The SAGE Guide to Curriculum in Education EDITORIAL BOARD

Editors

Ming Fang He Georgia Southern University

Brian D. Schultz Northeastern Illinois University

William H. Schubert University of Illinois at Chicago

Editorial Board

Susan Huddleston Edgerton Lance T. McCready Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts University of Toronto

Bernardo P. Gallegos Madhu Suri Prakash National University Pennsylvania State University

Jesse Goodman Patrick A. Roberts Indiana University Northern Illinois University

Annette Henry David Stovall University of British Columbia University of Illinois at Chicago

Tiffany S. Lee P. Bruce Uhrmacher University of New Mexico University of Denver The SAGE Guide to Curriculum in Education

Editors

Ming Fang He Georgia Southern University

Brian D. Schultz Northeastern Illinois University

William H. Schubert University of Illinois at Chicago Copyright © 2015 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

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Acquisitions Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson Editorial Assistant: Jordan Enobakhare Developmental Editor: Shirin Parsavand Production Editor: Tracy Buyan Reference Systems Manager: Leticia Gutierrez Reference Systems Coordinator: Anna Villaseñor Typesetter: Hurix Systems Pvt. Ltd. Copy Editor: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreaders: Tricia Currie-Knight Indexer: Marilyn Anderson Cover Designer: Candice Harman Marketing Manager: Teri Williams 15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 BRIEF CONTENTS

About the Editors xvii Acknowledgments and In Memoriam xxi Prelude xxiii

PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM 1 Interlude 2

PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM 151 Interlude 152

PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM 231 Interlude 232

PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM 301 Interlude 302

Postlude 455 Resource Guide 461 Index 487

CONTENTS

About the Editors xvii Acknowledgments and In Memoriam xxi Prelude xxiii

PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM Interlude 2 1. Deciding Aims and Purposes of Subject Matter 3 Wesley Null Subject Matter as a Means or as an End 4 Views on the Purposes of Subject Matter 6 Subject Matter and Contemporary Trends in Curriculum Making 8

2. Subject Matter as Experience 11 Thomas P. Thomas and Peter B. Hilton Orientations to Subject Matter as Experience 12 Contemporary Concerns 16 Forms of Inquiry 17

3. Subject Matters of Literacy 19 Aria Razfar Literacy as Technology: Historical Context 19 Defining Literacy 20

4. Subject Matters of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics 27 Russell Tytler, Dalene Swanson, and Peter Appelbaum Contemporary Concerns 29 Context 31 Theoretical Perspectives 32 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 33 5. Subject Matters of Social Studies 36 Yoonjung Choi and Kathryn Wegner Contemporary Concerns About the Social Studies Curriculum 37 Context 39 Theory 40 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 41 Conclusion 42

6. Subject Matters of the Arts 45 Rachel L. S. Harper and Jorge R. Lucero Contemporary Concerns 46 Context of the Subject Matters of the Arts 48 Theory of Subject Matters of the Arts 49 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 50 Conclusion 51

7. Subject Matters of Humanities 53 Edward Podsiadlik III Contemporary Concerns About the Subject Matters of Humanities 54 Context of the Subject Matters of the Humanities 56 Theory of Subject Matters of Humanities 57 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 59 Conclusion: Need for Continuous Reflections 59

8. Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power 61 Guofang Li Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power as Sites of Struggle 62 Welcoming and Unwelcoming Contexts 64 Theoretical Perspectives 65 Key Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 67 Conclusion 67

9. Subject Matters of Physical Education 70 Paul M. Wright and David S. Walsh A Brief History of PE in the United States 71 Contemporary Concerns 72 Contextual Forces 74 Theory in PE 75 Forms of Inquiry in PE 75

10. Organization and Sequencing of Subject Matters 78 Zongyi Deng Understanding Curriculum Making in Contexts 79 Orientations, Approaches, and Curriculum Ideologies 79 Social and Political Issues 82 Questions and Forms of Curriculum Inquiry 84 Conclusion 84

11. Subject Matters of Digital Technology and Computing Science Curriculum 87 Catherine Adams Contexts of Digital Technology as Curriculum 88 Contemporary Concerns About Digital Technology as Curriculum 89 Theory of Digital Technology as Curriculum 91 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 93 Conclusion: Need for Continuous Questioning 93

12. Integrated, Holistic, and Core Subject Matters 96 Wade Tillett Contemporary Concerns 97 Context 97 Theory 98 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 100 Conclusion 101

13. Currere as Subject Matter 103 Marla Morris Currere 103 Theories of Autobiography 106 Types of Autobiography 107 Autobiographies in the Field 108

14. Multicultural Currere as Subject Matter 110 Hongyu Wang Contemporary Concerns 111 Context 113 Theory 114 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 116

15. Critical Race/Feminist Currere 119 Denise Taliaferro Baszile Contemporary Concerns 120 Context 121 Theory 122 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 124

16. Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter 127 Robert L. Lake Imagination in the Present Context 128 Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter 128 Sensing Gaps as a Form of Inquiry 129 Arts-Based Education and Metaphor 131 Need for Continuous Questioning 132 17. Popular Culture as Subject Matter 134 Greg Dimitriadis Contemporary Concerns 135 Context 136 Theory 138 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 140

18. Critical Media Literacy in the Digital Age 142 Julie Maudlin and Daniel Chapman Critical Media Literacy in Context 143 From Network to Networked: Critical Media Literacy in Theory 144 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Representation 144 Toward a Critical Media Literacy Curriculum and Pedagogy 148

PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM Interlude 152 19. Teacher as Curriculum 153 Candace Schlein and Gretchen Schwarz Contemporary Concerns About Teacher as Curriculum 153 Context of Teacher as Curriculum 154 Theory of Teacher as Curriculum 155 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 156 Modes of Expression About Teachers as Curriculum 157 Conclusion: The Curriculum Is a Living Experience 158

20. Teachers as Activists 160 Crystal T. Laura and Aisha El-Amin Contemporary Concerns and Contexts of Teachers as Activists 160 Theory of Teachers as Activists 161 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 162

21. Teachers and Pedagogy for Communal Well-Being 165 Nathalia E. Jaramillo Pedagogy in the Age of Standardization, Fear, and Profit 166 The Global Context of Pedagogy Coloniality: The Enduring Logic of Social Differentiation 168 Progressive, Critical, and Decolonial Pedagogies 170 Forms of Inquiry 171

22. Teacher Bashing and Teacher Deskilling 174 Isabel Nuñez Contemporary Teacher Deskilling 175 Teacher Bashing in Context 177 Theorizing Teacher Bashing and Deskilling 178 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 179

23. High-Stakes Testing and the Evaluation of Teachers 183 Wayne Au Contemporary Concerns 183 Contexts 185 Theories 186 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 188

24. Teachers as Cultural Workers 190 Matthew Knoester and Min Yu Contemporary Concerns 190 Current Challenges 191 Research on Teachers as Cultural Workers 192 Forms of Inquiry on Inspiring Teachers 193

25. Teacher Education Curriculum 198 Jennifer L. Milam Contemporary Concerns 199 Theory to Practice and Practice to Theory 203 Teacher Education Inquiry and Modes of Expression and Representation 204

26. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 207 Keffrelyn D. Brown, Anthony L. Brown, and Racheal Rothrock Theorizing Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 208 Historical Movements That Engender Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 209 Contemporary Concerns: Origins, Reflections, and Innovations 210 Modes of Inquiry and Forms of Expression 212

27. Black Teachers as Curriculum Texts in Urban Schools 215 H. Richard Milner IV Contemporary Concerns 217 Context: “Urban” Black Teachers as Curriculum 218 Theory: Black Teachers as Curriculum 219 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 220 Conclusion: Need for More Research 221

28. Teachers as Improvisational Artists 223 Lasana Kazembe and Avi Lessing What Is Improvisation? 224 Improvisation as Uninhibited Exploration 225 How Is Improvisation Manifested? 225 Challenges and Complexities 228 Some Closing Thoughts 229 PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM Interlude 232 29. Students as Curriculum 233 William H. Schubert and Brian D. Schultz Contemporary Concerns About Students as Curriculum 234 Context of Students as Curriculum 235 Theory of Students as Curriculum 235 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 238 Conclusion: Need for Continuous Questioning 239

30. Students’ Experiences as Curriculum 241 Kristien Zenkov and Christine DeGregory Theory and History of Students’ Experiences as Curriculum 242 Why “Students’ Experiences as Curriculum” Now? 243 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression: Examples 244 Conclusion 246

31. Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum 249 Elaine Chan, JoAnn Phillion, and Ming Fang He Contexts 249 Contemporary Concerns 250 Understanding Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum Through Theory and Practice in Language, Culture, Identity, and Power 251 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 253

32. Learning From and With Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students 259 Valerie Kinloch Contemporary Concerns 260 Context of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students 261 Theory of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students 262 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 264 Conclusion 265

33. Learning From/With Multicultural Children’s Literature 268 Maria José Botelho Historical and Sociopolitical Contexts of Multicultural Children’s Literature 269 Multiple Theories, Definitions, and Discourses of Multicultural Children’s Literature 270 Practices of Inquiry 272 Modes of Representation 273

34. Students and (Dis)Ability 276 Mara Sapon-Shevin Contemporary Concerns 277 Challenges to Inclusive Education for Students With Disabilities 281 Theory 281 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 281

35. Students as Critical Citizens/Educated Subjects but Not as Commodities/Tested Objects 284 Kenneth J. Saltman and Alexander J. Means Curriculum as a Humanizing and Dehumanizing Force 284 Cultural Politics of Curriculum 285 Curriculum and the Culture of Positivism 286 Neoliberalism and the Broader Context of Curriculum 288

36. Learning for Creative, Associated, Joyful, and Worthwhile Living 292 Jason Goulah and Ming Fang He Contemporary Concerns and Contexts 294 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 295

PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM Interlude 302 37. The Neglected Historical Milieu 303 William H. Watkins Before the Greeks: A Glimpse of Education and Curriculum in Kemet 303 Foundations of Western Classical Education: The Greeks and the Romans 304 Black Education: Early Days to “Freedom” 305 The Black Giants: Irony of the Nadir 306 First-Time Tragedy, Second-Time Farce 309

38. The Biographical and Documentary Milieu 311 Craig Kridel Context of Biographical Inquiry and Modes of Expression 311 Theoretical Perspectives of Biographical Research 311 Contemporary Concerns and Issues in Biographical Inquiry 313 Context of Documentary Inquiry and Modes of Expression 314 Theoretical Perspectives of Documentary Research 315 Contemporary Concerns and Issues in Documentary Inquiry 316 Conclusion 317

39. Curriculum and the Policy Milieu 319 Pamela J. Konkol and Jinting Wu Contemporary Concerns About Curriculum and the Policy Milieu 319 Context of Curriculum and the Policy Milieu 321 Theory of the Policy Milieu 321 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 323 Curriculum as Cause and Effect 324 40. The Parental, Familial, and Communal Milieu 326 Morgan E. Halstead and Kathleen H. McInerney Contemporary Concerns About Parents and Community as Curriculum 327 Context of Parents and Community as Curriculum 328 Theory of Parents and Community as Curriculum 328 Forms of Inquiry About Parents and Community as Curriculum 330 Modes of Expression About Parents and Communities as Curriculum 332

41. The Technological Milieu 335 Chun Lai and Jing Lei The Interaction Between Technology and Curriculum 335 Interaction Between Technology and the Key Components of Curriculum 338 The Interaction of Technology and Other Subject Matters 338 Contextual Factors Around the Interaction 339 Research Inquiries Into Interaction Between Curriculum and Technology 342

42. The Moral and Spiritual Milieu: Humanistic Alternatives to the Competitive Milieu 344 H. Svi Shapiro Market Power: Educating for Competition 345 Educating Identity for Competition 345 From Competition to Violence 346 The Dissatisfied Self 346 Curriculum as Transformation 347 Working to Overcome Invisibility 348

43. The Gender, Sexuality, and Queer Milieu 351 Susan W. Woolley, Therese Quinn, and Erica R. Meiners Contemporary Concerns 352 Context 353 Theory 354 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 355

44. The Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu 358 Sabrina Ross Curriculum Topic 359 Contemporary Concerns 360 Context 361 Theories of the Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu 362 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 363 Future Work 364

45. The Socioeconomic Class Milieu 367 Adam Howard and Katy Swalwell Contemporary Concerns: The Shifting Social and Economic Landscapes “Outside Class” 368 Context: Keeping Things Steady on Shifting Ground “Within Class” 368 Theory: “Late to Class” Shifting Attention to Elites 369 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression: The Need for New Frameworks “After Class” 370

46. The Corporate–Military–Governmental Milieu 374 Brad J. Porfilio and Derek R. Ford Contemporary Concerns 376 Contexts 378 Theory 379 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 380

47. The Youth Cultural Milieu 383 Debbie Sonu and Sherick Hughes Contemporary Concerns 384 Context 384 Theory 386 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 387 Conclusion 388

48. Deschooling, Homeschooling, and Unschooling in the Alternative School Milieu 391 Kristin D. Jones, Cynthia Cole Robinson, and Kelly P. Vaughan Contemporary Concerns About the Alternative Schooling Milieu 392 Context of Schooling Alternatives 394 Theory of Schooling Alternatives 396 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 396 Diverse Alternatives in a Democracy 397

49. Geographical Milieu 400 Robert J. Helfenbein The Practical: Geography as Curriculum 402 Curriculum as Geography: A Spatial Turn 403 Geography, Curriculum, and Globalization 404

50. Popular Cultural Milieu Illustrated Through a Hip-Hop Culturally Values-Driven Pedagogy 407 Sunni Ali and Kimya Barden Contemporary Concerns and Contexts 408 Theoretical Perspectives for Developing a CVD Curriculum and Pedagogy 409 Transformative Learning, Modes of Expression, and Forms of Inquiry 412

51. Browning the Curriculum: A Project of Unsettlement 416 Rubén Gaztambide-Fernández Historical Hindsight 417 The Problem That Is the (Racist) Present 418 Theoretical Heat 419 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression: Eating the Mainstream 421 52. Ecological Milieu 424 Jason Michael Lukasik Contemporary Concerns About Ecological Milieu 424 Contexts of Ecological Milieu 425 Theory of Ecological Milieu 426 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 428 Modes of Expression of Ecological Milieu 428 Toward a Curricular Expression of Ecological Inquiry 429

53. Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum 432 Nina Asher and Christopher L. Kolb Contemporary Concerns 433 Theoretical Frames 434 Forms of Inquiry Into Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum 435 Modes of Expression About Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum 435 Implications for Policy and Practice in Relation to Contexts 436

54. Indigenous Land and Decolonizing Curriculum 439 Eve Tuck Aims and Structures of Settler Colonialism 440 Curriculum as Indigenous Erasure and Assimilation 441 The Persistence of Indigenous Land as Curriculum 442 Project(s) of Decolonization and How They Differ From Other Social Justice Efforts 443

55. The Multicultural, Multilingual, and Multiracial Milieu 447 Sonia Janis Contemporary Concerns 447 Context 448 Theory 449 Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression 452

Postlude 455 Resource Guide 461 Index 487 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Ming Fang He is professor of curriculum studies at International Editorial Board of Curriculum Inquiry. Georgia Southern University and an elected member She is an associate editor of the Handbook of of Professors of Curriculum. She taught English as a Curriculum and Instruction (2008), a follow-up to foreign language at Wuhan University in the Peo- the American Educational Research Association ple’s Republic of China, English as a second lan- (AERA)’s Handbook of Research on Curriculum guage to immigrant adults and children for the (Jackson, 1992), which features the work of diverse Toronto District School Board in Canada, and gradu- leading scholars in the field. Two books she edited, ate courses in curriculum studies and qualitative The SAGE Handbook of Curriculum and Instruction research methods and undergraduate courses in eth- (2008) and Personal~Passionate~Participatory nic minority education and social foundations in Inquiry Into Social Justice in Education (2008), won Hong Kong. She advises doctoral students, directs the 2009 AERA Division B (Curriculum Studies) doctoral dissertations, and teaches graduate courses Outstanding Book Recognition Awards. Personal~ in curriculum studies, multicultural education, and Passionate~Participatory Inquiry Into Social Justice qualitative research methods, and pre-service teacher in Education won the 2010 American Educational education courses in social foundations at Georgia Studies Association Critics Choice Award. She Southern University. She explores education, inquiry, co-edits two book series with Information Age and life in between the Eastern, Western, and exile Publishing: Research for Social Justice: Personal~ philosophy and curriculum with a particular focus on Passionate~Participatory Inquiry (with JoAnn Confucius, John Dewey, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi, Phillion) and Landscapes of Education (with William Daisaku Ikeda, Weiming Tu, Martha Nussbaum, and Schubert). She guest-edited an issue of the Journal of Edward Saïd. She has written about cross-cultural Critical Inquiry Into Curriculum and Instruction on narrative inquiry of language, culture, and identity in “Experiential Approaches in Curriculum Studies: multicultural contexts, cross-cultural teacher educa- Personal, Passionate, and Participatory Inquiries” tion, curriculum studies, activist practitioner inquiry, (with Phillion, 2001) featuring studies in Canada, the social justice research, exile curriculum, narrative of United States, and Hong Kong. She guest-edited a curriculum in the U.S. South, and transnational and special issue of Journal of Curriculum Theorizing on diasporic studies. She published her study of the “Narrative of Curriculum in the South: Lives In- identity development and cultural transformation of Between Contested Race, Gender, Class, and Power” immigrant Chinese women teachers in a book titled (with Sabrina Ross, 2013). She was program chair A River Forever Flowing: Cross-Cultural Lives and for the AERA International Studies Special Interest Identities in the Multicultural Landscape (2003). She Group and a program co-chair, section program co-edited a book titled Narrative and Experience in chair, chair of the Nomination Committee, and mem- Multicultural Education (2005). She was an editor of ber of the Outstanding Book Award Committee for Curriculum Inquiry, is a leading associate editor of the AERA Division B (Curriculum Studies). She has Multicultural Perspectives, a co-editor of Handbook been elected as the vice president of the AERA of Asian Education (2011), and a member of the Division B (2014–2017). She is a founding member

xvii xviii–•–About the Editors

of the Georgia Chapter of the National Association boards for the Journal of Curriculum & Pedagogy, for Multicultural Education and member-at-large for Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, International the Georgia Educational Research Association. Her Journal of Illich Studies, Journal of Educational current research is expanded to the education of eth- Controversy, and is on the advisory board of Trans- nic minority and disenfranchised individuals, groups, forming Education. Schultz is an elected member of tribes, and societies and immigrant education in the the Professors of Curriculum where he has served as United States, Canada, Hong Kong, Mainland China, treasurer, sits on the executive board of the Society and other international contexts. of Professors of Education, and has held various leadership positions within AERA, including chair Brian D. Schultz is professor and chairperson of the and secretary/treasurer of the Special Interest Group Department of Educational Inquiry and Curriculum on Biographical & Documentary Research and on Studies at Northeastern Illinois University in the executive committees of Division B (Curriculum Chicago. Schultz’s teaching and research focus on Studies) and the Special Interest Group on Narrative developing democratic and progressive education- Research. based classrooms and curriculum as social action. At Northeastern Illinois University, Schultz has received William H. Schubert is professor emeritus of cur- Excellence Awards in teaching and research and has riculum and instruction, university scholar, former been recognized with the American Educational coordinator of the PhD program in curriculum stud- Research Association’s Early Career Awards in both ies, and director of graduate studies in the Depart- Narrative Research and Critical Issues in Curriculum ment of Curriculum and Instruction at the University and Cultural Studies. Schultz has published his of Illinois at Chicago, where he worked from 1975 to scholarship in numerous journals including Curricu- 2012. His scholarship, teaching, and service focus on lum Inquiry, Curriculum & Pedagogy, Democracy & curriculum theory, history, and development in the Education, Educational Studies, International Jour- lived experience of teachers, learners, and nonschool nal of Critical Pedagogy, Journal of Educational educators. He has published over 200 articles and Controversy, Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, book chapters, several poems, and 17 books, and has Schools, Midwestern Educational Researcher, Multi- made over 250 presentations at scholarly confer- cultural Perspectives, The New Educator, The ences. Schubert was the consulting editor for the Sophist’s Bane, Thresholds in Education, and Visual Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies (edited by Craig Arts Research. His book Spectacular Things Happen Kridel, 2010) and editor of one of three parts of The Along the Way: Lessons From an Urban Classroom SAGE Handbook of Curriculum and Instruction (2008) received an American Educational Studies (F. Michael Connelly, Ming Fang He, & JoAnn Association Critics’ Choice Book Award and an Phillion, 2008), which received the Outstanding American Educational Research Association’s Book Award from the Curriculum Studies Division (AERA) Outstanding Book Award in Curriculum of American Educational Research Association Studies. In addition, Schultz has edited Listening to (AERA) in 2009. Schubert’s key books include and Learning From Students: Possibilities for Teach- Curriculum Books (1980/2002 with Ann Lynn Lopez ing, Learning, and Curriculum (2011), which Schubert, Thomas P. Thomas, & Wayne. M. Carroll); received a Society of Professors of Education Book Curriculum: Perspective, Paradigm, and Possibility Award, as well as co-edited Grow Your Own Teach- (1986/1997); Reflections From the Heart of ers: Grassroots Change for Teacher Education Educational Inquiry (1991/2000, with George (2011), Handbook of Public Pedagogy: Education Willis); Teacher Lore (1992/1999, with William and Learning Beyond Schooling (2010), and Articu- Ayers); The American Curriculum (1993, with Willis, lation of Curriculum and Pedagogy for Just Society Robert V. Bullough, John T. Holton, and Kridel); (2007). Schultz is currently working on a new book Turning Points in Curriculum (2000/2007, with to be published by Teachers College Press, tenta- J. Dan Marshall, James T. Sears, Louise Anderson tively titled Teaching in the Cracks: Educating for Allen, and Patrick A. Roberts); and Love, Justice, Emergent, Authentic, and Social Action Curriculum and Education (2009). An elected member of Projects. Schultz serves or has served on the editorial both Professors of Curriculum and the International About the Editors–•–xix

Academy of Education, Schubert has served as awards from the University of Illinois at Chicago, and president of the Society for the Study of Curriculum in the field he received the AERA Lifetime Achieve- History, the John Dewey Society for Education ment Award for Curriculum Studies in 2004 and the and Culture, the Society of Professors of Education, 2007 Mary Anne Raywid Award from the Society of factotum of Professors of Curriculum, and vice Professors of Education. Currently, one of Schubert’s president of AERA. He has served on numerous projects involves a search for progressive interpreta- editorial boards, is associate editor of Educational tions of educational theory and practice in diverse Theory, and currently co-edits a book series called cultures, and he is preparing books on practical ideas Landscapes of Education for Information Age for teaching, embodied curriculum theory for self- Publishing with Ming Fang He. He has chaired over education, essays on curriculum theory and history, 60 PhD dissertations and has served as a member of and a volume of stories derived from his educational over 150 dissertation committees. His students hold experience. His publications, collected works, and positions at many universities throughout the United files were designated as the William H. Schubert Cur- States and in other countries, as well as leadership riculum Studies Collection at the Zach S. Henderson positions in schools and other educational organiza- Library of Georgia Southern University, where he has tions. Over the years, his teaching and advising have been organizing these archival materials and a website been amply recognized by receipt of numerous and working with doctoral students and faculty.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

e offer special thoughts of appreciation to well as to the usual matters of editorial consideration in the whole SAGE Publications team who order to provide excellent developmental work. Authors Wworked with us on this volume, some of often commented on the helpfulness of your editing. whom we do not know. Among those we have come We are grateful, as well, to our advisory board mem- to know and appreciate, we thank Jim Brace- bers for being there in case we needed a note of advice Thompson, executive editor of SAGE Reference, for or encouragement or a word of perspective. initially inviting us to do The SAGE Guide to Cur- Finally, we thank each of the authors of this vol- riculum in Education. We acknowledge Craig Kridel, ume for taking valuable time from busy schedules to editor of SAGE’s Encyclopedia of Curriculum Stud- write, rewrite, and edit with understanding and empa- ies, for recommending us to Jim and for encouraging thy for teachers and students, that is, those most us to pursue this project. Now, we can say to Craig influenced by curriculum. We hope that educators at that we empathize with the arduousness of such a all levels and realms of curricular work, especially as project and we simultaneously feel a positive sense they work too often with curricular policy in dismal of accomplishment in putting it together. We thank or oppressive situations, will gain from reading, Tracy Buyan, senior project editor, for her careful reflecting, and acting on The SAGE Guide to Cur- work to produce the final product. We deeply appre- riculum in Education. We are committed to the idea ciate her thoughtful comments, tremendous patience, and possibility that educators should be enabled to and timely assistance. engage their capacities (intellectual, ethical, emo- We thank Shirin Parsavand, developmental editor, tional, physical, political, aesthetic, and more) as for her persistent, tactful, and necessary goading of us they help the next generations cultivate relationships to conform to due dates and especially for her thought- with the world they are entering and reconstructing. ful and intelligent editorial comments, questions, and suggestions. Shirin, we thank you for the time you took Ming Fang He, Brian D. Schultz, to inquire into the content and meaning of this work, as and William H. Schubert

xxi In Memoriam With Deepest Appreciation

Gregory Dimitriadis 1969–2014 Author of Chapter 17

William H. Watkins 1946–2014 Author of Chapter 37 PRELUDE

urriculum matters! Those seen as educational complex, convoluted, contested terrains of knowl- reformers too often do not realize this and edge, skills, and dispositions (curricula) that shape Cattempt to reform or merely reshape the cur- lives. riculum without regard for the effects on the quality of lived experiences of students, teachers, other school personnel, parents, families, and communities. Situating the Guide Within While the study of curriculum often focuses on Curriculum Studies schooling, it also raises such critical questions about life as: What kinds of experience, study, and reflec- The complexities of curriculum landscapes invari- tion contribute to lives of worth and meaning for self, ably trace back to a basic question: What, how, others, and the world? How should we cultivate the where, when, and why is any given curriculum next generations? How can we live and thrive together worthwhile? This central question of education in ways that enable humans to reimagine, reinvent, redounds throughout curriculum considerations and and reconstruct ourselves and our contexts so as to through the substance of education and its meanings, live in greater peace, harmony, and goodwill? purposes, wonders, and edifications. Thus, those Since the beginning of the 20th century, curricu- who wish to seriously consider what is worthwhile lum scholars have argued that these salient life ques- for the next generations must not be content with tions should be central to curriculum in schools. Too simplistic mandates of political pundits who act as if often educational policy leaders push for certain the decision is obvious—that is, that educational skills, knowledge, and dispositions in ways that dis- reform should produce curricula primarily to make regard such key questions. In The SAGE Guide to nations powerful and corporations wealthy. Curriculum in Education, we ask readers to consider: Throughout history, humans have been deeply How can such questions animate curriculum in and concerned with what their children become. Parents, out of schools? Do current mandates from sources in community leaders, kings and rajas, presidents and government and business enhance or impede the popes, preachers and theologians, advertisers, artists, likelihood that curriculum is guided by such ques- literary figures, scientists, doctors, and philosophers, tions? What can and should be done if policies and scholars of every ilk, and teachers have been deeply practices of schooling impede such questioning more concerned about curriculum matters, whether or not than they inspire it? they labeled them curriculum matters. Today, all A curriculum guide is like a Sherpa (an indige- such individuals and groups want to influence the nous Nepalese guide who leads outside explorers to next generations of human beings. Thus, those who surmount the Himalayan Mountains). A curriculum engage in curriculum studies must deal with what guide facilitates students’ journeys through the circu- makes such influence good and why—and how that itous mountain paths of life. So, as curriculum influence can be accomplished. designers, teacher educators, teachers, or policy At the beginning of the 20th century, with the onset makers, we are Sherpas who guide navigation of the of specialization in every field, curriculum became

xxiii xxiv–•–Prelude

a subfield of educational inquiry. Taking a cue from a field of inquiry. Encyclopedias provide briefer per- those who came before, such as social Darwinist spectives on many different topics, persons, contro- Herbert Spencer (1861), curriculum workers who fol- versies, and events within a field for a more general lowed focused on the basic question (What is worth- audience. Guides are created for use at a mid-range while?) by drawing upon myriad perspectives (Kridel, level between handbooks and encyclopedias by 2010, p. 950; Pinar, 2007, p. xviii; Pinar, Reynolds, students who are beginning in an area of inquiry Slattery, & Taubman, 1995; Schubert, 1986, p. 1, (e.g., curriculum studies), practitioners (teachers, 2009; Schubert, Lopez Schubert, Thomas, & Carroll, curriculum developers, curriculum leaders), teacher 2002). Elaborated, this question of worth includes: educators, mass media writers who create stories on What is worth knowing, needing, experiencing, doing, issues of concern in the field, other members of the being, becoming, overcoming, contributing, sharing, public who wish to enhance their knowledge of top- and just plain wondering? (Schubert, 2009). In asking ics treated in the field, and particularly policy makers what is worth overcoming, we bring into bold relief who want policy to be informed by relevant theory such critical questions as: Whose ideas of worth are and research. advocated for teaching and learning? Whose ideas There are a wide array of synoptic texts, “encyclo- should be advocated? Who benefits from and who is pedic portrayals of the ever-increasing stockpile of harmed by that which is taught and learned? (Apple, curricular knowledge” (Schubert & Lopez Schubert, 2004; Freire, 1970; Watkins, 2001). Who should be 1980, p. 77) in the field of curriculum studies (e.g., listened to as we ask hard curriculum questions? Shall Caswell & Campbell, 1935; Eisner, 1979; Marsh & we listen to children and youths, dropouts or push- Willis, 2003; Marshall, Sears, & Schubert, 2000; outs, and silenced, invisible, or oppressed peoples Null, 2011; Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, (Brown & Au, 2014; Cameron, 2012; He & Phillion, 1995; Schubert, 1986; Smith, Stanley, and Shores, 2008; Schultz, 2011; Tuck, 2012)? How does knowl- 1950; Taba, 1962; Tanner & Tanner, 1975; Walker, edge of such sources transcend the borders of nations, 1989). The SAGE Guide to Curriculum in Education cultures, ethnicities, races, and socioeconomic groups gleans its orientations from two volumes produced (Anyon, 2004; He, 2003; He & Phillion, 2008; by SAGE Publications: The SAGE Handbook of Cur- Watkins, 2010)? While curriculum scholars and riculum and Instruction (Connelly, He, & Phillion, developers surely disagree on many matters, questions 2008) and Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies of what is worthwhile and for whom it is worthwhile (Kridel, 2010). Many of the chapter topics in the continue to be the mainstay of their work, which is the guide have counterparts in the encyclopedia, where central thread of this volume. readers can locate clarifications of a number of terms, ideas, events, and persons discussed in the guide. The Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies also What Should a Curriculum Guide Be? has served as an example for this Guide to Curricu- lum in Education through its portrayal of diverse Given this orientation to curriculum and curriculum positions on important topics that have not reached a studies, what should a curriculum guide be? Clearly, point of consensus. For example, its editor, Craig the image of curriculum guide offered here is not to Kridel, invited several authors to write for the ency- be confused with booklets produced by school dis- clopedia on controversial topics such as the nature of tricts or by publishers of instructional materials, curriculum studies or the future of curriculum stud- which traditionally have been labeled curriculum ies. The conceptual design of The SAGE Handbook guides. These are usually mere descriptions and brief of Curriculum and Instruction has also been exem- rationales for courses, units of study, and lesson plary by informing the guide. The handbook was plans. In contrast, the guides published by SAGE organized into three major parts, beginning with Publications in diverse fields are resource books that curriculum in practice, moving to curriculum in con- lie intermediately between its handbooks and ency- text, and concluding with curriculum in theory. Each clopedias. Handbooks are typically designed for of these parts of the handbook was comprised of scholars in a field or adjacent fields and provide several chapters that were extensive reviews of key novel conceptualizations of in-depth portrayals of topics. The rationale for proceeding in this sequence Prelude–•–xxv

was that concerns of educators often begin with their greatly influences what they learn in schools. All of immersion in practice, and in order to make sense of these curricula translate the intended curriculum into the practice, they must understand complications of the learned, received, or embodied curriculum overlapping and interacting contexts in which the (Schubert, 2013), that which students take with them practice is embedded. Finally, theory and research on their journey of life. are provided in an attempt to clarify matters of con- text and practice and to inform work to resolve extant problems. Based on this sequence, we have built A Conceptual Framework for The SAGE each chapter of the Guide to Curriculum in Educa- Guide to Curriculum in Education tion on that conceptualization. We begin each chap- ter topic with practical questions and concerns, then To perceive the complexity of curriculum, which is characterize them relative to their contexts, and fluid and dynamic due to changing contexts, growing finally show that theory and research or scholarship theory and research, and situational exigencies, we can broaden and deepen understanding of concerns employ four interacting commonplaces identified by and contexts, as can diverse forms of inquiry and Joseph J. Schwab (1969, 1970) by using them as foci modes of representation that illuminate the phenom- for the four parts of this book: subject matter, teach- ena under inquiry in different ways. Each chapter is ers, learners (students), and milieu. While the term followed with a list of resources referenced in the subject matter usually pertains to what is convention- chapter that are valuable for exploring the topic more ally deemed all that curriculum entails, that is, extensively. subjects or content studied, Schwab and many cur- To study curriculum matters seriously necessi- riculum writers since his work in the 1970s have tates perceiving a broader and deeper picture of cur- emphasized multiple interpretations of any subject riculum. The general image of curriculum as simply matter. the text (the school books and instructional materials) Thus, Part I of this guide, “Subject Matter as Cur- is no longer adequate. In fact, it never was. It is not riculum,” includes chapters on aims and purposes, merely that which is intended for students to learn, experience, literacy, science and mathematics, social nor is it just the experiences they have under the aus- studies, the arts, humanities, and physical education. pices of schools. Scholars of curriculum studies have The foregoing could be considered spin-offs of tradi- long realized that students learn from hidden curricu- tional subjects; however, authors of each of these lum (Giroux & Purpel, 1983; Jackson, 1968) or the chapters discuss cutting-edge as well as traditional ways schooling institutions are organized and by the interpretations of such subject matters. Moreover, ways in which structures of value and prejudice of additional authors convey less well-known subject society are mediated and passed along by schools, matters of language, culture, identity, and power; especially when policy makers and practitioners varieties of sequence and organization; technology; remain uncritical. Students also learn from the null integrated, holistic, and core realms; currere (the curriculum (Eisner, 1979) or that which is not taught verb form of the noun curriculum) that focuses on (e.g., philosophy, health, arts, critical perspectives) experiencing education in multicultural, racial, and or that which is given less emphasis and excised first feminist spheres; curricular imagination; popular if budgets are decreased. They learn from choices culture; and media literacy. made by teachers and by their teachings, personali- Part II, “Teachers as Curriculum,” is based on the ties, and mannerisms—the taught curriculum. Stu- idea that teachers, not subject matter alone, contrib- dents also develop a repertoire of perspectives and ute much to the configurations of experience that understandings from the plethora of nonschool forces make curricula a dimension of student lives. Teach- in the milieu of their lives: homes, families, mass ers contribute to student lives to such an extent that media, social media, movies and television, video some consider teachers to actually be curriculum, the and videogames, sports, scouts, clubs, relationships, topic of the first chapter in Part II. Other chapters gangs, advertising, and much more. This outside cur- deal with teachers in diverse dimensions that shape riculum (Schubert, 1981, 2008) or curriculum of curriculum: teachers as activists, teachers and public pedagogy (Sandlin, Schultz, & Burdick, 2010) pedagogy, deskilling and bashing of teachers, teacher xxvi–•–Prelude

testing and evaluation, teacher education, culturally considering an administrative or policy realm, a point relevant pedagogy, and teachers as improvisational that Wesley Null recently brought to our attention via artists. correspondence. In his later revision Schwab (1970) Students themselves influence what is taught and presumably decided to cease referring to the latter as learned; thus, they are configured within an enlarged a commonplace, but rather as an overarching focus image of curriculum in Part III. This is elaborated in of deliberation by all involved who can offer insight chapters on students’ experiences as curriculum; into the fluidity and changing character of, within, immigrant and minority students’ experience as and among the four commonplaces. curriculum; learning from and with culturally and Such a visual and conceptual image shows the linguistically diverse students; learning from multi- complexity of curriculum as you read this Guide to cultural children’s literature; students amid labels of Curriculum in Education. All of this emphasis on (dis)ability and inclusion; students as lifelong learners; commonplaces illustrates the impossibility of set- and learning for creative living. tling on a fixed common curriculum for all. Thus, the Finally, in Part IV we set forth curriculum as only connection between commonplaces as used by milieu or environment, and chapters elaborate the Schwab and common core as used by today’s gov- diverse array of milieus that constitute curriculum: ernmental policy pundits at the behest of corpora- history, policy, parents and families, technology, reli- tions who want to control the public is the word gion or spirituality, gender, feminism-womanism, common. What truly serves the common good must socioeconomic class, corporate-military- be continually reconstructed to fit ever-emerging governmental, and youth culture. Additionally, milieu needs, concerns, and interests. Curriculum work in is expanded into deschooling and alternative school- such a situation defies top-down recipes and neces- ing, geographical forces, popular culture, browning, sitates continuous deconstruction and reconstruction ecological, international or global realms, indigenous by those who are most closely involved in the educa- cultures, multicultural, and multiracial situations. tional milieu. Moreover, and most importantly, it The mere naming and brief characterization of requires a common faith as John Dewey (1929) chapters are only a beginning of explorations of com- articulated so assiduously in educators closest to stu- plexities of curriculum and its multiple meanings. It dents as well as in parents and students themselves to is important to realize that all of the commonplaces improvise what is indeed worth doing, being, becom- (subject matter, teacher, student, and milieu) are ing, and contributing. The difference between this fluid and exist in dynamic interrelationship. Thus, in common faith and today’s practices of surveillance any practical or policy setting, one could ask: How by authoritative mandate is immense. do teachers affect other teachers? How do teachers Another important clarification about the concep- affect learners? How do teachers affect subject mat- tual framework we have selected pertains to ter? How do teachers affect milieu? Such relevant Schwab’s (1969, 1970) idea of practical inquiry or interactions will be reviewed in the Interludes before enquiry as he chose to write the term—a notion that each part of this book: Subject Matter, Teachers, embodies a critique of the one-size-fits-all orienta- Students, and Milieu. Seeing curriculum as a contin- tion, which we see as a recipe curse. Educators at the uous ebb and flow of these interactions reveals the grassroots level cannot be mere implementers; rather, need to continuously ask the basic questions about they must be enabled to imagine, invent, and practice what is worthwhile and for whom it is worthwhile in ideas that respond to situations as they arise. Derived adjusting relationships among subject matters, teach- from a complex combination of sources, especially ers, students, and milieus in every situation. Such from Aristotle and from Dewey, as interpreted by readjusting, rebalancing, reconceptualizing, and philosopher Richard McKeon, who studied with reconstructing must be a function of those who work Dewey, Schwab’s notion of practical inquiry in the actual situations as well as by those from opposed the domination of inquiry that he (from milieus far away, such as the domains of external Aristotle) called theoretic. Schwab argued that edu- policy makers. This, presumably, is a key reason for cational inquiry should be practical in that it should Schwab (1969) noting a fifth commonplace in his start with actual problems experienced. This differed first rendering of practical inquiry, referring to it as markedly from theoretic problems that were created Prelude–•–xxvii

based on similarities of many problems. Schwab’s and to tailor, adapt, modify, and combine theories point was that combining problems based on simi- with experience to resolve situational dilemmas. larities omits the nuances and unique aspects of such The dominant model for curriculum development, problems. Thus, the problems researched are ficti- since it was synthesized by Ralph Tyler (1949), has tious. The idea that there is a best way to teach sci- been one based on a checklist of four topics: pur- ence to all sixth graders, for instance, is fraught with poses, learning experiences, organizational patterns, fallacies. and evaluation. Essentially, Tyler was trying to Further, Schwab advocated inquiry that seeks spe- remind those in practical and policy settings to con- cific, tentative, and fluid solutions that evolve with sider each of these dimensions when making deci- particular practical situations, which is opposed to sions and carrying out actions based on the decisions. solutions for generic or theoretical problems. The However, Tyler (1949) also realized that his four latter is what is emphasized in much of today’s pol- topics could not be treated in the abstract; instead, icy based on political interests or research that is they had to be visited through focus on a concrete generalized (e.g., all impoverished urban students educational situation. Schwab (1970) connected with need such-and-such) solutions. Further, practical Tyler, saying, “It will be clear from these remarks inquiry is not investigation by detached induction that the conception of curricular methods proposed and deduction; it is a dynamic interaction between here is immanent in the Tyler rationale. This rationale individuals and situations. Practical inquiry is con- calls for a diversity of talents and insists on the practi- trary to stable “theoretic pursuits (such as the pursuit cal and eclectic treatment of a variety of factors” of global principles and comprehensive patterns, the (Westbury & Wilkof, 1978, p. 320, footnote 6). Just search for stable sequences and invariant elements, as one must be vigilant in awareness of the interactive the construction of taxonomies of supposedly fixed influences of Schwab’s commonplaces on one or recurrent kinds)” (Westbury & Wilkof, 1978, another, one must realize that any modification of p. 288) that seek static and generalized solutions that Tyler’s topics or questions via curriculum develop- really fit nowhere. Instead, practical inquiry seeks ment or revision reverberates throughout the others. It solutions for situations that are dynamic and require follows, then, that Schwab’s commonplaces and continuous adaptation. The arts of eclectic (Schwab, Tyler’s topics intertwine in the complex shifts, inter- 1971), drawn from Aritstotle’s practical and produc- actions, transactions, and transformations of any tive arts, are derived from emergent theories and practical educational situation. inquiries where an inquirer pursues the first art of In the guide, we highlight and explicate how eclectic, that of matching existing theories to curricu- Schwab’s four curriculum commonplaces are inter- lum situations. The inquirer, who becomes adept at dependent and interconnected in the decision-making matching, soon recognizes the need for engaging in processes that involve local and state school boards the second art of eclectic, that of adapting, tailoring, and government agencies, educational institutions, modifying, and combining extant knowledge to and curriculum stakeholders at all levels as they respond to the needs of specific problems at hand. As address the central curriculum question: What is an inquirer becomes more experienced, she or he worthwhile? More specifically, as Schubert (1986, develops a repertoire that serves as precedent for act- 2009, 2010) has elaborated: What is worth knowing, ing in new situations, learns to match previous expe- needing, experiencing, doing, being, becoming, rience with new problems encountered, and tailors overcoming, sharing, contributing, wondering, and and adapts her or his repertoire of experience to situ- imagining? We believe that the four commonplaces ations. Thus both previously existing knowledge and are equally significant and dynamically intercon- experientially derived personal knowledge become nected so that we name the four parts of the guide as bases for practical inquiry. We hope that this depic- follows: Subject Matter as Curriculum; Teachers tion enables you as readers to realize that the rejec- as Curriculum; Students as Curriculum; and Milieu tion of theoretic inquiry is not a rejection of theory as as Curriculum. We begin with Subject Matter as Cur- a basis for practical inquiry, for the more theory one riculum, Part I, because potential users of the guide knows, the better is his or her position to appropri- are more likely to envision curriculum relative to ately match theory with practical needs in situations dimensions of subject matter. However, readers will xxviii–•–Prelude

soon see that subject matter that needs to be inquired geographical, cultural, linguistic, ecological contexts about includes not only content areas but also aspects influence the topic area; how the topic, relevant prac- of the Tyler Rationale (Tyler 1949) as they have tical and policy ramifications, and contextual evolved over time, as well as critiques of these embodiment can be understood by theoretical per- aspects. The central place of teachers in curricu- spectives; and how forms of inquiry and modes of lum—noting that some consider teachers to be the representation or expression in the topic area are curriculum—is Part II: Teachers as Curriculum. This crucial to developing understanding for and making has many dimensions, as does Part III, Students as impact on practice, policy, context, and theory. We Curriculum. Finally, the vast array of contextual also hope that you will bring your own experience forces and influences constitute Part IV, Milieu as and curricular knowledge into your reading as you Curriculum. make connections among the chapters within each Authors in this guide, with highly respected exper- part and across parts (i.e., across commonplaces). We tise, are the Sherpas who lead us on eclectic curricular will revisit our connections with you through inter- explorations of convoluted and contested educational ludes before each part and through a postlude at the terrains. When you peruse each chapter, we sincerely end. We encourage you to explore ideas that give hope that you will be inspired to understand why each increased meanings to your continuous pursuits in topic is a cutting-edge curriculum topic; what are the education and life. pressing issues and contemporary concerns about the topic; how historical, social, political, economic, Ming Fang He, Brian D. Schultz, and William H. Schubert

