalischen Composition, by which he could have gained insight into the musico-rhetorical process.11
And lastly, Phillip Spitta, one of the most important Bach scholars, details Bach’s frequent use of the terminologies of rhetoric while instructing his pupils.
Having formerly been a first-class scholar in St. Michael's School, at Lüneburg, he [Bach] had not so far forgotten the terminology of rhetoric as not to know that collocatio (order) and elocutio (expression) are indispensable to inventio (invention); and thus, immediately after his observations on good inventions, we find order or arrangement discussed, and a cantabile handling; otherwise, certain other sections might have seemed more nearly connected with it. The ancient rules of rhetoric come in again in another place, when he teaches that in two-part pieces purity of execution is essential, but in three-part pieces correct and finished playing - not meaning, of course, that purity is less requisite in three parts, or correctness and finish in two. It is perfectly
10 Laurence Dreyfus, Bach and the Patterns of Invention (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), 8-9.
11 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 132. 15
clear that these words stand for the emendatum (correct), perspicuum (pure- i.e., clean and neat) and ornatum (finished-i.e., winning or graceful) of the old rhetoricians, the three chief requisites of a good image or statement.12
General Principles in Applying Rhetorical Theory to Musical Discourse
Understanding the correlation between rhetoric and music follows the fundamental classical rhetorical principles, and they include three concepts: musical-rhetorical structure, the doctrine of the affects, and the musical-rhetorical figures.
In standard classical rhetoric, orators typically followed five steps as they structured their speech: inventio, which determines the subjects and gathers related information; dispositio, which focuses on the logical arrangement of the material; elocutio, which deals with the proper use of punctuation and conjunctions through the desirable order of words in a sentence, and memoria and actio, or pronunciatio, which deal with memorization and delivery.13 Athanasius
Kircher particularly emphasized the terms of rhetorical structuring process, inventio, dispositio, and elocutio to adapt to musical composition.14
Among these rhetorical structuring processes, the rhetorical dispositio scheme was a central focus in the study of musical-rhetorical structure by German Baroque theorists such as
Johann Matheson and Joachim Burmeister. In the standard classical dispositio, rhetorical dispositio usually follows six steps as it presents its arguments: exordium, in which the orator seizes the attention of the audience; narratio, where the orator introduces the facts of the case;
12 Philipp Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach: His Work and Influence on the Music of Germany, 1685-1750, trans. Clara Bell and J.A. Fuller-Maitland (New York: Novello and Company, 1899), 2:56.
13 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 66-68.
14 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 76-77. 16 divisio or propositio, where the orator outlines the major points of the arguments; confirmatio, which validates the material given in the narratio; confutatio, where the speaker anticipates the refutation of possible opposing arguments; and peroratio or conclutio, which is the highly emotional summation intended to strongly convince the audience of the orator’s opinion. Judging by its central role in studies by Baroque theorists, the application of the musical-rhetorical dispositio to general musical compositions must have been essential in the understanding of the technical aspects of musical structure. The musical-rhetorical structure can be summarized as follows.15
Table 2. Musical-Rhetorical Structure
a. Inventio b. Dispositio i. Exordium ii. Narratio iii. Propositio iv. Confirmatio v. Confutatio vi. Peroratio c. Elocutio d. Memoria e. Actio or Pronunciato
The doctrine of the affects was a prominent theory for music and rhetoric in the Baroque period. Derived from the writings of ancient Greek rhetoricians, this term was elucidated by many German music theorists including Burmeister, Herbst, Walther and Mattheson. These
German music theorists regarded the expression of affections as central to explaining the physiological reaction of audience members. In their efforts to move listeners through affective music, Baroque composers sought to develop diverse musical devices using musical elements
15 Bartel, Musical Poetica, 68. 17 such as interval, melody, harmony, rhythm, and tonality. Regarding the number of affections, the suggestions by Kircher and Mattheson are generally accepted in their musical representation.
The following table lists the affections stressed by music theorists.16
Table 3. List of Affections by Theorists
Theorist List of affections Johann Mattheson Over 20 affections joy, sadness, love, hope, despair, pride, hautiness, arrogance, anger, ardor, vengeance, rage, fury, fear, dejection, failure, etc Athanasius Kircher 3 categories: joyful, pious, and sad (amor, grief, joy, rage, pity, fear, presumption, admiration) Christian Wolff 2 categories: agreeable and unpleasant Johannes Nucius rejoicing, weeping, fearing, lamenting, bewailing, mourning, raging, laughing, pitying, etc
Rhetorical figures, calculated to arouse specific affects, were studied by classical rhetoricians such as the grammarian Fabius Quintilian (30-94 CE) and the orator Marcus Tullius
Cicero (106-43 BCE). Quintilian is especially renowned for his book Institutio Oratoria which is regarded as a major contribution to the study of the technical aspects of rhetoric. These authors considered the figures as means forming and decorating a speech, and also understood the function of the figures in portraying the affections. Their works defined numerous figures and listed the categories of their purposes. The Baroque music theorists developed a parallel framework for affective figures in Baroque music.
German music theorists, such as Burmeister, Nucius, Walther, and Mattheson, listed a number of musical-rhetorical figures and related them to their associated affections. Responding to the tradition inherited from the sixteenth century, they attempted to apply existing rhetorical
16 From Mattheson, Kircher, and others, illustrated by Bartel, Musica Poetica, 99-103, 106-111, 136-143; and Ernest C. Harriss, Johann Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981), 132-140. 18 devices to musical composition. In their examination of the commonalities between the rhetorical and musical devices, they used terms from existing terminologies of rhetoric or invented new terminologies in Greek or Latin that they considered analogous for the context of instrumental composition. Though specific figures mainly applicable to the fugal process will be listed in a separated group, the fundamental figures are as follows.17
Abruptio: A sudden and unexpected break in a musical composition. Acciaccatura: An additional, dissonant note added to a chord, which is released immediately after its execution. Anabasis: An ascending musical passage which expresses ascending or exalted images or affections. Anticipatio: An additional upper or lower neighboring note following a principal note, prematurely introducing a note belonging to the subsequent harmony or chord. Cadentia Duriuscula: A dissonance in the pre-penultimate harmony of a cadence Catabasis, Descensus: A descending musical passage which expresses descending, lowly, negative images or affections Climax, Gradatio: (1) A sequence of notes in one voice repeated either at a higher or lower pitch (2) Two voices moving in ascending or descending parallel motion (3) A gradual increase or rise in sound and pitch, creating growth in intensity
Consonantiae Impropriae: False consonances, such as certain fourths, diminished or augmented fifths, augmented seconds, and diminished sevenths
Ellipsis, Synecdoche: (1) An omission of an expected consonance (2) An abrupt interruption in the music Epanadiplosis: A restatement of the opening of a passage or phrase at its close Hypallage: An inversion of the fugal theme
17 From Burmeister, Walther, and others, clarified by Bartel, Musica Poetica, 167-438. 19
Messanza: A series of four notes of short duration, moving either by step or by leap Mora: A rising resolution of a syncopation when a falling one is expected Palilogia: A repetition of a theme, either at different pitches in various voices or on the same pitch in the same voice Paragoge: A cadenza or coda added over a pedal point at the end of a composition PassusDuriusculus: A chromatically altered ascending or descending melody line Pathopoeia: A musical passage which seeks to arouse a passionate affection through chromaticism or by some other means Retardatio: (1) A suspension which is prolonged or which resolves by rising (2) A delayed rather than anticipatory suspension Suspiratio, Stenasmus: The musical expression of a sigh through a rest
Among many musica poetica theorists, Joachim Burmeister is viewed as the most important in establishing the application of rhetorical figures to fugue. He defined diverse figures suitable for the explanation of the uniquely logical nature of the fugue and accomplished the highly significant application of rhetorical figures to the musical procedures of fugue. His fugal interpretations include the following:18
Anadiplosis: A repetition of a mimesis Hypallage, Antimetabole, Antistrophe: An inversion of the fugal theme Metalepsis, Transumptio: A fugue with a two-part subject, the parts alternating in the composition
Parembole, Interjectio: A supplementary voice in a fugue which fills in the harmony by proceeding parallel to one of the fugue's regular voices
18 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 167-438. Among theorist who defined the rhetorical figures, Burmester especially provides the definitions with regards to fugal applications. 20
Paronomasia: A repetition of a musical passage with certain additions or alterations for the sake of greater emphasis
Repercussio: (1) A modified interval in a tonal fugal answer (2) A tonal, inverted, or other modified fugal answer
Drawing on these theorists’ application of rhetorical figures to musical figures and their views regarding the commonality between the musical and rhetorical devices, it may be fruitful to associate them with expression of the affections, directly or indirectly. When a musical- rhetorical term is applied to a musical excerpt, the corresponding traditional literal definition of the term should be included, if applicable, in order to understand the compositional technique more clearly in terms of linguistic art.
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CHAPTER III: FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN A MINOR, BWV 904
General Features
The Fantasia in A minor follows the old-fashioned style of sixteenth-century Renaissance polyphony. Generally adopting the stile antico, it features traditional contrapuntal texture, choral-based voice leading, carefully controlled dissonance, an avoidance of the abundant use of ornamentation, and a balanced melodic treatment. The Fugue features two contrasting subjects that are presented and developed in clear tripartite sections. Both subjects are based upon the central note A: the first presents a diatonic statement ascending from A, the second introduces the complete chromatic theme descending a fourth from A, and the final combines the two.
The Fantasia and Fugue in A minor features a thematic correspondence between the
Fantasia and the Fugue. As is often the case with Bach’s paired works, it is not known whether he intended to bind both movements together. Neither is it known how this Fantasia was originally associated with the fugue by Bach. However, thematic elements E–F–E, common in the opening statement of both movements, support a speculation that it was the composer’s compositional intention to bind the two movements together.
Musical Example 1. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5
22
Musical Example 2. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-3
Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia
After Athanasius Kircher proposed the application of the rhetorical structuring process – inventio, dispositio and elocutio – to the organization of musical composition, Johann Mattheson essayed the systematic application of the six steps of classical dispositio: exordium, narratio, propositio, confirmatio, confutatio and peroratio. While Gallus Dresser and Joachim Burmeister were early contributors to the development of a three-part model: exordium, medium and finis,
Mattheson presents his views on the concepts of an ideal musical disposition through a broader explanation in his book Der Vollkommene Capellmeister.19 With an emphasis on the natural expressiveness of musical speech, he insists that any composition can follow clever structuring principles to skillfully elaborate what a composer thinks.
As we apply the Fantasia in A minor to Mattheson’s model of six steps, each section corresponds naturally to the rhetorical arrangement of an oration. The ritornello form of this fantasia is characterized by the musical development of each episode, which varies the main thematic material in each ritornello, preserving harmonic coherence. The following table presents the overall formal division of the fantasia.
19 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 80; and Harriss, Mattheson, Capellmeister, 750-755. 23
Table 4. Musical-Rhetorical Stucture of the Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904
Form and Characteristic Section Ritornello Episode Ritornello Episode Ritornello Episode Ritornello Rhetorical Exordium Narratio Propositio Confirmatio Confutatio Peroratio structure Measure 1-12 12-31 31-42 42-69 69-80 80-99 100-111
Rhythmic 1 1/4+ 4 1/8s+ mixture of proportion 2 1/8s 1 1/2 previous two
Key A minor E minor D minor A minor
The exordium presents the main statement in the key of A minor in measures 1-12.
Musical Example 3. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-15
As Michael Praetorius (1571-1621) indicated in his Syntagma Musicum, it often takes an opening ritornello to gain the attention of the listeners and prepare them for what is to follow. The 24 opening ritornello establishes the key of the piece and hints at the nature of following episode through its harmonic progression.20 The narratio occurs in the first episode in measures 12-31 realized as the entry of a solo instrument in a concerto.
Musical Example 4. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 11-35
20 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 81. 25
The statement in the episode relates to the materials presented in the exordium and elaborates upon the extended harmonic progression. The section also features an essential gesture set to a rhythm of a quarter and two eighths. This long-short-short motion skillfully weaves the elegant harmonic fabric with captivating sonority. Moreover, one notices that the bass line in measure
23-30 constitutes the model musical sentence of two phrases: presentation, continuation as
William Caplin defined.21
The propositio of this fantasia in measure 31-42 repeats the contents of the previous pair of ritornello-episodes in E minor, the key of minor dominant. Here, Bach added more linear motions and supplementary voices to some significant chords in the second ritornello (mm.31-
42). Additionally, he let voices flow more through the rhythmic set of four eighths and a half note stretching for extended measures in order to reveal this pair of two sections as the actual content and the reason of the musical speech. The third ritornello (mm. 69-80) confirms the main statement of the first ritornello (mm. 1-12) artfully in the subdominant key, D minor
(confirmatio). The third episode in measures 80-99, on the other hand, exhibits gestures that refute the main idea by the mixture of the rhythmic sets in previous episodes plus swirling eighth-note motion of broken chords (confutatio).
21 William E. Caplin, Classical Form, a Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 35-48. 26
Musical Example 5. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-99
Finally the peroratio in measure 100-111 brings the exact repetition of the opening ritornello to conclude the musical speech with a succinct restatement.