References He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (Eds.). (2008). Personal~ passionate~participatory inquiry into social justice Anyon, J. (2004). Radical possibilities: Public policy, in education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age urban education, and a new social movement. Publishing. New York, NY: Routledge. Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. New York, NY: Apple, M. W. (2004). Ideology and curriculum. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. New York, NY: Routledge. Kridel, C. (Ed.). (2010). Encyclopedia of curriculum Brown, A. L., & Au, W. (2014). Race, memory, and studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. master narratives: A critical essay on U.S. Marsh, C., & Willis, G. (2007). Curriculum: Alternative curriculum. Curriculum Inquiry, 44(3), 358–389. approaches: Ongoing issues. Columbus, OH: Pearson. Cameron, J. (2012). Canaries reflect on the mine: Marshall, J. D., Sears, J. T., & Schubert, W. H. (2000). Dropouts’ stories of schooling. Charlotte, NC: Turning points in curriculum: A contemporary Information Age Publishing. curriculum memoir (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum Prentice Hall. development. New York, NY: American Book Null, W. (2011). Curriculum: From theory to practice. Company. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Connelly, F. M., He, M. F., & Phillion, J. A. (2008). Pinar, W. F. (2007). Intellectual advancement through Handbook of curriculum and instruction. Thousand disciplinarity: Verticality and horizontality in Oaks, CA: Sage. curriculum studies. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Eisner, E. W. (1979). The educational imagination. Publishers. New York, NY: Macmillan. Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Taubman, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. NY: Continuum. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Giroux, H. A., & Purpel, D. (Eds.). (1983). The hidden Sandlin, J. A., Schultz, B. D., & Burdick, J. (Eds.). curriculum and moral education. Berkeley, CA: (2010). Handbook of public pedagogy: Education McCutchan. and learning beyond schooling. New York, NY: He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural Routledge. lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. Schubert, W. H. (1981). Knowledge about out-of-school Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishers. curriculum. Educational Forum, 45(2), 185–199. Prelude–•–xxix

Schubert, W. H. (1986/1997). Curriculum: Perspective, Schwab, J. J. (1983). The practical 4. Curriculum paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Inquiry, 13(3), 239–265. Macmillan. Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. O., & Shores, J. H. (1950). Schubert, W. H. (2009). What’s worthwhile: From Fundamentals of curriculum development. knowing and experiencing to being and becoming. Yonkers-on-the-Hudson, NY: World Book. Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, 6(2), 21–39. Spencer, H. (1861). Education: Intellectual, moral, and Schubert, W. H. (2013). Multiple curricula in higher physical. New York, NY: A. L. Burt Company. education. In J. DeVitis (Ed.), Contemporary Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and colleges and universities: A reader (pp. 185–202). practice. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, & World. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1990). History of the school Schubert, W. H., & Lopez Schubert, A. L. (1980). curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. Curriculum books: The first eighty years. Lanham, Tuck, E. (2012). Urban youth and school pushout: MD: University Press of America. Gateways, get-aways, and the GED. New York, NY: Schubert, W. H., Lopez Schubert, A. L., Thomas, T. P., & Routledge. Carroll, W. M. (2002). Curriculum books. New York, Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and NY: Peter Lang. instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Schultz, B. D. (Ed.). (2011). Listening to and learning Press. from students. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Walker, D. F. (1989). Fundamentals of curriculum. Publishing. San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, & Jovanovich. Schwab, J. J. (1969). The practical: A language for Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black curriculum. School Review, 78, 1–23. education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Schwab, J. J. (1970). The practical: A language for Watkins, W. H. (Ed.). (2012). The assault on public curriculum. Washington, DC: National Education education: Confronting the politics of corporate Association. school reform. New York, NY: Teachers College Schwab, J. J. (1971). The practical: Arts of eclectic. Press. School Review, 79, 493–542. Westbury, I., & Wilkof, N. J. (Eds.). (1978). Science, Schwab, J. J. (1973). The practical 3: Translation into curriculum, and liberal education. Chicago, IL: curriculum. School Review, 81, 501–505. University of Chicago Press.

PART I

SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM 2–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

INTERLUDE

Introducing Part I: Subject Matter as Curriculum

Subject matter is one important dimension or commonplace of curriculum; however, it cannot be comprehended in any full sense without perceiving its interrelationship and interdependence with the other three common- places (teachers, learners or students, and milieu). The interdependence among commonplaces, which is in constant flux, necessitates that educators continuously rebalance the relationship among the commonplaces through ongoing deliberation. Thus, those involved in any educational situation must ask: How do the subject matter and the teachers influence one another? How do the subject matter and the students affect one another? How does the milieu or environment (broadly conceived) have mutual influence with the subject matter? Addi- tionally, how does any given subject matter influence any other? It is necessary, too, to realize that answers to these questions and others that flow from them are never final but always in the making. Thus, it is important to consider how several subject matters at play affect one another. Some of the subject matters discussed in the chapters in Part I would usually be categorized as content areas such as mathematics, science, literacy or reading or language arts, social studies, physical education, and the arts. Others would be categorized as more process-oriented such as media, currere, multiculturalism, and popular culture. The appar- ent juxtaposition of these is reminiscent of Louise Berman’s (1968) insightful work titled New Priorities in Curriculum, which in an earlier era dealt with a similar issue. She suggested that curriculum should have new process-oriented subject matters of eight: perceiving, communicating, loving, knowing, decision making, pat- terning, creating, and valuing. After presenting a chapter on each, Berman suggested for those who needed a means for transitioning from the traditional to the progressive (process-oriented) subjects that a chart be used (p. 181) in which these processes were set in an 8 × 5 matrix crisscrossed with five traditional subjects: math- ematics, social studies, English, art, and science. Thus, teachers could see how each of the processes could be taught in each of the traditional subjects. Similarly, you might ask how the less familiar subject matters treated in chapters in Part I could facilitate the subjects you teach.

Reference

Berman, L. M. (1968). New priorities in the curriculum. Columbus, OH: Merrill. 1

DECIDING AIMS AND PURPOSES OF SUBJECT MATTER

WESLEY NULL Baylor University

hen non-education specialists are asked scholars in the past answered questions about the what comes to mind when they think of aims and purposes of subject matter. Wthe term curriculum, they almost always A focus on three main philosophies, represented by state subject matter first. Subject matter is one of the three key figures who have guided the way most peo- most important commonplaces in curriculum making ple think about the role of subject matter in curriculum identified by Joseph Schwab (1970): teachers, learn- making, illuminates contemporary curriculum trends ers, subject matter, and milieu. To many non- and their origins. Although there is an overlap among specialists, in fact, curriculum is often nothing other these three philosophies, they can roughly be catego- than subject matter logically arranged. Discussing rized by the terms essentialist, romantic, and human- curriculum without attention to subject matter seems ist. Other synoptic texts have addressed these thinkers nonsensical to most people. as well, often with slightly different terms or emphases, At times during the past century, however, subject all of which provide a more lengthy treatment than matter was devalued to such an extent that discussions this one chapter would allow (Eisner, 1985; Null, about curriculum often ignored subject matter alto- 2011; Schubert, 1986; Smith, Stanley, & Shores, gether. Without a proper sense of curricular balance, 1957; Taba, 1962; Tanner & Tanner, 1975). In explor- subject matter can be (and has been) overtaken by one ing the views on subject matter presented through the or more of the other commonplaces. This chapter is three philosophies included in this chapter, each sec- dedicated to the aims and purposes of subject matter tion addresses two primary questions about the aims not just because the achievement of curricular balance and purposes of subject matter within curriculum: is important but also because subject matter always When designing a curriculum, is subject matter a plays a crucial role in curriculum making. means or an end? If subject matter is a means, what is Although subject matter has received equal impor- the larger end that it serves? tance as other curricular commonplaces in the United The three figures discussed in this chapter are States and the rest of the world, the late 20th century William Chandler Bagley, from an essentialist per- saw a rise in attention to subject matter above the spective; William Heard Kilpatrick, representing a other commonplaces. These developments necessi- romantic view; and William Torrey Harris, who tated a broader discussion about how key curriculum upholds a humanist philosophy. Each takes a unique

3 4–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

and historically significant position with regard to same time that writers such as Dewey, G. Stanley the role of subject matter in curriculum making, and Hall, and Kilpatrick were beginning to think about each has descendants throughout the 20th century to the implications of child psychology in teaching, the present time in the 21st century. Bagley served learning, and curriculum, Bagley began to emphasize as a professor of educational psychology and teacher the role of quality teacher education. He argued that education at Columbia University’s Teachers Col- the United States’ effort to provide a high-quality lege from 1917 to 1939; Kilpatrick also taught edu- curriculum to all young people could not be success- cational philosophy at Columbia’s Teachers College ful unless higher education institutions made teacher from 1909 to 1937; and Harris wrote numerous education one of their highest priorities. Much like books and articles on educational philosophy and curriculum for elementary and high schools, Bagley also served as U.S. Commissioner of Education believed that programs for teacher preparation should from 1896 to 1906. The views of these three figures prioritize subject matter. He wanted to prepare teach- provide significant insight into the role of subject ers to have a deep knowledge in the subject matter matter in curriculum making, not just because their they taught and to have the capacity to connect this work had great influence but also because their subject matter to students who came from a wide views differed in significant ways. variety of backgrounds. Graduates of these teacher preparation programs should take pride in providing curricula that put students in touch with the core bod- Subject Matter as a Means or as an End ies of knowledge that held democracy together. In a famous essay, Bagley (1938/2010) made the point Any discussion of curriculum must attend to the ques- this way: tion of purpose. With its etymological roots tracing back to the notion of running a race, the term curricu- Democracy demands a community of culture. Educa- lum presupposes an end. At different times in history, tionally this means that each generation be placed in each of Schwab’s (1970) aforementioned common- possession of a common core of ideas, meanings, places has been elevated as the “one true end” that understandings, and ideals representing the most different people concluded must (or should) serve as precious elements of the human heritage. (p. 562) the focal point around which all of the others must revolve. The stand of subject matter is no different. As Bagley witnessed a shift in educational phi- Bagley never failed to emphasize subject matter. losophy that prioritized individual interests of chil- He was no simple thinker who ignored the complexi- dren (and simultaneously made subject matter a tool ties involved in curriculum making, but he wrote and instead of an end), he became increasingly concerned taught during a time when he believed that educa- that students would have no access to the cultural tional philosophy had followed a path that devalued power that comes with knowledge of subjects such as subject matter. He predicted serious consequences mathematics and literature. To Bagley, knowledge for American education as a result of the direction and power were synonymous. educational philosophy had taken during the early To address the problem that had arisen from what 20th century. He argued that certain followers of Bagley viewed as an artificial separation between John Dewey, primarily Kilpatrick, who was Dewey’s “subject matter” and “methods of teaching,” he protégé at Columbia, had become so enamored with coined the phrase “professionalized subject matter.” the new educational psychology of the time that they What he meant was something similar to Lee Shul- had replaced an emphasis on subject matter with a man’s (1987) conception of pedagogical content wholesale worshipping of the individual interests of knowledge, which remains prevalent today. To children. Bagley (1928), professionalized subject matter was a Bagley’s emphasis on scientific knowledge led teacher’s knowledge of how to take a complex field him to disagree with what became known as the such as history or mathematics and prepare it for progressive education movement. Bagley’s strong comprehension by a particular group of students at a scientific background grew from his time as a PhD particular place in time. For the United States to student in psychology at Cornell University. At the thrive, it had to devise a way to prepare a nationwide 1. Deciding Aims and Purposes of Subject Matter–•–5

community of teachers who had the capacity to con- making. In one of his often quoted lines, Kilpatrick nect diverse groups of students with the subject mat- (1928) once railed against what he called “subject- ter knowledge that Bagley believed was the key to matter set out to be learned” (p. 125). Instead of a students’ future. Subject matter specialists such as detailed, subject-matter-driven curriculum, Kilpatrick historians and mathematicians, for example, may argued for an approach that gave students “freedom” have knowledge of their specialized field, but that to choose their own projects and activities. In does not mean that they know how to connect this Kilpatrick’s (1936) words, subject matter to young people who have little inter- est in their field. In addition to skills, Bagley heralded The child must for us come before subject matter as the capacity of teachers to connect subject matter to such. This is the everlasting and final condemnation of students, which included teachers’ moral commit- the old curriculum. It put subject matter first and it bent—or if it need be, broke—the child to fit that. . . . ment to educate students from classes and races that Subject matter—if any reader be concerned for it—will previously had no access to this knowledge. Bagley’s be called this way better into play than is usual now. answer to the question of whether or not subject mat- (pp. 31–32) ter was an end in itself was a qualified yes. He never argued that students should parrot encyclopedic Especially with phrases such as “if any reader be information, but he did argue that teachers must teach concerned for it,” Kilpatrick demonstrated the dis- and students must learn something. Teachers who missive way in which he often treated subject matter. overemphasized individual interests reinforced stu- These types of statements led to heated disagree- dents’ individualistic desires, ultimately disconnecting ments with individuals such as Bagley who shared a them from centuries of cultural heritage. commitment to democratic education but came to Another writer from the early 20th century viewed different conclusions about how to achieve that end. the role of subject matter in an entirely different way. Bagley made subject matter the end of education, Kilpatrick began his career as a mathematics teacher whereas Kilpatrick identified “the child” or “the in Georgia, but he shifted to other pursuits when he learner” as the end toward which educators should began graduate study at Columbia University’s Teach- work. That both are of equal importance was often ers College. Described at one point by Dewey as his ignored in the rhetoric-driven debates of the 1920s most gifted student, Kilpatrick was a transplanted and 1930s. Southerner who became one of Teachers College’s Harris provided yet another answer to the question most popular professors. For at least 15 years, he of whether or not subject matter is an end in itself. taught classes that enrolled well over 500 students Harris, an accomplished philosopher and an effective semester after semester. His popularity stemmed from administrator with the St. Louis Public Schools, his magnetic speaking ability, his location at an insti- understood the need for ideals. He also appreciated tution that was in the heart of New York City, and his the practical realities of how to translate ideals into teaching of a popular educational philosophy. practice. The philosophy promoted by Kilpatrick combined Harris’s answer to the question of whether subject democracy, individualism, and developmental psy- matter ought to be viewed as an end was both yes chology in a way that provided an alternative to the and no. To him, no proper view of curriculum could more rigid curricular views that dominated the 19th neglect subject matter. At the same time, however, century. This new philosophy emphasized individual- the type of character a school sought to cultivate was ized instruction, problem solving, and preparation for of equal significance. Harris viewed subject matter democratic citizenship. Kilpatrick and his like-minded as crucial to making a high-quality curriculum, yet it colleagues were convinced that older views of cur- also must be viewed as a tool to the larger goal of riculum were elitist in their emphasis on subjects such creating human beings who think and act in ways as Latin and Greek. In contrast to Bagley, subject mat- that are consistent with the ideals of a liberal educa- ter was, to Kilpatrick, certainly not an end in itself. tion. Harris extended a traditional view that different To Kilpatrick, elevating subject matter to the end of types of subject matter “trained” the mind in differ- education not only inhibited the growth of democracy ent ways. The justification for students studying but also thwarted the growth of individual decision mathematics or foreign languages was rooted in the 6–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

belief that different parts of a student’s mind, or soul, tradition of thinking that remains alive today. would be shaped by interactions with different sub- Although all three acknowledged that subject matter ject matters. Mathematics makes students better was part of curriculum, they came to different con- thinkers, literature helps them become more aware of clusions about what that role should be. Bagley the emotions of others, and geography trains them to accepted a deeply evolutionary view that was heavily think in terms of multiple cultures and time periods. influenced by natural science and Charles Darwin. In Harris argued that studying different forms of sub- his most well-developed work on educational phi- ject matter furthered a student’s ability to understand losophy and curriculum, Education and Emergent the world while he or she also learns how to act Man, Bagley (1934) argued that connecting students appropriately within multiple contexts. This process with subject matter was essential to creating the con- of broadening students’ minds through the use of ditions for “emergent evolution” that he saw in each subject matter is what he referred to as opening the generation. Bagley identified different eras in human “windows of the soul.” He maintained that there were civilization when great strides were made. He argued five such windows, each of which should be opened that these steps forward were only possible because wider as students progressed through schooling. In a new generation had built upon knowledge from elementary schools, the five subject matters (and previous generations. hence five windows) were arithmetic, geography, To Bagley, an “emergent” was a unique historical literature, grammar and logic, and history. By study- moment when the conditions came together just ing these subjects, students were given, as Harris right for a dramatic, even mystical, event to take (1893/2010b) put it, “the tools of thought by which to place, one that turned out to benefit millions of master the wisdom of the race” (p. 267). By “race,” people. He cited examples such as an explosion of Harris meant the human race, not any individual race. knowledge produced by the Athenians, cultural To Harris, subject matter embodied the traditions advances by the Romans, and the revival of learning of the past, and the purpose of schooling was to hand during the Renaissance. Education, to Bagley, was down this body of knowledge from one generation to the process of increasing the likelihood that these the next. Humans differ from animals in their ability uniquely powerful moments in cultural history to collect knowledge, pass it from one generation to would take place by putting students in touch with the next, and use it to improve the human condition. the cultural knowledge humans had amassed The goal was to open students’ minds to the thinking throughout history. of others and move civilization forward. If a generation failed to teach this cultural knowl- This liberal-arts-driven, character-oriented edge to its students, tragic—even cataclysmic— approach was not strongly found in the works of results would take place. With human history as his Bagley and Kilpatrick. All three—Bagley, Kilpatrick, body of evidence, Bagley (1934) argued that each and Harris—included subject matter in their view of generation had a choice to make: either teach this curriculum, but they did so in strikingly different cultural knowledge to young people and set the stage ways. Bagley placed subject matter knowledge high for great results or fail to do so and risk disaster. The on his list of curricular priorities, Kilpatrick stressed end beyond subject matter that Bagley strove toward individual initiative while making subject matter a was an endless repository of lessons for each genera- tool when students desired it, and Harris pointed tion to draw upon and improve their lives. Genera- teachers and curriculum makers toward an idealistic tions that succeeded at cultivating this knowledge end that emphasized the type of character (or soul) and desire in young people would be rewarded with that a school sought to create in their students. great advancements. Those that did not invited wars, widespread ignorance, and disastrous results. Bagley elevated subject matter to a high place in curriculum, Views on the Purposes of Subject Matter but he had ambitious ideals in mind for what this subject matter ought to do for mankind. In Bagley’s The work of these three writers matters today not just view, subject matter was essential, but in the end it because each paid careful attention to subject matter was to be used as a tool to advance human civiliza- in curriculum making but because each embodied a tion in a material way. 1. Deciding Aims and Purposes of Subject Matter–•–7

Kilpatrick was just as influenced by modern sci- power but because we frequently hear echoes of ence and Darwin as Bagley, but he came to different Harris’s perspective in contemporary debates. conclusions about the end toward which teachers and Harris’s views mirrored Bagley’s in the sense that curriculum makers ought to strive. Kilpatrick was less he placed a high value on subject matter; however, concerned about passing down a body of cultural the ends toward which Harris thought curriculum knowledge. Instead, he argued that individual students ought to strive differed markedly from Bagley’s, and communities were best served by asking teachers both philosophically and in the language Harris used to adapt curriculum to the individual desires of learn- to describe them. For example, Harris insisted that ers. Driven by the new developmental psychology, students should study subjects such as literature and Kilpatrick placed the creation of individual problem geography not just so that they could pass down this solvers at the end of his view of curriculum and teach- knowledge to future generations but, more impor- ing. He wanted to nurture the innate curiosity of all by tantly, so that they could shape their souls in a way encouraging them to follow their interests regardless that led to the attainment of wisdom and character. of whether or not those interests led to subject matter. Bagley’s argument for emphasizing subject matter Too often he saw subject matter thwarting students’ was rooted in his background in natural science and desire for learning. Kilpatrick (1934) wanted teachers evolution, whereas Harris’s views were humanistic to create a generation of students who would embrace in a classical sense. Harris used terms such as soul a project, work collaboratively with others, and and virtue, which Bagley jettisoned from his writing strengthen their skills of democratic citizenship. early in his career. Kilpatrick’s most famous discussion of this Harris also proposed ends and practices that, approach can be found in an essay he published in although rooted in subject matter, were nonexistent 1918, called “The Project Method.” His use of the in the works of Bagley and Kilpatrick. One example phrase “purposeful act” promoted a teaching situa- is a concept that Harris called “self-alienation.” tion in which students were given the opportunity to Through this process of immersing oneself in a sub- throw themselves wholeheartedly into a project that ject such as geography, a student could get disen- had great personal meaning to them. If students des- tangled from the contemporary world and become perately wanted to know about something, they engrossed in lessons from previous generations would have true motivation in studying it, they (Ravitch, 2000). A proper liberal education should would retain what they had learned for longer peri- transport students to different worlds that offer them ods of time, and they would incorporate these lessons lessons they can adapt, when possible, to the prob- into their daily lives (Beineke, 1998, p. 101). Kilpat- lems they may encounter. Good education placed rick devalued subject matter to such an extent that it students in unfamiliar situations. It alienated them all but disappeared as an end within his views on from practical realities, if even for a short time, to curriculum. Subject matter likely would be part of open them up to new possibilities. In time, students the projects students chose to pursue, but Kilpatrick could learn to engage in this process without the rarely discussed the need for all students to gain a guidance of a teacher, leading ultimately to self- common body of knowledge. alienation. If students never learned to engage in this The contrasting views of Kilpatrick and Bagley process, they would remain trapped in their specific attracted many followers, leading to titanic philo- historical, cultural, and political context. In addition sophical battles that continue to rage almost a cen- to remaining uneducated, they would fail to learn tury later. At the heart of their disagreements were from the lessons of others while at the same time competing views on the proper role of subject matter neglecting their responsibility to improve the human in curriculum making. Since Harris lived a genera- condition. Ultimately, self-alienation results in a per- tion prior to Bagley and Kilpatrick, he was not son distancing himself from his animal desires and directly involved in discussions of what became tapping into the spiritual nature of his being. In known as “progressive” and “traditional” education. Harris’s (1893/2010a) words, Nevertheless, Harris espoused views on subject mat- ter and its relation to the end of education that merit Education is, in short, essentially the shaping of man by attention not just because of their philosophical habit into an ideal or spiritual type of being—a 8–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

realization of what we call human nature in contradis- and Harris continue to hold considerable sway in the tinction to mere animal nature. . . . Man as an animal is minds of some educators and curriculum makers, a savage: as civilized, he is an ethical being, who other perspectives seem to have captured the atten- has set up within himself a system of duties and obliga- tions which he observes at the expense of neglecting tion of policy makers during the past few decades. the impulses of his merely animal nature. (p. 257) Beginning primarily with the A Nation at Risk report of 1983, policy makers have elevated subject matter To achieve these ideal, indeed spiritual ends that to a position that it did not hold during the 1960s Harris considered the ultimate goal of a liberal edu- and 1970s, when views similar to those of Kilpatrick cation, subject matter is crucially necessary, but far had a considerable following. Throughout the 1980s from a sufficient end. and extending through the No Child Left Behind Harris’s perspective on how the goal of demo- Act and the Race to the Top initiative of the first cratic education fit into his views on curriculum also decade of the 21st century, the dominance of subject deserves attention. He was not an elitist who thought matter has continued. this type of liberal education should be reserved for At first glance, readers might conclude that Bagley students who had a natural interest in it or whose and Harris would be pleased with this resurgence of parents had the financial means to pay for it. Rather, subject matter. More careful understanding, how- Harris argued that a proper democratic approach was ever, reveals that the broader ends that writers such to offer this kind of high-quality curriculum to all as Bagley and Harris had in mind seem to have been students regardless of class or academic background. sacrificed at the altar of testing and an extremely nar- He was a critic of manual training during an age when row view of subject matter in curriculum. At the vocational preparation was growing increasingly same time that movements such as the Common popular. He argued that the only appropriate way to Core State Standards initiative and endless testing democratize education was to open up avenues for all efforts have spread throughout the country, the only students to learn the wisdom of the ages. In the words end that seems to matter at this point is the raising of of educational historian Diane Ravitch (2000), test scores. Although Bagley, Harris, and others who held Harris was a reformer, an advocate of modern sub- similar views certainly appreciated the significance jects, and a tireless crusader for universal public of subject matter, they never espoused or accepted education. . . . The goal of education, as Harris saw it, the view that raising test scores should be an end in is freedom, self-dependence, self-activity, and direc- itself. American education appears to have gone tive power. The educated person with a trained mind and a disciplined will would be prepared to solve the from a situation in the 1960s and 1970s when subject practical problems of daily life. (pp. 33–35) matter was devalued and no clear purpose for American schooling had been identified to a reality Harris was a broad thinker who viewed the role of in the early 21st century where an end exists, but one subject matter in curriculum making in both ideal and that is woefully short-sighted. Passing tests for the instrumental ways. High-quality curriculum could not sake of it has captured the attention of those who exist without serious attention to subject matter. At dominate educational policy. An educated person the same time, subject matter served broader humane seems to have been defined as someone who can pass purposes that ultimately culminated in philosophical a test. If an end beyond passing tests does exist, it is and spiritual ends. one of economic efficiency through job training, which is equally short-sighted. The attempt to standardize subject matter through Subject Matter and Contemporary Trends a common set of national standards is a noteworthy in Curriculum Making and ambitious goal, but whether or not such a goal can (or even should) be attained is debatable (Porter, In light of these three historically significant views McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011; Tienken, 2010). on the role of subject matter in curriculum, some Some commentators contend that the merits of com- attention to contemporary debates is appropriate. mon standards are no longer debated and that the Although the perspectives of Bagley, Kilpatrick, Common Core is a natural outgrowth of the focus on 1. Deciding Aims and Purposes of Subject Matter–•–9

standards in education that has taken place during students to be able to pass tests and enter America’s the past 20 years (Kendall, 2011). Other, more workforce successfully. They also, however, appre- critical writers maintain that the motivations behind ciated the same kind of curricular balance that is the move toward common standards are more inherent in Schwab’s (1970) four commonplaces. In destructive, indeed even designed to destroy public addition, Bagley, Harris, and indeed Schwab under- education as Americans have known it for almost stood that the future of the United States rested on its 2 centuries (Ravitch, 2013). Regardless of the moti- ability to cultivate truly well-educated citizens who vations, the broader ideals embedded in why subject can draw upon wisdom from previous generations matter ought to be a central part of curriculum mak- and make decisions that can help the country flour- ing seem to have been lost. Recovering the views not ish. Facts are part of what citizens must know to only of Harris and Bagley but also of Kilpatrick achieve these ends, but they are not everything. The would be a wise first step in addressing this sooner we remember this truth and once again draw problem. upon the wisdom of those who came before us, the As two of the most prominent writers from the last better we can teach our young people a truly high- 150 years dealing with the role of subject matter in quality curriculum that offers the best hope for a curriculum making, Bagley and Harris wanted bright future.

References and Further Readings Kendall, J. S. (2011). Understanding common core state standards. Alexandria, VA: Association for Bagley, W. C. (1928). Twenty years of progress in the Supervision & Curriculum Development. professionalization of subject matter for normal Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method: The use of schools and teachers colleges. National the purposeful act in the educative process. Teachers Education Association Proceedings and College Record, 19(4), 319–335. Addresses, 906–912. Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918/2010). The project method. In Bagley, W. C. (1934). Education and emergent man. A. J. Milson, C. H. Bohan, P. L. Glanzer, & New York, NY: Thomas Nelson & Sons. J. W. Null (Eds.), Readings in American educational Bagley, W. C. (1938/2010). An essentialist’s platform for thought: Essays from 1640-1940 (pp. 511–514). the advancement of American education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. In A. J. Milson, C. H. Bohan, P. L. Glanzer, & Kilpatrick, W. H. (1928). Education for a changing J. W. Null (Eds.), Readings in American civilization. New York, NY: Macmillan. educational thought: Essays from 1640-1940 Kilpatrick, W. H. (1934). Definition of the activity (pp. 552–566). Charlotte, NC: Information Age movement to-day. In G. M. Whipple (Ed.), Publishing. The thirty-third yearbook of the National Society Beineke, J. A. (1998). And there were giants in the land: for the Study of Education, Part II: The activity The life of William Heard Kilpatrick. New York, movement. Bloomington, IL: Public School NY: Peter Lang. Publishing. Eisner, E. W. (1985). The educational imagination. New Kilpatrick, W. H. (1936). Remaking the curriculum. York, NY: Macmillan. New York, NY: Newson & Company. Harris, W. T. (1893/2010a). Compulsory education in Null, W. (2011). Curriculum: From theory to practice. relation to crime and social morals. In A. J. Milson, New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield. C. H. Bohan, P. L. Glanzer, & J. W. Null (Eds.), Porter, A., McMaken, J., Hwang, J., & Yang, R. (2011). Readings in American educational thought: Essays Common core standards: The new U.S. intended from 1640-1940 (pp. 256–260). Charlotte, NC: curriculum. Educational Researcher, 40(3), Information Age Publishing. 103–116. Harris, W. T. (1893/2010b). The philosophy of Ravitch, D. (2000). Left back: A century of battles over education. In A. J. Milson, C. H. Bohan, school reform. New York, NY: Touchstone. P. L. Glanzer, & J. W. Null (Eds.), Readings in Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of error: The hoax of the American educational thought: Essays from privatization movement and the danger to 1640-1940 (pp. 260–268). Charlotte, NC: America’s public schools. New York, NY: Information Age Publishing. Alfred A. Knopf. 10–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, & paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: World. Macmillan. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory Schwab, J. J. (1970). The practical: A language for and practice. New York, NY: Harcourt, curriculum. Washington, DC: National Education Brace, & World. Association. Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1975). Curriculum Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: development: Theory into practice. New York, Foundations of the new reform. Harvard NY: Macmillan. Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. Tienken, C. H. (2010). Common Core State Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. L., & Shores, J. H. (1957). Standards: I wonder? Kappa Delta Pi Record, Fundamentals of curriculum development. 47(1), 14–17. 2

SUBJECT MATTER AS EXPERIENCE

THOMAS P. T HOMAS Roosevelt University

PETER B. HILTON Saint Xavier University

he orientation of subject matter as experience curriculum invites direct engagement in the process is a central feature of the progressive educa- of active problem solving through shared delibera- Ttion movement as well as other alternative tion and empowers participants to be agents of approaches to conventional schooling. By position- progress, creating solutions for practical dilemmas. ing life experience as the organizing principle of the A project undertaken by students at South Adams curriculum, traditional academic subjects (e.g., math- High School in Berne, Indiana, responding to the ematics, history, biology) are subordinated to selected scarcity of potable water in Haiti provides one exam- practical experiences. The curriculum is revised to ple of subject matter as experience. A veteran sci- focus on “education of, by, and for experience” ence teacher, Michael Baer, was explaining to his (Dewey, 1938, p. 28), derived from intelligent class why vegetation clearing and soil erosion has human living, well suited to the particular setting of had long-term environmental and social impact on an assembled group of young people under the guid- the people of Haiti, including creating scarcity in ance of an informed adult. It is contended that by drinking water. A student challenged the class to focusing on problematic experiences, education is assist the people of Haiti rather than just study fac- intrinsically motivating, interactive, relevant, and tors that led to this crisis. This redirection of the cur- empowering. riculum led to a new course structure with eventual An experience-based curriculum is intrinsically impact on the entire K–12 district and community. motivating because, it is argued, it centers on prob- Students formed teams to work on various aspects of lems that children find significant, challenging, and the problem, and a group of students was escorted to meaningful. With a focus on active problem solving Haiti to implement the teams’ solution. Subse- in social groups, interaction with intellectual con- quently, additional trips were taken to scientifically tent, technology, and other learners is more likely. investigate the use of different filtration systems. In The projects and problems are selected for relevance the process of confronting this social and environ- to the immediate needs and interests of learners with mental issue, students engaged in historical inquiry, transparent connections to larger personal, social, conducted research in varied content areas, investi- and environmental purposes. The experience-based gated alternative technologies for their effectiveness