The application of rhetorical figures to Bach’s Fantasy and Fugue proceeded by diverse approaches among Baroque theorists. In the opinion of Joachim Thuringus, born in the late sixteenth century, pathopoeia should include all general musical passages that arouse affections
(e.g. sorrow, joy, and fear), Burmeister, on the other hand, applies it to passages in a chromatic idiom.22
Throughout the beginning of the Fantasia in A minor, the expressive musical-rhetorical device pathopoeia appears everywhere in contrapuntal texture. Pathopoeia is generally used in a musical passage that attempts to arouse a passionate affection through chromaticism or by some other means. The first four measures of the Fantasia consist of two pairs of two-note figures in the top voice.
22 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 359-362. In definitions and translations of each figure, Bartel illustrates the different views of theorists with appropriate references. 27
Musical Example 6. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5
The first pair is F-E and the second is A-G sharp. In the establishment of the tonality of A minor, the first note of the first pair serves as a dissonant anticipation falling down by a semitone into the following bar. Both figures might be examples of pathopoeia, for they may evoke sadness by the use of semitone. This interpretation is supported by Mattheson’s idea that “sadness is best expressed by the small and smallest interval.”23 This mood seems to grow through the descending four notes A-G-F-E in the bass line in the same measures. Perhaps the musical catabasis, a descending musical passage that expresses falling, negative images or affections.
Many theorists, such as Bernhard and Walther, dealt specifically with dissonances and introduced through their examination of musical-rhetorical figures. In their discussions, they considered dissonances of the suspension (syncopatio, ligature) and passing notes (transitus, commissura) as fundamental rhetorical figures.
In his book, Musica Poetica, Dietrich Bartel correlates a number of dissonances with their possible origins in classical rhetoric. Other theorists adopted many rhetorical terms by analogy to the expressive musical character of dissonances. In their discussions, dissonances of the suspension (syncopatio, ligature) and the passing note (transitus, commissura) are the fundamental figures. As the Fantasia in A minor presents the old-fashioned style, stile antico, it features free treatment of dissonance and suspension, durezze e ligature. In the example below, it
23 Ernest C. Harriss, Johann Mattheson's Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1981), 132. 28 occurs on the tied notes in a chain of suspensions: the upper note D (m.11), middle note A
(m.12), lower note E (m.13), and the lowest note A (m.14).
Musical Example 7. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm.11-15
Bach exhibits sustained gestures through the use of syncopatio or ligature, a rhetorical figure usually serving as a suspension with or without a resulting dissonance.24 It occurs on tied notes in different voices at every single measure of the example above. This expressive rhetorical device brings tension and coherence to the music. Bach also adds dissonant neighboring notes, creating transitus or commissura, to avoid a unintersting, predictable musical line as well as to embellish the melody.
At the third ritornello starting at measure 80, Bach creates more rhythmic energy in the thematic framework by combining the two rhythmic figures which were used in previous ritornellos: one quarter and two eighths, and continuous eighth-note figure.
Musical Example 8. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 80-84
The thematic material thus gains intensity guiding the listener to the climax of the fantasia. The rhythmic momentum is intensified by a rising harmonic sequence. One anticipates that the motive motion will logically reach its peak at the first beat of measure 94 as the grand A
24 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 396-405. 29 minor PAC. However, Bach didn’t intend to proceed to the predictable cadence based on the full harmony of the measure, but uses an evaded cadence and delays the chord tone E, employing a rhetorical device of ellipsis.
Musical Example 9. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-94
This expressive figure is generally understood as the omission of a required consonance or expression in both music and speech. Though the musical ellipsis is often associated with a silence or general pause denoting a musical break, it instead occurs here to allow the gradually intensifying passage to continue toward the strong resolution at the beginning of the final ritornello at measure 100, as illustrated by Scheibe and Forkel.25 Thus, Bach could achieve his intention of a certain resolution of the uncertain nature of this movement.
Rhetorical Devices in the Fugue
Gallus Dressler (1533-1580) is the earliest source for musical-rhetorical disposition and a tripartite organization: exordium, medium, and finis, along with its specific application to fugal composition. His theories were examined by Baroque theorists such as Johann Christoph
Schmidt (1664-1728), Angelo Berardi (1635-1693) and Johann Mattheson. In their discussions of the conception of sections, they showed somewhat different scopes of application.26 For instance, Mattheson conceived of the propositio as a complete unit of principle statement, while
25 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 250-251.
26 Gregory G. Burtler, “Fugue and Rhetoric,” Journal of Music Theory 21, no.1 (Spring 1977): 72-99. 30
Schmidt viewed it as only the initial statement. However, they generally agreed to draw four sections for the classical dispositio scheme: propositio, confirmatio, confutatio, and peroratio, in applying the tripartite structure to fugal structure.”
When we examine the musical-rhetorical structure of Bach’s fugues, Dressler’s logical three-part structure can serve as a basic dispositio following the fugal association with the art of logic illustrated by Berardi: how musical ideas are presented, developed/transformed, and concluded.27
Table 5. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Fugue in A minor, BWV 904
Propositio Propositio Confirmatio Propositio Confirmatio Subject A B Measure 1 5 10 14 18 20 22 25 29 33 36 37 41 42 47 49 54 56 58 S A E E A B B A A E E B B B T A E A E B B B A E F A E B B Key a e a e e a a a e e e C G d e a
Confirmatio Peroratio Subject A + B A + B Measure 61 62 64 66 68 69 74 75 S A A A B B T B B B B A Key a a a d d d a a S = soprano voice; A = alto voice; T = tenor voice B = bass voice; E = episode; F = false entry
27 Burtler, “Fugue and Rhetoric,” 67-96. Burtler stresses Berardi’s specific linking of fugal structure and rhetorical disposition. Berardi’s reference the initial exposition of the theme as “la propositione della fugue” is quoted here. 31
Bach presents a distinct and straight-forward rhetorical process in this double-fugue through the symmetrical design of contrasting phenomenon of thematic sections. Each subject is presented in the complete structure of the exposition as the correspondent to the rhetorical propositio (mm. 1-22, 36-47) and is affirmed in the development as the confirmatio (mm. 22-36,
47-60) in both sections.
Musical Example 10. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904
a. mm. 1-3
b. mm. 25-27
c. mm. 36-38
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d. mm. 47-49
As we hear in the transitional section of measure 36, Bach strikingly induces listeners to realize that the next section refutes the previous argument through its use of chromatic and contrasting elements in stretto as if in confutatio.28 However, the new motif is intended as an independent, equivalent stance of argument accompanied by another confirmatio in measures 47-60. Thus, these two pairs of propositio and confirmatio together function as a large-scale propositio. Next, the confirmatio opens a debate on both subjects at measure 61 in the tonic key. Additionally, the thematic elements of the countersubjects combine with both subjects in sequences in supporting roles. The peroratio concludes the double-fugue by taking the final statements of both subjects in the tonic key starting on the third beat of measure 75.
The application of rhetorical figures to fugues is distinct from the procedure employed in fantasias. Rather than the expression of an affect, the application of rhetorical processes to fugues mainly focuses on how a statement is presented and emphasized. This principle was derived from the early sixteenth-century rhetoricians, such as Johannes Stomius (1502-1562), who described the fugue as a repetition of a statement between people.29 Later, Burmeister correlated some rhetorical figures with fugal techniques, for example the double fugue
28 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 81.
29 Burtler, “Fugue and Rhetoric,” 50-51. Stomius use the specific rhetorical figure mimesis to illuminate a close link between rhetorical figure and musical structure.
33
(metalepsis), inverted fugue (hypallage), incomplete entry of the subject (apocope), and incomplete exposition of the subject (anaphora).30
In the Fugue in A minor, Bach employs two contrasting subjects creating a double fugue
(metalepsis).
Musical Example 11. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904
a. mm. 1-3
b. mm. 36-38
Rhetorically, the term metalepsis describes a situation where the subsequent is understood from the antecedent, or the antecedent from the subsequent between two different phrases or words, for example “Was this face that launched a thousand ships and burnt the topless towers of Ilium?” from Dr. Faustus by Christopher Marlowe. In music, Burmeister applies metalepsis to fugues in which different subjects alternate in multiple voices. This device is applied in this Fugue, where the first subject is completely diatonic in A minor and the second is more chromatic. Both
30 Burtler, “Fugue and Rhetoric,” 54-59. Burmeister’s extended application of rhetorical figures to diverse fugal techniques is significantly addressed here. 34 demonstrate a strong motivic connection to the thematic materials in the opening statement of the
Fantasia.
The first subject, consisting of two opposing motives, is the extended version of the melodic line and the second displays the descending fourth chromatically transformed. This chromatically descending fourth is a figure other Baroque composers often used in their expression of sorrowful texts. For example, Henry Purcell used it as a ground bass throughout the aria “Dido’s Lament” from the opera Dido and Aeneas.
Musical Example 12. Purcell, “Dido’s Lament” from the opera Dido and Aeneas, mm. 10-18
Additionally, rhetorical figures, for example assimilatio and exclamatio, correlate with chromaticism in music. Through the arrangement of opposing thematic material in the double fugue, Bach enables the listeners to remember two fugal subjects containing two contrasting affections. Contrast had long been discussed among ancient Greek orators as one of the classical 35 rhetorical devices. This expression of an opposing idea, called antithesis in rhetorical terminology, is discussed among the rhetorical aspects of the fugue by theorists including
Walther, Mattheson and Forkel. Though their analyses do not mention two contrasting subjects in the double fugue, and mainly focus on the thematic material in one subject with opposing affects as well as the difference between the main subject and countersubject, the rhetorical concept is logically applicable to this Fugue in A minor.
Though both the Fantasia and the Fugue of BWV 904 create a combined compelling musical oration, they draw from essentially different rhetorical applications. This is mainly attributable to the fact that the thematic material is treated differently, as fantasias are generally free and more improvisatory, while fugues are highly artificial and more intellectual. Thus, it follows logically that both use different rhetorical devices. 36
CHAPTER IV: CHROMATIC FANTASIA AND FUGUE IN D MINOR, BWV 903
General Features
I have taken infinite pains to discover another piece of this kind by Bach, but in vain. This fantasia is unique, and never had its like…. This work, though of such intricate workmanship, makes an impression on even the most unpracticed hearer if it is but performed at all clearly.31
This is a well-known quote from Bach’s first biographer, Johann Nikolaus Forkel, about the
Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue. This work is widely accepted as one of Bach’s significant masterpieces for keyboard.
The Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, written in a more free style than the
Fantasia and Fugue in A minor in both movements, is an extraordinary work – large, sprawling, and emotional in its character. The fantasia actually has three main sections and a coda: an improvisatory prelude; a recitative-like section; and a mixture of the two. The second part of the keyboard recitative is a characteristic feature of this fantasia. A “recitative” typically refers to a style of vocal writing, but Bach employed it in this keyboard fantasia, using speech-like free improvisatory melodies for special expressive or dramatic effect. Stylistically, this fantasia exhibits the qualities of speaking, singing, and playing through a number of diverse musical devices. Unusual progressions, hidden ornaments, ingenious turns, and embellishments combine into a most free and unrestrained manner of composition
31 Johann Nikolaus Forkel, trans., Johann Sebastian Bach: His Life, Art, and Work (London: Constable and Company, 1920), 127. 37
Rhetorical Devices in the Fantasia
While this chromatic fantasia includes features of stylus fantasticus – freely composed passagework and expressive and improvisatory musical character as opposed to Bach’s strictly contrapuntal music – one is always aware of a well-ordered compositional process with a skillful display of invention.32 The structuring process of Bach’s structure and growth in this chromatic fantasia is analogous to the classical dispositio as basic ideas are directed, developed, repeated and shifted in ingenious alternating free and recitative sections. Here is a table showing the overall sectional setting.
Table 6. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903
Form and Characteristic Rhetorical Exordium Narratio Propositio Confutatio Confirmatio Peroratio Structure Measure 1-26 27-49 49-63 63-67 68-75 75-79 Texture Free Arpeggio Recitativo Free Recitativo Recitativo
The exordium opens with a pair of fast thirty-second notes figures strained by suffixal rhetorical rests, lightning bolts as Kerman described them, to seize the listeners’ attention.33 Then the section develops with brilliant improvisatory passagework containing various rhythmic patterns in a simplified harmonic framework until measure 26. After all of the violent passages descend spontaneously, Bach introduces an arpeggiated section of narratio in a swirling, chromatic chord progression (mm. 27-49). This section is characterized by an ascending chromatic line in the top voice of the chord progression over a redundant D pedal point, briefly
32 Collins, Stylus Phantasticus, 29, 56-70. Observations by Kircher and Mattheson are mentioned here.
33 Joseph Kerman, The Art of Fugue – Bach Fugues for Keyboard, 1715-1750 (Berkeley: University of Califonia Press, 2005), 48. 38 anticipating the main content of the chromatic statements in measures 33-47. Foreshadowed by the section of brilliant broken chords, the propositio fulfills its rhetorical function of exposing the main content and intention of this fantasia through successive musical declamations in recitative style. These are highly expressive, with melodies ornamented by semitones over diminished chords and natural rhythms of speech suggested by the flow of sixteenth, thirty- second and sixty-fourth notes. The recitative is interrupted by a series of sixteenth-note triplets at the end of measure 63 and a torrent of thirty-second notes follows. Perhaps this could be read as a confutatio that attempts to refute the main arguments. The challenge is brief and settles on the keynote D followed by a confirmation of the original argument in measure 67 (confirmatio). As
Bartel illustrated, both the confutatio and confirmatio ultimately strengthen the propositio as the former takes considerably diatonic, rapid passagework and the latter more varied, artful recitatives.34 Finally, in his conclusion of the musical speech, the peroratio, Bach tranquilizes listeners with chromatically descending diminished seventh chords plunging into an emotional abyss represented by the tonic pedal point.