11 12–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

and suitability to socioeconomic conditions in Haiti, promoted by Johann Herbart, were instrumental in and generated funding to support the trip to deliver placing practical activities in a rational sequence water purification systems to Haiti (Boss, 2011). The through the promotion of the cultural epoch theory. idea of developing curriculum as experience with This notion of human growth, influenced by German students in a beleaguered Caribbean nation, or with Romanticism, contended that a child’s nature repli- students who build a shellback dinghy at a maritime cates the stages of human history. At the end of the museum in Searsport, Maine (as discussed in Curtis 19th century, notable writers on education, including 2011), exemplifies how subject matter can begin Wilhelm Rein, Charles and Frank McMurry, Charles with life in its complexity and how academic De Garmo, Francis Parker, and G. Stanley Hall, pro- disciplines can inform rather than direct learning. moted this historically sequenced curriculum, Historically, a variety of options have developed responsive to the “natural” growth of the learner, and from scholars such as Johann Amos Comenius in they taught through activities that represented each the 17th century and Johann Pestalozzi in the historical era (i.e., tool making, crafts, literature, 19th century, through to the Herbartians of the late music, and other cultural artifacts of an historical 19th century and John Dewey’s redirection of curric- period). The importance of cultural epoch theory on ulum in the first half of the 20th century. Following curriculum was that it replaced didactic disciplinary Dewey’s work, varied conceptions of “learner experi- academic learning with a theory of development that ence” emerged. Other proposals based on life experi- connected students’ experiences to the world. ences were instituted globally apart from Dewey’s Dewey (1900, 1902) described children learning influence. Evolving from the experience-based cur- about past human problem solving at the University riculum, options differed based on who determines of Chicago Laboratory School by reenacting activi- the experiences, how the experiences are promoted, ties such as tool making, carpentry, and spinning the underlying purposes, and how these experiences fibers. Dewey argued that it is the responsibility of relate to conventional school craft. the schools to provide refined experiences for young people that would not otherwise be readily accessible to them. Although it is personally and socially desir- Orientations to Subject Matter able for people to obtain the knowledge and skills as Experience organized in the academic disciplines, Dewey argued that didactic transmittal of information and general- Basing a curriculum on subject matter as experience izations organized by and for adults was learning in in European and North American schools can be reverse. Problem resolution using academic knowl- traced to the seminal influence of Comenius with his edge can frequently be best obtained by group emphasis on immediate sensory learning, structured collaboration, or what Dewey called democratic by Pestalozzi with the use of object lesson. Rather living. than didactic presentation of knowledge as summa- Education as the reconstruction of lived social rized in academic subjects, Pestalozzi proposed that experience was formally conceptualized in Dewey’s learning begin with immediate sensory references, milestone contribution, Democracy and Education noting formal and material characteristics of natural (1916). He clarified that an educative experience and commonplace objects, connecting the lived real- must integrate bodily activity, sensory engagement, ity of students to intellectual generalizations. The and cognitive reflection by the student toward a rel- conception of natural “hands-on” learning was evant purpose. “Thinking, in other words, is the retained in the child study movement both in Europe intentional endeavor to discover specific connections and in the United States, advanced variously by the between something we do and the consequences design of “occupations and gifts” by Friedrich which result, so that the two become continuous” Froebel and the establishment of sloyd (from the (Dewey, 1916, p. 140). Continuity in action and Swedish slöjd), a system of handicraft education deliberation implies that learners invest in the prob- started by Uno Cygnaeus in Finland in 1865. lem and intellectually confront the concern, that the Child study advocates, known as Herbartians for solution is not predetermined but evokes suspense their endorsement of the developmental psychology and risk of failure through uncertainty in outcome, 2. Subject Matter as Experience–•–13

and that the experience elicits an effective meaning- thought and practices. Makiguchi fell victim to ful response to the problem or issue (pp. 141–142). imperialist opponents to Soka in the Japanese This orientation accepts the needs and interests of the government, and thus his vision of an alternative learners as the starting point for curriculum develop- school model could not be realized. Following World ment, locating problems that prompt deliberation to War II, his ideas were developed by Josei Toda a meaningful solution. Thus, the determination of (1900–1958) and then expanded in the life work of relevant experiences is primarily the responsibility of Daisaku Ikeda (1928– ). Soka can be translated from the group of learners with the teacher acting as guide Japanese as “value creating,” and the Soka educa- and facilitator. This reconstructed experience makes tional model emphasizes having students engage in use of academic disciplines as they facilitate under- significant life experiences, fostering relationships standing and resolution of a shared problem or with each other, their teachers, and the larger com- project. munity (e.g., Makiguchi, 1981–1988, Vols. 5 & 6). Dewey (1931) restated and amplified this approach, Thus, life experiences are the central subjects for variously labeling the approach as project, problem, analysis, reflection, and action. Dialogue is promoted or situational learning. He contended that social prob- as the primary mode of instruction, and the curricu- lems selected as relevant for learning experiences lum must be fluid to respond to significant events in serve as a magnet, drawing together and vitalizing the lives of learners and their world as they engage in academic disciplines as they relate to a shared issue a continuous process of value creation (e.g., Ikeda & of student interest. In his last major statement on Tu, 2007). educational practice, Dewey (1938) again corrected Progressive educators in the United States pre- the misperception that all experience was educative scribed different, often conflicting, paths than those by calling some experiences mis- educative (those that suggested by Dewey in applying the dictum that life distort or arrest further productive experiences, do experience is the subject matter of schooling. Among not foster intelligent deliberation, or are unconnected those whose ideas were consistent with the reform to experiences that advance progressive human devel- Dewey espoused was Boyd Bode (1873–1953), critic opment). Educative experiences, he contended, have of the full spectrum of educational theories in his the essential elements of continuity and interaction. generation, but aligned with Dewey’s notion that Continuity meant that the experience has strong con- meaningful schooling should be based on life experi- nections to varied expansions in knowledge and skill; ences that invite novel discovery and resolution of interaction referred to learners’ engagement in work problems in a way that often countered extant habit- with their environment, not subordinated to external ual solutions. “In the democratic social order,” Bode control that stultifies free intellect (Dewey, 1938, (1938) wrote, “the schools have a distinctive obliga- pp. 25–27). Such experiences are generated from the tion to provide for the continuous examination of socio- environmental circumstances of the students; it traditional beliefs and practices, on the ground that is the responsibility of the teacher to recognize poten- ‘time makes ancient good uncouth’” (Bode in tial experiences that relate to the lives of learners and Alberty & Bode, 1938, p. 5). Bode argued that an guide them to see the importance of disciplinary educative experience cannot prescribe an outcome knowledge and skills as resources for resolution. since the experience is undertaken specifically to Dewey did not require that the experiences be think through and act on a resolution. Bode (1927) selected overtly by the learners in advance; they make highlighted this difference, contrasting the work of the selection of experiences based on their sustained the chemist and the plumber. Whereas a chemist tests engagement in a learning community that includes hypotheses to determine whether the outcome assists the teacher. in further understanding a phenomenon, the plumber A contemporary of John Dewey, Tsunesaburo is taught determined technical skills to resolve a Makiguchi (1871–1944) developed an educational range of conventional problems. For Bode, the philosophy consistent with the religious movement character of the educational experience demands of Soka Gakkai from his career as a school teacher openness to imagination and sympathy guided by and principal in Japan. Soka education was further intelligence to determine conclusions in the best refined through Makiguchi’s embrace of Buddhist interests of the participants. Bode’s student and 14–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

collaborator, Harold Alberty, developed a curriculum He insisted that education be a dialogue among equals, based on this insistence on open-ended problem beginning with careful analysis of the immediate solving. Alberty (1947) proposed a “resource unit,” a social and political realities that confront the learners, detailed curriculum for the secondary school that expanding in the process to reimagine, confront, and critically examined contemporary social problems, act collectively to dismantle oppression and promote also called “core curriculum.” Diametrically opposed liberation. Freire’s work to overcome a banking sys- to today’s Common Core State Standards, Alberty’s tem of education with problem-posing pedagogy has core was derived from student experience, not from had a revolutionary impact on curriculum in many the interests of policy makers who reside far from the parts of the world. students’ lives. In the past 3 decades, the proposal to center life Bruce Raup, George Axtelle, Kenneth Benne, and experiences as an organizing principle of the curricu- B. O. Smith (1950) argued for an education in practi- lum has been maintained in the writings of William cal judgment and the exercise of intelligence for the Schubert (e.g., 1986) with the admonition to begin formation of practical generalizations. What is pro- with curricular questions that consider the interests of moted is “an education which centers in situations learners (Schubert & Lopez Schubert, 1981). Schubert where policies are made—policies which guide deci- expanded on his invitation to give priority to student sion in the vital relations of the learner’s life” interests and voice in curriculum design as a moral (Raup et al., 1950, p. 282). L. Thomas Hopkins imperative in a midrash on John Dewey’s (1933) writ- (1954) contended that the function of education is to ing about schooling in a utopian society (Schubert, assist the individual learner in organizing life experi- 2009). Dewey’s admonition that the social and per- ences into a value/knowledge construct. Education sonal particulars of learners direct curriculum suggests focuses on two ends: (1) to provide experiences that faith in students to know about what they should learn. will be rich in positive growth for the learner and In this vein, James Beane directly confronted propo- (2) to help the learner find meaning in these experi- nents of national and state content standards in the ences and learn to draw from these reservoirs of late 20th century. Beane (1997) encouraged “coher- value and knowledge as new experiences are con- ence” in curriculum by focusing on life experiences fronted. Hilda Taba’s (1962) conceptualization of that enliven academic disciplines and saw democratic inductive curriculum development began with the practice as the integrating focus with academic disci- teacher and the learners rather than an imposed exter- plines as resources. With Michael Apple, Beane nal plan wherein the objectives focus on student learn- identified schools and teachers who practiced democ- ing but the purposes and ends are ratified locally. racy through shared inquiry on relevant personal and Classroom practice is constructed by teachers who social experiences (Apple & Beane, 2007). know the particulars of their students and engage In interpreting curriculum as directed experience, them in development. some specialists, consultants, and curriculum devel- First-person chronicles by neo-progressive teachers opers base generalizations about needs and interests in the 1950s and 1960s (Sylvia Ashton-Warner, of learners to develop sequences of experiences for Herbert Kohl, Jonathan Kozol, James Herndon) learners. This approach shares the reconstructed offered a popular revival of interest in finding curricu- experience’s notion that learning begins with rele- lar “moments” where life experiences, such as vant and engaging lived experiences but makes the constructing a “slam book” or interpreting baseball additional unwarranted assumption that adult author- statistics, provided respite from the drudgery of ities determine what constitutes the relevant and imposed studies. This genre of experience-based learn- engaging experiences for students of a given devel- ing has been maintained in the recollections of more opmental stage or age group, either individually or recent teacher-authors such as Greg Michie and Brian collectively. In many cases, learner-based experien- Schultz. Paulo Freire’s (1970) translation of learning tial curricula morphed into externally prescribed through reflection and action on lived experience curricula that wore the label of experience. began in literacy education and has been extended to For instance, early in the 20th century, Maria all ages and forms of education (Lake & Kress, 2013). Montessori had established herself as a major figure Freire’s work revived curriculum based on experience. in educational reform in Europe with a remarkable 2. Subject Matter as Experience–•–15

record of success in educating children who were of precluding the students’ responsibility for forming designated unteachable. The design of individual the purposes of the projects and deliberating on pos- developmental activities for young people, character- sible alternatives to attain their purposes. Many istic of Montessori’s (1912) approach, grew from progressive educators throughout the 20th century insights of Froebel, Jean Itard, and Edouard Seguin advocated the directed experience as an approach that and was refined through Montessori’s observations breaks out of the conventional academic disciplines of learners and the theoretic structure she constructed. and “hooks” student interest, arousing curiosity, and She held that human development is based on readi- inviting active production or performance. Other ness for new experience, a carefully designed envi- interpretations of progressive emphasis on experience ronment of physical and intellectual challenges, and as subject matter can be traced to the 20th-century opportunities for learners to succeed. This approach contributions of Fredrick Bonser, Henry Cope, Ann is distinct from Deweyan reconstructed experience Shumaker, Harold Rugg, and Henry Harap. Core cur- on two important points: (1) a finite set of experi- riculum and interdisciplinary thematic units were ences is determined to be appropriate to the learner widespread in the 1960s. Project approaches were based on developmental readiness; (2) the activities revived in the late 1980s, used in medical education require individual, not communal, deliberation and through the curriculum of clinical diagnosis devel- demonstration of success. oped by Howard Barrows, and then were extended by Activity elementary schools of Georg Kerschen- Barrows to high school science. This model, called steiner in the early 19th century in Munich shared problem-based learning (PBL), presents students aspirations with Dewey more than with Montessori, with a social problem for which they develop research as Kerschensteiner provided practical activities for questions. The teacher is facilitator and guide as stu- students in gardens, kitchens, and workshops that dents in cooperative groups determine various causes, encouraged active student engagement with life but consider possible solutions, evaluate alternatives, and within choices made by institutional leadership. determine a defensible resolution, which is some- Kerschensteiner opposed the domination of much times shared with a larger audience of experts. The schooling by book learning and also by the problems must have depth, complexity, importance, Arbeitsschule model of industrial training. be amenable to student-level research, and be open to William H. Kilpatrick (1918) advanced a popular varied original solutions (Barell, 2003). Unlike interpretation of Dewey’s focus on experience called Deweyan reconstructed lived experience, the prob- the “project method,” a method that became a mod- lem is most often selected externally and the process est sensation among educators for over a decade. The is governed by imposed structures. project method consisted of learning activities built Curriculum interpreted as designed experience around a hub of shared student interest, called a replaces or retrofits academic subjects with training sample of life or purposeful act. Kilpatrick’s brief in social tasks. Controlled by curriculum specialists, proposal sparked interest in fashioning student proj- learning experiences are engineered, focusing on ects to be undertaken in school, home, or both. A key discrete knowledge and skills tied to a social purpose difference between the project method and Dewey’s (e.g., researching on the Internet), vocational spe- reconstruction was the influence of the instructor in cialty (e.g., IT support), or task (e.g., baking cookies). proposing and directing this experience. A behavior to be learned is analyzed and redesigned A wealth of proposals emerged from laboratory as a series of experiences for the learner to practice schools and colleges of education for how best to and master. implement projects in elementary and high schools This contemporary practice harkens back to John (see, e.g., works of Charles McMurry, Ellsworth Franklin Bobbitt’s notion of curriculum making. He Collings, and John Stevenson) in the 1920s, exempli- assumed the raw material of curricular purposes lay in fied by having students grow gardens, preserve food, tasks performed by successful adults in society. Like or install an electronic school bell. Projects were industrial efficiency experts of his time, Bobbitt immediately popular as a supplement to the standard (1924) urged for “activity analysis,” that is, analysis curriculum and often were designed with resources of personal and social tasks to be learned that could be that aided teacher implementation. This had the effect catalogued and arranged to be taught as a basis for 16–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

modern living. Bobbitt (1918) restructured learning skills for teachers and students. Today’s Common around the following areas of training: occupational Core State Standards, supported by extensive model efficiency, citizenship, physical efficiency, leisure, lessons and large-scale testing directed to measure and social intercommunication. Bobbitt (1924) later attainment of the various objectives, can be inter- adapted activities to conventional academic disci- preted as learning through directed experiences that plines. In a similar vein, W. W. Charters (1923) con- foster technical proficiency. Benchmark standards tended that schooling can define social ideals and indicate skills that students are to demonstrate. Cumu- locate activity objectives to realize these ideals. This latively, a given set of experiences is designed to analysis does not have to be limited to the work that construct model readers, writers, or mathematicians. people do; it can serve as a scientific investigation of A related initiative, The Partnership for 21st Century all aspects of virtuous contemporary living, whether Skills, while relying on the Common Core, is compat- the life being investigated is that of an electrician, ible with curricula that have specific planned activi- citizen, or parent. Similar to Bobbitt, Charters pre- ties for both conventional academic disciplines and sented this model as compatible with the existing global awareness (including finances, economics, academic divisions as disciplinary knowledge, but business and entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy, recast the subjects as collections that a learner could health literacy, and environmental literacy). The attain through precise piecemeal integration of key similarity to Bobbitt’s 1918 structure is striking. techniques learned through controlled experience. Vocational education provided a comfortable home base for this approach to experience-based learning. Contemporary Concerns This controlled experience approach evolved or devolved to a new focus on everyday demands of Reflecting on options available for determining the American youth (e.g., Charles Prosser and life adjust- meanings of subject matter as experience, the follow- ment education in the 1940s) with the notion of ing questions suggest that the topic continues to have identifying specified personal, social, and financial practical relevance for educators at all levels. In techniques that would offer practical training for young accepting Dewey’s (1938) contention that not all people. Florence B. Stratemeyer, Hamden L. Forkner, experiences are educational, are his criteria of mis- and Margaret G. McKim (1947) demonstrated that educational experiences still valid? How much of school curriculum can be developed from analysis of school requirements are dead-ends, transitory enter- “persistent life situations” faced by youth. Their tainments, self-gratification, work without interest, extensive lists and directions are often as specific as a void of meaningful personal growth, and restrictive? training manual. In the 1960s, Robert Mager (1962) How often do educational experiences in the elevated the status of the training manual approach to 21st century awaken curiosity, drive inquiry, engage classic status and found a wide audience through a the intellect, and motivate collaborative problem- focus on terminal behaviors of learning. Mager’s solving experiences? Do mis-educational demands instructional objectives persist in teaching lesson plan crowd out subject matter as experience? design to pre-service teachers in colleges of education. Does the claim that PBL is a pedagogical heir to Also from this influence, outcome-based education reconstructed life experience hold true if students are (OBE) enjoyed popularity as an alternative to achieve- not engaged in deciding what problems to consider, ment by accumulation of credits. In this approach, purposes to pursue, the methods of inquiry and delib- students demonstrate precise mastery of specified eration, and opportunities to voice and enact problem behaviors. As an extension of educational objective, resolution? Is curricular alignment to interstate- OBE ensured students would attain the technical mandated standards and large-scale testing a path to proficiencies prespecified as important. The standards subject matter as experience? Has experience in movement of the late 1980s and 1990s also reflected schools become so directed by external control that vestiges of this kind of precision at the school level. neither continuity nor integration is a meaningful In a revival of concern for useful adult skills, the criterion for school experience? Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary How has electronic media reshaped the learner’s Skills (SCANS) Report of 1991 set forth occupational range of experiences? How fully is subject matter the 2. Subject Matter as Experience–•–17

lived experience of students in the following exam- and his daughter, Evelyn, produced a volume that ples: exploring natural flora and fauna in a forest, described promising Schools of Tomorrow (Dewey & learning about flora and fauna at a natural history Dewey, 1915). Apple and Beane (2007) offer case museum, watching a naturalist explore flora and studies for reconstructed lived experience through fauna in Borneo in a PBS Nature special, or using an democratic schools. The project method was pro- interactive computer program where the student moted by Kilpatrick via essay, but it was through assumes the role of an explorer in the rain forest of description of practices produced by other scholars the Amazon? How does the advance of technology and laboratory schools that it became a viable reform into the lives of learners reconfigure what constitutes proposal. The same is true for Bobbitt’s (1924) an educational experience? Using the criteria of con- examples in his handbook on how to make a curricu- tinuity and interaction, is it likely that some contrived lum. Subsequently, PBL and the instructional exam- and artificial media may offer a richer experience ples tied to the Common Core State Standards, now than does the immediate environment? ubiquitous on the Internet, are case descriptions of Are Common Core State Standards most accu- varied options within subject matter as experience. rately a continuation of the designed experience Action research is a third type of inquiry that has tradition rather than reconstructed lived experience been effectively used to uncover the variety of forms wherein students and teachers share inquiry about of subject matter as experience. The direct experi- the subject matter of experience? In the tradition ence of practitioners as they experimented to move established by A Nation at Risk (1983), which first beyond the structure of academic disciplines to resulted in a “core knowledge” push for cultural lit- consider problems and projects that relate to the lives eracy in the 1980s, then shifted to the national stan- of learners is a compelling and personal form of dards movement in specific academic disciplines at inquiry. Whether it is the work of Ashton-Warner the century’s close, will the Common Core State with the Maori learners of New Zealand, the experi- Standards further push U.S. schools toward a ences of George Dennison as he confronted students national curriculum? Since it is backed by large- who did not respond to conventional schooling, the scale testing across many states, will this heir lived efforts of Myles Horton to make the Highlander apparent to the Nation at Risk tradition succeed in School relevant to the lives of adult social justice eliminating alternative conceptions of subject matter activists, or the reflections of George Wood in col- as experience? laborations at Federal Hocking High School in Ohio, all are examples of this underappreciated form of inquiry. Forms of Inquiry Phenomenological inquiry, in the tradition of Max van Manen (e.g., 1990, 1992), and his contributions Perhaps the most sustaining form of inquiry for to thoughtful examination of lived personal experi- scholarship on subject matter as experience has been ence, offers a fourth model of inquiry for consider- the speculative essay (Schubert, 1991). Review of ation of the worth of subject matter as experience. It the resources used to explicate alternatives to subject makes use of the tools of phenomenological writing matter as experience in the past century reveals that to attain understanding of the essence of an experi- speculative writing of education theorists has been ence and thus informs the reader of the value of this most prominent in developing this curriculum orien- formative event in human living. Examples of this tation. Even those who promote directed experiences kind of research can be accessed at the Phenomenol- for students, although arguing the value of social ogy Online website, developed by van Manen. analysis in determining the important adult technical Conclusions should be new beginnings, reflecting skills to rehearse and acquire, relied primarily on on the saga of past ventures to cultivate subject argument and reasoning and proposed studies matter as experience, taking stock of the near future through essays to promote their platform rather than by asking the questions suggested earlier, and using sustained empirical analysis. forms of inquiry and modes of expression to explore The case study has a strong historical attachment ever-evolving possible futures encountered in to investigating subject matter as experience. Dewey curriculum endeavors for and with students. 18–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

References and Further Readings Ikeda, D., & Tu, W. (2007). Taiwa no bunmei: Heiwa no kibo tetsugaku wo kataru [Civilization of dialogue: Alberty, H. B. (1947). Reorganizing the high school On the hope-filled philosophy of peace]. Tokyo, curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. Japan: Daisan Bunmeisha. Alberty, H. B., & Bode, B. (Eds.). (1938). Educational Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method. Teachers freedom and democracy. New York, NY: Appleton College Record, 19, 319–335. Century. Lake, R., & Kress, T. (Eds.). (2013). Paulo Freire’s Apple, M. W., & Beane, J. A. (2007). Democratic schools intellectual roots. London, UK: Bloomsbury. (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing objectives for Barell, J. (2003). Developing more curious minds. programmed instruction. Belmont, CA: Fearon. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Makiguchi, T. (1981–1988). Makiguchi Tsunesaburo zen- Curriculum Development. shu [The complete works of Makiguchi Tsunesaburo] Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum integration. New York, (10 Vols.). Tokyo, Japan: Daisan Bunmei. NY: Teachers College Press. Montessori, M. (1912). The Montessori method. New Bobbitt, J. F. (1918). The curriculum. Boston, MA: York, NY: F.A. Stokes Company. Houghton Mifflin. National Commission on Excellence in Education. Bobbitt, J. F. (1924). How to make a curriculum. Boston, (1983). A nation at risk. Washington, DC: U.S. MA: Houghton Mifflin. Government Printing Office. Bode, B. (1927). Modern educational theories. New York, Raup, B., Axtelle, G. E., Benne, K. D., & Smith, B. O. NY: Macmillan. (1950). The improvement of practical intelligence. Boss, S. (2011, October 21). Immersive PBL: Indiana New York, NY: Harper. project reaches far beyond the classroom. Retrieved Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/ paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Macmillan. pbl-immersive-brings-clean-water-haiti-suzie-boss Schubert, W. H. (1991). Philosophical inquiry: The Charters, W. W. (1923). Curriculum construction. New speculative essay. In E. C. Short (Ed.), Forms of York, NY: Macmillan. curriculum inquiry (pp. 61–76). Albany, NY: State Curtis, A. (2011, March 28). Teens learn about science University of New York Press. from building boats. Bangor Daily News. Retrieved Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: from http://bangordailynews.com/2011/03/28/news/ John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: teens-learn-about-science-from-building-boats/ Information Age Publishing. Dewey, J. (1900). The school and society. Chicago, IL: Schubert, W. H., & Lopez Schubert, A. L. (1981). Toward University of Chicago Press. curricula that are of, by, and therefore for students. Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago, Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 3(1), 239–251. IL: University of Chicago Press. Stratemeyer, F. B., Forkner, H. L., & McKim, M. G. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York, (1947). Developing a curriculum for modern living. NY: Macmillan. New York, NY: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Dewey, J. (1931). The way out of educational confusion. College, Columbia University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and Dewey, J. (1933, April 23). Dewey outlines utopian practice. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World. schools. New York Times, p. 7. Tu, W., & Ikeda, D. (2011). New horizons in eastern Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, humanism: Buddhism, Confucianism and the quest NY: Macmillan. for global peace. New York, NY: I.B. Tauris. Dewey, J., & Dewey, E. (1915). Schools of tomorrow. van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: New York, NY: Dutton & Co. Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. NY: Continuum. van Manen, M. (1992). The tact of teaching: Meaning of Hopkins, L. T. (1954). The emerging self in school and pedagogical thoughtfulness. London, ON, Canada: home. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Althouse Press.

Websites Partnership for 21st Century Skills: http://www.p21 .org/ Common Core State Standards Initiative: http://www Phenomenology Online: http://www.phenomenologyonline .corestandards.org/ .com 3

SUBJECT MATTERS OF LITERACY

ARIA RAZFAR University of Illinois at Chicago

he field of literacy has been defined implicitly used to carry human words. Perhaps one of the most or explicitly by a wide range of disciplines, dramatic technological shifts in human history is the Ttheoretical orientations, and methodological development of writing. Three major technological perspectives. Two academic disciplines in particular shifts have profoundly contributed to the purpose and have played a significant role in shaping the contours function of literacy in human society: (1) the pho- of modern literacy discussions and debates: psychol- netic alphabet, (2) the printing press, and, in contem- ogy and anthropology (Street & Lefstein, 2007). porary times, (3) digital text (Razfar & Rumenapp, Thus, the subject matters of “literacy” and its various 2013). The earliest logographic written forms were iterations are borne out of these rather divergent uncovered in ancient Mesopotamia and Persia, and poles of intellectual inquiry with psychological per- the earliest hieroglyphic systems were found in spectives representing individual cognitive functions Egypt, Greece, and China. Literacy primarily served and anthropology foregrounding the social, cultural, accounting purposes and management of large masses and political functions of literacy. Literacy, language, of territory. The most significant literacy develop- discourse, and narrative are at the heart of curricu- ment was the advent of the phonetic alphabet—each lum inquiry. Razfar (2012) stated, “Many in the field symbol stood for a consonant. While there is some of [curriculum studies] have either explicitly or debate about the roots of writing, there is consensus implicitly recognized the centrality of language, that the earliest writing was “invented” or “emerged” especially narrative inquiry” (p. 127). This chapter in two places: Mesopotamia (ancient Sumeria) circa provides an overview of the historical context of 3200 BCE and Mesoamerica 600 BCE. Whether literacy, defines literacy through the prism of writing was independently invented in these places technology, examines traditional autonomous defini- or emergent through cultural diffusion depends on tions of literacy, and concludes with sociocultural the evolutionary perspective of writing one takes and ideological approaches to literacy. (Daniels & Bright, 1996). In contrast to other symbolic systems such as mathematics, writing is inextricably linked to oral Literacy as Technology: language. Given the connection of writing to oral Historical Context language, it is important to consider the functions and purposes of early literacy practices. The ancient Definitions of literacy and the subject matters of lit- Canaanites of Egypt and Israelites were nomadic eracy have been shaped by the various technologies peoples who lived in fear of having their sacred

19 20–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

knowledge destroyed by dominant empires. As they have become tools of governance and accountability. traversed from one land to another, they were com- As the Arab Spring demonstrated (Dabashi, 2012), pelled to preserve and transfer their knowledge of entrenched dictatorships of the last century were sud- ancient scripts to subsequent generations. Hence, the denly toppled with instantaneous and simultaneous “alphabet” was invented, which comes from the first keystrokes transcending traditional boundaries. Digi- two letters of the ancient Semitic language “Alef ” tal literacy has become a necessary and sufficient literally condition for challenging oppressive regimes and (עברית/and “Bet.” The word Hebrew (/Ivrit means to “traverse boundaries.” These diaspora com- engendering social transformation through creative munities invented the phonetic alphabet in order to activism (Howard & Hussain, 2013). In this context make their sacred knowledge accessible to a wider of writing and literacy development, there is a need population. to expand our understanding of what counts as liter- After the invention of the handwritten alphabetic acy as well as its social functions. Literacy is more system, the development of movable type and print- than school-based reading and writing serving ing represented another seismic shift in the history of discrete academic purposes. literacy. The printing press fundamentally changed how societies exchanged information and interacted Defining Literacy with one another (Briggs & Burke, 2010). The printed word allowed for cultural diffusion across Literacy as Reading and Writing distant places and spaces. The earliest forms of print were found in China during the Northern Song Definitions of literacy are inseparable from the Dynasty (960–1127) and ultimately found their way technologies used to record and transmit human to Europe culminating in Gutenberg’s printing press communication. Walter Ong (1982), one of the pio- in 1450 (He, 1994). Gutenberg’s printing press was neers of literacy research, argued that any definition an effective technology for languages that had a lim- of literacy must inevitably consider the technologies ited number of characters. Given the limited number by which oral communities were transformed into of characters, alphabetic scripts were efficiently literate societies. In relation to human thought, oral- adapted to the functions of the printing press. In ity was seen as human thought through sound, and the Western world, the Gutenberg press has been literacy was seen as human thought through sight. credited with radically transforming literacy. The Literacy was seen as a tool that could directly impact Gutenberg Bible was the first mass-produced and individual cognition, collective thinking, as well as relatively affordable text in Europe and fostered altering social relations. Ong’s stance on the literate intellectual movements such as the Protestant versus the nonliterate mind and his characterizations Reformation and the Renaissance. of the oral mind as uncomplicated were an extreme In the history of literacy, technology has mediated expression of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis that linked individual and social transformations primarily language to thought in a deterministic fashion. In through accessibility of knowledge and information. describing “the oral mind,” Ong (1978) stated, “with- If the printing press helped spawn the Industrial out writing the mind cannot even generate concepts Revolution and modernity, then the Internet has such as ‘history’ . . . just as without print, and the brought about a quantum leap in how we exchange, massive accumulation of detailed documented store, and perceive information. The millennial gen- knowledge which print makes possible, the mind eration, also known as Generation Y, has proven to cannot generate concepts such as culture” (p. 2). be a significant turning point in human history, espe- In this framework, literacy was a necessary tool cially in terms of how it learns and engages in liter- for building the capacity of oral people for modern- acy practices (Razfar & Yang, 2010). The speed and ization since new technologies rendered traditional alacrity of information flows has brought into ques- oral practices such as memorization of narratives tion mechanistic, linear, or Newtonian notions of obsolete. However, this stance reduces the functions time and space. It has radically changed social rela- of oracy to information retention and transfer. It is tions and unsettled stagnant constructs of race, class, grounded in computational metaphors of mind and and gender. Social media and hand-held technologies overlooks basic affinity functions of language and 3. Subject Matters of Literacy–•–21

communication. In this view, knowledge and infor- children as they navigated multiple and often con- mation are assumed to be discrete and detached from flicting spaces of life. During this time other ethno- relational functions of literacy. Since large amounts graphic and sociocultural approaches to the study of of information can be stored and more efficiently literacy emerged from multiple disciplines focused retrieved, there is no need to memorize information on human learning and development. These studies through songs and stories. The subtractive and deficit collectively helped challenge the dominant autono- views of oral peoples in relation to more modern mous view of literacy that pervades much of the “literate peoples” have led to fundamental questions curriculum in today’s schools. about the nature of mind and how literacy technolo- gies impact it. The bifurcation of oracy and literacy Literacy as a Social Practice: is not productive, and Jack Goody and Ian Watt From Literacy to Biliteracy (1963) cautioned against the subtractive view offered by Ong. Instead of devaluing affective and relational With the focus on social context and practice, functions of oral peoples, it is important to see how literacy research became open to the idea that liter- literacy expands our historical memory and engenders acy is more than just reading and writing in a single metalinguistic and metacognitive cultural practices language and/or in genres of formal academic school- (Olson, 1991). ing. The ethnographic and sociocultural work of The subtractive and deficit representation of oral Shirley Brice Heath, Silvia Scribner, and Michael cultures combined with the correlation of literacy Cole in the early 1980s represented a significant turn and cognition has led to misrepresentation of oral in the study of literacy. It was a shift in what counted cultures as more primitive than literate societies. as literacy and an overt movement toward the multi- Since literacy was equated with modernization and plicity of literacy (literacies). Following the “social progress, then illiteracy was a sign of stagnation and turn” in the study of language, the sociocultural and backwardness. From a postcolonial perspective, ideological turn in literacy studies helped reposition some have argued writing and literacy could be con- the literacy practices of nondominant populations as sidered a “colonial technology” that helped erase inherently complex and “higher order” functioning. indigenous cultures (Donaldson, 1998, p. 47). The For example, Scribner and Cole (1981) showed how erasure of indigenous cultural practices was inevita- the Vai people used multiple scripts to perform a ble when the definition of literacy was limited to variety of functions in both formal and nonschool reading and writing. Oral cultures without a formal- settings. Each of these scripts was learned in cultur- ized writing system would lack legitimacy and ally organized activities for the purpose of achieving recognition from the perspective of dominant literate concrete goals that spanned spiritual, economic, and cultures. Literate culture could claim supremacy and political contexts. The Vai people used Arabic to sovereignty over illiterate peoples since they lacked navigate sacred texts such as the Quran, used English the ability to record and reflect on words. This to engage commerce, and used the indigenous Vai definition of literacy has been characterized as the script to conduct personal and political functions. Far autonomous view of literacy, one where literacy is from being “primitive,” the Vai showed how literacy assumed to be neutral and free from the interests of was multiple, situated, and ideological across multi- self-styled literate peoples (Street, 1985). ple spaces and timescales. One of the powerful In contrast to Ong and Goody’s depiction of lit- implications of Scribner and Cole’s study was that eracy as a set of autonomous skills to be individually schooling alone was not sufficient to account for the acquired, Brian Street argued that literacy was complex literacy and learning demands of Vai grounded in situations, events, and practices. Street’s children. In fact, learning both in and out of schools ethnographic approach to the study of literacy coun- needed to be organized to leverage such a rich tered the deficit constructions of indigenous-based repertoire of literacy practices. literacy practices. Far from the primitive depictions In the United States, one of the first ethnographic of “nonliterate” peoples, Street’s (1985) early work studies that showed literacy as a social practice was on maktab literacy in Iranian villages showed the Heath’s study (1983) of three diverse communities array of complex literacy functions performed by varying by race and class. It brought widespread 22–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

attention to differentiated socialization practices and notions of “English-dominant” or “Spanish- their relationship to formal schooling and learning dominant,” biliteracy was a way to assign a more opportunities. Heath’s focus on interaction, commu- symmetrical status to nondominant student popula- nicative competence, and language socialization as a tions (De Jong, 2011). In addition, biliteracy empha- lifelong and life-wide process was a significant shift sizes the academic functions of languages other than in how literacy learning could be framed. It was an English in the learning and development of these extension of narrow interpretations of nativist students. In the earliest stages of the term in U.S. assumptions of literacy learning and challenged literacy research, biliteracy was used in reference to essentialist understandings of American communi- academic discourse development in two languages, ties. In the aftermath of Brown v. Board of Educa- primarily Spanish-English (Goodman, Goodman, & tion, which formally called for racial integration of Flores, 1979). Today this notion is being expanded U.S. schools, there was growing interest in the aca- further to include nonstandard variants and transna- demic and literacy outcomes of working-class tional literacy practices or even pluriliteracies African American students in predominantly White (García, Bartlett, & Kleifgin, 2007). The metaphor American schools (Guinier, 2004). Heath’s work continues to expand “exponentially” in teacher edu- highlighted the diverse literacy practices of three cation and professional development from two or communities (Roadville, Trackton, and Maintown) more literacies to biliteracy as “squared” (Escamilla, while also showing the comparative advantage of Hopewell, & Butvilofsky, 2013). Biliteracy is gradu- middle-class, White American students (Maintown). ally becoming an accepted standard and ideal with The comparative advantage of Maintown students eight states having an approved “seal of biliteracy,” rested in the fact that their home literacy practices given to students who attain proficiency in two or were tightly aligned with how learning and literacy more languages by high school graduation, and as of was socially organized in schools. For example, one early 2015, several other states were considering the of the regular literacy practices in Maintown homes use of the seal. In the coming years, as the notion of was bedtime stories whereby parents engaged their literacy continues to expand mediated by develop- children in content, discursive turn taking, and ques- ments in informational technology, we can expect a tioning patterns that were nearly identical to the ways “quantum” leap in our understanding of what it teachers would engage them in school. Thus, Main- means to be literate. town children were literally at home while at school. In contrast, the nonschool literacy practices of Literacy as Ideological African American children, while complex in their own right in terms of performative storytelling, were From the ethnographic literacy studies of the late not leveraged in schools. Thus, literacy was shown to 1970s and early 1980s emerged a more critical view be multiple, but more importantly value-laden, and known as the New Literacy Studies (NLS). This ideological. It also revealed the limitations of legal ideological view of literacy allowed literacy to not integration in the absence of cultural and ideological only be studied as social practices but also attend to integration of nondominant literacy practices in issues of power and social stratification (New London schools. Group, 1996). For Street as well as James Paul Gee Parallel to the movement toward literacy as ideo- (2008), the everyday ideas of what literacy is and how logical and multiple was the emergence of biliteracy it constitutes social relations are not neutral. NLS studies. Over the last 3 decades a new field of liter- represented a paradigm shift in the study of literacy. acy research focusing on the use of two or more The shift from autonomous to ideological models scripts has emerged. Biliteracy refers to “any and all of literacy included a shift in the unit of analysis instances in which communication occurs in two (or from the individual to the social, ideological, and more) languages in or around writing” (Hornberger, critical (Hatano & Wertsch, 2001). The ideological 1990, p. 213). The shift toward biliteracy represents character of literacy is predicated on the idea that a broadening in how second language learning and what counts as literacy is inextricably connected to learners were viewed in the United States. Instead how some symbolic resources become dominant and of labeling students with static and differentiating others subordinate. It focuses on literacy as cultural 3. Subject Matters of Literacy–•–23

capital and a purveyor of asymmetrical relationships levels of reading and the ability to collect and synthe- between “haves” and “have-nots” of dominant liter- size evidence. Gaming participants typically engage acy practices (Gee, 2008; Luke, 1996). Thus, many in displaced meaning making that is considered to be scholars who view literacy through an ideological at a high level of abstraction, by any academic stan- lens would count traditional “content” areas such as dard, in order to successfully negotiate problems situ- mathematics and science as a type of literacy ated in virtual worlds. Thus, literacy in the digital age (e.g., Street, Baker, & Tomlin, 2005). This has led to encompasses more than just reading and writing a substantial body of work focusing on numeracy found in asynchronous print mediums. practices in and out of school spaces (e.g., Bevin, The reading and writing of digital texts has funda- Bell, Stevens, & Razfar, 2013). mentally shifted how we understand literacy. Literacy An ideological stance on literacy moves the locus is more than decoding phonetic-based characters of meaning from denotative literalism to connotative from right to left, left to right, or up and down. The and metaphorical aspects of texts (Lähteenmäki, reading and writing of digital texts involves the syn- 2004; Street, 2003). It further argues that meaning thesizing of intertextual, nonlinear images that tran- making and semiotic actions are necessarily subjec- scend three-dimensional notions of time and space. tive, authentic, and situated. Texts are inscribed These semiotic practices (the processing of images) through a variety of semiotic resources available to must now be considered essential forms of literacies interlocutors (Kress, 2004). Digital technologies as we prepare students for the realities of the have made it essential to define literacies as multi- 21st century (Moje, 2000; Stephens, 1998). While modal, multiple, and plural. Digital texts and the recognizing the shifting landscape created by digital various mediums used for communication have led literacies, it is simultaneously important to acknowl- teachers to reorganize literacy instruction for the edge the tremendous variation within digital litera- purposes of navigating not only traditional print texts cies and their purposes and functions across various but also social media and games (Chandler-Olcott & segments of society. Furthermore, there is a need for Mahar, 2003). Ironically, the remnants of autono- teachers to consider issues of access when it comes mous models of literacy are still front and center in to technological tools, expertise, and community- national curriculum and educational policy debates. based digital practices. For more than 3 decades Regardless of how policy makers frame the liter- there has been growing recognition in the field of acy debates, ultimately the seemingly transgressive literacy research for teachers to leverage and access literacy practices of millennials will shape the kinds students’ household epistemologies and expertise, or of literacy practices that are validated in schools. As funds of knowledge (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, millennials move through teacher education pro- 2005). In the digital age, it is critical for teachers to grams, their definitions of what counts as literacy account for their students’ digital funds of knowledge will be intuitively consonant with the insights of in order to foster culturally sustaining pedagogy NLS. Currently, there is still a pronounced gap (Paris, 2012). Typical questions associated with between educators and their students. Research on funds of knowledge inquiry can be modified to better the multiliteracies of children and adolescents shows understand digital funds—What are the digital litera- how extensive the literate repertoires of millennials cies students do? What digital literacies do they have are and how far they surpass those of their teachers access to? What do they need to engage in digital (Alim, Ibrahim, & Pennycook, 2009). While there is semiotic practices? What types of digital literacies substantial work on how to leverage “nonacademic” are essential to their basic survival? literacies for the purposes of developing “academic Another complication spawned by the digital rev- literacy,” we may have to reconsider our definitions olution is language choice. Given the dominant of what counts as “academic” and what counts as language of digital literacies is English, the use of “advanced” cognition. Gee (2003) has aptly shown non-English languages as mediational tools of learn- how gaming as a social practice is far more sophisti- ing continues to be a key component of funds of cated than most traditional literacy curricula. The kno wledge inquiry. There continues to be a trend literacies expected of gaming participants, especially toward devaluing nondominant literacies in the com- in synchronous environments, require sophisticated munity or used in families in favor of standard forms 24–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

of literacy. Non-English linguistic funds continue to unit of social action” (p. 173) that he conceives of as be marginalized in public spaces and formal educa- a public act by a social actor, achieved dialogically tion. In addition, community-based semiotic prac- through overt communicative means (language, ges- tices and literacies, including dark funds such as ture, and other symbolic forms), through which graffiti or gang symbols, are also contentious issues social actors simultaneously evaluate objects, posi- for educators. Literacies used in society don’t always tion subjects (themselves and others), and align with “fit” into our school curricula and often make us other subjects, with respect to any salient dimension uncomfortable; however, that does not mean that it of the sociocultural field (p. 163). A more critical isn’t a conventional and cultural system of literacies. perspective of stance taking includes ideological and Literacy as ideological begs these contentious ques- explicit considerations of systems of values and hier- tions that are value-laden, historical, and uncomfort- archies of power (e.g., Fairclough, 2003; Kress, able. Teachers who assume an ideological stance of 1995). The stance taking of people through narrative literacy and consider funds of knowledge to be an often creates social status and difference. Narrative essential part of optimizing learning must be pre- inquiry provides a method for making explicit the pared to analyze, understand, synthesize, and lever- tacit ways in which social relations are grounded in age nontraditional literacy practices. This practice ideological frames of equivalence and difference. will serve a dual purpose of developing school-based Narrative inquiry is a form of research that is con- literacy objectives as well as affirming nondominant cerned with understanding the reality of the people identities. involved in the narrative act. It is not concerned with whether the narrative is “true-to-life.” In fact, the Literacy as Narrative Practice construction of the narrative events, and not so much the events themselves, is extremely important. Historically, narrative inquiry has been a major Narrative inquiry, then, is not an exact science in the point of convergence between literacy and curricu- sense of seeking an autonomous truth. As Jerome lum studies. The narrative turn in social sciences Bruner (1991) stated: provided a seemingly infinite array of genres from which to tackle the most pressing questions about Unlike the constructions generated by logical and scien- human struggles for identity (Barthes, 1982). Narra- tific procedures that can be weeded out by falsification, narrative constructions can only achieve “verisimili- tive as a unit of analysis transcended reductive units tude.” Narratives, then, are a version of reality whose of analysis such as oral versus written. Some have acceptability is governed by convention and “narrative even argued that learning itself is a narrative process necessity” rather than by empirical verification and logi- (Goodson & Gill, 2011). Literacy as narrative activ- cal requirement, although ironically we have no ity provides an empirical window into ontological compunction about calling stories true or false. (pp. 4–5) questions of identity and how identities are lived As Bruner noted, narratives are conventional. through social practice. Since the early 1970s, socio- They have cultural rules for how they are told. Thus, linguists and anthropologists have focused on narra- human beings can easily distinguish between the tive activity as a site for understanding how human courtroom testimonies and an elementary student’s collectives organize and structure the ethical dilem- story. These cultural conventions provide a way to mas of everyday life (Ochs, 1997). Given that most understand the speakers’ mastery of the narrative of our cultural practices are tacit and subconscious, form, but also give a way to understand how reality narrative inquiry affords the means to examine how is constructed via narrative. Much narrative inquiry human beings negotiate unexpected events. It allows is concerned about stories that are about the self and, us to become conscious of implicit cultural norms. therefore, more clearly reflect the self. There are Through an examination of participant stance taking many different products used for narrative inquiry, and the moral evaluations of interlocutors, it becomes including autobiography, autoethnography, testimo- empirically viable to name the lived epistemic and nio, case studies, personal narrative, fiction, docu- moral struggles apparent in cultural activities mentaries, films, life history, oral history, memoir, (Duranti, 1994; Gee, 2008; Ochs, 2004). John Du art, performance art, spoken word, oral histories, and Bois (2007) defined stance taking as “the smallest literary journalism. 3. Subject Matters of Literacy–•–25

In this chapter, a brief history of the field has been standardized, and regulated by nation-state institu- presented in relation to the technologies that helped tions. Nondominant and indigenous forms of literacy shape it. First, literacy is a social practice that medi- are often marginalized and dismissed in schools and ates our relationship with the world. Second, these other spaces of “official” life. Educators need to literacies are varied and situated depending on the understand the complex variation inherent in literacy goals and meaning-making needs of the participants. practices across multiple spaces and timescales. For- Written symbols are cultural tools that can be pho- malized, school-based literacies serve specific aca- netic, logographic, or visual images, with each serv- demic functions and are an essential tool for cultural ing different purposes. Orthographies are cultural cohesion in large-scale societies. A critical view of systems rooted in historical and cultural meaning- literacy and what counts as literacy can have pro- making practices. Third, power, privilege, and ideol- found impact on the educational trajectories of stu- ogy shape the functions and uses of literacy across dents, especially those of nondominant contexts. Dominant scripts are highly conventional, communities.