One notable example of a musical-rhetorical device used in the work is anaphora, employed in four measures of swirling arpeggios, seen in the example below
Musical Example 13. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 27-31
34 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 81. 39
As a widely used figure of melodic repetition, anaphora rhetorically refers to when a writer or speaker repeats the same beginning of a phrase several times. Here is an example of anaphora from Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities:
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, It was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, It was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, It was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, It was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.
In a musical context, anaphora is a repetition of musical ideas (e.g., repeating bass lines or a ground bass), or a repetition of the opening phrase or motive in a number of successive passages. In the musical passage above, we see that the dramatic display of falling triplet leads to an arpeggiated chord progression: Dm-C#dim7-Dm-F#dim7-Gm-G#dim. As this series of six chords proceeds over the bass D, a performer might emphasize the recurring D, while taking a little time before the next chord tone in each harmony. Also, in order to maximize the musical effect of the chord progression until it arrives at the following AM-C#dim7 cadence, the performer might also build a well-controlled, gradual increase in speed and volumes.
Another figure in the category of rhetorical representation and depiction, anabasis, may also be observed in the piece. As a figure of speech, anabasis describes a progressive intensification in each subsequent phrase or sentence. Musically, anabasis may refer to an ascending musical passage that expresses exalted images or affections. The following is one of many suitable examples of anabasis in the Fantasia.
40
Musical Example 14. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 3-4
Here, we have four ascending notes of D–E–F–G, which are repeated twice within these two measures. This musical figure in four eighth notes is short but fully expresses eagerness or anxiety, before it is blocked by an arpeggiated A7 chord in each measure. In this musical texture which is divided between the hands, we can also notice another four ascending notes F-G-A-B flat. These notes may be given heightened emotion analogous to anabasis. Using both hands also enables the performer to make decisions about how much to project each voice. Through the examination of musical-rhetorical figures like anaphora and anabasis, we are presented with diverse interpretative possibilities. And, like an orator, a performer may express the musical ideas with the appropriate manipulation of sound and body movement.
41
Rhetorical Devices in the Fugue
This Chromatic fugue in D minor is a fugue built on a chromatic subject of technical virtuosity. The eight-measure long subject features two groups of chromatically ascending quarter notes with a focal point on the fifth measure, and descent to the dominant and resolution to the tonic in measure 6-8. The subject appears seven times in the complete fugue.
Table 7. Musical-Rhetorical Structure of the Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903
Propositio Confutatio / Confirmatio Peroratio Subject S S + CS + X S Measure 1 9 19 27 36 42 49 60 66 76 85 90 97 107 114 131 140 147 154 T S CS CS X S X X X S M S CS X S X S CS X S X S X B S CS X CS S X X X S X Key d a d a d b e d g d d T = top voice; M = middle voice; B = bottom voice S = subject; CS = countersubject; X = sixteenth notes figure
To create a spontaneous feeling of improvisation, Bach varied the subject in different ways at almost every appearance except in the propositio and the peroratio. In entry 4 at bar 41, beat 3, the subject emerges in the alto voice from a tied upbeat with another note and contains a melodic peak on F that is taken apart by appoggiatura eighth notes (mm. 46-47). Entry 5 at bar 60 also diminishes the mournful nature of the crux by adding notes with short rhythmic values (m. 64).
Further entries continue similarly; because they ascend, there seems to be an intensification of elevation that blurs the subject. These improvisatory appearances of the subject (S) are affirmed and refuted in the virtuosic display shaped by two other thematic elements: a countersubject (CS) and continuous sixteenth-note figure (X) in the musical-rhetorical structure as presented in Table
7. It seems obvious that Bach meant the debate between the main subject and the two thematic materials to occur mostly within the confirmatio/confutatio. The peroratio leads to the 42 conclusion by highlighting the subject in the tonic key in its original form over a long pedal point on A. The final entry of the subject is sung magnificently in the soprano voice contrary to the singing bass of the previous entry.
Throughout this chromatic fugue, we notice a dominant rhythmic character, a musical dactyl, which contributes to the contrapuntal brilliance. Taken from the Greek word for “finger,” a dactyl is a metrical foot containing one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables and applied to the rhythmic figure “long-short-short.” Dactyls often occur in Greek poetry. As it is applied to musical rhetoric, figure corta generally refers to a three-note pattern in which one note’s duration equals the sum of other two and the term also includes the anapest in addition to the dactyl in a more broad context. 35
Musical Example 15. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 8-13
Table 8. Musical Dactyl and Anapest
Rhetorical figure Metrical foot Musical notation Example in literature dactyl Just for a handful of silver he left us corta Just for a rib and to stick in his coat anapest Ran away with a man But doth suffer a sea-change
As in a poetic context, Bach made frequent use of a series of corta to provide the sense of felicity, joy, vitality, and agitation required in this fugue. The three-note figure drives forward naturally, as the two unstressed notes energetically move towards the next longer note. In addition to
35 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 234. 43 employing their rhythmic energy, Bach often implemented a series of corta to highlight beautiful images in the negative chromatic background. The series of corta appears to end the subject and introduce the answer in the middle voice (m.8). This series reappears in three instances in both ascending and descending motion in order to decorate the subject in the middle voice (mm.10, 12,
15). The series of corta in measure 10 and 12 especially introduce sensations that oppose the next walking four quarter notes through their upward or downward melodic motion. This musical-rhetorical effect can be also supported by John Eliot Gardiner in his examination of dactylic rhythm in the tenor aria “Erwäge,” from the St. John Passion by Bach: “The dactylic rhythms and their upward-downward melodic curves in this area are rhetorical devices that evoke images of the rounded arch of a rainbow, further likening them with the curved elliptical bridge of the viola d’amore.36 The musical-rhetorical figure corta performs diverse functions throughout the Chromatic Fugue. Bach’s ascending and descending dactyls usually arouse joyful or palpitating affections.