References and Further Readings Du Bois, J. W. (2007). The stance triangle. In R. Englebreston (Ed.), Stancetaking in discourse: Alim, H. S., Ibrahim, A., & Pennycook, A. (Eds.). (2009). Subjectivity, evaluation, interaction (pp. 139–182). Global linguistic flows: Hip hop cultures, youth Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. identities, and the politics of language. New York, Duranti, A. (1994). From grammar to politics: Linguistic NY: Routledge. anthropology in a Western Samoan Village. Barthes, R. (1982). Introduction to the structural analysis Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. of narratives. In Image-music-text. (Reprinted in Escamilla, K., Hopewell, S., & Butvilofsky, S. (2013). S. Sontag (Ed.), A Barthes reader (pp. 251–295). Biliteracy from start: Literacy squared in action. New York, NY: Hill & Wang). New York, NY: Carlson Publishing. Bevin, B., Bell, P., Stevens, R., & Razfar, A. (Eds.). Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual (2013). Learning about out-of-school time (LOST) analysis for social research. London, UK: learning opportunities (Vol. 23). New York, NY: Routledge. Springer. García, O., Bartlett, L., & Kleifgin, J. A. (2007). From Briggs, A., & Burke, P. (2010). A social history of the biliteracy to pluriliteracies. In P. Auer & L. Wei media: From Gutenberg to the internet (3rd ed.). (Eds.), Handbook of applied linguistics, Vol. 5: Cambridge, UK: Polity. Multilingualism (pp. 207–228). Berlin, Germany: Bruner, J. (1991). The narrative construction of reality. Mouton de Gruyter. Critical Inquiry, 18(1), 1–21. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us Chandler-Olcott, K., & Mahar, D. (2003). “Tech- about learning and literacy. New York, NY: savviness” meets multiliteracies: Exploring Palgrave Macmillan. adolescence girl’s technology-mediated literacy Gee, J. P. (2008). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology practices. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(3), in discourses (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. 366–385. Gonzalez, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2005). Dabashi, H. (2012). The Arab Spring: The end of Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in Postcolonialism. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, Daniels, P. T., & Bright, W. (Eds.). (1996). The world’s NJ: Erlbaum. writing systems. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Goodman, K., Goodman, Y., & Flores, B. (1979). Press. Reading in the bilingual classroom: Literacy and De Jong, E. (2011). Foundations for multilingualism in biliteracy. Arlington, VA: National Clearinghouse on education: From principles to practice. Philadelphia, Bilingual Education. PA: Caslon. Goodson, I., & Gill, S. (2011). Narrative pedagogy: Life Donaldson, L. (1998). Writing the talking stick: history and learning. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Alphabetic literacy as colonial technology and Goody, J., & Watt, I. (1963). The consequences of postcolonial appropriation. American Indian literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Quarterly, 22(1/2), 46–62. 5(3), 304–345. 26–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Guinier, L. (2004). From racial liberalism to racial cultures (pp. 1–13). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge literacy: Brown v. Board of Education and the University Press. interest-divergence dilemma. Journal of American Ochs, E. (1997). Narrative. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), History, 91(1), 92–118. Handbook of discourse: A multidisciplinary Hatano, G., & Wertsch, J. V. (2001). Sociocultural introduction (pp. 185–206). London, UK: Sage. approaches to cognitive development: The Ochs, E. (2004). Narrative lessons. In A. Duranti (Ed.), A constitutions of culture in mind. Human companion to linguistic anthropology (pp. 269–289). Development, 44(2/3), 77–83. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. He, Z. (1994). Diffusion of movable type in China and Olson, D. R. (1991). Literacy as metalinguistic activity. In Europe: Why were there two fates? International D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), Literacy and Communication Gazette, 53(3), 153–173. orality. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, Ong, W. J. (1978). Literacy and orality in our times. ADE and work in communities and classrooms. Bulletin, 58, 1–7. (Reprinted (1979). Profession 79 Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. (pp. 1–7). New York, NY: Modern Language Hornberger, N. (1990). Creating successful learning Association). contexts for bilingual literacy. Teaching College Ong, W. J. (1982). Orality and literacy: The Record, 92(2), 212–229. technologizing of the word. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Howard, P. N., & Hussain, M. M. (2013). Democracy’s Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy a needed fourth wave? Digital media and the Arab Spring. change in stance, terminology, and practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93–97. Kress, G. (1995). Writing in the future: English and the Razfar, A. (2012). Language ideologies and curriculum making of a culture of innovation. Sheffield, UK: studies: An empirical approach to “worthwhile National Association for the Teaching of English. questions.” Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 28(1), Kress, G. (2000). Design and transformation: New theories 127–140. of meaning. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), Razfar, A., & Rumenapp, J. (2013). Applying linguistics Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of in the classroom: A sociocultural perspective. New social futures (pp. 153–161). London, UK: Routledge. York, NY: Routledge. Kress, G. (2004). Literacy in the new media age. London, Razfar, A., & Yang, E. (2010). Sociocultural theory and UK: Routledge. early literacy development: Hybrid language Lähteenmäki, M. (2004). Between relativism and practices in the digital age. Language Arts, 88(2), absolutism: Towards an emergentist definition of 114–124. meaning potential. In F. Bostad, C. Brandist, L. S. Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1981). The psychology of Evensen, & H. C. Faber (Eds.), Bakhtinian literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. perspectives on language and culture: Meaning in Sebba, M. (2012). Spelling and society: The culture and language, art and new media (pp. 91–113). New politics of orthography around the world. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Luke, A. (1996). Text and discourse in education: An Stephens, M. (1998). The rise of the image the fall of the introduction to critical discourse analysis. In M. W. word. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Apple (Ed.), Review of research in education (pp. Street, B. V. (1985). Literacy in theory and practice. 3–48). Washington, DC: American Educational Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Research Association. Street, B. V. (2003). What’s “new” in new literacy Moje, E. (2000). “To be part of the story”: The literacy studies? Critical approaches to literacy in theory and practices of gangsta adolescents. Teachers College practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education, Record, 102(3), 651–691. 5(2), 77–91. New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of Street, B., Baker, D., & Tomlin, A. (2005). Navigating multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard numeracies: Home/school numeracy practices. Educational Review, 66(1), 60–92. London, UK: Springer. Ochs, E. (1986). Introduction. In B. B. Schieffelin & Street, B. V., & Lefstein, A. (2007). Literacy: An E. Ochs (Eds.), Language socialization across advanced resource book. New York, NY: Routledge.

Websites

Seal of Biliteracy: http://www.sealofbiliteracy.org 4

SUBJECT MATTERS OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS

RUSSELL TYTLER Deakin University

DALENE SWANSON University of Stirling

PETER APPELBAUM Arcadia University

chool mathematics and science are key subject as well as gender issues, such as girls’ and women’s areas that school systems and public policy access to STEM (science, technology, engineering, Sfocus on, alongside literacy, as the core planks and mathematics). International mathematics and sci- of a 21st-century education. This dominance often ence studies such as PISA (Programme for Interna- has been advanced under the banner of “numeracy” tional Student Assessment) and TIMSS (Trends in and “literacy” in school curricula and educational International Mathematics and Science Study) also institutions nationally and internationally. The edu- pit one nation-state against the other in terms of com- cation of students in these core areas of human petitive economic futures based on their youth knowledge has been a primary aspect of schooling citizenries’ access to mathematics and science. for at least a century. The privileged position held by The acronym STEM is often used interchangeably those who have knowledge of these areas comes with with science and mathematics. Such use can be prob- many issues of principle concern regarding what lematic. STEM as a curricular category has different should be the focus and purposes of these subjects. meanings in different locations and policy docu- Of peripheral concern are values, attitudes, and con- ments. It is sometimes used as a catch-all term for siderations of “access” to and differential attainment scientific and technical disciplinary areas. In the in mathematics and science. Within government Common Core State Standards in the United States, policy mandates, this most often is articulated through STEM has taken on the particular meaning of an inte- discourses on socioeconomics and “attainment gaps,” grated approach to science, technology, engineering,

27 28–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

and mathematics that grounds educational experi- contrasts with findings in postindustrial countries ences in the problem-solving and design processes where students are exposed to a greater variety of central to engineering disciplines. In general, STEM future work and life identities and where the preemi- might be taken as an opportunity to seriously con- nence of science as a dominant form of knowledge is sider the alignment of school experiences with the more readily challenged (Schreiner & Sjøberg, distinct and/or integrated experiences with scientific 2007). It is an intriguing contradiction that students and engineering practices in the “real world.” Science, in countries most successful on the TIMSS, such engineering, and mathematics have very different as emerging Asian countries, have less positive epistemologies and intellectual traditions represented views of science. in the history and practice of what has come to be Accompanying these contestations is the policy understood as codified school subjects. Each has its question of how to frame school science and mathe- own distinct curriculum histories and contestations. matics subjects—whether policies should appropri- For example, one can find arguments that mathemat- ately focus on the development of an elite of future ics is most often practiced by mathematicians in ways scientific and technological professionals, or whether more similar to the practices of scientists, artists, or to focus on the broader questions of public participa- philosophers, depending on the literature one con- tion in and confidence with these subjects (Freeman, sults (Appelbaum, 2008b). Engineering is curiously Marginson, & Tytler, 2015). A critical reading of absent in typical early childhood through secondary contemporary curriculum practices shows that com- education, meaning that many of the relevant con- mon school experiences are highly successful in temporary practices and social applications are not engendering an appreciation for the importance of addressed in most schools. science and engineering, perhaps even a reverence, Further to the concerns regarding access, socio- and at the same time an acceptance of others as economic factors, and gender issues, a current key wielding the knowledge and skills in STEM fields. issue defining and shaping government and public Education in STEM disciplines does not establish a perceptions of STEM is a growing concern world- scientifically literate citizenry. Instead it perpetuates wide that student engagement with STEM is drop- science and scientific rhetoric as an elite endeavor ping and recruitment into these disciplines is slipping left to experts without being available for public below the levels claimed to be needed for the next scrutiny (Appelbaum & Clark, 2001). Similar to generation of scientific and technological positions Valerie Walkerdine’s (1988) analysis, education, necessary to drive modern postindustrial economies. especially in mathematics and science, creates an Meanwhile, there is resistance among researchers, educated and hence manageable, malleable, “ratio- teachers, and much of the public to this instrumental nal” public. STEM curriculum can be said to go one reading of the purposes and nature of a school educa- step further in establishing an acceptance in most tion that is based on a concern for broader purposes members of society of the simultaneous belief in sci- of science and mathematics in schools around devel- ence as “the” solution to most problems and as some- opment of orientations to learning; interest in their thing that is not to be questioned. In popular media specific subject matter; and broader moral, demo- we do find resistance to this idea in, for example, cratic, and social purposes of schooling. This includes vocal challenges to what scientists claim about the study of mathematics and science not only for global warming and environmental apocalypse, but their economic instrumentality but also for students’ school science rarely addresses the ways that ordinary right to learn these subjects for their own sake, as people can evaluate such claims. socially constructed and historical knowledge forms From a curriculum perspective, these concerns that contribute to human knowing and endeavors. and contestations translate into important questions Comparative studies of student attitudes and with which scholars and curriculum writers have engagement with STEM subjects show that attitudes grappled. These questions include the following: and aspirations toward science and mathematics are high in developing countries, coinciding with a com- How can science or mathematics curricula be struc- mitment to education more broadly as the key to tured to engage students in meaningful learning of economic betterment and social transformation. This ongoing value? This question encompasses decisions 4. Subject Matters of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics–•–29

about content in areas where knowledge is growing circumstances or literacy levels create barriers to exponentially and areas where there are interactions such participation. between scientific advances and personal and public Within science curriculum, these questions have lives. The question also recognizes the need to seen a shift from conceptions of science as an induc- include attention on the nature of knowledge and tion into future professional practice or research to practice in these subjects and not simply an introduc- conceptions of “scientific literacy,” which emphasize tion to a string of disconnected concepts and the need to provide a school science for all students processes. that focuses on content relevant to students’ current and future lives as they interact with scientific ques- To what extent should science and mathematics deal tions. This includes knowledge of interactions among with content specifics, versus more generalized science, technology, and society; of the nature of capabilities? In school mathematics, this question science (Lederman & Lederman, 2012); and of prac- emerges in relation to student ability to perform tices in science and the way evidence is generated mathematical operations and concepts, compared to and used to establish new knowledge. problem-solving capability. In science, it relates to Within mathematics curricula, the arguments for long-standing debates concerning content versus numerical literacy also apply, as the current economic process, or inquiry versus concept acquisition. utilitarianism that mathematics enjoys in our postin- dustrial society provides the case for a critical reading What are the fundamental purposes of the subject in of financial systems and economic development terms of the capabilities and orientations of individu- advocacies that, arguably, might prevent devastating als and societal needs? There are two competing global social consequences, such as those that were a agendas associated with this question—school sci- result of the global financial crisis of 2008. Thus, the ence and mathematics subjects framed according to discourses on “relevance” and the nature of the kinds the need to educate future professionals within of mathematics taught (abstract versus applied; con- STEM areas, or framed around the need to educate a ceptual versus procedural) have been the subject of citizenry more broadly around these knowledge heated arguments worldwide, exemplified vividly by forms and practices. the “back to basics” movement and the “math wars” in the United States and elsewhere (Appelbaum, What is the relation between the school subject and 2008b; Brown, 2001; Swanson, 2005, 2010). the practice of the discipline itself? To what extent should mathematics or science curricula involve practices used within the disciplines themselves, and Contemporary Concerns given the many different professional practices asso- This chapter frames curriculum in school science and ciated with these areas, which should be represented? mathematics relative to inquiry teaching and prob- This also goes to the question of why these selections lem solving and engagement of students in STEM should be chosen—what purposes are being valued, pathways, as well as raises a range of related social and in which contexts? justice issues concerning gender, social class, race, and culture. Should STEM curriculum address social justice issues, and what is the relation between STEM Inquiry in Science school subjects and citizen knowledge? Increasingly, in developed societies, citizens interact with and, Since post-Sputnik curriculum revisions of the arguably, need to make decisions based on knowl- 1960s, there has been persistent advocacy of scien- edge of mathematics, science, and technology. It is tific inquiry as a companion to products of science. often argued that lack of confidence and competence This focus has represented itself under various guises in these areas limits citizens’ agency, personally and since then, such as a focus on process skills in professionally, so that enlisting appreciation of and science, namely observation, questioning, hypothe- competence in these areas becomes important for all sizing, and designing experiments. Despite this long- citizens, including those whose socioeconomic standing advocacy, there is consistent evidence that 30–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

inquiry approaches are difficult to establish across all thinking, pedagogy, and practice are needed to rei- schools, often because of demands for content cover- magine mathematics education that can respond to age, lack of support for inquiry outcomes, and lack of the social and ecological conditions of today. resources. Research has generally demonstrated that Walkerdine (1989) addressed ways in which girls inquiry approaches lead to in-depth learning, but have been “counted out” of mathematics through these findings are not uniform, partly because the social constructions that position girls differentially term inquiry has come to be associated with a range in relation to mathematics, while Alan Bishop (1990) of practices (Anderson, 2002). Inquiry approaches argued that mathematics is the tool of Western impe- divide along two dimensions—the focus of inquiry, rialism. Likewise, Swanson (2005, 2010) has drawn either investigative skills or conceptual exploration; attention to the ways in which school mathematics is and the extent of student support, from guided to implicated in the intersectional injustices of race, open inquiry. A meta-analysis by Erin Marie Furtak class, poverty, gender, ableism, ageism, and other and colleagues (2012) concluded that engaging stu- social difference discourses as an effect of power dents in generating, developing, and justifying expla- relations. Swanson also drew attention to how math- nations as part of science activities generally resulted ematics and science have often acted as colonizing in significant learning advantages. This is consistent forces in developing indigenous contexts under with a framework developed by Michelene Chi neoliberal globalization. (2009) describing student learning activities at four levels—passive (students simply absorb what is pre- Engagement of Students in STEM sented), active (students actively respond to the teacher or task), constructive (students generate ideas Government concerns mostly focus on the eco- or models), and interactive (students dialogue, argue nomic imperative of an ongoing supply of profes- or justify, or jointly create ideas or models). There is sional scientists and engineers, yet there is a wider evidence of learning advantages as activities progress concern that all citizens should gain appreciation and from passive to interactive. knowledge of science and mathematics as integral Social justice issues in mathematics and science aspects of contemporary culture, occupations, and focus on questions of whom, where, and why there life. There is particular concern that students opting has been differential access to these subjects, and for lower level mathematics at secondary school cut why mathematics has been so socially and educa- off many future productive pathways for study and tionally divisive. Social dominance of mathematics work, and that their identity formation as scientifi- and science has endowed these subjects with particu- cally literate citizens also is curtailed. There is con- lar power and affect, and the “lure of objectivity” siderable evidence that, for the majority of students, afforded them has masked their less-than-democratic life aspirations are formed before the age of 14 and natures. Ole Skovsmose and Paolo Valero (2001) that engaging students in STEM pathways can asked whether mathematics itself or mathematics become increasingly difficult after the early second- education experiences have intrinsic resonance or ary school years if they decide that science and dissonance with democracy, suggesting that the only mathematics are not of primary interest. Thus, it is plausible approach would be one of critical perspec- important to engage students’ imagination in early tive and function. Dalene Swanson and Peter school years. Appelbaum (2012), drawing on the notion of “radical A considerable body of research has found that equality,” asked whether the position not to engage student aspirations with regard to STEM are signifi- with mathematics is in itself a democratic position in cantly mediated by a range of factors, including relation to mathematics education. Others have interest and self-efficacy. These relate to parental argued that mathematics needs to be accountable for expectations and encouragement, teacher support social injustice and that mathematics can and should and inspiration, career expectations and advice, be used to address, teach, and achieve social justice exposure to role models of successful adults, and ends. Appelbaum (2008a) reminded us of relations of perceptions of the usefulness of the subject. The con- power that reduce mathematics curriculum to simple struct of cultural capital (Bourdieu & Wacquant, slogans, and advocates that other alternatives of 1992) has been used to explain the influence of 4. Subject Matters of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics–•–31

parents in transmitting cultural practices and values and teachers on exposing girls to female role models to their children (Adamuti-Trache & Andres, 2008). and potential futures in STEM at an early age, as This issue of cultural capital also pertains to socio- well as providing mentoring to girls who, for instance, economic class in that the likelihood of young people choose an engineering career. Nevertheless, such from lower socioeconomic circumstances choosing a strategies need to go beyond these approaches to a career in one of the STEM subjects is considerably better investigation of the various underlying social lower than it is for their more privileged counter- and environmental codes at play that prevent girls’ parts. It also has relevance to gender, in that adults committed engagement with these scientific disci- often are found to have different expectations for plines. Research shows that boys tend to display male students compared to female students, even more interest in technical topics, while girls empha- when there are no cultural or empirical reasons size the social and personal value of science available for different expectations. (Schreiner & Sjøberg, 2007). This implies the need Work that addresses the intersectional influences for science and mathematics curricular content and of gender, race, class, poverty, and sociocultural and pedagogical approaches that are responsive to these political considerations in their often hidden effects different perspectives. on engagement with mathematics education, and the Two themes emerge from the literature on student influence of differential power relations in the con- engagement with learning: One is the importance of struction of disadvantage, also contributes to this encouragement to maintain students’ self-efficacy in debate (Swanson, 2005, 2006, 2010). In this latter order to enlist their continued engagement in math- respect, the concept of identity is increasingly used ematics and science. Resilience and optimism are to frame students’ responses to STEM. Identity for- important concepts (Williams, 2014) for teachers to mation is often mediated through questions such as understand students’ responses to science and “Is science for me?” or “Am I clever enough to do develop pedagogies that support and encourage the it?” (Aschbacher, Li, & Roth, 2010). It is argued that students. For mathematics, development of problem- for youth in late modern societies, with values such solving capabilities, and for science, engagement in as self-realization framing identity choices, science inquiry processes, are significant curriculum innova- teaching and mathematics teaching need to move tions that engage students. The second theme is away from their current strongly instrumentalist relevance, the increasingly prevalent social construc- emphases and value-free presumptions if they are to tivist view that mathematics and science need to be capture the imagination of young people. Glen linked with students’ lives, interests, and aspirations. Aikenhead (2006) argued that since learning science In contrast, despite many pedagogical initiatives is identity work, First Nations students, in the Cana- designed to engage students, schooling worldwide dian context, need to cross a significant border to still tends to be dominated by passive, instrumental, take on the perspectives and values of Western sci- “chalk-and-talk” modes of teaching. There is a need ence, which often contradict indigenous ways of to promote more varied pedagogies that challenge, knowing. He advocates “culturally responsive peda- interest, and support students and engage them in gogy,” which recognizes and pays respect to other authentic, contemporary, and imaginative science perspectives, in supporting students to engage with and mathematics work that will prepare them for science and mathematics. productive and fulfilling futures. Gender issues are analyzed through an identity lens, as well as sociocultural and political codes (Walkerdine, 1988, 1989). Despite decades of recog- Context nition of a gap in attitudes between boys and girls in the physical sciences and mathematics, there has A key change in education that occurred during the been little success in bridging this gap. Even where 20th century was the expansion of secondary educa- girls’ attainment levels are comparable, girls are less tion in industrialized countries to encompass the likely than boys to choose scientific careers. Support entire population rather than just an elite few selected for girls in developing an interest in science and to enter the professions. This implied for mathemat- mathematics has focused on working with parents ics and science the need to develop a curriculum that 32–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

catered for a much wider spectrum of students than with students and teachers to provide expertise and had hitherto been the case. For example, this led to contemporary perspectives. calls for science-for-all and mathematics-for-all movements. There were also moves toward inte- grated science that focused on cross-disciplinary Theoretical Perspectives topics. This shifted the aim of school science from being focused on science for future professionals to For both mathematics and science, a key theoretical consideration of the science needed for future citi- perspective on learning has been constructivism, zens more broadly. These ideas gradually consolidated which exerted considerable influence on approaches around the notion of scientific and mathematical lit- to teaching during the last 2 decades of the eracy. Hence, emphasis was placed on scientific 20th century. Constructivism is broadly based on ideas for citizens and making scientific information Jean Piaget’s theory of child development. For relevant to students’ personal and public lives. Piaget, child development involves many fundamen- Studies of the ways citizens interact with science tal shifts in perspective as children learn to make show their different needs compared to those of sense of the world. In mathematics, radical construc- future disciplinary professionals. For instance, anal- tivism (von Glasersfeld, 1995) holds that we cannot ysis of studies of a range of cases where citizens talk about knowledge as certain and defined, but that interact with science (e.g., people arguing about the our ways of knowing are adaptations to help us oper- placement of a municipal landfill or parents dealing ate in the world. In science, constructivism was with doctors concerning their Down syndrome drawn from a pragmatic assumption that we con- child) concluded that knowledge of the way science struct knowledge to make sense of the world. Knowl- works was more useful to citizens in interacting edge so conceived cannot simply be transferred by with science and scientists than were specific con- textbooks to students. For constructivists, learning is cepts (Ryder, 2001). Paralleling this is the growing an act of creation and ultimately the responsibility of concern of a perceived lack of public support for individuals as they strive to make sense of the world. scientific and technological advances. Widespread Social constructivists in mathematics education anti-evolution beliefs and challenges to the “objec- looked to the work of Lev Vygotsky (1981) and his tivity” of science, such as political and public zone of proximal development theory to argue that opposition to scientific positions on climate change, how children come to know is mediated in the social alongside reduced proportions of students engaging environment by more capable peers. in STEM pathways, have raised questions about the Learning significant concepts, therefore, is not a need for citizens to better understand the nature of matter of “pouring in” knowledge but, rather, shifting science and its relevance to society. Thus, scientific students’ perspectives—in constructivist terms— literacy, which is the core framing purpose in many from pre-existing conceptions. Research has uncov- countries’ science curricula, focuses on the need for ered students’ “naïve conceptions” about, for instance, citizens to be able to use scientific ideas to reason force and motion, which are similar to very early and develop explanations and understand the scientific ideas and can act to block students’ learning historical and social epistemic (knowledge- of contemporary science ideas. Many naïve ideas that producing) processes of science. Recent curricula in children bring to school in science are associated with science tend to include not only conceptual everyday language, such as using the word suction to knowledge but also strands in inquiry skills (inves- explain air pressure phenomena; or metaphorical uses tigative procedures) and contemporary interactions of the words force, energy, or respiration that are not between science and society, often on health and aligned with the scientific concepts; or similar uses of sustainability. factor and center that are not aligned with their use in Alongside the formal curriculum, there are mathematics. The link among language, learning, and increasing partnerships between schools and the sci- thought is crucial to the way we think about learning entific community in which scientists and scientific in school science and mathematics. Vygotsky argued organizations, including museums, resource centers, that the way we think is fundamentally mediated by and outdoor science learning environments, interact language. Research by Bruno Latour (1999) and 4. Subject Matters of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics–•–33

others focusing on ways that scientists generate refined as conditions in schools change and new knowledge has shown knowledge creation to be ideas and resources are developed. Video and digital inevitably tied to the negotiation of material and con- communication opens possibilities for sharing ceptual artifacts such as models (e.g., the double helix between teachers and researchers. The capacity to or modern digital simulations), images (e.g., Michael pinpoint, represent and replay, and share classroom Faraday’s generation-of-field line drawings or false video recordings offers rich ways of thinking about color electron micrographs), or data representations student and teacher learning and development. (tables and 3D graphs). Thus, we have come to realize Teaching and learning science and mathematics is how learning science and learning mathematics are becoming an increasingly global practice (Atweh & intensely multimodal activities (Ainsworth, Prain, & Clarkson, 2001). International testing regimes such Tytler, 2011). Learning in science and mathematics is as PISA and TIMSS have allowed countries to com- now seen as a process of induction into the discursive pare their performance across a range of dimensions, (language) practices of the discipline, with language and this has been an important catalyst in many being understood as including not simply natural countries for policy development and change. These language but multimodal representations. Modes and testing regimes have not always brought progress, as models that are used influence strongly what scien- government education ministries have often swayed tific knowledge can be produced and what limits to toward instrumentalist curricula and pedagogic knowing can be challenged. From this perspective, approaches in an attempt to satisfy the cries of indus- inquiry approaches to school science and mathe- try and provide the nation-state with competitive matics involve students engaged in generating, economic advantage in the global arena. At the same re- representing, and coordinating multimodal repre- time, the possibility to communicate and share video sentations to develop reasoned explanations (Tytler, has spawned a number of projects on the teaching of Prain, Hubber, & Waldrip, 2013). science or mathematics in different countries, in order to study commonalities and differences, such as the different language used to describe classroom Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression activity. These projects have illuminated the particu- lar cultural practices we would otherwise think of as Studies of student learning in science and mathemat- unproblematic and inevitable. The move by many ics have substantially moved from psychology countries to incorporate Japanese lesson study in laboratories to classrooms over the last 4 decades, mathematics, an approach to teacher professional sacrificing specificity and control for valuable learning based on teams developing and refining insights that can come from studying learning in its mathematics lessons, is a case in point. On the other natural environment. Classroom studies analyzing hand, however, the problem with many such initia- teacher and student talk, for instance, have provided tives is that they often underconsider the cultural insights into student reasoning, argumentation, and specifics that make something successful in one the conditions under which groups can operate context and not in another. Even more problematic effectively. This has included work drawing on com- has been their politicization in the ways in which cur- plexity science to better understand how the ecology ricular projects have been directly imported to other of the entire classroom environment works to influ- countries with simplistic understandings of their ence children’s mathematics learning (Davis & promised success. An example of this was the ways Simmt, 2003). some U.S. school districts adopted the Singapore Quality recorded video for playback and analysis mathematics curriculum in hopes of boosting allows researchers to study the ways that teachers achievement in mathematics without considering the coordinate multimodal resources and interact with completely different cultural, political, and linguistic groups of students using talk and gesture. These differences between the two contexts, thus failing in images show promise of being valuable for teacher their expectations. professional learning. For many years researchers More widely, country comparisons of STEM pol- have worked with teachers to study the conditions icy and provision can help illuminate political under which innovation is employed and pedagogies and cultural structures underpinning curriculum and 34–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

broader policy framing (Freeman, Marginson, & sits: Squabbles over content, sequencing, pedagogy, Tytler, 2015) and help map trajectories as different age-appropriateness, and so on, for any school sub- groupings of countries (postindustrial, post- jects, integrated with others or not, narrow our focus Confucian, developing) examine and develop their too much to enable us to appreciate the global crises STEM curriculum policy and practice. in the relationships among education, society, and the We end with a stark reminder that the study of ecosystems in which we live. Curriculum studies nature and natural phenomena, and the solution to perspectives can provide critical understanding of significant environmental problems threatening to these crises, if we could avoid such reductive tenden- end the planet’s ecological life (including humans) as cies. Curriculum traditions, insofar as they represent we know it, falls within STEM. Thus the teaching of disciplinary interests and learning associated with science and mathematics with this ethical conscious- them, while important, lead us away from the need to ness and priority is a moral imperative. Sadly, there embrace the transformative potential of education. are so many forces reducing science to mere “fun” Science and mathematics, given their weight and (Appelbaum & Clark, 2001) that this actually cache in the social domain, could lead the way to obscures the moral imperative in favor of entertain- address significant personal and social imperatives, ment. This might be the most significant “lesson” both locally and globally, as central curricular from STEM for the entire guide in which this chapter concerns.

References and Further Readings Atweh, W., & Clarkson, P. (2001). Internationalization and globalization of mathematics education: Adamuti-Trache, M., & Andres, L. (2008). Embarking on Towards an agenda for research/action. In and persisting in scientific fields of study: Cultural W. Atweh, H. Forgasz, & B. Nebres (Eds.), capital, gender, and curriculum along the science Sociocultural research on mathematics education pipeline. International Journal of Science Education, (pp. 77–94). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 30(12), 1557–1584. Bishop, A. J. (1990). Western mathematics: The secret Aikenhead, G. (2006). Science education for everyday weapon of cultural imperialism. Race and Class, life: Evidence-based practice. New York, NY: 3(51). Retrieved from http://www.geocities.ws/ Teachers College Press. biajone/ppt2/article2.pdf Ainsworth, S., Prain, V., & Tytler, R. (2011, August 26). Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. (1992). An invitation to Drawing to learn in science. Science, 333, reflexive sociology. Chicago, IL: University of 1096–1097. Chicago Press. Anderson, R. (2002). Reforming science teaching: What Brown, S. (2001). Reconstructing school mathematics: research says about inquiry. Journal of Science Problems with problems and the real world. New Teacher Education, 13(1), 1–12. York, NY: Peter Lang. Appelbaum, P. (2008a). Afterword: Bootleg mathematics. Chi, M. (2009). Active-constructive-interactive: In E. de Freitas & K. Nolan (Eds.), Opening the A conceptual framework for differentiating learning research text: Critical insights and in(ter)ventions activities. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1, 73–105. into mathematics education Davis, B., & Simmt, E. (2003). Understanding learning (pp. 221–248). New York, NY: Springer. systems: Mathematics teaching and complexity Appelbaum, P. (2008b). Embracing mathematics: On science. Journal for Research in Mathematics becoming a teacher and changing with mathematics. Education, 34, 137–167. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Freeman, B., Marginson, S., & Tytler, R. (Eds.). (2015). Appelbaum, P., & Clark, S. (2001). Science! Fun? The age of STEM: Policy and practice in science, A critical analysis of design/content/evaluation. technology, engineering and mathematics across the Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33(5), 583–600. world. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Aschbacher, P., Li, E., & Roth, E. (2010). Is science me? Furtak, E. M., Seidel, T., Iverson, H., & Briggs, D. C. High school students’ identities, participation and (2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental aspirations in science, engineering, and medicine. studies of inquiry-based science teaching: Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47, A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 564–582. 82(3), 300–329. 4. Subject Matters of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics–•–35

Latour, B. (1999). Pandora’s hope: Essays on the reality In J. Novotná, H. Moraová, M. Kráatká, & N. of science studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Stehliková (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th University Press. Conference of the International Group for the Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. S. (2012). Nature of Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 5, scientific knowledge and scientific inquiry. In pp. 217–224). Prague, Czech Republic: PME. B. Fraser, K. Tobin, & C. McRobbie (Eds.), Second Swanson, D. M. (2010). Paradox and politics of international handbook of science education disadvantage: Narrativizing critical moments of (pp. 335–360). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. discourse and mathematics pedagogy within the Ryder, J. (2001). Identifying science understanding for “glocal.” In M. Walshaw (Ed.), Unpacking functional scientific literacy. Studies in Science pedagogy: New perspectives for mathematics Education, 36, 1–42. (pp. 245–263). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Schreiner, C., & Sjøberg, S. (2007). Science education Publishing. and youth’s identity construction—Two Swanson, D. M., & Appelbaum, P. (2012). Refusal as a incompatible projects? In D. Corrigan, J. Dillon, & democratic catalyst for mathematics education R. Gunstone (Eds.), The re-emergence of values in development. Pythagoras, 33(2), 1–6. the science curriculum (pp. 231–247). Rotterdam, Tytler, R., Prain, V., Hubber, P., & Waldrip, B. (Eds.). Netherlands: Sense. (2013). Constructing representations to learn in Skovsmose, O., & Valero, P. (2001). Breaking political science. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense. neutrality: The critical engagement of mathematics von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical constructivism: education with democracy. In W. Atweh, H. A way of knowing and learning (Studies in Forgasz, & B. Nebres (Eds.), Sociocultural research Mathematics Education Series: 6). Bristol, UK: on mathematics education (pp. 37–56). Mahwah, NJ: Falmer. Lawrence Erlbaum. Vygotsky, L. (1981). Thought and language (Revised by Swanson, D. M. (2005). School mathematics: Discourse A. Kozulin, Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. and the politics of context. In A. Chronaki & Walkerdine, V. (1988). The mastery of reason: Cognitive I. M. Christiansen (Eds.), Challenging perspectives development and the production of rationality. on mathematics classroom communication London, UK: Routledge. (pp. 261–294). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Walkerdine, V. (1989). Counting girls out. London, UK: Publishing. Virago Press. Swanson, D. M. (2006). Power and poverty—Whose, Williams, G. (2014). Optimistic problem-solving activity: where, and why? School mathematics, context and Enacting confidence, persistence, and perseverance. the social construction of “disadvantage.” ZDM Mathematics Education, 46, 407–422. 5

SUBJECT MATTERS OF SOCIAL STUDIES

YOONJUNG CHOI Ewha Womans University

KATHRYN WEGNER Grinnell College

or nearly 100 years social studies has been a The term social studies is commonly used as a vital part of school curricula across the United conceptual umbrella to refer to “coordinated, sys- FStates. The century saw the definition, nature, tematic study” under which “disciplines [such] as purpose, and content of social studies subjected to anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, endless debate, or “wars” (Evans, 2004), while its history, law, philosophy, political science, psychol- inclusion in the school curriculum was rarely ques- ogy, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate tioned. But now in the 21st century the very existence content from the humanities, mathematics, and natu- of social studies as a school subject is uncertain, ral sciences” are embedded (p. 3). However, what which also threatens the viability of research on constitutes good citizenship, what type of citizens social studies curriculum. should be cultivated, and how and what we should First conceived by a National Education Associa- teach is still contentious. Since the early 2000s, as tion (NEA) committee, social studies was defined in the neoliberal reform movement has vigorously chal- its 1916 report as subject matter within history, geog- lenged the state’s provision of public schooling and raphy, and the social sciences that promoted citizen- the very notion that schooling should be a public ship and invigorated democracy (U.S. Bureau of good, social studies has lacked a function. Further- Education, 1916). The goals of social studies to build more, the elevation of a standards and accountability an efficient citizenry mirrored the broader mission of movement that measures and assigns value to literacy public, state-funded schooling to promote demo- and mathematical knowledge over other subjects cratic citizenship, unity, and social cohesion. Today, means that social studies is increasingly marginalized social studies is defined by the National Council for (Vinson, Ross, & Wilson, 2012). the Social Studies (2010) as “an integrated study of This chapter explores the state of social studies the social sciences and humanities to promote civic curriculum given this contemporary context and competence” whose primary purpose is “to help maps out the debates, context, and theoretical young people make informed and reasoned decisions approaches of social studies research. Our narrative for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, explains how social studies emerged in school cur- democratic society in an interdependent world” (p. 3). riculum and then developed into an area of scholarly