Passus duriusculus, the musical device of a chromatically altered ascending or descending melodic line, appears throughout this entire chromatic fugue.37 This musical device is widely used as a specific form of the chromatic fourth, usually descending as a melodic figure that span a perfect fourth with a filled in chromatic line. However, in his valuable 1648 treatise,
Tractatus Compositionis Augmentatus, Christoph Bernhard applied passus duriusculus in the broad range of occurrences not limited to a specific interval of the fourth.38 This expressive
36 John Eliot Gardiner, Bach: Music in the Castle of Heaven (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013), 381.
37 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 357-58.
38 Dietrich Bartel, “Rhetoric in German Baroque Music: Ethical Gestures,” The Musical Times 144, no. 1885 (Winter 2003): 15-19. 44 musical-rhetorical figure was significantly explored by Lutheran composers such as Heinrich
Schütz (1585-1672) and Christoph Bernhard (1628-1692), and used as an educational tool to instruct and reform the listeners. As a Lutheran musician, Bach intended to edify the listeners in this fugue through the appearance of chromatic ascending four-note figures in walking motion.
Musical Example 16. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 1-7
Bach conceals the tonality of the subject for the first four measures with two successive groups of ascending quarter notes in tepid chromaticism - A B flat B C and E F F sharp G - and the subject turns down gracefully, eliminating its uncertainty.39 These harsh steps – the literal meaning of passus duriusculus – maintain the difficulty of determining the subject until the section in the key of F major established at measure 36. Bach eventually reveals how this figure works as a significant tool to express the dramatic effects supported by other musical elements of fugal texture, such as harmonic progression, melodic contour, and rhythmic impulse. This can be seen in entry 10 at measure 140-147 and in three episodes at measure 49-53, 87-90 and 97-101.
In particular, this musical expression at measure 87 has significance in combination with another musical-rhetorical figure, epanados. This figure refers to a musical setting of a retrograde repetition of a fugal subject. Bach applied it prominently to display the debate between the thematic elements of the episode and subject.40
39 Kerman, Art of Fugue, 52. Kerman specifically referred to this subject here.
40 Bartel, Musica Poetica, 259-60. 45
Musical Example 17. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 87-92
The top voice in these three measures of the episode takes a specific form of a chromatically descending fourth and repeats the phrase in a similar passage, but in reverse order, which becomes the opening four notes of the fugal subject in the new entry.
This fugue is highly dramatic and expressive, and contains rhetorical figures representing climactic musical effects, as shown in the musical example 16.
46
Musical Example 18. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 130-141
In an entry at measure 131, the subject poises itself to launch a dynamic explosion in its final climax beginning on the tonic note of D. On the way towards the climax of this entry, Bach spontaneously inserts a parembole coinciding with an artistic contrapuntal device, hyperbaton, in dramatic anticipation of the final climax in D minor of this fugue. The rhetorical term parembole signifies a parenthetical insertion into a sentence, which is still in line with the original thought.
Musical parembole may also be used to fill in non-essential voices in the harmonies. Hyperbaton, on the other hand, is rhetorically defined as an inversion of the normal words in the sentence – for example, “This I must see”– and often occurs musically in a contrapuntal structure when either a note or entire subject is displaced from its natural location. Beginning in measure 135, the four falling notes E flat–D–C–B flat were expected to occur in the middle voice. However, they were transferred to the soprano voice in measures 135-136. Then the segments are repeated 47 twice in sequences set in different voices: the first, B flat-A-G-F, in the middle voice of measures
137-138, and the second, F–E–D–C sharp, in the top. This expressive relocation of notes in the fugal subject coincides with the addition of supplementary voices to fill in the thick marching chords in measures 135 and 139, creating a musical parembole. Bach achieves an impressive presentation of fugal statement by effectively employing these two musical-rhetorical devices in conjunction with each other.
In addition to hyperbaton and parembole, Bach uses paragoge to enhance the harmonic embellishment of the fugal subject. Literally meaning “addition,” paragoge is rhetorically used to give emphasis or modify the meaning of a word through the addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word. When applied to music, the term typically refers to the use of a pedal point to decorate the final cadence at the end of a composition
Musical Example 19. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903
a. mm. 59-62
b. mm. 90-92
48
c. mm. 106-109
d. mm. 130-133
e. mm. 154-157
While the Chromatic Fantasia features stunning arpeggiated chords over the pedal point on D, the fugal subject is embellished by the pedal point on the dominant note of the key of each entry. As each entry of the subject fundamentally starts with a dominant, entry 5 at measures 60-
66 establishes the harmonic affirmation through the fairly short pedal of A, which occurs on the same downbeat in measure 60. Entry 7, beginning at measure 90, exhibits the apparent pedal point launched in earnest on a strong B. This emergence of the pedal point initiated in the next bar is also drawn at entry 9 and 11 in the same formula. In order to project the arrival of the crux of the subject, the performer should add a lower octave at the second beat of measure 91, potentially in addition to the downbeats at measure 91 and 92. Entry 8 at measures 107-113 is constructed by a different functional pedal on the low G note, which clouds what is actually a tonic. As the key of this entry is D minor, the pedal point is expected on the low A. In the key of 49
G minor, entry 9 begins with the pedal point on the dominant D as is common. In entry 10, the subject back in the tonic functions as a crux accompanied by a continuous rushing scale in the soprano voice after the grand, powerful build-up shown in entry 9. And the final entry comes as a grand finale through the reappearance of the subject in the same tonic in the soprano voice, supported by the pedal point on low A three octaves away. Among all the entries associated with the pedal point that we’ve discussed, it is the final entry 11 where Bach obviously intended to create paragoge at the end of the composition, strengthening the final cadence of the composition to reestablish its original tonality and with a dramatic effect.
50
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
We have seen through our examination of J.S. Bach's Fantasia and Fugue in A minor and
Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor that both works reveal the influence of certain classical rhetorical principles. Such an examination provides the performer with a more thorough understanding of Bach's compositional techniques.
It was helpful to study the application of rhetoric in two masterpieces of J.S. Bach in three different ways: musical-rhetorical structure, the Doctrine of Affects, and specific musical- rhetorical figures. This study provided deeper understanding of this music within a linguistic framework by dealing with both logical and emotional elements of the compositions.
The more deeply one studies rhetorical ideals in the music, the more deeply and persuasively one can interpret and perform these works. The study of application of rhetorical devices yields important insights in appropriate performance approaches. I believe that it is important for a musician not only to examine the rhetoric as it applies to musical composition, but also to attempt to effectively demonstrate how it may move the listener.