36 5. Subject Matters of Social Studies–•–37

research. From curriculum development to theoreti- imperial, Eurocentric focus and stereotyped under- cal inquiries, social studies research is often con- standings of the world that marginalize the stories and cerned with the possibilities of improving society voices of people in and from “the other” sides of the through social education (Woyshner, Watras, & world (Subedi, 2010). Current national and state Crocco, 2004). In summary, this chapter reviews the social studies curriculum standards appear to superfi- recent literature and documents on the social studies cially touch upon globalization as a curriculum topic published during the past 10 years; synthesizes pro- without depth and complexity, if it is discussed at all. posed key issues of the field; identifies three emerging Global educators problematized the social studies contemporary concerns in social studies curriculum curricula’s strong emphasis on nation building and its research; and, finally, sketches the scholarly inqui- nationalistic filters that force students to see global ries, practical implications, and policy matters of the issues through the lens of their country’s national field. To navigate this quirky field is tricky, and we interests and governmental policy (Merryfield, 2012). offer this chapter as a place to begin. In the 21st century, technology appears as an effective educational mechanism to facilitate global communi- cation, promote global awareness, and foster global Contemporary Concerns About participation. Yet, the ways in which technology the Social Studies Curriculum mediates, or complicates, students’ learning about the world—and the current states of equal access, techno- “We build and teach social studies from where we logical infrastructure, and teacher training—have are” (Cherryholmes, 2006, p. 256). The social stud- been underresearched (Maguth, 2012). ies curriculum is shaped by contemporary global and Considering that there has been a multiplicity of local issues. This section explores social studies in epistemological and practical discourses on what it relation to globalization, diversity, and the era of means to be a global citizen and how one learns to be accountability, assessment, and standards-based one, teaching and learning global connection and movement. citizenship in the social studies requires more dia- logue and implementation (Gaudelli, 2009). Key questions that are worth further exploration include: Global Connection and Citizenship What are the meaningful ways students engage com- Across the globe, racial, ethnic, cultural, linguis- peting worldviews through various means and tech- tic, and religious diversity is increasing within and nological tools? How do students learn to make across nations and redefining citizenship as an idea globally responsible and ethical decisions as citizens that extends beyond national borders. Controversial of their nation and members of the global society? global issues and events, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the subsequent war in Iraq, displayed the Diversity and Citizenship Education contradictions and ambiguities embedded in global- ization. New communication technologies and infor- As the last century progressed, the citizenship mation networks enable hundreds of millions of aims of the social studies curriculum, its implemen- people around the world to gain access to vast infor- tation in the classroom, and curricular and pedagogi- mation and take action. Social studies educators have cal discourses over the field have been (trans)formed raised questions regarding the ways globalization and (re)envisioned as racial, ethnic, linguistic, reli- and technology influence the lives of youth and have gious, sexual, and other forms of diversity. Yet, called for the need to critically reexamine ways of social studies curriculum has frequently been cri- teaching global citizenship and learning about the tiqued for its tokenistic approach to diversity and world. social justice, marginalization of the stories of Sadly, social studies education has not been effec- minorities, and inadequate images and descriptions tive in teaching students about the complex forma- of those who enriched our multicultural society tions of global history, culture, and identities and (Banks, 2007; Woyshner et al., 2004). Gloria preparing them for global citizenship. The social Ladson-Billings (2003) poignantly bemoaned the studies curriculum has long been criticized for its absence of race talk, the use of soft touch toward the 38–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

issues of racism, and the propagation of an American social studies, as technical knowledge and skills in history narrative that perpetuates racial hierarchy and the subject area are promoted. Furthermore, many maintains White privilege. Scholarship related to agonize over whether to support high-stakes social gender has not received much attention despite studies testing in order to save the field from extinc- women’s continuous as well as substantial contribu- tion. Although omission from standardized tests is tion to citizenship education and the social studies often welcomed, it has been evident that social stud- curriculum during the past century. Discourses on ies is relegated to the sidelines, as tests determine sexual orientation, class, and religion have almost what is important (Vinson et al., 2012). been unheard (Levstik & Tyson, 2008). The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) Initia- As immigrant children having diverse cultural and tive has brought forth additional challenges to the linguistic backgrounds comprise a rapidly growing social studies. The current Race to the Top scheme student population in the U.S. schools, social studies under the Obama administration supports the “ college is facing new possibilities and challenges today. and career readiness anchored” CCSS and encour- Almost 41% of teachers nationwide have had new- ages states to adopt the initiative and to develop core- comer English language learners (ELLs) in their aligned standardized tests. Currently there are no classrooms (Cruz & Thornton, 2013). Unfortunately, stand-alone Common Core standards for social stud- but not surprisingly, immigrant students reportedly ies. The grades 6 to 12 Literacy in History/Social experience multiple challenges to making sense of Studies Standards are embedded in the English Lan- the traditionally White, Eurocentric social studies guage Arts Standards. The widely defined 10 curriculum and to building relationships with inade- thematic strands of the National Council for the quately trained teachers of ELLs, which contributes Social Studies (NCSS) have been suggested as a to their academic failure and disengagement from framework of the K–12 social studies curriculum learning (Cruz & Thornton, 2013). Given the multi- since 1994, and again when revised in 2010, yet only cultural and linguistic diversity of students in schools, as a voluntary guideline (National Council for the critical questions involving the social studies include Social Studies, 2010). In opposition to the CCSS, how the curriculum should respond to changes in the which institutionalizes social studies’ diminution in student population and how opportunities to facili- the elementary school curriculum and uses the sub- tate ELLs’ growth as knowledgeable and responsible ject as a vehicle for literacy instruction, the College, citizens should be provided. Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Inquiry in Social Studies State Standards, currently under Social Studies in the Era of Accountability, development by NCSS, focuses on the subject area’s Assessment, and Standards-Based Movement disciplinary and multidisciplinary concepts and practices. The prevailing circumstances of standards-based Again, conflicting views on curriculum standard- educational reform, assessment, and accountability ization and testing exist. Some argue that the CCSS are critical contextual elements to make sense of the of social studies as a stand-alone subject need to be contemporary social studies curricular and pedagogi- developed since social studies is in danger of being a cal concerns. Since the passing of the federal No second-tier subject that may barely be taught or Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), social stud- touched upon in literacy instruction under the current ies has been intensely marginalized and placed on the CCSS initiative. Others oppose the standardization back burner in school classrooms. The instructional of the social studies curriculum as it may serve as a time for social studies has been significantly reduced, mechanism to adopt CCSS-aligned textbooks and to the point of nonexistence in some cases in elemen- curriculum guides with social studies reading pas- tary grades, in favor of reading, writing, and math, sages lacking content of history, geography, and the the focus of NCLB’s accountability measures. social sciences and, thus, to control the official Such a politicized pedagogical climate places knowledge and skills that students learn in school social studies educators in a difficult position. Many (Vinson et al., 2012). Social studies research on the social studies educators bemoan the decreasing issues of assessment, accountability, and standard- emphasis on democratic citizenship as aims of the ization has been insufficient. More inquiry is needed 5. Subject Matters of Social Studies–•–39

to provide a clear theoretical framework and a solid, The report’s legitimacy and notoriety stemmed in research-based grounding to the field and to support part from the NEA Committee’s conveners, Thomas educators to make informed, responsible curricular Jesse Jones and Arthur William Dunn, who were also and political decisions. employees of the Federal Bureau of Education. State legislators and local educationalists were amenable to the report’s suggested reorientation of the curricu- Context lum as it fit perfectly into an emerging mission to use public schools to raise patriotic citizens during As a deliberately constructed school subject with World War I and after. State legislators complied, clear points of origin, social studies has long been a and between 1919 and 1921, 18 states passed legisla- topic of historical inquiry. Understanding the histori- tion inspired by the report that required public cal and political contexts in which social studies cur- schools to teach some combination of patriotism, ricula are embedded is a necessary prerequisite for citizenship, and U.S. history (Peirce, 1926). In 1923, social studies curricularists, for curriculum only 19 other states joined the movement, mandating the makes sense if you know the context (Pinar, 2008). implementation of a social studies curriculum The first national pattern of social studies curricu- (Peirce, 1926). lum is traceable to the traditional history curriculum The social studies movement fostered the devel- as proposed by the NEA’s Committee of Ten in 1893 opment of problem-based citizenship education and the American Historical Association’s Commit- where teachers and students identified social issues tee of Seven in 1898 (Thornton, 2005). Yet historians and acted on them, an approach that regarded all have typically traced the subject’s origin to the NEA students as citizens no matter their age or nationality. Committee on the Social Studies (1913–1916) whose The report recommended course additions of “Com- curricular visions eventually became the dominant munity Civics” in the eighth grade and “Problems of curricular pattern for most of the 20th century Democracy” in the twelfth grade. This oft-called (Evans, 2004). Proclaiming that a modern education “new civics” eschewed the view that civics is merely should develop social efficiency through curricular the memorization of political facts, instead favoring explorations of social content, the Committee’s 1916 the Deweyan view that students act as participatory report defined social studies as a subject matter that citizens and practice democracy through cooperation “relates directly to the organization and development and community building (Evans, 2004). of human society” and laid out a plan to restructure From its very beginning, whether social studies the history and geography curriculum to emphasize promoted subservience or social justice was in con- the present and promote “efficient” and “good” citi- tention. According to David Warren Saxe (1991), the zenship (U.S. Bureau of Education, 1916, p. 17). report’s conferees harmonized social control and Social studies, unlike the broader social education, social justice, the two competing goals of education. pursued a specific agenda to use selected content in Ronald Evans (2004) emphasized the role of Thomas the social sciences, history, and geography to develop Jesse Jones as a creator of social studies, who was students’ capacity as democratic citizens (Saxe, motivated by a desire to Americanize immigrants. 1991). In this new era of compulsory schooling laws Immigrants overpopulated American schools, partic- and rising high school attendance, the report declared ularly in urban areas where the foreign-born popula- that the “conscious and constant” purpose of school- tion was often more than twice the national figure of ing be “the cultivation of good citizenship” (U.S. 13% according to U.S. Census data in 1920. Over half Bureau of Education, 1916, p. 17). Social studies was of the foreign-born populations were noncitizens, not to be a unified course or a replacement for history which brought even more urgency to the need for citi- (Fallace, 2009). Instead the mission was to reorient zenship instruction. Ultimately, proponents of social the goals of the curriculum toward creating coopera- studies agreed that citizenship was in crisis. John tive citizens and understanding present social condi- Dewey and Harold Rugg’s vision of schools as labo- tions. In 1921 the fledgling NCSS further clarified, ratories for democracy and participation was coun- defining it as a “federation rather than a fusion of the tered by social efficiency educators’ view that social social studies subjects” (Hertzberg, 1981, p. 37). studies could be used to achieve social efficiency if 40–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

content such as instruction in “American ideals,” content is determined by the nation’s largest mar- which best “fit social needs,” was emphasized kets. In states where school textbooks are selected ( Fallace, 2009; Kliebard, 2004). by the State Board of Education, which include Social studies curriculum remained contentious California and Texas, the social studies curriculum through the middle part of the 20th century, most has generated statewide public debate. Always polit- notably as fodder for political debate in the social ically charged, the social studies curriculum is an revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s. At stake contin- ideal place for conservative and liberal groups in the ued to be the function of social studies. Was the promotion of their own social agendas to reinforce purpose of social studies curriculum to advance or to revoke the current social order (Woyshner social justice, activism, and the rights of citizenship, et al., 2004). or to foster patriotism, unity, and a responsible citi- Pedagogical debates over whether content should zenry? The curricular legacies of the civil rights be delivered or explored and how to balance between movement and the women’s movement maturing in historical narrative and skill have also shaped the the late 1970s and 1980s attempted to revise the social studies curriculum. In the open schooling and hegemonic historical and social narratives transmit- counterculture, free school movements of the 1960s, ted through traditional social studies curricula. pedagogical innovations that emphasized self- Ethnic and women’s studies courses at the secondary directed and inquiry- or project-based learning and collegiate levels taught history and social issues reconfigured how students learned about social relevant to Native Americans, African Americans, issues (Totten & Pedersen, 2007). The vision of the Latinos/as, Asians, and women. This additive teachers as curricular and instructional “gatekeepers” approach offered a counterpoint to curriculum that who ultimately determine how curriculum is materi- emphasized the deeds of “great White men.” By the alized in the classroom and must be empowered to 1980s and 1990s, many educational activists favored make informed, responsible curricular decisions sug- a complete revision of the standard narrative over the gested influential curricular and pedagogical impli- additive approach. The multicultural or bottom-up cations in the social studies scholarship and practice historical narrative by Howard Zinn popularized in since the 1990s (Thornton, 2005). Like the curricu- the 1980s gained favor as it replaced White, male lum standards of NCSS of 1994, revised in 2010, that actors with people of color and women, as well as offer a thematic structure based on skills and ideas, emphasized exploitation, conflict, and struggle. The social studies scholar Sam Wineburg and projects “history wars” and the battle for a multicultural cur- like the National History Day have emphasized the riculum continued to influence the content of social value in the transferable skills acquired by students studies curriculum into the 1990s, even as critics on who learn to think like historians. This perspective the left charged that much of the curriculum actually argues that teaching students to evaluate, analyze, implemented in schools was a rather superficial and synthesize primary and secondary sources in exploration of non-White heroes and holidays. As order to form their own conclusions is an essential efforts to make social studies education multicultural skill for democratic citizens (Wineburg, 2001). became commonplace, true integration, structural The historical and political contexts discussed in reform, and eventually social action were sometimes this section are essential to understanding con- realized (Banks, 2007). temporary social studies research. How inquiries in More critical educational theorists have social studies are currently undertaken is what we denounced revisions of the social studies school turn to now. curriculum, especially the frameworks provided by NCSS, for leaving anti-racist, anti-oppressive, and “critical multicultural social studies” orientations on Theory the fringe (Ladson-Billings, 2003). Supplementary materials produced by Rethinking Schools, Teach- It is only in recent years that theory informs much of ing Tolerance, and Teaching for Change help fill social studies research. Drawing upon William the demand for critical social studies curricula set Pinar’s (2008, 2013) curriculum theories, this section by textbooks in which narrative structure and discusses multidiscursive academic efforts shaping 5. Subject Matters of Social Studies–•–41

the social studies curricular discourses. Traditional- Scholarly and practical interest in globalizing ists epitomize the field’s positivist origins, posit social studies curriculum is not a new trend, yet has social studies as a disciplinary subject matter, and started receiving its much deserved attention since work to serve educators by developing and evaluat- the 1990s. Edward Said’s postcolonial theory and ing curricula. Their works have intended to make use John Willinsky’s account of education at empire’s of the conventional wisdom of the field and have end influenced global educators to analyze how the been dedicated to the improvement of schools educational legacy of imperialism shape the official (Thornton, 2005). The traditional curriculum devel- knowledge of the social studies and to (re)question opment model based on means–ends approach is what it means to teach for and about global citizenship evident in Ralph Tyler’s rationale of curricular deci- (Subedi, 2010). sion making and Hilda Taba’s social studies program These critiques of traditional curriculum study did and is often involved in NCSS. not develop in isolation, but instead overlapped, Since the 1980s, nontraditionalists have responded together influencing the new path in social studies to multiple intellectual developments. The reconcep- curriculum studies that emerged. The openness to tualization of curriculum studies challenged social theorize instead of develop curriculum is liberating studies researchers to disclose the value-laden per- for social studies scholars, but it leaves the purpose spective of their research and abandon a “techni- of the social studies as ambiguous as ever. Whether cian’s mentality” (Pinar, 2013, p. 154). Curriculum social studies is for promoting patriotism, social was no longer defined as prescriptive teaching activism, democratic participation, local/community guides for school contexts, but as a life experience or awareness, and/or individual rights and responsibili- endeavor, a continuous theorizing about what is ties, or to serve as a medium for anti-racist and worthwhile (Schubert, 2008). Exploring social stud- anti-oppressive education toward social justice, is ies curriculum post-reconceputalization produced unsurprisingly unsettled. scholarship that applied social analysis to social studies learning, uncovering the taken-for-granted elements in our everyday experiences and making Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression them the target of inquiry, in and out of school contexts (Ross, 2006). Social studies is not wedded to a singular research The traditional meaning and function of the social paradigm. Social studies was once apprehensive studies curriculum and its often unintended, hidden about the intellectual uncertainty and the conflict- yet realistic outcomes were questioned and chal- ing epistemologies in its field of research lenged during the 1980s and 1990s. Theorizing what ( Barton, 2006). However, such uncertainty serves knowledge best produced social mobility for under- as the driving force of curriculum research that served students—hegemonic knowledge as social diversifies its ways of imagining, questioning, and capital, or official knowledge regarding power and knowing and also supports the possibility to grow resistance—occupied the energies of political cur- multiple forms of inquiry and modes of representa- riculum theorists and/or critical pedagogues Paulo tion (Short, 1991). This section adopts Schubert’s Freire, Henry Giroux, Michael Apple, and Joe (2008) four research paradigms—empirical- Kincheloe. As postmodernism and structuralism analytic, hermeneutic, critical, and postmodern— spread within the field of social studies, dialogues and a neo-Deweyan view of curriculum inquiry about social studies curricular meanings that are (varied, yet overlapping with the paradigms) to “shifting, receding, fractured, incomplete, dispersed, explore the dynamic lenses conceptualizing today’s and deferred” have emerged (Pinar, 2008, p. 497; social studies. Segall, Heilman, & Cherryholmes, 2006). Mean- Social studies curricular inquiry within and across while, the multicultural education movement of the varied paradigms and methodologies has tradition- time period influenced many social studies educators ally relied on empirical-analytic approaches based on to advocate for content and pedagogical strategies quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods (Barton, that reflect the nation’s ever-increasing diversity 2006). Empirical studies drawing upon evidence- (Banks, 2007). based methods aim to provide—and indeed offer, 42–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

though at varying degrees—insights for understand- A Requiem in Four Acts, dealt with the controversial ing site-based issues of the social studies, developing social issues surfaced by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, instructional methods, and designing curriculum providing an opportunity to renew the American con- materials. The development of hermeneutic thinking versation on race, class, and citizenship. Transforma- in the social studies curriculum has been less visible, tional pedagogical forms and revisionist dialogues by yet such a paradigm has created meaningful dia- historians like Howard Zinn (1995), James Loewen logues about multiple interpretations and under- (1995/2007), and Ronald Takaki (1993) contributed standings of interactive nature of the curriculum and to a larger consideration in the field of social studies global citizenship education ( Gaudelli, 2009). on the ways to think and teach beyond the classic Critical/social justice inquiry has analyzed power textbook-driven curriculum. Their texts, revealing and emancipation in the curricular discourses of the the ways in which the social studies can reproduce social studies, notably race-based epistemology or hegemonic historical narratives of the U.S. past and critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 2003), and a conceal the oppression and injustice of it, have growing line of inquiry on culturally and linguisti- widely been read by classroom teachers and recently cally relevant pedagogy for newcomers and ELLs been published as children’s versions (Takaki, 2012; (Cruz & Thornton, 2013). Postmodern, poststruc- Zinn, 2007/2009). tural, and/or postcolonial lenses have shaped Despite social studies educators’ continuous interesting and powerful discourses on the social efforts to work with myriad forms of theoretical para- studies, interrogating complex individual and public digms and curriculum inquiry, social studies is an identities and making diverse meanings out of the underresearched field that still has much to be imag- social studies curriculum through various means ined, interrogated, and conversed (Levstik & Tyson, such as narratives, voices, and autobiography 2008). How social studies research can diversify the (Segall et al., 2006; Subedi, 2010). questions asked in the field, integrate eclectic cur- Relatively young fields of inquiry in the field riculum paradigms, and thus envision the social stud- include, but not limited to, historiography, or curric- ies curriculum in creative and innovative ways is a ulum history, that has illuminated the critical influ- significant question to ask to move the field ence of sociocultural milieu on the social studies forward. policy, practice, and curriculum development; action research and self-study, which has provided practical ways to improve social studies teaching and teacher Conclusion practice; and comparative/international research that has broadened our view of the curriculum Social studies as a field of inquiry is wide and varied, (Barton, 2006). as scholars continue to debate the critical issues of In terms of the modes of expression, scholarly purpose, utility, and practice. The evolution of social papers tend to be the dominant representation of the studies scholarship employing myriad theoretical and social studies inquiry, like in other subject areas methodological approaches illustrates the dynamic (Schubert, 2008). Research journals in the field, nature of this area of inquiry. However, as of 2014 notably Theory and Research in Social Education, social studies school curriculum faces its greatest and practitioner-oriented publications, such as Social challenges as public schools are consistently declared Education and The Social Studies, offer an array of failing by increasingly dubious yardsticks and restruc- academic, practical, and policy discourses on the tured by standards-based, assessment-driven reform social studies curriculum and pedagogy. Media and movements. It is for this precise reason that we pop-culture (i.e., games, television, documentary, implore new scholars, caring educators, and informed music, art) have gained growing attention as new practitioners to enter the discussions around social curricular texts and pedagogic tools (Maguth, 2012). studies curriculum and to envision the next moments An innovative curriculum project, Teaching the of the field. Let’s not only bemoan social studies’ Levees: A Curriculum for Democratic Dialogue and marginalization but also harness the audacious spirit Civic Engagement (Crocco, 2007), based on Spike of the founders of social studies to elucidate why this Lee’s documentary film When the Levees Broke: area of inquiry is more important than ever. 5. Subject Matters of Social Studies–•–43

References and Further Readings and thoughts (pp. 57–76). Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Banks, J. A. (2007). Educating citizens in a multicultural National Council for the Social Studies. (2010). society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers National curriculum standards for social studies: College Press. A framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. Barton, K. (Ed.). (2006). Research methods in social Silver Springs, MD: National Council for the Social studies education: Contemporary issues and Studies. perspectives. Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Peirce, B. L. (1926). Public opinion and the teaching of Cherryholmes, C. H. (Ed.). (2006). Vision, consequences, history. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. and the construction of social studies education. In Pinar, W. F. (2008). Curriculum theory since 1950: A. Segall, E. E. Heilman, & C. H. Cherryholmes Crisis, reconceptualization, and internationalization. (Eds.), Social studies—The next generation: In F. M. Connelly, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), Re-searching in the postmodern (pp. 255–256). The SAGE handbook of curriculum and instruction New York, NY: Peter Lang. (pp. 491–513). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Crocco, M. S. (Ed.). (2007). Teaching the levees: Pinar, W. F. (2013). The reconceptualization of A curriculum for democratic dialogue and civic curriculum studies. In D. J. Flinders & engagement. New York, NY: Teachers College Press S. J. Thornton (Eds.), The curriculum studies reader Cruz, B. C., & Thornton, S. J. (2013). Teaching social (4th ed., pp. 149–156). New York, NY: Routledge. studies to English language learners (2nd ed.). Ross, E. W. (2006). The struggle for the social studies New York, NY: Routledge. curriculum. In E. W. Ross (Ed.), The social studies Evans, R. W. (2004). The social studies wars: What curriculum: Purposes, problems, and possibilities should we teach the children? New York, NY: (3rd ed., pp. 17–36). Albany, NY: State University Teachers College Press. of New York Press. Fallace, T. (2009). John Dewey’s influence on the origins Saxe, D. W. (1991). Social studies in schools: A history of the social studies: An analysis of the of the early years. Albany, NY: State University of historiography and new interpretation. Review of New York Press. Educational Research, 79(2), 601–624. Schubert, W. H. (2008). Curriculum inquiry. In Gaudelli, W. (2009). Heuristics of global citizenship F. M. Connelly, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), discourses toward curriculum enhancement. Journal The SAGE handbook of curriculum and instruction of Curriculum Theorizing, 25(1), 68–85. (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hertzberg, H. W. (1981). Social studies reform, Segall, A., Heilman, E. E., & Cherryholmes, C. (Eds.). 1880-1980. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education (2006). Social studies—The next generation: Consortium. Re-searching in the postmodern. New York, NY: Kliebard, H. (2004). The struggle for the American Peter Lang. curriculum, 1893-1958 (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Short, E. (Ed.). (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Routledge. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Ladson-Billings, G. J. (Ed.). (2003). Critical race theory Subedi, B. (Ed.). (2010). Critical global perspectives: perspectives on the social studies: The profession, Rethinking knowledge about global societies. policies, and curriculum. Charlotte, NC: Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Information Age. Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of Levstik, L. S., & Tyson, C. A. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook multicultural America. Boston, MA: Back Bay of research in social studies education. New York, Books. NY: Routledge. Takaki, R. (2012). A different mirror for young people: Loewen, J. W. (1995/2007). Lies my teacher told me: A history of multicultural America (adapted by Everything your American history textbook got Rebecca Stefoff). New York, NY: Seven Stories wrong. New York, NY: Touchstone. Press. Maguth, B. M. (Ed.). (2012). New directions in social Thornton, S. J. (2005). Teaching social studies that education research: The influence of technology and matters: Curriculum for active learning. New York, globalization on the lives of students. Charlotte, NC: NY: Teachers College Press. Information Age. Totten, S., & Pedersen, J. (Eds.). (2007). Addressing Merryfield, M. M. (2012). Global education: Responding social issues in the classroom and beyond: The to a changing world. In W. B. Russell III (Ed.), pedagogical efforts of pioneers in the field. Contemporary social studies: Issues, perspectives, Charlotte, NC: Information Age. 44–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

U.S. Bureau of Education. (1916). The social studies in Woyshner, C. A., Watras, J., & Crocco, M. S. (2004). secondary education. Washington, DC: U.S. Introduction. In C. Woyshner, J. Watras, & Government Printing Office, Bulletin No. 28. M. S. Crocco (Eds.), Social education in the Vinson, K. D., Ross, E. W., & Wilson, M. B. (2012). twentieth century: Curriculum and context for Standards-based educational reform and social citizenship (pp. ix–xxv). New York, NY: studies education: A critical introduction. In W. B. Peter Lang. Russell III (Ed.), Contemporary social studies: An Zinn, H. (1995). A people’s history of the United States essential reader (pp. 153–172). Charlotte, NC: 1492–present (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Information Age. Harper. Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other Zinn, H. (2007/2009). A young people’s history of the unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the United States (adapted by Rebecca Stefoff). past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press. 6

SUBJECT MATTERS OF THE ARTS

RACHEL L. S. HARPER University of Illinois at Chicago

JORGE R. LUCERO University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

he subject matters of the arts comprise the living practices, manifest in a full range of con- aesthetic disciplines of visual arts, music, texts—from “high art” sites like museums and opera Tdance, theater, and creative writing. In schools, houses, to popular forms such as television pro- the arts tend to be most deeply integrated into the grams and do-it-yourself Internet projects, to early childhood curriculum, where there is often unsanctioned art such as graffiti and street perfor- abundant daily opportunity for students to inquire mance, to the arts of the everyday such as family into their lives and the world around through aes- rituals, games, religious singing, children’s draw- thetic experiences. Integrative and living artistic ings, and many more. These are the alive-arts that modes tend to quickly constrict over grade levels into are practiced by practitioners and by all of us in the increasingly specialized, rarified, and exclusive courses of our everyday aesthetic experience. Alive- study of one part of an established disciplinary arts often reflect, inspect, and question the social, method. Such compartmentalization is a key exam- political, and personal conflicts and perspectives of ple of a pressing concern for arts education: The way contemporary life, and our personal experiences of the arts are taught in schools is often significantly these evoke important contemplation on their poten- different from the ways living artists practice the tial meaning. arts, and from the ways most people experience aes- In contrast to alive-arts practices of everyday life, thetics and practice culture. This chapter explores prevailing semi-prescriptive curricular models for the gap between living arts and the prevailing arts subject matters of the arts most often represent what curriculum. Madeleine Grumet (1988) described as a “dead Living arts are those that reflect and engage the sign”: In a majority of schooling contexts, students lived experience. Contemporary visual artists, writ- study and replicate modes and representations of a ers, musicians, and performers use aesthetic means canon of the artistic works of dead others. The ten- to engage in inquiry with and about the world. dency of the canon in arts education across disci- Artistic inquiries are diverse and can be complex, plines is that it highlights works of “masters” who ongoing, and constantly changing, because they are are predominantly White men from Europe and the

45 46–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

United States. The time periods from which these practice? What motivates, defines, and shapes alive- works are drawn vary but are almost always histori- arts and dead signs curricula? cal; for example, in music, students usually study compositions from the Baroque era to the mid- Romantic era, from beginning of the 17th century to Contemporary Concerns the end of the 19th century. The dead signs curricula are not “dead” simply because those who made the Two contemporary concerns of the subject matters of works being studied are no longer living. More sig- the arts highlight important dimensions of the divi- nificantly, it is the “signs” themselves—and the sion between the practices of alive-arts and the cur- symbols, the semiotics, and the other potential ricula of dead signs that are so often found in meanings embedded within any given artistic schools. The first concern discussed in this section work—that are so often not “alive” for students. revolves around a very basic question for arts educa- This is because the curriculum is usually designed to tion: What is art? In the context of the arts curricu- encourage rote memorization and imitation of the lum, the question expands toward: Which artists are dead canon, not a living creative response to the worth teaching about? Which methods should alive-arts all around. students learn? What artistic traditions are worth In Art as Experience, John Dewey (1934) affirmed following? Toward what useful ends? And yet, it is that the division between art as it is lived and art as significant that these expansions of the question it is taught impedes aesthetic education. When stu- “What is art?” differ greatly from the ways the ques- dents cannot live aesthetic experience in school, they tion is expanded in the living practices of artists. then produce works of contemporary relevance and A second concern that flows from the first is how force in spite of and not because of the curriculum. educators and theorists begin to imagine closing the The drive to create is evident in the array of alive- gap between the curricula of dead signs and the prac- arts practices by young people such as practicing tices of alive-arts in order to create meaningful arts original choreography in the hallways and play- education that is animated through its relevance to ground, drawing in math or French class, making the lives of learners. personal diary entries, writing graffiti on school What is art? This question is as unanswerable buses, or creating memes during computer science as Herbert Spencer’s (1861) germinal curricular time. Prevailing school curricula of dead signs are question—“What knowledge is of most worth?”— defined by the hegemonic traditions associated with because both must be constantly re-approached in the Western canon, derived from dominant para- the ever-changing living contexts by living practitio- digms that fortify and perpetuate oppressive social ners. It is not the answering of the question of what conditions including racism, sexism, classism, age- art is that is important to the discussion of the subject ism, and heterosexism. Contemporary attempts to matters of the arts, but the insistent asking of the broaden the canon of art worth knowing rightfully question. Such a position of ongoing asking is quite move to include artists of color and many other mar- consonant with the ways that living artists practice ginalized groups, and yet often still perpetuate the culture as inquiry. However, some controversy exists same exclusion of the student from the living about whether curricularists should go on question- curriculum. ing what art is, or whether the answer should be The current state of the subject matters of the arts considered solidified in its traditional form: the as dead signs in the midst of a world of alive-arts Western canon. has developed as a result of specific historical, It is understandable that some argue for a solid philosophical, economic, and political influences. “foundation” of knowledge as a platform from which These influences are elaborated upon in the subse- to derive the design of arts curricula. Such common quent sections of this chapter regarding context and understandings allow for a mutual vocabulary, theory. But first, the next section addresses the formulated modes of working and craft, and a much contemporary concerns that emerge from the clearer dovetail for rubrics, assessments, and evalua- tensions just outlined. What are the differences tions of progress and understanding. The tendency by between arts as subject matter and arts as living arts educators to subscribe to paradigms that claim 6. Subject Matters of the Arts–•–47

this type of universality is demonstrated by the slew can be as varied as contemporary art practice in gen- of prescriptive arts instruction texts and curricula, eral, are situational, meaning they prioritize atten- cultural institutions’ teaching aides (i.e., those pro- tiveness to the individual needs, contributions, and duced by museums, theaters, symphonies, etc.), preferences of the participants (both student and teacher preparation curricula in colleges, and the teacher) in the arts education experience. In this way, overall move toward state and national standards in the empty content of the dead signs curricula is the arts. Although for some artists and art teachers transformed into an alive-arts educational practice. the move toward disciplinary and curricular stan- Just as the diversity of critical pedagogical modes dards can induce fears of standardization and over- parallel the diversity of alive-arts practice, so too the regulation of the creative curriculum and pedagogy, very motivations for the move toward a more attuned there are others who argue that the standards in the and democratic arts education can be as complex as arts aim to legitimize the place of the arts in the pan- individual artworks themselves. “Why teach art in theon of educational relevance (e.g., science, schools?” is essentially the same question as “Why technology, engineering, and math—STEM). The make art in contemporary society?” One might legitimization brought about by standards opens up expect for the answers to these questions to overlap the opportunity for advancing the arts in schools by in myriad ways. However, on the whole, the motiva- increasing funding for the arts, enhancing the equal- tions for teaching the arts differ significantly from ity of esteem for arts disciplines among the core those of making of art in contemporary society. Why subject matter disciplines, and increasing the respect teach art? In schools, the arts are usually taught for for teachers of the arts and value for their presence at two primary reasons: with the intent of “enrichment” school. Proponents of unified and rigorous subject in its most innocuous form and with an eye toward matters of the arts argue that such clarity and measur- fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skill ability is essential for the arts to become understand- sets in its more adventurous moments. Both of these able and legitimate to a wide range of stakeholders, motivations—like the motivations behind teaching including parents, administrators, students, teachers, many other school subjects—are favorably aligned and the tax-paying public. This is an important con- with the student’s inevitable entrance into the sideration given that educational policy is rarely, if workforce. ever, made by educators. Who ultimately determines In the context of the subject matters of the arts, the what art is and why teach art? student is seen and treated mostly as a producer— Therefore, the appearance of the central question one who makes things. The rationale for this image of “what is art and why teach art?” represents a ten- of the student aligns with common sense: To learn sion: Should arts curricularists practice curriculum art, one should make art. But others argue that this is like artists and resist the limiting nature of answers to not meaningful if the practice is one of rote imitation such a question, or is there a greater need for disci- of dead signs and empty semiotics. Instead of cul- plinary agreements? This question speaks to the tural producers, many contemporary artists are complex social and political forces at play in decid- cultural practitioners. The central focus of practitio- ing what arts are worth teaching and why. Further, ners is not necessarily the production of art object for the benefit of whom? Critical pedagogues argue commodities, and contemporary practice is rarely that the arts worth teaching should be a function of undertaken for the sake of arts ideals such as beauty the lived experiences of the student. or the common good. Rather, a practice is an ongoing The move toward a more “critical art pedagogy” process of living inquiry through aesthetic means, (Cary, 1998), derived from the tenets and beliefs of and the ideal that the arts are “good” (i.e., productive, critical theory in a broad sense, has opened up a fer- beautiful, powerful, entertaining, or useful) is not vent discourse and modifications in classroom priori- one that is universally shared by contemporary art- ties with teachers who introduce issues and strategies ists. Contemporary artists work from an array of of social justice, visual culture, institutional literacy, intentions, including those that pursue energies in critical pedagogy, contemporary art practice, and art their most raw and value-neutral manifestations. This activism to their students (e.g., Quinn, Ploof, & might mean that an artist who is trying to avoid an Hochtritt, 2012). These critical art pedagogies, which art practice of dead signs might make a work that 48–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

appears (or actually is) boring, violent, horrifying, visual arts education, and concluding with an emerg- inconsequential, ephemeral, and maybe even invisi- ing issue in arts education debate—the role of the ble (e.g., conceptual art, performance art, sound art, arts in agendas that promote STEM. The social, interdisciplinary practice, relational aesthetics, art political, and economic forces that inform these con- activism). The shift from traditions of production to texts influence whether contemporary policy contemporary practice can be a radical idea for promotes curricula of alive-arts or dead signs. The teachers of the arts, particularly because the rhetoric arc of history can be seen to pitch from the former around arts education as beneficial or enriching is so toward the latter. tightly imbricated with the survival of the arts as a The historical traditions of Western arts education subject in the schools. Even when the “look” of these are grounded in apprenticeship training models rebel “alive arts” appears in the classroom (e.g., beat where a “master” artist trains an apprentice in the poetry, graffiti, punk, rap, experimental music, the- skills and traditions of a specific art form. Such train- ater of the absurd), they are usually presented by ing was undertaken in the course of arts work in a educators in a ghost form that epitomizes the “dead living setting, and it is important to emphasize that signs”—sanitized, stripped of controversial ele- this foundational pedagogical mode was not an ments, decontextualized, and otherwise emptied of abstraction or a dead sign practice. On the contrary, authentic meaning and connectivity. apprenticeships were and are living pedagogical rela- None of this is to argue that many artists are not tionships where the apprentice learns in concert with pursuing goodness, social justice, and other types of the master, in the real-world cultural context of the humanitarian and ethical endeavors, nor that the art form they practice together. This system of long- everyday aesthetic goodnesses of, for example, pre- term, one-on-one, mentorship-based education is paring a nourishing and beautiful meal for one’s fam- very rare in contemporary Western practice but con- ily are irrelevant to understanding contemporary arts. tinues most notably in music instrumental perfor- Rather, on the whole, these aesthetic acts of “good- mance education and also in other contexts such as ness” tend to be just the tip of a mostly invisible, the culinary arts. Importantly, remnants of this once densely theoretical, experimental, political, and per- ubiquitous training tradition continue in modified sonal iceberg. The “iceberg” is rarely represented in forms in contexts where schools emphasize the arts the classroom due in part to its invisibility/privacy, its as sets of rote skills for possible vocational applica- gargantuaness, and its inability to be articulated. tion, and where the teacher is considered a master Lucero (2013) called all of this behind-the-scenes with knowledge to convey upon the learner, but activity the artist’s “mode-of-operation” (p. 107), where the pedagogical relationship is more often one and Gude (2013) poignantly called for a closer teacher for several dozen students, than the alive-arts attention to the way artists work in contemporary dyadic one. The master-apprentice ethos is the most society, in order that students will not merely repli- pervasive in traditional arts education settings, espe- cate the form of an artwork by making dead signs, cially “fine arts” in conservatories and other college but will gain through arts education the “tools to contexts. understand and participate in contemporary cultural In visual arts curricula specifically, discipline- conversations” (p. 8). based art education (DBAE) and creative self- expression are the two pillars that have most shaped the current state of art education. The principal Context of the Subject Matters of the Arts author of creative self-expression, Viktor Lowenfeld (1947), proposed a means of teaching art that relied Throughout the history of arts education, specific on the ideas of developmental stages derived from a circumstances have formed and shaped the subject notion that “creativity” is inherent and changes in matters of the arts toward and away from living prac- specific ways with age. DBAE originated as an insti- tices. This is illustrated by a few examples of key tutionally funded set of initiatives that promoted influential contexts, beginning with discussions of academicization of the arts. While creative self- the foundational apprenticeship model of arts educa- expression gained popularity for its grounding in tion, continuing through the development of modern scientific evidence about human development, 6. Subject Matters of the Arts–•–49

DBAE continues to exert major influence over most These contexts represent only a few of many visual arts education curricula, not only for its poten- forces at play in the very expansive practices of arts tial to solidify the standing of the visual arts in the education. Although the trajectory of arts education school curriculum but also because it provides a curricula is tending to follow the directions of edu- clear and replicable framework from which a certain cation policy writ large—specifically, toward stan- standard of quality can be followed for assessment, dardization, narrowed curricula, corporate curricula, analysis, and inevitably for production. Advocates of testing and other quantitative assessments, and the DBAE have argued that the ability to standardize the promotion of a school environment where the arts visual arts curriculum allows for its more ready are neglected in service of curricula that support test adoption by schools, especially in the contemporary preparation—there also exists considerable critical era of increased standard assessments of students. resistance to these negative influences. Leading However, in the conversation concerning the living scholars and proponents of visual culture art educa- question of “what art is,” the DBAE framework gen- tion have made proposals for understanding and erally considers this question settled and includes directing art education practice toward students’ own only a narrow canon and methods for students to self-motivated production (see Duncum, 2001; study and reproduce. Freedman, 2003), and the availability of certain In addition to advancing creative self-expression, technologies and Internet platforms has exponen- DBAE, and the development of the arts cannon, tially increased the ubiquity of this activity, if not its proponents of the arts in schools have sought to jus- actual practice (Sweeney, 2010). As such, students tify and fortify the inclusion of arts in terms of voca- investigate living artists’ modes-of-operation in tionalism, or training students in arts-and-crafts order to access contemporary aesthetic ways of vocations for the eventual benefit of the econ- working and being that can guide them into a more omy. One dimension of this appears in emphasis on self-reliant and critical participation in the world. the “real-world” application of “practical arts” such as wood shop. A potential problem of vocationalism is its tendency to appear in lower income school set- Theory of Subject Matters of the Arts tings, where creative practices—or “art for art’s sake”—are more likely to appear in higher income Beginning with John Dewey’s (1934) Art as Experi- school settings. This tendency perpetuates the repro- ence, curriculum theorists have addressed the theo- duction of oppressive social class orders. Similarly, retical tension between practices of alive-arts and a recent trend in arts education discourse is an curricula of dead signs in terms of the complex roles attempt to inject the letter A into the acronym of the arts in educative experience. In suggesting that STEM to make STEAM. STEM stands for more art is experience, Dewey emphasizes the importance than the subject matter disciplines science, technol- of education as a means to “restore continuity” ogy, engineering, and math; it also represents neolib- between art and the living processes of experience. eral policy agendas that are well funded federally Related subsequent theories are situated within the and by corporate philanthropies such as the Bill and political processes of school and society, and the Melinda Gates Foundation. These mostly emphasize personal processes of the growth of the mind, and global competition, capitalist projects, and U.S. have implications for both. This section explores nationalism. Advocates of STEAM argue that it is some of the enduring and emergent theories that con- positive to gain funding and legitimacy for the arts tribute to understanding contemporary dynamics in schools by any means possible. However, the between the arts as they are taught and the arts as policy platform on which a curriculum rests signifi- they are experienced. cantly influences the knowledges it produces (see, In education, the power of the arts for the person- e.g., DBAE). In the case of STEAM curricula, which alized growth of the individual has been extensively arts are worth teaching is determined by their useful- and sensitively explored by Elliot Eisner (2002) in ness to technological innovation and potential to The Arts and the Creation of Mind. Eisner argued contribute to the positive growth of the U.S. that the complex and particular qualities of the arts economy. contribute dimensions of depth of understanding and 50–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

sensitivity of perception that are unlike those of any experimental nonobjective artistic gestures made other subject matter disciplines and centrally essen- after “anti-art” artists Marcel Duchamp and John tial for the growth of the mind. The invigorating and Cage, for example (see McEvilley, 2005). Most fer- nuanced role of the arts in the curriculum grows vently in the 1960s, experimental and conceptual the- increasingly important in the contemporary era of ater (e.g., Bertold Brecht, Samuel Beckett, and Antonin increased standardization of all subject matter disci- Artaud), experimental visual arts (e.g., Marcel plines, which (a) constricts the role of the arts in Duchamp, Allan Kaprow, and Fluxus), experimental dominant curricular policy that emphasizes quantita- music (e.g., John Cage, Le Monte Young, and Yoko tive testing and (b) increases the appearance of cur- Ono), and experimental dance (e.g., Martha Graham, ricula of dead signs, which are in part distinguished Merce Cunningham, and Pina Bausch), all challenged by their ability to yield quantitative assessment. the notion of aesthetics understood as sublime by intro- Maxine Greene similarly champions the arts in their ducing banality, boredom, counterproductivity, slow- myriad roles in contributing to the development of ness, asynchronicity, indeterminacy, nonobjectiveness, the self-in-the-world, especially the imagination, and audience participation, and other types of ruptures of creative development of the self as a fluid ongoing established form. This important shift from the Mod- process, not a finite product. Particularly influential ernist formal to the postmodernist conceptual is is Greene’s (1995) concept of “social imagination,” importantly explored by Olivia Gude (2004) in her wherein aesthetic experience enables students to germinal and highly influential essay, “Postmodern critically examine the deep problems of the social Principles: In Search of 21st Century Art Education.” world and imaginatively envision powerful change Gude asserted that appropriation, juxtaposition, recon- through public spaces. textualization, layering, interaction of text and image, Clarification of the term aesthetics is essential to hybridity, gazing, and “representin’” must replace the understanding the current condition of the subject Modernist elements and principles of design in order matters of the arts. The Western Modernist concep- to promote meaningful arts curriculum that interweaves tion of aesthetics promotes the arts as crafted objects lived experiences of students, the contemporary or performances characterized by high beauty, which society, and the multiplicities of aesthetics. are carried out in formalized modes by rare and indi- Emphasis on such postmodern integrations of the vidual geniuses. This definition of aesthetics was individual, the society, and everyday aesthetics reso- established in Classical philosophy and resonates nates in recent movements toward civic engagement forward, with the “sublime” importantly elaborated art, social practice art, and contemporary non-art upon by Immanuel Kant and others. Modernist aes- social movements such as Occupy. These practices thetics emphasize a hierarchical canon of selected share goals of affecting social change and under- Western artworks that serve as a standard of excel- standing cultural practice. While germinal curriculum lence against which other art can be judged. The texts on these topics, such as the Handbook of Public impact of this definition of aesthetics on the history Pedagogy: Education and Learning Beyond School- of arts curricula is profound and continues to drive ing (Sandlin, Schultz, & Burdick, 2010), focused on contemporary curriculum design in cases of, for the social practices of pedagogy and learning outside example, DBAE and rigorous conservatory training of schools, the embedded theories of aesthetic repre- curricula in the disciplines of music and dance. sentation and interpretation focused on the integra- Aesthetic theory in the postmodern era corresponds tion of makers, objects, meanings, and audiences, and with the historical reconceptualization of curriculum so have implications for the restoration of continuity thought in the 1970s and is marked by critiques of between alive-arts and school curricula of dead signs. Modernist modes. Shifts away from singular Western narratives of aesthetic meaning toward growing multi- plicities of representation and interpretation have Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression been advanced by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari (1980/1987) in the concepts of “rhizome” and “becom- Historically parallel to the rise of anti-art aesthetics ing,” in Jacques Derrida’s (1967) “deconstruction,” in ushered in by the postmodern era, the development Jacques Ranciere’s (2013) aisthesis, and many of the of modes of inquiry that enable a move away from 6. Subject Matters of the Arts–•–51

a dead sign curricula toward an alive-arts one began process, like duration, language, relationality, critical in the reconceptualization of curriculum thought dur- thinking, activism, generosity, research, participation, ing the 1970s (see Pinar, 2004). Formalized aesthetic and more. Scholars who have touched on closing research practices in education include a/r/tography the gap between inquiry and art in this way include (see Irwin & de Cossen, 2004) and arts-based inquiry Elizabeth Ellsworth, who thought about this project in (Barone & Eisner, 2012), among others. Arts-based terms of space and place; Stephanie Springgay and inquiry suggests that the visual arts, creative writing, Debra Freedman (2007), who focused on affect and music, theater, dance, and multidisciplinary art forms embodiment; and Charles Garoian (1999), who are all important tools for understanding and repre- presented the liminality of pedagogical aesthetic senting levels of educational experience that cannot inquiry through discussions of the mostly ephemeral be apprehended through other qualitative or practice of performance art in his comprehensive text quantitative methods. In a parallel to arguments in Performing Pedagogy. favor of DBAE, advocates of formalizing the meth- ods of arts-based research suggest that it may pro- mote the legitimization of art as inquiry within the Conclusion dominant context of educational research that values empiricism by defining common standards. The dead signs subject matters of the arts, as they are At the same time, many scholars advocate for often taught in schools, differ greatly from the ways modes of inquiry that cross and blur the perceived that alive-art is lived and understood in cultural line that has previously kept the dead signs of arts practices. Dewey (1934) expressed that this rift sig- schooling and the alive-arts of cultural practice apart. nificantly inhibits both aesthetic and educative expe- For example, a recent text by Pablo Helguera (2011), rience and importantly pointed out that while this gap Education for Socially Engaged Art, points directly to is real, it is not necessary and can be shored up. the nuances of both the gaps and the overlaps between While multiple confluences of political and social pedagogy and art, by elaborating upon an art concept influence bend arts curricula policy toward dead commonly known as the “pedagogical turn.” The signs practices of standardized memorization or pedagogical turn in contemporary art is a mode of empty replication of dead forms, much theoretical social practice that adopts, mimics, and manipulates discourse and critical praxis moves toward placing the aesthetics and modes-of-operation of pedagogy, the student at the center of the curriculum to open curriculum, and schooling in a way that presents them practical pathways toward the meaningful connection as a new materiality for making artworks. This means between their lives, alive-arts modes-of-operation, that works of contemporary art that have taken the and aesthetic inquiry for understanding, questioning, pedagogical turn deal with the ubiquities of educative and reimagining the experienced world all around.