One of the significant issues in the performance of the Fantasia in A minor, for example, is tempo. Many harpsichord performances of this fantasia are in a somewhat fast tempo, in which two unstressed eighth notes move energetically forward to the next stressed longer note.
Such an interpretation fails to convey a deep awareness of affect analogous to the pathopoeia and catabasis of rhetoric. Thus, a modern Bach interpreter who considers Bach’s intent to express the musical-rhetorical devices of his composition may choose a more moderate walking tempo aligning with the 4/4 meter as found in the Henle urtext edition. Also, a critical note in this edition mentions that this fantasia is written for the harpsichord and clavichord, but that 51 organ would also be appropriate.41 Some contemporary performances on the organ bring a majestic quality to the ritornello of this fantasia in a moderate tempo and present an affective musical expression to the listener through a slow and delicate touch on expressive musical figures such as sustained notes. In this manner, the textual clarity of the Fantasia in A minor is best conveyed when the performer sets the tempo carefully and controls the musical pace with sensitivity.
Specifically in handling the character of the ritornello of this fantasia, we may notice that it needs a different interpretive approach from that of the episode and even that each ritornello contains a different emotional musical character. The walking pace of the first ritornello continues its half-note pulse in the following episode but the movement gets more lively with continuous eighth-note motion in the later episodes, while ritornellos keep the solemn and plaintive nature of the theme of this fantasia in its recurring twelve-bar statement. Thus, a performer should bring the appropriate emotion to the respective ritornellos by understanding the musical character associated with the key and texture. The third ritornello takes the grim echoes of the previous sad statement by suspension on the top voice of E and appears in the key of D minor rendering an expression of seriousness and piousness.42 The second ritornello seems to take the similar echoes of the previous negative sentiments by suspension on the soprano voice and hovering low voice. However, the key of E minor with heavy chords on the downbeat rejects the previous depression and despair, rather restlessly speaking of the oncoming hope. The last ritornello returns to an exact declamation of the introductory statement in A minor. However, the
41 Johann Sebastian Bach, a as e l e e , ed. Georg von Dadelson and Klaus Rönnau (M nchen-Duisburg: G. Henle, 1972-73), v.
42 Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries, 2nd ed. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), 243-45. 52 graceful, tender characteristic of the same key of A minor becomes more positive and powerful, anticipated by a strong appearance of rising eighth notes in dominant harmony at the previous measure, as this peroratio ends the piece with an emphatic conclusion. A pianist will want to convey the sense of grace and tenderness in the opening ritornello consonant with the expression of rhetorical figures such as pathopoeia and catabasis.
Mattheson emphasizes the importance of the performer’s role as well as the composer in expressing these musical-rhetorical figures: a performer must vary the values of notes and rests to express the affections through the rhetorically structured composition. In order to project the
F-E contour in the musical texture representing pathopoeia, for example, it is useful to employ two circular motions of the arms with a different weight dropped. The first movement is relatively big and the next one is smaller than the first one. The second pair of A-G# can also be played with the same gesture.
Musical Example 20. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 1-5
Typically, the peroratio should conclude a composition as the culmination of the entire movement, showing the most powerful expression and bringing together all the previous thematic elements. As the section of this fantasia exactly repeats the opening exordium, we may notice that the climactic passage starting at measure 90 plays a functional role in its representation of thematic contents. A performer should disclose what Bach intended, by understanding how the thematic materials are developed in this section. There are some key 53 supportive figures or devices to figure out in this section: a gradual build up in sequence
(mm.90-92), the occurrence of ellipsis, a rising five-note motive (m.94), two groups of falling three-note patterns (E-D-C, A-G-F), an ascending D-minor broken chord (mm.95-96), and pathopoeia at the top voice intensified by an ascending E dominant seventh chord. These work to help a pianist effectively execute the expression of this significant section.
Musical Example 21. Fantasia in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 90-94
In performing the opening subject of this fugue, a performer may also consider using an arm contouring movement. The movement was determined as the phrase splits into four fragments of different lengths along with three rhetorical pauses.
Musical Example 22. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm.1-4
In the effective performance of this double-fugue, a performer needs to be aware of many sensitive components to show listeners the nature of uncertainty within this fugue. First, a pair of appoggiatura eighth notes D-E-E-C at measure 35 introduces the cynical chromatic subject in stretto, the characteristic anapest rhythm syncopated by a tie. It is then mixed expressively together with the subject throughout this second thematic section.
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Musical Example 23. Fugue in A minor, BWV 904, mm. 34-40
An informed performer will perceive Bach’s diverse processes and magnificent structural mixture of elements from the first subject and its countersubject for a strong conclusion of the peroratio at the end of the composition.
The Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue is full of musical-rhetorical devices. First of all, the title “chromatic” indicates the composer’s intention to make vigorous use of chromaticism. One of the pervasive features of Baroque music, chromaticism is directly connected to the expression of human affection, seen in the previous Fantasia and Fugue in A minor. The second part of the keyboard recitative, in particular, demands that the performers express negative human emotions
– sorrow, anger, fury, and regret – by controlling the rhythm and tempo of the melodies. Bach implements, furthermore, rhetorical pauses throughout the Fantasia in order to offer the performer the freedom of diverse interpretative choices in a quasi-improvised manner.
A prominent music theorist, Johann Gottfried Walther, defines the term paragoge as follows: “The paragoge occurs when something is appended to the cadence which was not, 55 however, expressly included by the composer but rather added by the performer.”43 The improvisational nature of the Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue allows for liberal freedom in performance. Both the Chromatic Fantasia and the Chromatic Fugue are highly expressive and show truly improvisational nature representative of a work of stylus fantasticus. As this unique masterpiece is full of expressive musical rhetorical devices including paragoge and anaphora, performers are able to exercise freedom in their performance by modifying or adding more voices or notes to a musical idea while still keeping the original nature of the musical thought.
When pianists explore the musical-rhetorical figures of melodic repetition such as anaphora, they must determine the most purposeful melodic emphasis through subtle stresses and accentuation in each passage. Moreover, they must consider the addition of notes or voices to the figures of melodic and harmonic ornamentation such as paragoge. A dramatic effect also occurs in the passages with rhetorical rests in the fantasia. For example, the opening two measures and measure 19 contain a rhetorical rest on the downbeat.
43 Bartel, Musical Poetica, 345-46. Walther listed and defined the figure paragoge as an improvised cadenza in his Lexicon. 56
Musical Example 24. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903
a. mm. 1-2
b. mm. 19-20
A performer is to consider what kind of spontaneous effect may be intended—surprising or restless or fearful—and not, rather, relaxing in expressing the rests as we may see in the opening motive of the Scarbo from Gaspard de la nuit by Maurice Ravel.