References and Further Readings Duncum, P. (2001). Visual culture: Developments, definitions, and directions for art education. Studies Barone, T., & Eisner, E. (2012). Arts based research. in Art Education, 42(2), 101–112. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Eisner, E. W. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. Cary, R. (1998). Critical art pedagogy: Foundations for New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. postmodern art education. New York, NY: Ellsworth, E. (2005). Places of learning: Media, Routledge. architecture, pedagogy. New York, NY: Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1980/1987). A thousand Routledge Falmer. plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia. Freedman, K. (2003). Teaching visual culture: Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Curriculum, aesthetics, and the social life Derrida, J. (1967). Of grammatology. Baltimore, MD: of art. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Johns Hopkins University Press. Garoian, C. R. (1999). Performing pedagogy: Towards Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York, NY: an art of politics. Albany, NY: State University Penguin. of New York Press. 52–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination: Essays on McEvilley, T. (2005). The triumph of anti-art: education, the arts, and social change. San Conceptual and performance art in the formation of Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. post-modernism. Kingston, NY: McPherson & Grumet, M. (1988). Bitter milk: Women and teaching. Company. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Pinar, W. (2004). What is curriculum theory? Mahwah, Gude, O. (2004). Postmodern principles: In search of NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. a 21st century art education. Art Education, Quinn, T., Ploof, J., & Hochtritt, L. (Eds.). (2012). Art 57(1), 6–14. and social justice education: Culture as commons. Gude, O. (2013). New school art styles: The project of New York, NY: Routledge. art education. Art Education, 66(1), 4–15. Ranciere, J. (2013). Aisthesis: Scenes from the aesthetic Helguera, P. (2011). Education for socially engaged art: regime of art. London, UK: Verso. A materials and techniques handbook. New York, Sandlin, J. A., Schultz, B. D., & Burdick, J. (Eds.). NY: Jorge Pinto Books. (2010). Handbook of public pedagogy: Education Irwin, R. L., & de Cossen, A. (Eds.). (2004). A/r/ and learning beyond schooling. New York, NY: tography: Rendering self through arts based living Routledge. inquiry. Vancouver, BC: Pacific Educational Press. Smith, R. A. (1989). Discipline-based art education: Lowenfeld, V. (1947). Creative and mental growth: Origins, meaning, and development. Urbana- A textbook on art education. New York, NY: Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Macmillan. Spencer, H. (1861). Education: Intellectual, moral, Lucero, J. (2013). Long live the pedagogical turn: Brazen physical. New York, NY: D. Appleton. claims made for the overflowing art/life intersection Springgay, S., & Freedman, D. (Eds.). (2007). Curriculum and the longevity of its eternal pedagogy and study. and the cultural body. New York, NY: Peter Lang. In J. Burdick, J. A. Sandlin, & M. P. O’Malley Sweeney, R. (Ed.). (2010). Inter/Actions/Inter/Sections: (Eds.), Problematizing public pedagogy Art education in a digital visual culture. Reston, (pp. 276–291). New York, NY: Routledge. VA: National Art Education Association. 7

SUBJECT MATTERS OF HUMANITIES

EDWARD PODSIADLIK III University of Illinois at Chicago

ubjects traditionally regarded as humanities, learned, others would make sure the content is taught such as literature, philosophy, and linguistics, systematically and what is learned is externally Sas well as those often now considered part of evaluated. social sciences, including political science and his- Each of these views constitutes relevant possibili- tory, underscore what is traditionally termed a liberal ties for the role of the humanities in schools. Integrat- arts education in that their scope and depth have the ing such a broad spectrum of ideas and points of view potential to help students better understand them- into meaningful and consistent educational policy, selves and their world. These courses are pathways however, is a complex process oftentimes rife with for students to explore what it means to be fully conflict especially as school districts are faced with human, hence the humanities. Embedded in this budget concerns, accountability restrictions, and humanistic exploration is the quest to reflect on one’s emerging political/social/economic demands of the identity, to develop a critical awareness of one’s self 21st century. Underlying these concerns and conflicts in the larger world, and to awaken a lifelong drive to is a key curriculum question: What is worthwhile? In pursue that which makes life most worth living. terms of the subjects of the humanities, William H. As humanities are integrated as subject areas into Schubert’s (1986, 2009) elaboration of this question the larger scope and sequence of school- and district- merits further consideration: What is worth knowing, wide systems of curriculum and instruction, their needing, experiencing, doing, being, becoming, over- depth, breadth, and purpose can vary depending upon coming, sharing, contributing, wondering, and a variety of pedagogical, political, and contextual imagining? orientations. What educational purposes the humani- When viewed through a humanistic lens, subject ties serve, what objectives they can achieve, and how matters are qualitative, reflective, and personal, they can be fairly assessed (Tyler, 1949) have which counters theory and practice in which subject become critical talking points of debate and discus- matters are quantitative, formalistic, and impersonal. sion among educators and policy makers. While Studies in political science, for instance, that are some ideologies favor that the humanities be content- comprised of rote memorization, singular points of driven and qualitati vely assessed, others maintain view, and encyclopedic chunks of information are that its instruction should be skills-based with a less likely to be concerned with more humanistic direct link to employment-related preparation. While matters such as reflecting upon the social, moral, and some perspectives focus on political and social activ- political impact of politics on the lives of individuals. ism and students’ role in determining what content is As a subject matter of the humanities, the information

53 54–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

and data inherent to political science become tools our understanding of ourselves and the world has the with which to better grapple with and contemplate potential to provoke a depth of reflection that begins internal and external conflicts that transcend space to differentiate between “facts” and “truth” and and time such as dignity versus alienation, democ- “external” and “internal” realities. Therefore, the racy versus segregation, and freedom of thought primary concern of the humanities-based educator is versus indoctrination. to inspire students to think. A humanities-based history curriculum is less con- cerned with historical categories and labels and more interested in exploring ways in which people and Contemporary Concerns About events can be examined and understood with greater the Subject Matters of Humanities empathy (Zinn, 1995). As a subject matter of the humanities, history is not only about facts and theo- Students understandably concerned with assessment ries but also concerned with applying personal obser- scores that directly impact acceptance into selective vation and reflection to develop a better sense of one’s enrollment high schools and colleges might question self. A humanities-based history curriculum chal- the direct impact studies in the humanities may have lenges students to question intrinsic values, beliefs, on their overall quantitative scores in reading and and ideas. History serves as a means for students to math. Will a depth of understanding of Socratic explore what is worth knowing, thinking, and doing. thinking and Cartesian dualities, for example, Other personal questions that emanate from the increase an ACT score? What correlation is there depths of our humanity (such as what is worth feel- between having a depth of knowledge and under- ing, experiencing, and understanding) are embedded standing of ancient civilizations and receiving assess- in literature. Novels, short stories, poems, and drama ment scores needed for college acceptance? In these are examples of literary genres capable of transcend- regards, students may question the pragmatic impli- ing scientific objectivity and leading learners into cations of the humanities. Nevertheless, in pursuit of landscapes of imagination (Lake, 2013), enlighten- attaining skills-based, quantitatively measureable ment, and epiphany. To better know oneself, to more academic scores, what humanities-based values are closely ascertain one’s values and abilities, and to sacrificed? Although there are no external means to explore the nature of one’s humanity are the hall- measure how strongly literature affects one’s self- marks of humanistic education embedded in litera- understanding, or how much philosophical treatises ture. It is in this spirit that Virginia Woolf (1929) may awaken one’s conscience, to what extent can proposed that “[fiction] . . . is likely to contain more these influences, albeit intrinsic and less tangible, be truth than fact” (p. 4). Externally imposed labels, discounted? Herein lies conflict. categories, and designations (characteristic of the Job training and employment opportunities are material world) become obstacles that contain, often student priorities. How will liberal arts curricu- restrict, and dilute our authentic intrinsic identities. lum offerings that focus on topics as broad as tran- Linguistics and philosophy as subject matters of scendentalism, polytheism, and mercantilism help the humanities acknowledge the need to transcend students attain needed employment skills and oppor- artificial boundaries imposed by the rigidness of lan- tunities? To what extent can reading 1st-century guage and restrictions of a materialistic world. Latin texts, for instance, help secure employment in Words and categories can be powerful tools that too a technology-based job market? For what 21st-century often elicit isolation and alienation that dehumanize jobs will an understanding of, say, medieval life help individuals. A humanities-infused vision avoids the prepare students? On the other hand, although initial inherent limitations of “either-or” thinking and employment considerations may not demand skills reflects upon more organic, aesthetic, and cultural of imagination, contemplation, and critical self- aspects of human experience. Linguistics, languages, awareness, does that make these humanities-based and philosophy as humanistic subject matters can assets any less relevant to a life that is intrinsically serve as an empowering curriculum of self-discovery and ethically worthwhile? and critical self-awareness. Examining the power Teachers of the humanities face related concerns and impact of thoughts, ideas, and languages upon that pit externally imposed criteria against personal 7. Subject Matters of Humanities–•–55

values. School improvement frameworks for teacher selected, funded, and implemented based on its over- evaluation that determine professional ratings, sal- all purpose versus its immediate (albeit more short- ary, and tenure are based on core curriculum and term) results. Contemporary trends, linking financial skills-based quantitative assessments. In a landscape and academic accountability to immediate perfor- where high-stakes testing is used to determine a mance-based results, favor more empirically based teacher’s effectiveness, what will more closely guide subject matters rooted in clearly defined performance a liberal arts-minded history teacher: nurturing a results. Second, administrators need to decide the critical view of history, or pursuing isolated skill sets extent to which a designated curriculum should of comprehension and historical facts? Major tenets be financed and supported based on overall merits as of the humanities including intuition, imagination, a process-driven curriculum (which focuses on criti- aestheticism, contemplation, and spiritual liberation cal thinking and reflection inherent to the process of are not items prioritized in core curriculum standards learning) versus a product-driven one (that relies now used as criteria for teacher accountability. Nor exclusively on learning outcomes). National perfor- can they be easily quantified on assessment mance standards are systematically aligned with examinations. product-driven results. If a literature teacher uses isolated skill-based les- Subject matters of the humanities, however, are sons to explore Martin Luther King’s “I Have a organic rather than systematic in nature. Courses Dream” speech in order to ensure student acquisition grounded in what students are expected to learn con- of specific skills, how much of King’s organic spirit trast with the humanities that are rooted in what stu- of freedom and respect is sacrificed? What is lost dents are only beginning to learn, to understand, and when students excel at isolated skills of geography, to reflect upon. Unlike more quantitatively driven history, or language but do not gain insights, under- courses (i.e., mathematics and science) that search standing, and empathy inherent in the application of for “one correct answer,” humanities explore options, said skills via interpreting, questioning, challenging, avenues, and ideas wherein no one answer is correct. and contemplating? It is ironic that a skills-driven Consequently, the immediate value and impact of the teacher can receive a high quantitative rating for humanities are not easily measured or observed, teaching a segmented and impersonal core curricu- which is a considerable handicap in this era of lum sequence, while a humanities-driven teacher externally imposed academic accountability. who nurtures personal growth and development may The contemporary, 21st-century educational land- receive a lower rating. Externally imposed scales of scape conforms to standards and demands for effectiveness and rubrics of skill mastery do not accountability. Teachers, administrators, and policy adequately account for the ethical, personal, and makers often find themselves guided by an academic transformative potential of humanities-based subject vision of what students do not know and of what matters. This raises concerns regarding the intrinsic cognitive gaps educators are being held accountable value of what is taught and why. to fill. This reductionist view of teaching and learn- Administrators and policy makers likewise strug- ing directly opposes the inherent rationale of the gle with the question of what educational purposes subject matters of humanities. A humanities-based the humanities serve. Formal rating systems for curriculum does not focus on what is missing or lack- schools and school districts are currently based on ing in students; instead, it recognizes, nurtures, and quantitative measures. Individual teacher perfor- celebrates the depths of humanity already present mance evaluations and related salary incentives rely within the students. The value of a history or litera- upon skills-based student assessments. Conversely, ture text lies neither in rote literacy skills nor in the Ralph W. Tyler (1949) championed a value-laden “wisdom” of the text itself. The intangible interac- curriculum of a different sort wherein the “value of tion of the ideas presented in texts with the values the dignity and worth of every human being is a and points of view of the individual reader is where value to be given consideration” (p. 88). a humanities-based curriculum thrives. In light of these concerns, two central conflicts John Dewey and Louise Rosenblatt (1904–2005), emerge. First, administrators and policy makers need as well as Rosenblatt’s contemporaries (including to deliberate whether a specific curriculum should be Wayne C. Booth, Wolfgang Iser, and Stanley Fish), 56–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

emphasized the importance of this transaction with issues as vast as racism, poverty, isolation, and between reader and text. The reader–response mode a lack of social or economic mobility. Although of critical inquiry is rooted in the experiences, oversimplified here, these examples are part of the values, settings, beliefs, and challenges that are most tangled complexity of priorities, interests, and con- meaningful and worthwhile to students. Humanistic cerns that impact curricular decision making. teaching and learning explores moral, intellectual, In examining the context of the subject matters of and social contemplation and development. These humanities, a plethora of questions arises: How pursuits, however, are not easily aligned with should these categories of concerns be prioritized? contemporary quantitatively driven initiatives and Should national priorities trump individual ones—or externally driven systems of accountability. vice versa? To what extent do international or This pedagogical and philosophical conflict is akin national concerns impact local or individual needs? to Dewey’s (1938) observation: “What avail is it to Can a global vision of humanities-driven curricula be win prescribed amounts of information about geogra- meaningful on a personal level? Conversely, will phy and history, to win ability to read and write, if in focusing more closely on local and personal needs in the process the individual loses his own soul: loses his some way diminish or impair national or interna- appreciation of things worthwhile” (p. 49). Herein tional concerns? Like the humanities, these questions curricular conflicts deepen. To resolve these conflicts, are deliberately designed to trigger discourse, reflec- we turn to Schubert’s (1986, 2009) key curriculum tion, and exploration—not definitive answers. It is questions: What is worth knowing, needing, experi- important that curriculum planners, policy makers, encing, doing, being, becoming, overcoming, sharing, and educators themselves closely consider their contributing, wondering, and imagining? responses to these and similar queries as well as to where the variety of opinions falls upon a continuum of perspectives and points of view. Context of the Subject Matters Curricular decision making and planning impact of the Humanities not only course content but also school-wide and individual practice. For instance, a liberal arts cur- The subject matters of the humanities do not exist in riculum influenced primarily by concerns of interna- a vacuum bereft of political, economic, social, and tional competition and fears of worldwide terrorist moral constructions. Curriculum planners and stake- threats may become driven by a nationalistic vision holders are influenced by a range of relevant contexts whose priorities then become cultural reproduction that impact the vision, climate, and purpose of teach- in the name of national unity and patriotism. Human- ing and learning. The implementation of curricular ities, such as history, literature, and political science, initiatives and mandates in turn impacts the larger would then serve to reinforce a common set of values contextual constructs from which they were shaped. and perspectives, with a unifying and underlying Although curricular ideologies and decisions are “national” point of view. Critics, however, might influenced by the individual and collective past, the argue that such a nationalistically driven (however immediacy of contemporary events, ideas, and val- well-intended) curriculum path denies freedoms of ues plays a significant role in curriculum planning, voice, language, and independent thinking that it execution, and assessment. intended to nurture and preserve. The role of humanities within contemporary edu- Conversely, if curriculum planning were to focus cation is intricately woven into a complex, politically more closely on social reconstruction and equity, charged landscape. Internationally, issues of politi- implementation of subject matters of the humanities cal, social, and economic unrest have become global would change as well. Literature, history, and phi- priorities, while national issues of unemployment, losophy content would be more aligned with cultural, comprehensive health care reform, and unequal dis- ethnic, linguistic, and geographical profiles of indi- tributions of power and wealth are simultaneously vidual learning communities thereby replacing a nat- pressing. Locally, communities struggle with issues ionally homogeneous vision such as that previously of poverty, violence, and housing shortages. Indi- described. Since the humanities can be implemented vidually, people are faced with personal struggles via a nationalistic lens or a highly individualized 7. Subject Matters of Humanities–•–57

one, curriculum planners need to reflect on whether to “create value for individual happiness and the the primary purpose of school is more to nurture self- greater common good” (He, 2013, p. 64). identity or to transmit the skills, knowledge, and Renaissance humanists including Petrarch (1304– values of the larger culture. 1374), known as the “Father of Humanism,” Desider- The impact of contemporary political, social, and ius Erasmus (1466–1536), known as the “Prince of the economic contexts upon the nature of a humanities Humanists,” and John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), curriculum is wide and varied. Consider the follow- known as the “Father of Modern Education,” theo- ing real-world conflicts that characterize challenging rized that an individual’s moral and ethical develop- educational situations: an underlying long- and short- ment (and by extension all society) could be achieved term vision that informs a content-driven literature through universal education that nurtured free will, study versus one that is idea-driven; a history cur- independent thinking, and social conscience. riculum that focuses on quantitative facts and figures Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau versus one that relies primarily on critical reflection; (1712–1778) and his contemporaries (including a political science instructional sequence that is Maximilien Robespierre, Thomas Jefferson, and assessed through a series of predetermined learning Charles-Louis Montesquieu) supported education outcomes versus one with unintentional and unex- that would develop a person’s character and moral pected learning outcomes; and a philosophies-based sense by addressing authentic human needs including curriculum map that relies on student-generated civic morality and individual liberty. Soren questions, discourse, and debate versus one that Kierkegaard (1813–1855), considered the first exis- relies upon performance-based replication of discrete tential humanist, advocated searching for a more tasks and concepts. In order to get out of this educa- subjective truth through personal reflection. tional confusion (Dewey, 1931), we need to return to Kierkegaard (as well as those he influenced, includ- essential questions of what is worth knowing, worth ing Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Ludwig understanding, and worth doing. Wittgenstein) believed that human beings should determine for themselves the meaning of faith, ethics, truth, justice, and even reality itself. These Theory of Subject Matters of Humanities ideas entered curriculum discourse when Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) published Education: Intellec- Subject matters and instruction that center on explor- tual, Moral, and Physical (1861) and directly pro- ing what it means to be fully human can be traced to posed the question: What knowledge is of most both Western and Eastern world traditions. Ancient worth? Spencer maintained that the purpose of cur- Greek thinkers (Socrates, Plato, Protagoras) and riculum was to enable students to live a more com- ancient Roman scholars (Marcus Aurelius, Lucre- plete life. He argued for a school curriculum that tius, Seneca) maintained that the path to living a included texts, questions, and activities that would meaningful life was self-knowledge and achieving a inform students on how to live satisfactory moral, better understanding of one’s individual soul. The physical, and intellectual lives. ancient African philosophy of Ubuntu is premised on Although Spencer’s work relied on a social the principle of cosmic harmony and the dignity, Darwinist perspective, it nevertheless influenced value, and development of the individual human many curriculum scholars who focused more on being. Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius philosophies of experience, purposeful learning, and (551–479 BC) and Japanese schoolteacher and edu- freedoms of intelligence. Notable among these edu- cational activist Makiguchi Tsunesaburo (1871– cators is Dewey (1859–1952). In 1915, Dewey and 1944) emphasized the importance of “humanism that his wife, Evelyn, published Schools of To-Morrow, aims to educate for creative, harmonious, associated, which described authentic educational settings joyful, and worthwhile living” (He, 2013, p. 64). wherein subject matters were infused with the spirit While Confucius thought the aim of education was of the humanities. The text describes classrooms “to cultivate the self through continuous interactions where literature instruction was intended to inspire among self, community, nature, and Heaven,” critical thinking, history classes focused on student Makiguchi believed that the purpose of education is perspectives, and writing classes prized imagination 58–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

over facts. The schools of tomorrow envisioned by learning to become human. G. Marian Kinget (1910– Dewey favored connectedness of thoughts and ideas 1997) published On Being Human (1975) proposing over compartmentalized pieces of information. The a curriculum not concerned with observing humanity experiences and personal interests of individuals (via physical laws and scientific exploration) but were integral to the curriculum. The 1937–1938 focused on the meaning and potential of being Spencer-Trask Lectures at Princeton University were human. For those curriculum theorists, inner knowl- devoted to the meaning and role of the humanities in edge and self-awareness inherent in history and education. Ralph Barton Perry (1876–1957), a stu- literature become agents to free the spirit of human dent of William James (1842–1910), identified liter- beings from metaphorical chains of predetermined ature, philosophy, and linguistics as subject matters labels and biases, unquestioned and imposed least likely to dehumanize students and most likely to restrictions and limitations. help them achieve humanistic possibilities. August Maxine Greene has expounded on the role of Charles Kray (1887–1961) articulated history as a humanities to nurture a moral life. In Landscapes of subject matter critical to the process of education Learning (1978) she argued that subject matters that when it was used to present and examine the encourage students to think critically, to create them- thoughts, feelings, and actions of human experience selves, and thereby to choose principles to live by and interaction. Gilbert Chinard (1881–1972) are most critical in developing a “wide-awakeness” extolled a literature curriculum that would explore a toward a moral life. In Teaching toward Freedom reader’s individuality as it simultaneously informed (2004), William Ayers challenged educators to com- the reader of his connection to a reality larger than mit to curricula that lead learners to enlightenment himself of which he is a part. Alfred North and liberation. He proposes that subject matters of Whitehead’s (1861–1947) book Modes of Thought the humanities provide components of discourse, (1938) argued that literature embodied and expressed imagination, introspection, and exploration neces- universal struggles, challenges, emotions, and sary to a truly democratic education. Martha Nuss- aspirations of humanity. baum in Cultivating Humanity (1997) argued that This idea of using subject matters to explore the literature, linguistics, and other subject matters of meaning of being human influenced Martin Buber’s the humanities embody a living history of human (1878–1965) groundbreaking text I and Thou (1923) resistance, protest, and criticism. Such a liberal arts wherein he advocated teaching and learning as pro- education anchored in the humanities is rooted in cesses of becoming. The “I-Thou” curriculum Buber moral reasoning, ethical thinking, and democratic proposed included studies in literature, history, and ideals. philosophy that would enable students to better In Love, Justice, and Education: John Dewey and understand themselves through meaningful relation- the Utopians (2009), Schubert used a mixture of ships and discourse with others. Hearkening back to humanities-based resources including literature, Spencer’s question of “what knowledge is of most poetry, film, and television to examine what he calls worth,” Buber supported subject matters that would the “what’s worthwhile question.” Throughout the be used to decrease isolation with mutual text, he explores the moral, pedagogical, and spiri- understanding, dispel alienation with connectedness, tual possibilities offered through a liberal arts educa- and replace hopelessness with a renewed spirit of tion. He demonstrates how subject matters of the free will. humanities can serve as conduits to inspire and facili- L. Thomas Hopkins (1889–1982) in The Emerg- tate journeys toward cultivating humanity with a ing Self (1954) advocated the humanities as curricula stronger sense of love and justice. These are the that could nurture insight as a means to combat con- journeys that transformed Ralph Ellison’s Invisible formity, to promote deep thinking, and to create Man (1947) from being dehumanized by society’s paths leading to greater independence of thought. systematized “lynching of souls” to his proclamation Curricular theorists in the later half of the 20th cen- that “I feel, I feel suddenly that I have become more tury elaborated on these humanist beliefs. Rudolph human. Not that I have become a man, for I was born Steiner (1974) originated the Waldorf School curri- a man. But that I am more human. I feel strong” cula that centered on the belief that a child is a soul (p. 346). 7. Subject Matters of Humanities–•–59

Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression forms the secret of civilization” (p. 70). Case studies (such as those by R. V. Bullough, Rick Ayers and To better understand the impact of the humanities on Amy Crawford, Donald Schon, and Eliot Wigginton) contemporary curricular issues, teachers, administra- move away from abstract or general information and tors, and policy makers can turn to a wide array of rely on concrete classroom experiences to enlighten educational inquiries. Philosophical inquiry via per- and inform. Such case studies present real-world sonal essays has been used to delve deeply into vignettes that personalize theory and humanize personal perspectives as they are affected by humani- research data. Storytelling as a mode of inquiry ties-oriented teaching and learning experiences. (demonstrated by William Ayers, D. Jean Clandinin, Reflections From the Heart of Educational Inquiry: F. Michael Connelly, and Kieran Egan) personalizes Understanding Curriculum and Teaching Through the theory and captures the personal and practical nature Arts (Willis & Schubert, 1991) is a hallmark demon- of education. When teachers tell their stories, the stration of how reflective and personal inquiries can intricate moral, emotional, and aesthetic dimensions elicit meaningful insights into the long- and short- of their work emerge through the narrative. term impact of humanities on instruction—and on the Interviews and conversations (utilized by curricu- lives of students and teachers. The collected essays in lum scholars including Philip W. Jackson, Bill the volume become the living dialogue through which Smoot, Tu Weiming, and Daisaku Ikeda) and letter an understanding of curriculum and instruction is writing (as used in the works of writers including deepened along humanistic perspectives. Jonathan Kozol, Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker, Carl Weinberg (1972) collected a series of essays Ronald W. Sousa, and Joel Westheimer) emphasize in his text Humanistic Foundations of Education that the transactional and interpersonal nature of educa- promotes aesthetic, historical, and psychological tion practice. Such inquiries uncover intrinsic ideas research methodologies that regard students and that permeate the teaching and learning process. By teachers as more important than impersonal educa- transcending the formulaic mechanics of teaching tional data. George Willis (1978) in his Qualitative and learning, narrative modes of inquiry, like the Evaluation: Concepts and Cases in Curriculum humanities themselves, humanize rhetorical jargon Criticism collected a series of essays from educa- and capture nuances, values, ideas, traits, and tional researchers (including Michael W. Apple, meaning of inquiry and life. Madeleine R. Grumet, William Pinar, and Elizabeth Vallance) that describe a variety of qualitative approaches. Phenomenological, ethnographic, and Conclusion: Need for Continuous narrative inquiries are utilized to better express Reflections and understand the personal impact of teaching and learning on students. The scope and depth of narra- The subject matters of the humanities defy the tive inquiry also includes autobiographical and bio- binary simplicities of “either-or” thinking. The graphical exploration. Notable works (including quantitative criteria of polarities such as pass or fail, those by Henry Adams, W. E. B. Du Bois, Freema correct or incorrect, success or failure are overcome Elbaz, and Ming Fang He) demonstrate how intro- with the potential and the possibilities found in the spection inherent to this sort of personal inquiry is content of humanities such as literature, philosophy, capable of transcending larger political or bureau- and linguistics. Humanities have the potential to cratic mechanisms. In The Souls of Black Folk, for take teaching and learning into a sea of ambiguity instance, the singularity of W. E. B. Du Bois’s that transcends the restrictions of imposed labels (1903) personal voice beckons a remarkable univer- and categories. History, linguistics, literature, politi- sality of intent and contemplation: “The function of cal science, and philosophy are subject matters the university is not to simply teach bread-winning, wherein one can begin to recognize, explore, nour- or to furnish teachers for the public schools, or to be ish, and celebrate the essence of what makes us a centre of polite society; it is, above all, to be the human. organ of that fine adjustment between real life and This is the ideological realm Virginia Woolf the growing knowledge of life, an adjustment which (1929) described as containing more truth than fact. 60–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

If schools rely too heavily (or exclusively) on his soul (p. 119)? The essence of these reflections externally driven facts and figures, will students, as returns one to Spencer’s (1820–1903) query: What Socrates asked, truly know themselves? Or will edu- knowledge is of most worth? This is a question that cational and community leaders find themselves students and teachers of humanities should embody ruminating over James Joyce’s (1916) lament: What in their life-long pursuit of cultivating humanity did it profit a man to gain the whole world if he lost (Nussbaum, 1997).

References and Further Readings Kinget, G. M. (1975). On being human. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Ayers, W. (2004). Teaching toward freedom: Moral Lake, R. (2013). A curriculum of imagination in an era commitment and ethical action in the classroom. of standardization: An imaginative dialogue with Boston, MA: Beacon. Maxine Greene and Paulo Freire. Charlotte, NC: Bhengu, M. J. (1996). Ubuntu: The essence of Information Age Publishing. democracy. Cape Town, South Africa: The Novalis Nussbaum, M. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical Institute Press. defense of reform in liberal education. London, UK: Buber, M. (1923/2010). I and thou (R. G. Smith, Trans.). Harvard University Press. Eastford, CT: Martino Publishing. Rosenblatt, L. (1938). Literature as exploration. Confucius. (2007). The analects of Confucius (B. Watson, New York, NY: Modern Language Association of Trans.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. America. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (Eds.). (1999). Rousseau, J. (1750) Discourse on the arts and sciences Shaping a professional identity: Stories of educational (R. D. Masters, Trans.). Lebanon, NH: University practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Press of New England. Dewey, J. (1931). The way out of educational confusion. Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Macmillan. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love justice and education: John NY: Touchstone. Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: Information Dewey, J., & Dewey, E. (1915). Schools of to-morrow. Age Publishing. New York, NY: Dutton. Spencer, H. (1861/1963). Education: Intellectual, moral, Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of black folk. and physical. New York, NY: Littlefield Adams. New York, NY: Penguin. Steiner, R. (1974). The kingdom of childhood. London, Ellison, R. (1947). Invisible man. New York, NY: UK: The Rudolph Steiner Centre. Random House. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and Greene, M. (1978). Landscapes of learning. New York, instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago NY: Teachers College Press. Press. Greene, T. M. (Ed.). (1938). The meaning of the Weiming, T., & Ikeda, D. (2011). New horizons in humanities. The Spencer-trask lectures for 1937-38. eastern humanism. New York, NY: I. B. Tauris. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Weinberg, C. (Ed.). (1972). Humanistic foundations of He, M. F. (2013). East~West epistemological convergence education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. of humanism in language, culture, identity, and Whitehead, A. N. (1938). Modes of thought. New York, education: Confucius~Makiguchi~Dewey [Special NY: Free Press. issue]. Journal of Language, Identity, and Willis, G. (Ed.). (1978). Qualitative evaluation: Concepts Education, 12(1), 61–70. and cases in curriculum criticism. Berkeley, CA: Hopkins, L. T. (1954). The emerging self in home and McCutchan. school. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Willis, G., & Schubert, W. H. (Eds.). (1991). Reflections James, W. (1920). Collected essays and reviews. from the heart of educational inquiry. Albany, NY: New York, NY: Longmans, Green. State University of New York Press. Joyce, J. (1916/1993). A portrait of the artist as a young Woolf, V. (1929). A room of one’s own. New York, NY: man. New York, NY: Vintage. Harcourt. Kierkegaard, S. (1845/1967). Stages on life’s way. Zinn, H. (1995). A people’s history of the United States (W. Lowrie, Trans.). New York, NY: Schocken. 1492–present (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper. 8

SUBJECT MATTERS OF LANGUAGE, CULTURE, IDENTITY, AND POWER

GUOFANG LI Michigan State University

e are what we speak. Language is part of Adding to the complex interrelationships between one’s cultural identity. Language itself is language, culture, identity, and power (Cummins, Wan individual cognitive as well as a cul- 2000; He, Phillion, Chan, & Xu, 2008) are the multi- tural phenomenon; it arises in the life of an individ- plicity and the dynamic nature of all these constructs. ual through ongoing exchanges of meanings with In the context of multiculturalism and multilingual- significant others (Halliday, 1978). The uses of lan- ism, one may speak more than one language and guage (e.g., ways of speaking and writing, choices of assume multiple identities and memberships and words) are culturally encoded. Language reflects and may both conform and resist the powerful discourses reinforces the values and beliefs of a given culture and projections of identities in any given context and and, at the same time, is shaped by that culture. Lan- time. At the same time, one may be subjected to the guage as a cultural tool also mediates how we define power relations within the multiple contexts and ourselves within particular sociocultural contexts communities of practice of which one is a member, and situations. It is an “identity kit” through which especially in increasingly globalized and transna- we not only define ourselves and present our own tional contexts. The fluid and multiple nature of identities but also are defined and identified by oth- language, culture, identity, and power further calls ers (Gee, 1989, p. 152). On the one hand, we can for close examination of the interrelationships of choose to position ourselves through our language these constructs within specific contexts. use; on the other hand, how we use certain language(s) As Schubert and Schultz (this volume) noted, lan- can be used by others as ways to project onto us their guage, culture, and identity are pervasive dimensions own suppositions of our identities. Oftentimes, the of life that students bring with them into their school language we speak or use can be used to position us and classrooms as part of the school curriculum. to be a legitimate or illegitimate member of a socio- Attention to how students use certain language(s) cultural community. As Gee (1989) noted, language and negotiate multiple identities within and across and identity are ideological and are intimately related different in-school and out-of-school contexts can to the distribution of social power and hierarchical have profound effects on their learning and perfor- structure in particular sociocultural contexts and mance in school. In the American school context, discourses. school language and literacy practices often favor the

61 62–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

“English-only” policy and legitimatize the cultural cultural and cognitive resources that can and should literacy that allows the dominant group to maintain be used in their classroom in order to provide cultur- its position and control. This dominant school dis- ally responsive and meaningful lessons that tap course, therefore, marginalizes minority languages students’ prior knowledge (González et al., 2005). and literacy practices and devalues the cultures, con- The second struggle is about whether the subject tributions, and histories of these minority groups matters of language, culture, identity, and power (Gee, 1989). In this context, in order to acquire the should be integrated into the school curriculum and— mainstream language and culture, minority students if they should—how to do it. Early efforts to integrate may choose to reject their cultural identity and heri- these subject matters that were manifested in the mul- tage, or to resist language and literacy learning in ticultural education movement received intense criti- school that often leads to negative representations cisms from social conservatives, who insisted that the and failure to learn (Li, 2011). Both of these orienta- common American culture was already multicultural tions can have serious consequences for students’ and that excessive emphasis on diversity and differ- academic achievement and socioemotional well- ences in language, ethnicity, and identity would create being, and they can be serious roadblocks for their divisiveness (Sleeter, 1995). The point of contention success in school and in life. For teachers and is “not so much whether education should be multi- schools, understanding students’ language use and cultural, but what that should mean” (Sleeter, 1995, identity formation, as well as their processes of nego- p. 83). For example, one debate is whether teaching tiating different identities and power relations, is these subject matters of linguistic and cultural diver- crucial for developing successful pedagogies, strate- sity will give minority students the intellectual tools gies, and environments that are conducive to they need to make it in the real world, and whether academic achievement and cultural affirmation. students would be better served by learning the English language better and by the mainstream core curriculum that “upholds the Western basis of institu- Subject Matters of Language, Culture, tions and thought but incorporates diverse groups into Identity, and Power as Sites of Struggle its history and culture with an emphasis on forging shared goals, beliefs and allegiances” (p. 84). The subject matters of language, culture, identity, In contrast to the social conservatives’ perspec- and power have been sites of struggle in the field of tives, other scholars such as Paulo Freire, Cameron education and among the American public. The first McCarthy, James Banks, Sonia Nieto, and Geneva struggle is about whether they are considered defi- Gay have argued that schools not only need to ciencies to overcome or resources/assets to build include the subject matters of diversity in language, upon for learning the mainstream or dominant lan- culture, and identity but also need to include them guage and culture. While some consider that minor- systematically so that they can change the status quo ity languages, cultures, and identities are barriers to of the current curriculum. These scholars believe that minority students’ academic success and English the conventional or social conservatives’ approach to learning, others believe that they are “funds of cultural diversity is inadequate. Rather, as Freire knowledge” (González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005) that (1987) pointed out, the solution is not to integrate can be successfully and strategically used to support them into the structure of oppression but to transform minority students’ academic learning and smooth the structure so they can become beings of themselves. transition between school, home, and community Gay (2010) illustrated this view: contexts. Educators with deficit thinking often attri- bute minority students’ underachievement in school The race, culture, ethnicity, individuality, and intellec- or their struggles to achieve success in English to the tuality of students are not discrete attributes that can students’ inability or unwillingness to learn English, be neatly assigned to separate categories, some to and to their family and individual characteristics. In be ignored while others are tended to. Instead, they are inseparably interrelated; all must be carefully under- contrast, those from a “funds of knowledge” approach stood, and the insights gleaned from this understanding believe that the language, culture, and identity that should be the driving force for the redesign of education minority students bring to the classroom contain rich for cultural diversity. (pp. 14–15) 8. Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power–•–63

This new multicultural framework aims to “invert the Information, 84% of the teaching force is White hegemony” of Eurocentrism in the curriculum and (Feistritzer, 2011). In a 2013 survey on teachers’ ultimately to engage teachers and students in critical preparedness for teaching the Common Core State reflection about the organization and arrangement of Standards to English language learners, only 8% knowledge in schooling and the connections between reported they felt “very prepared,” while 29% of the curriculum and the differential experiences and them reported they were “not at all prepared” futures of minority and majority students beyond the ( Education Week Research Center, 2014). The school door (McCarthy, 1994, p. 1). This means majority of these teachers (more than 85%) also school curriculum must affirm and use students’ received little training or professional development diverse language and literacy practices, cultures, and on how to teach the Common Core to diverse stu- identities as texts and actively transport the unofficial dents such as English language learners (Education and marginalized languages, cultures, experiences, Week Research Center, 2014). This is consistent and identities into the official world of school. By so with the results from a 2005 survey in which 87.5% doing the school curriculum subscribes to the practice of the mainstream teachers reported to have had little that engages both self and other and students and or no training in teaching linguistically diverse stu- teachers in rethinking constructions of identity, dents (NCELA Newsline Bulletin, 2005). Among culture, representation, and power (Li, 2013). those who received training, the focus of their train- This transformative multicultural education that ing was on instructional strategies or programs, makes minority language, culture, identity, and power seldom on cultural diversity. In a national survey an integral part of the curriculum is, however, diffi- specifically on the preparation of teachers for diver- cult to implement in the classrooms, which is the third sity, Frankenberg and Siegel-Hawley (2008) found struggle. Two key obstacles have been cited. One is that more than one in three teachers reported having teacher quality and capacity. In order to develop the had very little or no training in strategies to help cul- ability to provide opportunities for their students to turally and linguistically diverse students. Moreover, move across diverse physical and social borders, and when asked about their preparation in using one to rewrite the hegemonic domination of certain dis- important proven method of improving both race courses instead of just reproducing it, teachers must relations and average achievement levels in diverse be able to examine their own cultural beliefs and classrooms, only 29% of these teachers reported a practices, gain a repertoire of cultural practices rele- great deal of training in designing racially diverse vant to their culturally and linguistically diverse stu- groups. Similar challenges also exist in teacher dents, and acquire pedagogical knowledge and skills education programs, where few courses prepare about how to create spaces to connect these cultural teachers for the reality of multicultural classrooms practices to the curriculum, and in their daily instruc- (Gay, 2010). tion, coherently and systematically (Li, 2013). These This underpreparation of the teaching force has led qualifications require all teachers to become “teach- teachers to “sink or swim” in dealing with the increas- ers for social equity” who are able to see students’ ing cultural and linguistic diversity in classrooms. inherent literate capacities, help students realize their Some teachers are successful teachers who are effec- fullest literacy potential, and challenge the policies tive in developing culturally relevant pedagogy, for and practices that undermine students’ literacy example, those described in Ladson-Billings (1995), achievement by assuming a political orientation to even without specific training in culturally relevant literacy teaching by which issues of race, class, teaching. Others struggle with acquiring the necessary culture, literacy, language, and teaching intersect attitudes, knowledge, skills, and dispositions to work (Lazar, Edwards, & McMillion, 2012). effectively with a diverse student population (i.e., those However, in reality, the majority of pre- and in- documented in Pollock , Deckman, Mira, & Shalaby , service teachers are underprepared to meet the 2010). Many struggle with “ unintended cultural bias” demands of the rapid growing culturally and linguis- and lack of sociopolitical consciousness stemming tically diverse student population. According to from their own cultural backgrounds that are different a 2011 national survey of K–12 public school teach- from their non-mainstream students, and they ers conducted by the National Center for Education feel frustrated about their ability to enact culturally 64–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

relevant teaching even when they are provided rele- limits teachers’ autonomy in lesson planning to vant training (Young, 2010). address cultural diversity. The No Child Left Behind In addition to the challenge of an underprepared Act (NCLB), with its focus on educational outcomes teaching force, the current standards movement that and accountability, for example, terminated the Bilin- emphasizes high-stakes testing further limits teach- gual Education Act and replaced it with Title III, the ers’ ability and agency to redesign the curriculum English Language Acquisition, Language Enhance- and seek structural change within schools in order to ment, and Academic Achievement Act. NCLB embrace students’ diverse languages, cultures, and requires that English language learners who have been identities, a point discussed in more detail in the next in the United States for 1 year must take tests of Eng- section. lish language proficiency to measure their acquisition of English, and they must also take and pass the same tests of academic content as those taken by native Welcoming and Unwelcoming Contexts English speakers. Given the linguistic complexity of the national tests and the absence of first language The concerns and struggles outlined in the previous support, English language learners have been experi- section are products of the historical, social, political, encing disproportionate failure rates (Menken, 2010). economic, geographical, cultural, linguistic, and eco- Similar impacts of standards-based reform and high- logical contexts of our time that are characterized by stakes testing have also been found on minorities who increasing interaction and transaction among people are not English learners, including Blacks and Native of different races, religions, languages, and cultures Americans who are also disproportionately retained in across the globe. On the one hand, the intersection a grade or denied high school diplomas. among race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, religion, The standards movement has contributed to the language, and other social constructs is much more decline of multicultural education and teachers’ abil- recognized now than in the early era of multicultural- ity to enact culturally relevant teaching because they ism and transnationalism. Especially in today’s are forced to implement these standards without global society, our multiple, multidimensional lan- regard to the needs and experiences of the students. guages, cultures, and identities are more readily One of the consequences of NCLB, for example, is acknowledged especially with the aid of information that curriculum increasingly is normalized at the dis- technology. On the other hand, such a multiplicity trict level so that all students are learning the same increasingly contributes to the building of linguistic thing, at the same time, and at the same rate empires (i.e., English linguistic imperialism) through (Young, 2010). As Young (2010) noted, although language spread, shift, and dominance over linguisti- many districts’ rhetoric is to continue to promote cally diverse and multicultural populations around culturally responsive teaching and differentiated the world (Hamel, 2006). Domestically in the United instruction, many teachers are at a loss as to how States, language and culture conflicts between global they are expected to teach a scripted curriculum in an trends and local contexts are manifested in the individualized or culturally relevant manner. Baker English-only movement. For example, in a study on and Digiovanni (2005) described their observation of the influences of globalization on K–12 language teachers’ practices under the pressure of the standards teacher education programs in the state of Arizona, movement: which adopted an English-only policy, Singh (2012) [Many] teachers are supposed to be on specific lessons concluded that because we are living in a globalized on specific days . . . lessons are . . . scripted and . . . world with new realities, the English-only policy of deviation from the timeline is not permitted. No room Arizona is anti-global and not futuristic, as it is a is allowed for individuality or creativity in presenting major barrier to the cognitive development of English lessons; only the officially sanctioned timeline of les- language learners and the preparation of teacher sons is to be seen if an administrator walks into the classroom. (p. 1) candidates for teaching diverse student populations. Another contextual factor is related to the current In light of their observations, Baker and Digiovanni policy emphasis on standardization and on high- called for culturally responsive teaching, through stakes testing that devalues bilingual education and which schools can make a difference and begin to 8. Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power–•–65

address the issues of language, culture, identity, and to elaborate their own home-based identities while power that have profound impact on the education learning high-level skills that help them function in and the lives of students. They raised the following society. They emphasized that to make these spaces critical questions: beneficial to minority youths, they must be operated under the watchful eyes of caring and committed Where does the student fit into this assembly line model adults from the targeted population and under the of education? What experiences does the student bring control of the community. The successful examples with her when she enters the classroom? What are the in this study further suggest the need to address cultural expectations and mores that the student encoun- ters at home? What kinds of biases are inherent in the power and agency within school contexts and curriculum that prevent student learning? (2005, p. 1) beyond.

In addition to the macro policy context, local school contexts can also become limiting situations Theoretical Perspectives for incorporating the subject matters of language, The subject matters of language, culture, identity, culture, identity, and power. First, contemporary school policies and practices have systemic roots in and power must be understood from several interre- racism, which aims to preserve the advantages of lated theoretical perspectives. First and foremost is some groups over others by pushing non-tested cur- the sociocultural perspective on language and liter- ricula, including minority students’ knowledge, lan- acy learning. As noted earlier, language and literacy guage, culture, and identity, to the wayside learning is not just a cognitive issue but also a socio- (Gay, 2010; Young, 2010). Second, embedded in the cultural, sociolinguistic, and sociopolitical issue. systematic roots of racism, the structural relations What it means to be literate is not simply the ability within schools and districts can produce both wel- to read and write, but also a way of living and a way coming and unwelcoming moments for English of thinking. Literacy is a sociocultural process language learners and minority students and the through which people make meaning for themselves knowledge they bring to school. Gitlin, Buendía, and the world in which they live (Halliday, 1978). Crosland, and Doumbia (2003), in their study of the Defining literacy and who is literate from social, English as a second language (ESL) programs for cultural, and political perspectives is significant for immigrant students in a middle school, found that understanding the differences in the ways literacy is while there was a scattering of practices and repre- practiced in minority students’ homes and in their sentations that suggested that students who were communities outside school. Language and literacy enrolled in the ESL program were welcome at the activities are embedded in the social, cultural, and school, the students were not really welcomed or historical contexts in which they occur. Shaped by valued as a cultural resource, neither in the district different social and cultural norms, literacy acts—their nor in the school. Gitlin and colleagues (2003) functions, meanings, and methods of transmission— described, vary from one cultural group to another. These per- The welcoming moments tended to legitimate school spectives require teachers of minority students to pay practices and policies, yet the welcoming-unwelcoming attention to learners’ home languages, cultures, and process, when taken as a whole, not only reinforced the identities, as well as to their learning and identification existence of margin and center but placed these students with the English language. on the margins; that is, it ultimately excluded them While sociocultural theory emphasizes the need to culturally, physically, and socially from the inherent address the multiplicity of languages, cultures, and benefits of residing at the center. (p. 103) identities in context, critical theories such as critical In a parallel study of similar spaces set aside for race theory and the theory of sociocultural capital help identifiable racial, ethnic, and gender groups in two address the need to consider power and agency across high schools in the United States, Weis and Centrie different learning contexts. According to Ladson- (2002) found that such spaces can become powerful Billings (2005), critical race theory asserts that racism sites to empower young people in their search for is ingrained in the fabric and system of American life, identity in a society that fundamentally devalues including the educational systems, and that the expe- them, and they can be used to enable these students riential knowledge of people of color is appropriate, 66–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

legitimate, and an integral part of analyzing and deployable on an individual basis that represent how understanding racial inequity. Therefore, critical race people most effectively define themselves and have theory challenges claims of the neutrality, objectivity, others define them in various contexts. These colorblindness, and meritocracy of the existing power resources include both those psychological resources structures in society that tend to validate Eurocentric and an ability to evaluate reflexively and maneuver ways of knowing and marginalize and devalue minor- through a variety of social contexts. Côté and Levine ity students’ “funds of knowledge” and multiple ways (2002) described how identity capital works: of knowing (Ladson-Billings, 2005). Another theory that is central to the understanding A resource is an asset that people can “cash in,” literally of the power relations in the subject matters of lan- or metaphorically. In so doing, identity exchanges take guage, culture, and identity is Bourdieu’s (1991) place—pragmatically, symbolically, or emotionally— during contextually specific interactions, as part of a theory of cultural capital. Cultural capital is the quid pro quo negotiated by the parties involved. If suc- knowledge, skills, and other cultural acquisitions, as cessful, these identity exchanges involve mutual accep- exemplified by educational or technical qualifica- tance with another individual, an informal group, a tions. Bourdieu maintained that individuals acquire community, or an institution. And with this acceptance, and accumulate cultural resources that can be acti- the incumbent gains identity capital—there has been an vated in cultural capital that provides social advan- increase in some aspect of “who they are.” (p. 143, italics in the original) tages and educational success. One’s language or linguistic and identity capital are forms of cultural capital that individuals can use to achieve success. According to them, the development and the use of identity capital need to be understood in their Although all people possess certain linguistic and particular contexts, because “the resources have an identity capital, how these cultural resources are acti- inoculation quality that can enable individuals to vated into cultural capital differs contextually from reflexively resist and/or act back on the social person to person and from context to context. forces impinging on them” (p. 145, italics in the According to Bourdieu, linguistic capital is highly original). If successful, such an individualization dependent on one’s background and social status and process will empower the person to develop a sense one’s ability to use the right words, right grammar, of authorship over his or her own biography (Côté & register, tone, body language, and so forth in a man- Levine, 2002). If not, it will lead to a conforming ner that is favored by the social structure of the self, one that loses its autonomy and conforms to linguistic market or the community within which others’ and more powerful values, which often leads certain lingual capabilities have a higher currency to the adoption of the very values that marginalize than others. In the linguistic market in the United them. Therefore, what an individual does in relation States, for example, Standard English is a more to the power relations within his or her social favorable currency than Black English and other environments is of critical importance to identity heritage languages immigrants bring to the country. development. Similarly, schools’ literacy practices and Eurocentric In sum, these several interrelated theoretical per- ways of knowing hold more powerful statuses than spectives suggest the multiple, fluid, and political the funds of knowledge that minority learners bring nature of the matters of language, culture, and iden- to school. Therefore, in the linguistic market of tity, and that to successfully integrate these subject American society and schools, power relations matters in the school curriculum, we must address between the majority language and literacy practices the ever-increasing cultural and linguistic pluralism predetermine the standards according to which lin- and issues of social (in)justice as expressed in guistic capital is allocated, thus preserving the exist- linguistic imperialism, racism, sexism, and other ing dominant status of the English language and its forms of prejudice and discrimination and seek to cultural ways of knowing (Bourdieu, 1991). affirm diverse identity and culture in the teaching Identity is also a form of cultural capital. Extend- and learning process so that we can achieve ing Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, Côté and educational equity and excellence leading to high Levine (2002) suggested that identity formation is levels of academic learning for all children and shaped by identity capital, that is, various resources youths (Bennett, 2001). 8. Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power–•–67

Key Forms of Inquiry and on three areas: the teacher (i.e., how teachers enact Modes of Expression culturally relevant pedagogy or how to train teachers to incorporate culture in literacy instruction), the Research on the subject matters of language, cul- text (i.e., teachers and students’ use and choices of ture, identity, and power has been conducted and culturally relevant texts and materials, including manifested in a variety of genres and modes of rep- oral, written, multimedia, and popular cultural resentation. In a comprehensive review of key stud- texts), and the context (i.e., focused on connections ies in these subject matters, broadly included in the and disconnections between home and school dis- field of multicultural education, Bennett (2001) courses as well as between online and offline modes) offered a conceptual framework for research genres (see Li, 2011, for details and associated key studies). in this field that include four areas of inquiry (cur- In addition to Li, two important volumes by Cum- riculum inquiry, equity pedagogy, multicultural mins and Davison (2007) extend the research on the competence, and societal equity) and 12 research subject matters of language, culture, identity, and genres that range from historical inquiry to student power to the international contexts, linking English achievement, and from culture and race in popular language teaching and learning to the issues of glo- culture to social action. The area of curriculum balization, colonialism, and nation-state identities inquiry includes genres of historical inquiry, detect- and struggles around the globe and in transnational ing bias in texts and instructional materials, and exchanges. curriculum theory. The genres of equity pedagogy The studies included in Bennett’s (2001) and include school and classroom climate, student Li’s (2011) reviews and Cummins and Davison’s achievement, and cultural styles in teaching and (2007) volumes are overwhelmingly qualitative in learning. The cluster of multicultural competence nature, ranging from case studies to ethnographic includes genres of ethnic identity development, studies, narrative inquiries, and action research. In prejudice reduction, and ethnic group culture. light of this limitation, Li (2011) called for more Finally, the genres of social equity consist of demo- research that uses quantitative or mixed methods, graphics, culture and race in popular culture, and in order to investigate the links between language, social action (for details of these research genres literacy, culture, identity, and power, and thus and key studies, see Bennett, 2001). “productively bridge the qualitative/quantitative While Bennett’s (2001) review included interdis- divide” (p. 531). ciplinary studies on culture and power, it excluded studies on language, culture, and identity as reflected in several compatible fields that are sometimes Conclusion equated with multicultural education, such as ethnic studies, social studies, gender studies, bilingual edu- Contemporary concerns and struggles over the inte- cation, and special education. A recent review by gration of the subject matters of language, culture, Li (2011) focused more on the relationship between identity, and power in the school context are charac- language learning, teaching, culture, and identity. terized by an increasingly multicultural and According to Li, four major areas of inquiry have multilingual student population, but an increasingly emerged from research concerning the links between standardized curriculum and instruction suggests language, culture, and literacy learning: (a) culture that we have a difficult path ahead. Future work and identity development derived from students’ must address these contradictory conditions and identification with their native language and culture; forces that may hinder the exploration or implemen- (b) culturally encoded gender roles that affect immi- tation of effective approaches to address the polycul- grant and minority students’ literacy learning; tural and polylingual nature of today’s classrooms. (c) home and school cultural discontinuities in lan- As the discussion in this chapter suggests, inclusion guage and literacy; and (d) the impact of culturally of these multiple cultural and language practices and marked notions of parental involvement on literacy identities cannot be achieved simply by adding learning. Further, research that attempts to integrate superficial cultural content, such as foods, folkways, cultural practices into literacy instruction focuses and holidays to school activities; rather, it needs to 68–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

involve continual interface and exchange of cultural will transform students’ lives, enable academic suc- and symbolic differences and strategic reworking of cess, and help them connect the present with the past the curriculum and the power structure that in turn and the future.

References and Further Readings American Educational Research Journal, 40(1), 91–122. Baker, P. B., & Digiovanni, L. W. (2005). Narratives on González, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of culturally relevant pedagogy: Personal responses to knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, the standardized curriculum. Current Issues in communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Education, 8(15). Retrieved from http://cie.ed.asu Lawrence Erlbaum. .edu/volume8/number22/ Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of research in multicultural semiotic: The social interpretation of language education. Review of Education Research, and meaning. Baltimore, MD: University 71(2), 1–44. Park Press. Bohn, A., & Sleeter, C. (2001). Will multicultural Hamel, R. E. (2006). The development of language education survive the standards movement? empires. In U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, Education Digest, 66(5), 17–24. K. J. Mattheier, & P. Trudgill (Eds.), Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Sociolinguistics: An international handbook of the Cambridge, MA: Polity Press. science of language and society (pp. 2240–2258). Côté, J. E., & Levine, C. G. (2002). Identity formation, Berlin, NY: Walter de Gruyter. agency, and culture: A social psychological He, M. F., Phillion, J., Chan, E., & Xu, S. J. (2008). synthesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Immigrant students’ experience of curriculum. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: In F. M. Connelly, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Handbook of curriculum and instruction Multilingual Matters. (pp. 219–239). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cummins, J., & Davison, C. (Eds.). (2007). International Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally handbook of English language teaching (Vols. 1–2). relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Norwell, MA: Springer. Journal, 32(3), 465–491. Education Week Research Center. (2014). From adoption Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). The evolving role of critical to practice: Findings from a national survey of race theory in educational scholarship. Race teacher perspectives on the common core. Bethesda, Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 115–119. MD: Education Week Research Center. Lazar, A., Edwards, P. A., & McMillon, G. M. T. (2012). Feistritzer, C. E. (2011). Profile of teachers in the United Bridging literacy and equity: Guidelines for social States 2011. Washington, DC: National Center for equity literacy teaching. New York, NY: Teachers Education Information. College Press. Frankenberg, E., & Siegel-Hawley, G. (2008). Are Li, G. (2011). The role of culture in literacy learning and teachers prepared for America’s diverse schools? teaching. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, Teachers describe their preparation, resources and & P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading practices for racially diverse schools. Los Angeles, research, Vol. IV (pp. 515–538). Mahwah, NJ: CA: Civil Rights Project. Lawrence Erlbaum. Freire, P. (1987). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Li, G. (2013). Promoting teachers of culturally and NY: Continuum. linguistically diverse (CLD) students as change Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, agents: A cultural approach to professional research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers learning. Theory Into Practice, 52(2), College Press. 136–143. Gee, J. P. (1990/2012). Social linguistics and McCarthy, C. (1994). Multicultural discourses and literacies: Ideology in discourses. London, UK: curriculum reform: A critical perspective. Falmer Press. Educational Theory, 44(1), 81–118. Gitlin, A., Buendía, E., Crosland, K., & Doumbia, F. Menken, K. (2010). NCLB and English language (2003). The production of margin and center: learners: Challenges and consequences. Theory Into Welcoming-unwelcoming of immigrant students. Practice, 49, 121–128. 8. Subject Matters of Language, Culture, Identity, and Power–•–69

NCELA Newsline Bulletin. (2005). NCES survey: Sleeter, C. E. (1995). An analysis of the critiques of Over 40% of the teachers teach LEPs. Retrieved multicultural education. In J. A. Banks & C. M. from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/enews/2002/ Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural 0611.htm education (pp. 81–94). New York, NY: Macmillan. Pollock, M., Deckman, S., Mira, M., & Shalaby, C. Weis, L., & Centrie, C. (2002). On the power of creating (2010). “But what can I do?” Three necessary separate spaces: Teachers and students writing tensions in teaching teachers about race. Journal of (righting) selves and future. American Educational Teacher Education, 61(3), 211–224. Research Journal, 9(1), 7–36. Singh, N. K. (2012). Influences of globalization on K-12 Young, E. (2010). Challenges to conceptualizing and language teacher education programs (Unpublished actualizing culturally relevant pedagogy: How viable doctoral dissertation). Northern Arizona University, is the theory in classroom practice? Journal of Flagstaff, AZ. Teacher Education, 61(3), 248–260. 9

SUBJECT MATTERS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PAUL M. WRIGHT Northern Illinois University

DAVID S. WALSH San Francisco State University

hysical education (PE) as a subject matter in as key to the fight against childhood obesity (Amis, the United States is at a crossroads. Since PE Wright, Dyson, Vardaman, & Ferry, 2012). Pwas integrated into the U.S. school curriculum, PE, like all other subject matters, was impacted in its perceived role in the curriculum has evolved as the later decades of the 20th century by an increased well as its standing in relation to other subject mat- focus on the concept of academic achievement as ters. Understandings of the content of PE have varied measured by scores on standardized tests. In response widely over the past century, and debates about what to the publication of A Nation at Risk report by the should comprise PE content have only intensified in National Commission on Excellence in Education recent decades. PE has been placed in the middle of (1983) and the No Child Left Behind legislation a tug-of-war between two competing external factors. (2001), subject matters came to be organized in terms One side has been the pressure on schools to demon- of centrality to this particular view of academic strate student performance by means of standardized achievement. Essentially, subjects that were deemed testing related to subject matters that have been ele- most important in preparing students to help the vated to the status of “core” subjects (i.e., mathemat- United States stay competitive on the international ics, science, and language arts). The other side is the stage were placed in the category of core subjects. In more recent pressure on schools stemming from shifting focus to core subjects and making curricular public health concerns about what has been deemed decisions to prepare students to test well in them, the twin epidemic of childhood obesity and physical schools pulled attention, time, and resources away inactivity. In light of these competing pressures, PE from other subject matters such as art, music, and has become a cutting-edge topic. State, federal, and PE. This often resulted in reductions in the amount local policies that had pushed for the reduction and of PE offered and required in the curriculum. Uncer- marginalization of PE for decades in the name of tified teaching staff became common in PE pro- academic achievement are now being reversed and grams. These factors and the desire among many overturned as school-based PE has come to be seen principals to maximize time devoted to core subjects

70 9. Subject Matters of Physical Education–•–71

drove scheduling practices in many schools to over- measures, PE and wellness-related policies are often crowd gymnasiums. With little administrative com- ignored or minimally addressed (Amis et al., 2012). mitment, low expectations, and limited support, it is Another level of difficulty in enacting these policies not surprising that for several decades PE was is the fact that many PE programs have been system- becoming marginalized in the curriculum. Although atically weakened and marginalized for so long. there have been exemplary teachers and programs, Even with administrative support to increase the the general trend during this era was a reduction in amount of PE that students receive, many PE pro- the quantity and quality of PE in the schools and seri- grams struggle to provide the quality necessary to ous questions about its value from the perspective of deliver the outcomes envisioned by policy makers many stakeholders including principals, classroom and legislators, such as increased physical fitness, teachers, parents, and often students themselves decreased body mass index, and increased levels of (Amis et al., 2012). moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) During recent decades, while PE was becoming (McKenzie, Marshall, Sallis, & Conway, 2000). increasingly marginalized, a combination of social In this chapter, we examine contemporary con- trends gave rise to an increase in obesity and physical cerns around PE as it relates to these external pres- inactivity in the United States. A general shift toward sures as well as the internal tensions and debates sedentary behavior (i.e., lower energy expenditure) among leaders in the field. We also explore how combined with higher caloric diets (i.e., higher PE’s current situation serves as an example of the energy intake) resulted in steady and dramatic ways historical, social, political, economic, and other increases in the rate of overweight and obesity in the forces come together to influence not only small- United States. In fact, in the space of 30 years, the scale curricular decisions but also how an entire rate of childhood obesity in the United States tripled subject matter is shaped and defined in the context of (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lamb, & Flegal, 2010). schooling and in the collective consciousness. Using Because obesity and overweight are associated with the example of PE, we finally discuss the ways that a number of preventable diseases such as heart dis- the theory and forms of inquiry brought to bear on a ease, hypertension, and diabetes, this trend has subject matter shape and are shaped by it. become a major public health concern. In looking for strategies to halt or reverse these trends, there has been an increasing focus on the provision of physical A Brief History of PE in the United States activity for children. PE, as part of the K–12 curricu- lum in schools throughout the nation, has been To contextualize the current issues and debates sur- looked to as an important lever in these efforts. This rounding PE, it is important to provide a brief history has been pointed out in the academic literature for of PE as a subject matter (see Mechikoff, 2013, for years and promoted by organizations such as the more detailed history). Toward the end of the American Heart Association and Centers for Disease 19th century, physical training in the public schools Control and Prevention. Consequently, hundreds of was focused on working-class children performing local, state, and federal policies have been enacted to exercises in unison within large groups. The devel- increase the amount of physical activity in general, opment of PE aimed to equip students for useful, and specifically the amount of PE that is required fulfilling, and productive lives. Early PE programs (Boehmer, Luke, Haire-Joshu, Bates, & Brownson, focused on calisthenics and gymnastic techniques. 2008). Unfortunately, as highlighted by Amis and This physical activity content gradually gave way to colleagues (2012), these policies and laws are often an era of PE-as-sport-techniques between 1920 and unfunded mandates that offer increased expectations 1960. The inclusion of sport techniques into the core without support. Moreover, they generally lack clear of the practice of PE was revolutionary for the sub- guidelines for implementation and have no account- ject. PE-as-sport-techniques dominated in schools ability measures attached to them. Therefore, in the through what is referred to as the “multi-activity hands of school and district administrators, who model” (Kirk, 2011). are continually deluged with other mandates that The multi-activity model, which has been highly are attached to school funding and accountability resistant to change, involves teaching numerous 72–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

sports or movement activities such as basketball, vol- field in terms of how it contributes to other desired leyball, soccer, and softball in relatively short units. outcomes. These debates have also taken center stage Fitness activities such as weight training and aerobic within the field of PE. Academics who conduct exercise sometimes take place along with dance, PE-related research and train future teachers, along yoga, and martial arts. The purpose of the multi- with the major professional organizations, are keenly activity model is to provide students with an expo- aware of these pressures and are trying to keep up sure to a wide variety of activities while maintaining with these trends. However, different views regard- student interest with its fast-changing focus ing what should comprise the subject matter of PE (Kirk, 2011). Middle school students typically expe- lead to disparate and sometimes conflicting proposals rience shorter 2- to 3-week units, while high school as to the best ways to move forward. students experience longer 3- to 5-week units. The sport units focus on a variety of skills that make up Charges of Ineffectiveness the sport. For example, a softball unit could cover many motor skills that are used in the game such as Having acknowledged that there have always batting, base running, catching, throwing, and field- been high-quality PE teachers and effective PE pro- ing. Students might practice different offensive and grams throughout the nation, the field as a whole has defensive scenarios to help them use particular motor been harshly criticized for maintaining the status skills. The practice of multiple skills helps students quo. Locke (1992) asserted that the dominant model develop motor patterns for use in the game or lead-up of PE in practice has become characterized by game (Boyce, Coker, & Bunker, 2006). required attendance without choice of activity or While local norms as well as state and district cur- instructor, class assignment without the use of stu- riculum vary, there are many commonalities within dent needs or achievement, short classes with time the dominant form of PE-as-sport-techniques eroded by management rituals and low academic approach. A typical lesson begins with a skill-related learning time, short units with only introductory lev- warm-up; then the majority of the lesson focuses els of instruction, evaluation based on participation, on skill instruction and practice and concludes and program content based on instructor interest and with a game in which the skills learned are then convenience. According to Flintoff and Scraton to be applied. Classes may be populated by 30 to (2001), PE is a break from academic work and at 50 students taught by one teacher and run between worst an unnecessary imposition impacting nega- 40 and 75 minutes. The larger the class becomes, the tively on academic studies and rarely useful for out- more compelling the perceived need to use a “com- of-school lives. Evans (2004) chides that PE’s mand” or “directive” teaching style, in which the inability to agree to an answer to the trend of testing teacher makes the decisions about what is to be taught and assessment may have contributed to its marginal and learned and in what sequence. Effective teachers role. Some have charged that despite the emphasis on provide verbal direction, visual demonstrations, and PE-as-sport-techniques, many programs are ineffec- tasks to be performed with specific and general feed- tive in promoting even fundamental motor skills back (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994). For better or for (Lounsbery & Coker, 2008). In addition to concerns worse, this has become the dominant conception of about the delivery and general contributions of PE, it PE in the United States and represents the most has been argued that the hidden curriculum of PE has common content and organizational structures. been largely unchecked and contributed to the reproduction of social inequities concerning gender, ethnicity, social class, disability, and the social Contemporary Concerns construction of the body (Flintoff & Scraton, 2001).

As explained earlier, PE is currently a hotly debated The Content of PE topic among policy makers and legislators, as well as district and school administrators. With academic Charges of ineffectiveness abound and beg the achievement on one side and obesity prevention on question, “How do we define effectiveness?” Such the other, the value of PE is seen by many outside the questions assume clear objectives as a reference point. 9. Subject Matters of Physical Education–•–73

However, prior to the shift to emphasize academic Understanding (TGfU), Sport Education, and Teach- achievement, as it is currently framed, PE and schools ing Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR). Each in general allowed for a broader and more holistic of these models is briefly described in the following view of education (Amis et al., 2012). This is reflected paragraphs. in Randall’s (1967) position that the ultimate aim of The TGfU model was developed by Rod Thorpe, PE was to contribute to the overall education of young David Bunker, and Len Almond (1986) during the people, including a variety of sports and pastimes, 1970s and 1980s. They proposed a different way of both competitive and recreational, as well as fitness teaching sports through modifications to match the and health. He also believed that PE should contribute level of experience and ability of the players. For to enjoyment, satisfaction, character development, example, rather than playing a tennis game with a team cooperation, and individual effort. Despite the standard racquet, ball, and court, beginners could fact that this multitude of learning outcomes has play with short plastic racquets, sponge balls, lower driven some in the public health community to view nets, and smaller courts. Their priority is for players PE as having a muddled mission (Pate & Hohn, 1994), to understand the game and develop tactical aware- the content standards for PE developed by the National ness to aid decision making. The modifications made Association for Sport and Physical Education to the game were of utmost importance in the TGfU (NASPE) are broad in nature. The recently revised approach, which also requires considerable depth standards state, “The goal of physical education is to and knowledge on the part of the teacher. By encour- develop physically literate individuals who have the aging critical thinking and problem solving, this knowledge, skills and confidence to enjoy a lifetime model places greater emphasis on the cognitive of healthful physical activity” ( AAHPERD, 2013, aspects of PE. p. 1). The five standards state that the physically The Sport Education model was developed by literate individual (1) demonstrates competency in Daryl Siedentop (1994) in the 1980s. The premise a variety of motor skills and movement patterns; is to teach the best components of experiencing (2) applies knowledge of concepts, principles, being on a sports team. The curriculum is organized strategies, and tactics related to movement and perfor- around longer seasons of a specific sport to capture mance; (3) demonstrates the knowledge and skills to the ebb and flow of a sport season rather than short achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of units. The class is divided into teams that learn ritu- physical activity and fitness; (4) exhibits responsible als, values, and traditions of a sport. Students are personal and social behavior that respects self and coached in training sessions and learn about others; and (5) recognizes the value of physical activ- etiquette of sport such as fair play and healthy com- ity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, petition. Additional roles are given such as team and/or social interaction (AAHPERD, 2013). captain, fitness trainer, equipment officer, statisti- cian, and referee. The genuine sport experience is Innovation in PE also emulated through culminating events like tour- naments and end-of-season celebrations. By pro- Amidst debates over the goals and objectives of viding an authentic and deeper experience with school-based PE, several scholars and practitioners sport, this model provides a strong balance between have been part of a movement to improve PE through cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning innovative pedagogical practices such as reciprocal objectives. teaching, guided discovery, and problem-solving The TPSR model was developed by Don Hellison teaching styles (Mosston & Ashworth, 1994). Others (2011) more than 40 years ago with a particular have emphasized communicating the values and joys focus on social and emotional learning. It is a of physical activity by promoting sport for peace, holistic, relational, and empowerment-based app- cooperative learning, girl-friendly PE, health-related roach to promoting responsibility goals and associ- exercise, and outdoor adventure (Kirk, 2011). There ated life skills through physical activity. The primary have also been reformers who have challenged the goals include respecting the rights and feelings of multi-activity model by championing new pedagogi- others (e.g., self-control and inclusion), self- cal models for teachers such as Teaching Games for motivation (e.g., effort and teamwork), self-direction 74–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

(e.g., working independently and goal setting), and initiated under the Kennedy administration during caring (e.g., leadership and helping others). The fifth the Cold War. The rationale for this is readily appar- and ultimate goal of TPSR involves the transference ent: PE as delivered through the public school system of the four primary goals beyond the program to was identified as a large-scale and cost-effective way other contexts such as school, home, and on the of promoting physical fitness and preparing young streets. This model clearly places great emphasis on citizens to be fit for military service. the affective domain and directly addressing the The Cold War also intensified the desire of the NASPE content standards related to responsible U.S. political establishment to demonstrate the coun- behavior in PE. try’s ability to compete, if not its superiority, in the In many ways, these innovative practices address areas of math and science. The publication of some of the widespread criticism of PE noted earlier A Nation at Risk (1983), a scathing indictment of the in the chapter, as well as multiple learning objec- U.S. educational system, served as a political rally- tives. For example, the Sport Education model is a ing point to prioritize what have become the core response to traditional PE’s lack of content mastery subject areas. Moreover, this document and the fer- and boring content. The TGfU model aims to vor it created added momentum to the push for stan- improve student satisfaction with PE and to produce dardized testing and national content standards. skillful participants in lifelong activities. The TPSR Although content standards have been established model extends lessons beyond the physical compo- for PE, unlike with other subject areas such as math- nents by humanizing the field and providing strate- ematics, the delivery and assessment of learning gies and a structure to impact emotional, social, and objectives in PE have not been a priority in U.S. psychological development through physical activity. schools. Therefore, during the later decades of the These are just a few examples of innovation in PE. 20th century, PE’s status as a second-class subject Other innovative approaches that broaden the scope, matter was being solidified in the schools. By the content, and settings typically associated with PE time the No Child Left Behind Act was passed, it include Outdoor Education and Adventure-Based was clear that certain subject matters were of utmost Learning (Dyson & Sutherland, 2015; Stiehl, importance. In fact, failure to demonstrate sufficient Parker, & Coulter, 2015). student performance in these areas could cost princi- pals their jobs and result in school closings. In this context, it should not be surprising that PE had Contextual Forces become marginalized in the minds of many stake- holders including principals, classroom teachers, As with all other subject matters, PE has been shaped parents, and students (Amis et al., 2012). in many ways by contextual forces. Historical, social, Whereas these contextual factors largely contrib- political, economic, and cultural factors have played uted to the evolution of PE up to the turn of the past a large role in the evolution of PE in the U.S. school century, the story more recently has become driven system over the past century. Although there were by economics. Clearly, obesity and overweight have explorations of the notion of education through the reached epidemic proportions in the United States physical during the progressive education era, by and and represent a public health crisis. This also repre- large the physical training model of the early half of sents a major economic crisis in that the cost of the 20th century was consistent with the focus on preventable obesity-related diseases, especially at the efficiency that characterized mass public schooling. rate of recent growth, is an unsustainable burden on The shift to the PE-as-sport-techniques model in the the U.S. health care system. Employers, insurance mid- to late 20th century was consistent with the companies, and the health care industry clearly see growing fascination with professional sport in the need to address obesity as an economic as well as American culture. Interestingly, some national a health problem. In this context, much more legisla- initiatives in PE emerged in almost direct response to tion has been passed in recent years to increase the political conditions. The President’s Council on quantity of physical activity and/or PE provided in Physical Fitness and the Presidential Fitness the schools, contributing to the current push for PE to Challenge (still used in many schools today) were focus on outcomes such as MVPA. However, many 9. Subject Matters of Physical Education–•–75

of these policies have been proven ineffective due to field are aligning with the perspective that PE’s value the fact that they are unfunded mandates with no rests in its ability to serve other ends. This argument accountability measures (Amis et al., 2012). is based largely in the shift among academics and professional organizations to virtually reframe PE as a childhood obesity prevention strategy. In plotting Theory in PE this course, some temporary support may come from powerful external interests, but the implications are PE tends to be viewed by many outside the field in a serious. Going down this path and shaping PE as a reductionist and utilitarian way. For the past several way to improve public health will likely narrow the decades, the largest challenge to PE came indirectly content and the learning objectives pursued. For from those focused on academic achievement. From example, the national content standards related to this perspective, PE was seen as an expendable part self-expression and personal social responsibility of the curriculum where time and space could be clearly receive less emphasis than those related to freed up in service of the core subject areas. Cur- physical fitness and physical activity. In fact, some rently, PE is receiving a great deal of policy support have gone as far as to suggest that social-emotional by those taking a public health perspective. However, learning objectives are not specific to PE and, there- what is being supported is the use of PE to fight fore, do not need to be included in the content stan- childhood obesity by those who view it as a means to dards (McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2013). Viewed as a another end. PE has been pulled back and forth by public health intervention, PE’s mission may seem outside forces because of its perceived role as a bar- “muddled,” but social-emotional learning objectives rier or facilitator to the achievement of some other might be viewed more favorably by those who see it outcome rather than for its inherent value. as a subject matter with the intent of fostering the Within the field of PE, there has been a richer holistic development of children. debate employing a range of philosophical and theo- retical perspectives. Jewett, Bain, and Ennis (1995), for example, identified several common curricular Forms of Inquiry in PE value orientations in PE, including disciplinary mas- tery, learning process, self-actualization, social Not surprisingly, the forms of inquiry most com- responsibility, and ecological integration. While all monly employed in the field of PE are driven by the of these are legitimate orientations, disciplinary mas- dominant curricular value orientations and theoretical tery has been, and continues to be, the most common. perspectives. Despite the range of forms of curriculum Still, some innovators in the field have provided inquiry available (Short, 1991) and options for alter- alternative approaches. Hellison’s (2011) TPSR native representation, most inquiry related to PE falls model, for example, emphasizes self-actualization into a fairly traditional research model. That is to say, and social responsibility. A variety of learning theo- either traditional quantitative or qualitative methods ries are also applied within the field of PE, such as are employed (or the two are mixed) to ask a fairly social constructivism, situated learning, and critical discrete question or test a hypothesis. Most studies theory (Kirk, 2011). In addition, numerous theories are conducted to yield conference presentations and from psychology and sport psychology have been peer-reviewed articles. applied to PE, such as social learning theory, achieve- Some history about the place of PE as a field of ment motivation, self-determination, and goal study in higher education partially explains why this orientations (Li & Lee, 2004). field tends to embrace fairly traditional approaches. While this array of philosophical and theoretical The 1960s and 1970s were the decades in which the perspectives has been applied to PE, it is evident in basic qualification to become a PE teacher changed the current discourse that some are more prevalent. from sub-degree/certificate to degree level. Franklin As explained throughout this chapter, the current Henry’s (1964) paper “Physical Education: An Aca- status and future direction of PE is largely shaped by demic Discipline” marked the beginning of advocat- external agendas that view PE in a reductionist and ing for PE as sufficiently theoretical to be worthy of utilitarian way. Perhaps unwittingly, many within the study at the university level. The reconfiguration and 76–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

change to PE in higher education begun in this era In sum, there is variety in the forms of inquiry used has shaped what have commonly become depart- within the field of PE, but less variety in terms of ments of kinesiology in universities today. PE teacher representation. This may be due in part to the tradi- education became a subdiscipline of the broader field tions and deep culture of scientific research in depart- of kinesiology. In order to gain credibility and ments of kinesiology. It is also influenced by external respect within the academy, many individuals and pressures. For a field battling for equal status and programs gravitated to particular parent disciplines support in public schools and in higher education, such as psychology and physiology, which moved there may be heightened pressure to demonstrate out- the study of PE toward specialization and fragmenta- comes that are valued by stakeholders with decision- tion. Whereas some faculty were focused on PE making power (e.g., physical fitness gains and MVPA). teacher education, others identified with subdisci- Such dependent variables and a positivist approach to plines such as biomechanics, motor learning, exer- inquiry provide much needed ammunition in the battle cise physiology, sport psychology, and sociocultural for respect in the current educational climate. perspectives on physical activity. As it stands today, PE is at a crossroads. Like all subject matters, PE teacher candidates are required to take courses in and its place in the school curriculum has evolved these various subdisciplines as part of their licensure over time and has clearly been influenced by histori- requirements leaving less room in their own curricu- cal, political, cultural, and economic factors. The lum for integrated and authentic learning about the unique challenges for PE in the past several decades field they are going to enter (Lawson, 2007). largely relate to the consequences of not being Viewed this way, the reductionist approach and included in the core curriculum. While some see disciplinary mastery curricular value orientations attaching to the public health initiative around obe- commonly seen in the field of PE today are easy to sity prevention as the key to bringing PE back from understand. If the higher education faculty who steer the margins, even this opportunity may come at a this field of study and train future teachers work cost. When a subject area and its curriculum are within a structure that is built on these perspectives, shaped to serve some other agenda, how likely is it to it is not surprising that they often internalize them. truly address the needs of the students it is meant to The same can be said for PE teachers who are trained serve? There are many different calls for action in the in such a system by faculty who are a part of it. In current literature that amount to a narrowing of the this context, fairly safe and traditional modes of curriculum. As this field and those individuals com- inquiry and forms of representation abound. How- mitted to it move forward, it is recommended that ever, some individuals have employed alternative they do not lose sight of the full range of value ori- forms of inquiry. David Kirk (2013) is one of several entations, learning objectives, theoretical perspec- scholars who employ philosophical methods in the tives, and modes of inquiry that can be brought to study of PE. In developing his TPSR model, Don bear. It would be folly to ignore contextual factors Hellison’s process has been framed as a form of prac- and external pressures; of course they must be con- tical inquiry (Georgiadis, 1992). Martinek and col- sidered in curricular decision making. However, the leagues (2004) have argued for an alternative driving force for making such decisions should be approach to inquiry that is based in university– students and what they truly need to know, value, community collaboration and direct service with and experience (Schubert, 1986). Otherwise, many underserved populations, called service-bonded of the complaints associated with the overemphasis inquiry. Many others have employed what could gen- on standardized testing to assess academic achieve- erally be called engaged and reflective approaches to ment (e.g., teaching to the test and dumbing down scholarship. the curriculum) may become the future of PE.