Musical Example 25. Ravel, Scarbo from Gaspard de la nuit, mm. 1-4
Bach composed his narratio section with a notated arpeggio, a typical type of broken chord moving up and down, starting at measure 27 of the Chromatic Fantasia. Regarding the voicing of the chord progression, a performer should consider how to project the rising top line,
D-E-F-F sharp-G-G sharp-A-B flat, in order to accentuate this section, which introduces the 57 chromatic nature of the composition. Thus, one might lean towards the top note as it rises, slightly drawing it out. Also, he must lead listeners to the c# diminished seventh chord at measure 29 as the peak of the progression. Thus, the ascending motion should continue until the end of the measure, uninterrupted by melodic motion added in the right hand at the downbeat of the measure. To create the effective explosion of the chord at the climactic moment, the left hand may play the chord spread out and the right broken with intensity of in both hands.
Musical Example 26. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 27-31
The second arpeggio section at measure 33 uses a more extended chord progression with a slower and gentler layout. Specifically, measure 33 requires a performer to play it as a transition from a rapid thirty-second note figure to relaxed arpeggiated chords. Here, it may be required to add more chord tones to some chords to connect both hands more smoothly in the progression.
Musical Example 27. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 32-35
After some measures of improvisatory motion, the third arpeggio section starts with two grim notes, C-B, at measure 44, anticipating the conclusion of this deep and sorrowful section.
Executing these arpeggios requires a performer to play in a low voice at the beginning and 58 heighten the dramatic effect by filling each arpeggio with progressively more notes and motions.
Additionally, the performer should place great emphasis on the downbeat of the measure 48 by blocking the chord in the right hand an octave higher.
Musical Example 28. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 43-49
Some performance suggestions I mentioned above will be illustrated in musical notation as follows:
Musical Example 29. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903 with written musical notation suggested
a. mm. 33
59
b. mm. 44-49
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The recitative section, the second part of the fantasia, is filled with a number of rhetorical figures which provide freedom for the performer. Thus, the performance of this section should be in a free rhythm and tempo rubato with a slight speeding up and then slowing down to create a speech-like gesture. In particular, the performer should give a slightly longer value to the first note of the figure and a shorter one to the second with the motion of a sigh on the common two- note figure ornamented by an appoggiatura.
Musical Example 30. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 50-51
While the recitative section allows a performer free rhythmic control over what is written, the closing section allows for free melodic improvisation within the successive harmonic context.
The concluding peroratio at measures 75-79 features three distinct layers of musical texture: a long tonic pedal on D at the bottom, a chromatically sinking diminished seventh chord in the middle, and repeated short figures consisting of descending step and various styles of short notes at the top.
Musical Example 31. Chromatic Fantasia in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 76-77
Through the manipulation of various styles on upbeats, the short notes can appear in various shapes according to the performer’s sense of improvisation. The performer should also be 61 conscious of what dynamics, what articulation, and what intonation corresponds effectively with the interpretative decisions about shaping of figures.
Along with these three considerations, articulation plays an important role in presenting the thematic material throughout the chromatic fugue. In the opening subject, each group of the quarter-note figure has a particularly distinctive character: the first A-B flat-B-C and the second
D-F-F sharp-G show an element of uncertainty in the chromaticism, the third B flat-A-G contains the modest resolution after the melodic peak on the downbeat, and the last E-A-C sharp shifts the motif to suggest the dominant area.44
Musical Example 32. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 1-7
Eighth-note figures, on the other hand, are inserted in the neighboring or passing motion between the groups of quarter-note figures. This suggests a different characteristic articulation for each value – legato or dry legato – for the slow-walking quarters and slurred staccato for the barely detached eighths. This consideration can be applied in contrast to two other thematic components: dactylic rhythm and continuous sixteenth-note figurations. All episodes of this chromatic fugue use these rhythmic motions to realize their dazzling motivic display. Two sixteenth notes of a dactyl rhythm may be played as stickily detached while the rest are played continuous, except for some notes projected in voicing by playing with non-legato.
44 Kerman, Art of Fugue, 52-53. 62
Musical Example 33. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 53-55
Additionally, we see here are some sections of the chromatic fugue with performance implications in correspondence with expressive musical-rhetorical figures. First of all, as measure 87-91 of the chromatic fugue presents an epanados, repeating a fugal subject in reverse order, a performer must demonstrate that the descending figure, E chromatically falling down to
B, is related to the rising four notes, B-C-C sharp-D.
Musical Example 34. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 87-92
This can be accomplished by applying tenuto to the ascending as well as descending figure. Also, it is necessary to die away toward the downbeat of measure 90 on B as it is the transitional moment which initiates the retrograde action. Secondly, entry 10 serves as a great climax after the sequence of measures 135-139, with supplementary voices in the harmonies exhibiting parembole.
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Musical Example 35. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 134-141
It is required to add on octave to the left hand in measure 140-143 in order to give the subject a more powerful appearance while also providing a greater contrast to the impulsive rushing scale of the right hand. Finally, the subject in the last entry at measure 154 is elaborated by the use of pedal point, exemplifying paragoge. Though some previous entries displayed the subject improvising over a pedal point, the statement in the ending entry appears in its original form, without variation, and comes in the highest register of the entry of the top voice. Accordingly, the right hand can use a brighter sound to project the statement in the top voice and the left hand can double the bass octave and repeat on the downbeat in bar 156 and 157 as well as the second beat of bar 155.
Musical Example 36. Chromatic Fugue in D minor, BWV 903, mm. 154-157
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Additionally, within the next two measures, the tempo should keep moving forward, and not be allowed to grow heavy with the octave passage in the left hand as the statement must be clearly cut off at a rhetorical rest.
The expression of rhetorical figures can be effectively communicated to the audience when performers put themselves in the appropriate musical mood. As C.P.E Bach said “A musician cannot move others unless he too is moved,” performers should feel and express all the emotions of musical passages to make them clearly perceived by audience.45
45 Sam Morgenstern, ed., Composers on Music: An A holo y of Compose s’ Writings from Palestrina to Copland (New York: Pantheon, 1956), 60. 65
APPENDIX A: J.S. Bach, Fantasia and Fugue in A minor, BWV 90446
46 Johann Sebastian Bach, a as e l e e , ed. Georg von Dadelson and Klaus Rönnau (M nchen-Duisburg: G. Henle, 1972-73), 16-23. 66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
APPENDIX B: J.S. Bach, Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue in D minor, BWV 90347
47 Bach, a as e l e e , 1-13. 74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
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