References and Further Readings Grade-level outcomes for K-12 physical education. Reston, VA: AAHPERD. Retrieved from http:// American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, www.shapeamerica.org/standards/upload/Grade- Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD). (2013). Level-Outcomes-for-K-12-Physical-Education.pdf 9. Subject Matters of Physical Education–•–77

Amis, J., Wright, P. M., Dyson, B., Vardaman, J., & Martinek, T., Hellison, D., & Walsh, D. (2004). Ferry, H. (2012). Implementing childhood obesity Service-bonded inquiry revisited: A research model policy in a new educational environment: The cases for the community-engaged professor. Quest, 56, of Mississippi and Tennessee. American Journal of 397–412. Public Health, 102, 1406–1413. McKenzie, T. L., & Lounsbery, M. A. F. (2013). Physical Boehmer, T. K., Luke, D. A., Haire-Joshu, D., education teacher effectiveness in a public health Bates, H., & Brownson, R. C. (2008). Preventing context. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, childhood obesity through state policy. American 84, 419–430. Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34, 333–340. McKenzie, T. L., Marshall, S. J., Sallis, J. F., & Conway, Boyce, B. A., Coker, C. A., & Bunker, L. K. (2006). T. L. (2000). Student activity levels, lesson context, Implications for variability of practice from and teacher behavior during middle school physical pedagogy and motor learning perspectives: Finding a education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and common ground. Quest, 58, 330–343. Sport, 71(3), 249–259. Dyson, B., & Sutherland, S. (2015). Adventure education Mechikoff, R. (2013). A history and philosophy of sport in your physical education program. In J. Lund & and physical education: From ancient civilizations D. Tannehill (Eds.), Standards-based physical to the modern world (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: education curriculum development (3rd ed., McGraw-Hill. pp. 229–252). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett. Mosston, M., & Ashworth, S. (1994). Teaching physical Evans, J. (2004). Making a difference? Education and education (4th ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan. “ability” in physical education. European Physical National Commission on Excellence in Education. Education Review, 10, 95–108. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for Flintoff, A., & Scraton, S. (2001). Stepping into active educational reform. A Report to the Nation and the leisure? Young women’s perceptions of active Secretary of Education. Washington, DC: National lifestyles and their experiences of school physical Commission on Excellence in Education. education. Sport, Education and Society, 6, 5–22. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, PL 107–110, 20 Georgiadis, N. (1992). Practical inquiry in physical U.S.C.A., section 6301. education: The case of Hellison’s personal and Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., social responsibility model (Unpublished doctoral Lamb, M. M., & Flegal, K. M. (2010). Prevalence dissertation). University of Illinois, Chicago. of high body mass index in US children and Hellison, D. (2011). Teaching personal and social adolescents, 2007–2008. Journal of the American responsibility through physical activity (3rd ed.). Medical Association, 303, 242–249. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pate, R. R., & Hohn, R. C. (1994). Health and fitness Henry, F. M. (1964). Physical education: An academic through physical education. Champaign, IL: Human discipline. Journal of Health, Physical Education Kinetics. and Recreation, 35, 32–33. Randall, M. (1967). Modern ideas on physical education Jewett, A. E., Bain, L. L., & Ennis, C. D. (1995). The (3rd ed.). London, UK: Bell. curriculum process in physical education (2nd ed.). Schubert, W. (1986). Curriculum: Perspectives, Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark. paradigm, and possibility. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Kirk, D. (2011). Physical education futures. New York, Prentice Hall. NY: Routledge. Short, E. C. (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Kirk, D. (2013). Physical education and curriculum Albany, NY: State University of New York study: A critical introduction. New York, NY: Press. Routledge. Siedentop, D. (1994). Sport education: Quality physical Lawson, H. A. (2007). Renewing the core curriculum. education through positive sport experiences. Quest, 59, 219–243. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Li, W., & Lee, A. (2004). A review of conceptions of Stiehl, J., Parker, M., & Coulter, M. (2015). Outdoor ability and related motivational constructs in education. In J. Lund & D. Tannehill (Eds.), achievement motivation. Quest, 56, 439–461. Standards-based physical education curriculum Locke, L. (1992). Changing secondary school physical development (3rd ed., pp. 255–274). Burlington, education. Quest, 44, 361–372. MA: Jones & Bartlett. Lounsbery, M., & Coker, C. (2008). Developing skill- Thorpe, R., Bunker, D., & Almond, L. (Eds.). (1986). analysis competency in physical education teachers. Rethinking games teaching. Loughborough, UK: Quest, 60, 255–267. Esmond. 10

ORGANIZATION AND SEQUENCING OF SUBJECT MATTERS

ZONGYI DENG National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University

rganization and sequencing of subject mat- making has been ignored or bypassed in favor of the ters (bodies of knowledge, skills, abilities, work of developing standards, competency frame- Oand dispositions for teaching and learning) is works, and evidence-based practices (see Hopmann, a central task of curriculum making. It is essential to 2008; Karseth & Sivesind, 2010). Likewise, the sub- the formation of programs, school subjects, or ject matter taught in school is no longer seen as the courses of study that constitute an organizational and “primary object” in the contemporary curriculum operational structure within which classroom prac- field, which is largely preoccupied with political tice takes place (Deng, 2009). Accordingly, the task issues of power, politics, class, race, and gender sur- is vital to the construction of curriculum frameworks, rounding or pertaining to the school curriculum syllabi, and instructional materials that have poten- (Young, 2013). As a result, there is a strong tendency tial to guide and influence practice (Connelly & to overlook “how and what knowledge is acquired Connelly, 2012). Furthermore, how subject matters and how it should be paced, sequenced, and assessed” are selected, organized, and sequenced is inexorably (Young, 2008, p. 7). social and political, intertwining with questions This chapter provides an exposition of the topic about social class, race, gender, power, and politics through reviewing foundational curriculum litera- (Apple, 1979; Bernstein, 1971; Young, 1971). It has ture. It is organized around the following questions: been, therefore, a foundational topic in traditional How should the topic be understood from the per- curriculum studies and critical curriculum theory. spective of curriculum making in the social, cultural, However, the topic of organization and sequenc- and institutional context of schooling? What are the ing of subject matters has lost much of its signifi- common orientations or approaches to organizing cance over the last 2 decades. In curriculum policy and sequencing subject matters, and with what theo- development and educational discourse across the retical or ideological underpinnings? What are the globe, there has been a shift from a concern with the broad social and political issues pertaining to the task basic task of subject matter selection, organization, of organizing and sequencing subject matters? Lastly, and sequencing to a preoccupation with academic what sorts of questions need to be asked, and with standards, comparative achievement, and high-stakes what forms of curriculum inquiry, in order to develop testing. Accordingly, this basic task of curriculum a more sophisticated understanding of the topic?

78 10. Organization and Sequencing of Subject Matters–•–79

Understanding Curriculum transforming the programmatic curriculum embodied Making in Contexts in curriculum documents and materials into “educa- tive” experiences for students. It requires further As an essential task of curriculum making, subject elaboration of the subject matter of a school subject, matter organization and sequencing needs to be making it connect with the experience, interest, and understood with reference to the multiple layers of capacity of students (Westbury, 2000). context in which schooling is nested and functions. In view of these three curriculum domains, orga- Broadly construed, schooling is embedded in three nizing and sequencing subject matters is of primary layers of context: societal (national and international concern to curriculum making at the programmatic milieus, social structures and conditions, educational level and has to do with the manner in which subject policies, discourses, social expectations on educa- matters are organized and sequenced in terms of tion, and schooling, etc.), institutional (school types, school subjects, as well as the manner in which the streams or tracks, programs, school subjects, grade subject matter of a school subject is organized and levels, assessment and examination requirements, sequenced in the curriculum. Here organization curricular and instructional materials, etc.), and refers to the arrangement and relationships of school instructional (teacher–student interactions, class- subjects as well as the formulation of the subject room activities, discourses, outside-classroom matter of a school subject in the curriculum. Sequence activities, etc.). Accordingly, three domains of cur- concerns the progression of school subjects across riculum making can be identified—the policy, the terms or years and of the subject matter of a school programmatic, and the classroom—each of which subject across a term or year (Goodlad & Su, 1992; yields a distinct type of curriculum. Tyler, 1949). The policy curriculum embodies a conception of As a task of translating the policy curriculum into what schooling should be with respect to the society school subjects, organizing and sequencing subject and culture. Curriculum making at this level frames matters needs to be understood with reference to what should be going on in a school or school system conceptions of schooling at the societal level, repre- in terms of broad goals and general approaches to sented by curriculum ideologies or conceptions. As education (Doyle, 1992a, 1992b). The policy curric- will be shown in what follows, there exist different ulum is a highly contested arena where various com- orientations or approaches to organizing and peting curriculum ideologies and conceptions are put sequencing subject matters, each of which is under- forward in debate and discussion, representing com- pinned by a distinct curriculum ideology or concep- peting visions of what schooling is for and what tion. Furthermore, the task needs to be understood in constitutes subject matters (Westbury, 2003). relation to a broader social and political context in The programmatic curriculum is embodied in cur- which schooling is situated and functions. It is inexo- riculum documents and materials provided for use in rably political because subject matters are selected, school and classroom. Curriculum making at this classified, and framed in ways that “reflect both level translates the ideals and expectations in the distribution of power and the principles of social policy curriculum into school programs, subjects, control” (Bernstein, 1971, p. 47). courses of study, and operational frameworks pro- vided to a school or a system of schools (including school types or tracks). The process of constructing a Orientations, Approaches, school subject or course of study entails the selec- and Curriculum Ideologies tion, organization, and sequencing of subject matter and the transformation of that subject matter for Research has identified four distinct orientations to school and classroom use (Doyle, 1992a, 1992b; organizing and sequencing subject matters, which are Westbury, 2000). directed toward (1) academic disciplines and special- The classroom curriculum is presented by a cluster ized fields, (2) social and economic needs, (3) stu- of events jointly developed by a teacher and a group dents’ interest, experience, and development, or of students within a classroom context (Doyle, 1992a, (4) social issues and problems. The first two orienta- 1992b). Curriculum making at this level involves tions have had a pervasive and profound impact on 80–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

curriculum development across the globe, whereas 1. The chronological approach, in which content ele- the latter two have only been employed in some ments are sequenced in terms of calendar time. The schools in certain countries (Tanner & Tanner, 2007). sequence may be from past to present or from pres- Employed primarily at the secondary school and ent to past. This approach makes sense only when college level, the first orientation involves the use of subject matter to be treated has some logical con- nection to chronological time (e.g., history and academic disciplines and specialized fields as the English literature) essential criteria for organizing and sequencing sub- 2. The thematic approach, in which content elements ject matters. Conventional school subjects such as first are organized under any one of several major mathematics, history, and geography are organized themes. Decisions about which themes are to be along the disciplines and traditional subject lines. taught first, second, third, and so forth may be left The subject matter of a particular school subject is entirely to the discretion of the instructor identified from, and formulated according to, the (e.g., elementary school language arts programs “subject matter” of its parent discipline (Goodlad & may feature such thematic topics as short stories, Su, 1992; Tanner & Tanner, 2007). These disciplines- creative writing, plays, and poetry—none of the based school subjects constitute a “collection type” topics necessarily builds on any of the others). curriculum in which the subject matters of constitu- 3. The part-to-whole approach, in which topics or ent school subjects are independent or “insulated” units are sequenced so that basic elements of content precede more complex elements (e.g., from each other (Bernstein, 1971). How school sub- math and foreign language programs). jects are sequenced or ordered across grade levels is 4. The whole-to-part approach, which reverses the supposed to follow a logical order based on concep- sequencing order used in part-to-whole course tual dependency inherent in academic disciplines: planning. In this design, general information is theoretically speaking, for instance, biology after typically introduced first, providing class members chemistry (because biology draws on chemistry), and with a broad overview of what they are to learn. chemistry after physics (because chemistry draws on Only after they have a good grasp of this overview physics). Similarly, the sequence of subject matter in is more specific information introduced that allows a school subject is expected to follow a logical pro- them to study smaller parts of this “whole” gression in its parent discipline: for example, in (e.g., geography). physics the learning of Newton’s second law presup- poses an understanding of the basic concepts of force The second orientation regards the perceived and acceleration. social and economic needs of a society as the essen- It is important to note that within a disciplines- tial criterion for organizing and sequencing subject based curriculum, the insulation between subject matters. From this perspective, the school curriculum should consist of certain academic subjects such as matters can be altered through various modes of cur- mathematics, sciences, and English—which suppos- ricular design. A school subject can be formed edly have instrumental value and relevance to various through the correlated-subject design (correlating social and economic sectors—and vocational subjects the subject matters of two or more school areas), the such as marketing, commerce, and technologies— fused-subject design (integrating the subject matters which provide basic skills and understanding needed of two or more school subjects), and the broad-field for various professions or vocations. The school cur- design (encompassing and synthesizing various sub- riculum is largely of a collection type and is often ject matter domains; for a detailed discussion, see differentiated into a series of different programs (e.g., Tanner & Tanner, 2007). In addition, the subject college preparatory, vocational, or technical), each matter of a school subject can be sequenced in ways with its own array of subjects; students are placed that are driven by psychological and pedagogical into the appropriate program based on their ability, concerns, apart from the logical one. Four commonly motivation, and likely future occupation. Three of the used approaches to subject matter sequencing can be aforementioned approaches—the thematic, part-to- identified, each of which is suitable for a particular whole, and whole-to-part—can be applied to type of school subjects. As discussed in Developing sequencing the subject matter of a school subject. and Documenting the Curriculum (Armstrong, 1989, It has been proposed at various times that students’ pp. 78–79), they are: experience, interest, and development constitute the 10. Organization and Sequencing of Subject Matters–•–81

essential criterion for organizing and sequencing sub- a school subject is supposed to be drawn from mul- ject matters. In this third orientation, the school cur- tiple academic disciplines and a variety of sources riculum takes the form of projects, tasks, or units of (personal knowledge, community-based experience work—rather than school subjects or courses of and wisdom, etc.), with the intention of helping stu- study—identified and arranged according to the dents develop critical perspectives and abilities to interest, need, and experience of students (Goodlad & address particular prevalent issues and problems Su, 1992). Subject matters are supposed to be derived (Goodlad & Su, 1992). And a more integrative from a wide range of sources, such as personal expe- approach can be adopted for organizing subject mat- rience, practical commonsense knowledge and wis- ters in a way that completely dissolves the tradi- dom, and community-based experience, in addition tional subject boundaries. The curriculum thus to academic disciplines and school subjects (Deng & exhibits an integrated type (Bernstein, 1971) in Luke, 2008). Organizing subject matters in this man- which subjects may be integrated and merged ner yields an “integrated type” curriculum that allows together. However, how subject matters are orga- the integration of various kinds of subject matter and nized and arranged into school subjects or courses dissolves the traditional subject boundaries typical in of study with scope and sequence that could pro- collection-type curricula (Bernstein, 1971). gressively lead students to a body of worthwhile However, this student-centered orientation does knowledge and understanding is an important issue not have a system-wide impact on curriculum mak- yet to be addressed adequately in this orientation ing. In some countries (e.g., the United States and the (Deng, 2010; also see Bernstein, 1971). United Kingdom), there exists a handful of schools Overall, these four orientations stand for four “ideal using a student-centered curriculum (Goodlad & Su, types” of organizing and sequencing subject matters 1992; Tanner & Tanner, 2007). On the other hand, and are only distinct and separable in theory. In prac- using student experience and developmental stages tice they become intermingled, merged, and trans- as an essential frame of reference, researchers have formed, where two or three or even four orientations identified six approaches to sequencing the subject are often brought to bear on constructing a curricu- matter of a school subject that are generally applica- lum. In developing a curriculum for the University of ble to the school curriculum, regardless of the Chicago Laboratory School, John Dewey (1938/1998) orientation(s) it takes: (1) empirical prerequisite articulated an approach on the basis of three prem- (sequencing according to the prerequisite relation- ises, which can be seen as a reconciliation of the ship among ideas determined empirically), (2) famil- disciplines-based and student-centered orientations, iarity (sequencing according to the degree of student together with an incorporation of the social-and- familiarity with a topic), (3) difficulty (sequencing economic orientation. First, subject matters must be according to the degree of student difficulty with a “derived from materials which at the outset fall topic), (4) interest (sequencing starting with topics within the scope of ordinary life-experience” of that can evoke student interest), (5) development learners (Dewey, 1938/1998, p. 87). Second, subject (sequencing that reflects how children develop psy- matters must be selected, organized, and sequenced in chologically), and (6) internalization (sequencing a way that allows “the progressive development of according to stages of internalization; Posner & what is already experienced into a fuller and richer Strike, 1976). and also more organized form”—a form that pro- It has also been suggested that broad social and gressively approximates the subject matter of an political issues and problems provide the essential academic discipline (p. 87). Third, the organization starting point and frame of reference for organizing and sequencing of subject matters must be centered and ordering subject matters. In this problem/issue- on the social nature of life in and out of the school. focused orientation, school subjects such as envi- It is also important to acknowledge that these four ronmental studies, social studies, multicultural orientations are inextricably intertwined with, or studies, and peace studies can be formulated to underpinned by, four distinct curriculum conceptions allow students to address prevalent social and cul- or ideologies—academic rationalism, social effi- tural issues of global warning, inequality, poverty, ciency, child-centeredness, and social reconstruc- and terrorism, among others. The subject matter of tionism—each of which stands for a distinct vision of 82–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

what schooling is for and what knowledge is of most different functions or purposes of schooling, reflecting worth or what constitute subject matters. differing curriculum ideologies or conceptions.

Academic rationalism construes the central purpose of schooling as helping students acquire scientific Social and Political Issues and disciplinary knowledges embodied in academic disciplines and specialized fields. Academic disci- In addition to understanding it in terms of orienta- plines or organized fields are viewed as the authorita- tions or approaches and related curriculum ideolo- tive sources from which subject matters are derived, gies, the task of organizing and sequencing subject and according to which subject matters are organized matters needs to be understood in relation to a broad and sequenced. social, cultural, and political context in which the school curriculum is embedded and functions. All Social efficiency defines the primary purpose of orientations or approaches to the task can be scruti- schooling as meeting social and economic needs of a nized from the social and political perspective of society by preparing students to play future roles as critical curriculum theory. It has been convincingly productive workers and capable members of a soci- argued that the school curriculum is not something ety. Accordingly, subject matters consist primarily of given but a social and political construction, reflect- bodies of knowledge, skill, and value needed in the ing the need, interest, and ideology of those who hold workplace and in the society, and are organized and power (Apple, 1979; Bernstein, 1971; Young, 1971). sequenced according to perceived social and eco- Therefore, a particular way of organizing and nomic needs, and in view of the differentiated roles sequencing subject matters is an expression of politi- students will play in the society. cal interest and ideology and embodies power rela- tions. This can be illustrated by looking at the first Learner-centeredness ideology construes the central two orientations. goal of schooling in terms of fostering personal With academic disciplines as the essential frame development, self-actualization, freedom, and cre- of reference for organizing and sequencing subject ativity. The curriculum is constructed around the matters, the disciplines-based orientation legitimates experience, interest, and developmental stage of stu- and endows the ideology of academic rationalism, dents. Accordingly, the experience and development serving the interest of academicians and intellectuals of individual learners is the central factor in deter- who have gained power in a society. This is evident mining what constitutes subject matters and how in the U.S. curriculum reform movement in the subject matters need to be arranged and sequenced. 1960s during the post-Sputnik era of the Cold War and Space Race, driven by the perception of an Social reconstructionists hold the central purpose of urgent need for scientific and technological man- schooling as ameliorating social problems (inequali- power. The movement was initiated by a group of ties, injustice, poverty, etc.) and facilitating social American scientists and university academicians, reform and reconstruction. They see subject matter as with the support of their professional organizations alternative ways of knowledge, experience, and and the financial backing of the National Science wisdom—in addition to academic and disciplinary Foundation. It was underpinned by the doctrine of knowledge. The selection and organization of subject disciplinarity, according to which subject matters are matters is based upon a critical examination of social derived from, and organized according to, the “struc- contexts, issues, and features, with the intention of tures” of canonical academic disciplines (Deng & helping individuals reconstruct their own perspectives, Luke, 2008). Through such a doctrine, American standpoints, and actions (see Schiro, 2008). scientists and university academicians expressed and In other words, subject matter organization and exercised their “disciplinary power” over curriculum sequencing is inextricably connected to fundamental specialists, educators, and classroom teachers in the curriculum questions about the purposes and sub- undertaking of curriculum making. stance of schooling. And, different ways of organiz- Likewise, to organize and arrange subject mat- ing and sequencing subject matters supposedly serve ters according to the social and economic needs of 10. Organization and Sequencing of Subject Matters–•–83

a society entails endowing the ideology of social of lower status jobs (such as construction workers efficiency, serving the interest of businesses, corpo- and security guards; see Anyon, 1981). The two dif- rations, and government sectors that see schooling ferent ways of organizing and sequencing subject as an instrument for social and economic develop- matters, thus, can produce different identities and ment. Over the last decade, there has been a global relations in school and classroom, reflecting the hier- trend of defining and delineating learning outcomes archical structure of a society. Further research in terms of 21st-century competencies, spurred by shows that social and cultural reproduction can be various frameworks for 21st-century competencies— based on race, gender, and cultural background as such as Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 21st well (see Luke, 2010). Century Skills and Competencies for New Millen- However, the social and cultural perspective of nium Learners, and the Key Competencies for critical curriculum theory is not without problems. Lifelong Learning—promulgated by international Construing organizing and sequencing subject mat- organizations such as the Organisation for Eco- ters in terms of interest, ideology, and power rela- nomic Co-operation and Development, the World tions, while correct at one level, loses sight of the Bank, and the United Nations Educational, Scien- significance of this basic curriculum-making task in tific and Cultural Organization. Those learning transmitting powerful disciplinary knowledge to outcomes are supposed to be used as an essential students. Young (2008) distinguished between “pow- frame of reference for selecting, organizing, and erful knowledge” (concerning the intellectual powers pacing subject matters in the curriculum and, in given to those with access to disciplinary knowledge) turn, for evaluating the “effectiveness” of the cur- and “knowledge of the powerful” (concerning the riculum. The sponsors for those frameworks include preservation and dominance of a particular interest the U.S. Department of Education as well as private and ideology associated with disciplinary knowl- organizations such as Microsoft, Apple, and Cisco, edge). He argued that selecting, organizing, and with a vested interest in developing students’ sequencing subject matters into school subjects cre- human capital to ensure a competitive economy ates a necessary condition for the acquisition of (see Voogt & Roblin, 2012). powerful knowledge—an “entitlement” for all stu- Furthermore, the disciplines-based and social dents, regardless of their races, genders, socioeco- and economic orientations intersect with the existing nomic status, or family background (Young, 2013). patterns of social structures, orders, and relations, This knowledge provides students with “more reli- contributing to social and cultural reproduction able explanations and new ways of thinking about the (Apple, 1979; Bernstein, 1971; Young, 1971). The world” and “language for engaging in political, use of academic disciplines as the central criterion moral, and other kinds of debates” (Young, 2008, for organizing and sequencing subject matters privi- p. 14). However, by focusing on knowledge of the leges students from higher social classes who come powerful, critical curriculum theorists have shifted to school with the cultural capital (linguistic and the attention from curriculum making concerned cultural competences, habits, or social styles given with the transmission of disciplinary knowledge to by families) that enables them effectively to engage the future generation to ideology critique directed with academic subject matters. These students would, toward exposing the interest, ideology, and distribu- more often than not, find themselves in a disciplines- tion of power surrounding curriculum making in a based, college preparatory curriculum that teaches wider society. intellectual skills and dispositions required for higher Also, linking subject matter organization and seq- status professions (such as executives and managers). uencing to social and cultural reproduction, while On the other hand, students from lower social revealing in very significant ways, falls short of rec- backgrounds are disadvantaged as they enter school ognizing an important function of the curriculum. without the kind of cultural capital that students from According to Elizabeth McEneaney and John higher social classes have. This initial disadvantage W. Meyer (2000), there are two functions of curricu- can then be exacerbated by student allocation to lum, the allocational (providing a legitimate sub- job preparatory or vocational programs that teach stantive basis for allocating people into different basic skills, behavior, norms, and attitudes requisite social roles embedded in a stratified society) and the 84–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

constructional (providing the cultural content needed Questions of this kind are epistemological, norma- for a wide range of roles in a modern society). Obvi- tive, social, and cultural in nature and require philo- ously, what critical curriculum theorists have focused sophical (or theoretical), sociological, and historical on is the allocational function or “the way variations forms of inquiry (Short, 1991). in schooled content are mechanisms in social alloca- The second type of questions deals with the selec- tion” (McEneaney & Meyer, 2000, p. 190). What has tion, organization, and sequencing of subject matters been overlooked is the constructional function that into school subjects, programs, or courses of study requires varying ways of organizing and sequencing for a school or a system of school (including school subject matters in view of a variety of roles students types and tracks). How would subject matters (vari- will play in a society—and this poses a tremendous ous kinds of knowledge, ways of knowing, and dispo- challenge to curriculum making in the 21st century. sitions) be selected, organized, paced, and sequenced for different groups of learners, in view of different purposes and expectations of schooling? How would Questions and Forms of various modes or approaches of organizing and Curriculum Inquiry sequencing subject matters be brought to bear on this curriculum-making task? How would the subject mat- Three distinct types of questions can be identified in ter of a school subject be arranged, sequenced, and view of the preceding discussion. The first two types paced in a way that optimizes the pedagogic transmis- concern the basic task of curriculum making in rela- sion of scientific and disciplinary knowledge for all tion to the constructional function of curriculum, and learners, especially those from poor and less privi- the third type has to do with social and political leged family backgrounds? These are some of the issues pertaining to curriculum making in relation to important and challenging questions concerning sub- the allocational function. These three types of ques- stantive curriculum making—questions that call for tions, together, call for diverse forms of curriculum philosophical, psychological, deliberative, and inte- inquiry to be brought to bear on investigating com- grative forms of inquiry (Short, 1991). plex issues concerning organizing and sequencing The third type of questions deals with broad social subject matters. and political issues concerning subject matter selec- The first type of questions concerns what consti- tion, organization, and sequencing in relation to the tutes subject matters with respect to the purposes or distributive function of schooling. What versions of expectations of schooling in the 21st century. School- knowledge are being constructed by whom and in ing is expected to transmit powerful scientific and whose interests? Who controls what counts as sub- disciplinary knowledge to the future generation and ject matters in school? How does the selection and to enable the next generation to create new knowl- framing of subject matters reflect and work in the edge on the basis of the existing knowledge (Young, interests of particular social classes and groups? 2013). It is also expected to prepare young people for How would different ways of selecting, organizing, their future roles as productive workers and active, and sequencing subject matter produce different responsible citizens in a democratic society. It, too, is identities and relations in schools and classrooms? supposed to foster self-actualization, agency, critical Questions of this type are social and political in thinking, and creativity in students. What would nature and invite critical, sociological, historical, and these purposes or expectations entail in the current ethnographic forms of inquiry (Short, 1991). era of globalization, knowledge-based economies, and multiculturalism? What would be the implica- tions for subject matter selection, organization, and Conclusion sequencing? What would be the various kinds of knowledge or ways of knowing—disciplinary, practi- Organization and sequencing of subject matters is an cal, and experiential (Deng & Luke, 2008)—that are essential task of curriculum making and, therefore, a potential sources of subject matters for teaching and foundational topic in curriculum studies. The topic learning? How would those knowledges or ways of needs to be understood analytically and critically knowing be selected and on what grounds? with reference to the multiple layers of context of 10. Organization and Sequencing of Subject Matters–•–85

schooling. There exist diverse ways of organizing cultural reproduction. Organization and sequencing and sequencing of subject matters, serving different of subject matters, thus, constitutes an important area functions of curriculum, each of which is inextrica- of research in the curriculum field, which requires bly intertwined with a particular vision of what multiple forms of curriculum inquiry— philosophical, schooling is for and what constitutes subject matters. psychological, sociological, historical, ethnographic, Further, each of these ways is an expression of deliberative, and so forth—to be brought to bear a social interest and embodies a particular set of on investigating complex and challenging issues power relations, acting as a mechanism of social and pertaining to the topic.

References and Further Readings Doyle, W. (1992b). Constructing curriculum in the classroom. In F. K. Oser, A. Dick, & J. Patry (Eds.), Anyon, J. (1981). Social class and school knowledge. Effective and responsible teaching: The new Curriculum Inquiry, 11(1), 3–42. syntheses (pp. 66–79). San Francisco, CA: Apple, M. (1979). Ideology and curriculum. London, Jossey-Bass. UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Goodlad, J. I., & Su, Z. (1992). Organization of the Armstrong, D. G. (1989). Developing and documenting curriculum. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of the curriculum. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. research on curriculum (pp. 327–344). New York, Bernstein, B. (1971). On the classification and framing of NY: Macmillan. educational knowledge. In M. Young (Ed.), Hopmann, S. (2008). No child, no school, no state Knowledge and control: New directions for the left behind: Schooling in the age of accountability. sociology of education (pp. 47–69). London, UK: Journal of Curriculum Studies, 40(4), Collier-Macmillan. 417–456. Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and Karseth, B., & Sivesind, K. (2010). Conceptualising identity. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. curriculum knowledge within and beyond the Connelly, F. M., & Connelly, G. (2012). Curriculum national context. European Journal of Education, policy guidelines: Context, structures and functions. 45(1), 103–120. In A. Luke, A. Woods, & K. Weir (Eds.), Luke, A. (2010). Documenting reproduction and Curriculum, syllabus design and equity: A primer inequality: Revisiting Jean Anyon’s “Social class and and model (pp. 54–73). New York, NY: school knowledge.” Curriculum Inquiry, 40(1), Routledge. 167–182. Deng, Z. (2009). The formation of a school subject and McEneaney, E. H., & Meyer, J. W. (2000). The content the nature of curriculum content: An analysis of of the curriculum: An institutionalist perspective. liberal studies in Hong Kong. Journal of Curriculum In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology Studies, 41(5), 585–604. of education (pp. 189–211). New York, NY: Deng, Z. (2010). Scientific literacy: Content and Springer. curriculum making. In C. Linder, L. Östman, & Posner, G. J., & Strike, K. A. (1976). A categorization P.-O. Wickman (Eds.), Exploring the landscapes of scheme for principles of sequencing content. scientific literacy (pp. 45–56). New York, NY: Review of Educational Research, 46(4), Routledge. 665–690. Deng, Z., & Luke, A. (2008). Subject matter: Defining Schiro, M. S. (2008). Curriculum theory: Conflicting and theorizing school subjects. In F. M. Connelly, visions and enduring concerns. Thousand Oaks, CA: M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), The SAGE handbook Sage. of curriculum and instruction (pp. 66–87). Thousand Short, E. C. (Ed.). (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Oaks, CA: Sage. New York, NY: State University of New York Dewey, J. (1938/1998). Experience and education: The Press. 60th anniversary edition. West Lafayette, IN: Kappa Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (2007). Curriculum Delta Pi. development: Theory into practice (4th ed.). Upper Doyle, W. (1992a). Curriculum and pedagogy. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and curriculum (pp. 486–516). New York, NY: instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Macmillan. Press. 86–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Voogt, J., & Roblin, N. P. (2012). A comparative analysis of education (2nd ed., pp. 529–535). New York, NY: international frameworks for 21st century competences: Macmillan. Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal Young, M. (Ed.). (1971). Knowledge and control: New of Curriculum Studies, 44(3), 299–321. directions for the sociology of education. London, Westbury, I. (2000). Teaching as a reflective practice: UK: Collier Macmillan. What might Didaktik teach curriculum. Young, M. (2013). Overcoming the crisis in curriculum In I. Westbury, S. Hopmann, & K. Riquarts (Eds.), theory: A knowledge-based approach. Journal of Teaching as a reflective practice: The German Curriculum Studies, 45(2), 101–118. Didaktik tradition (pp. 15–39). Mahwah, NJ: Young, M. F. (2008). Bringing knowledge back in: Lawrence Erlbaum. From social constructivism to social realism Westbury, I. (2003). Curriculum, school: Overview. in the sociology of education. London, UK: In J. W. Guthrie (Ed.), The encyclopedia of Routledge. 11

SUBJECT MATTERS OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND COMPUTING SCIENCE CURRICULUM

CATHERINE ADAMS University of Alberta

ur lives are increasingly enmeshed with, coded infrastructure supporting and shaping their mediated by, and immersed in a rapidly daily lives. This knowledge gap is not simply a case Ogrowing and intensifying complex of sophis- of the enlightened “digital native” student versus the ticated computing technologies. Since the onset of “digital immigrant” teacher languishing in the igno- the digital information age, subject matters—the rance of a precomputing cave: In terms of computa- representation and presentation of disciplinary tional thinking and computing science, the old and knowledge and practices—have been similarly under- the young find themselves dwelling in the same going substantive renovations and upheavals. More digital darkness. Nor is this gulf a direct symptom than a decade into the 21st century, these transforma- of the “digital divide,” whereby economic dispari- tive churnings and enmeshments are far from settled. ties are further exacerbated through lack of access Increasingly, the forms of knowledge and modes of to computing technology and the Internet. Basic knowing of every subject area are being intertwined computing science education does not depend on with, absorbed by, and translated into the fluid, access to computers (Bell, Witten, & Fellows, digital landscapes and infrastructures underwriting 2010), nor does one need a Wi-Fi-enabled device to contemporary societies. grasp some of the sociopolitical, cultural, ethical, Schools have been striving to respond to these ecological, hermeneutic, and existential implica- dramatic lifeworld and disciplinary knowledge tions of today’s new medial, ubiquitous computing shifts through equipping classrooms with an ever- environment. changing assortment of computing devices and This chapter addresses three intersecting curri- software programs, as well as implementing a wide cula concerning digital technology: the integrated range of interdisciplinary curriculum changes and information and communication technology (ICT) ongoing teacher professional development opportu- curriculum, the (absent) curriculum of computing nities. Yet despite these multifaceted efforts, science, 1 and the hidden curriculum of digital tech- surprisingly few North American high school grad- nology. All three curricula emanate from and repre- uates today possess a literate understanding of the sent distinct responses to the digital revolution; all

87 88–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

three have tentacles that extend deep into the root (“Talkomatic”), remote screen sharing (“monitor structure of almost every subject matter in schools mode”), and even multiplayer role-playing games. today. However, teachers and educational research- The PLATO system was a bellwether for the mas- ers have tended to treat digital technology in schools sive growth about to unfold in educational computing. as a single, unambiguous curricular concern. The In the early 1960s, for example, IBM experimented tri-partition offered here corrects this popular but with computer-based instructional systems and an erroneous conflation and instead presents a way to authoring language called Coursewriter. University think this subject matter across at least three distinct researchers began to develop and test computer- but interrelated modes of understanding and prac- assisted instruction (CAI) and computer-based train- tice: using, creating, and becoming integrated with ing modules for a wide range of subject areas and digital technology. At stake in this separation is the across many educational settings. By 1963, an esti- meaningful place of schooling in the coming mated 1% of secondary schools in the United States decades. were employing computers for some instructional purpose (Molnar, 1990). With the availability of affordable personal computing in the mid-1970s, Contexts of Digital Technology schools began to adopt microcomputers in earnest. as Curriculum Teachers, often limited to one or two microcomput- ers per school, employed them primarily for indi- A brief overview of the history of educational tech- vidual CAI, that is, prepackaged drill-and-practice nology is helpful in discerning key moments in the programs and tutorials, but some teachers also used evolution of digital technology, most especially the computers for engaging students in Logo and those marking the onset and recess of different cur- BASIC programming. MIT’s Seymour Papert’s ricular impulses in schools. Beginning in the early (1980) Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Pow- 20th century, a variety of mechanical devices were erful Ideas gained a foothold through this decade, proposed to automate multiple-choice testing in arguing for the use of graphic-oriented programming schools. In the 1920s, Sydney L. Pressey developed languages like Logo as a way to develop children’s the first drill-and-practice “teaching machine,” a thinking and problem-solving skills. Papert’s con- device later cited by B. F. Skinner (1958) as structionist learning theory, which built on the theory landmark because it required a student’s active of constructivism, famously received the blessing of involvement, gave immediate feedback, and was his mentor, Jean Piaget. self-paced. Skinner’s radical behaviorism, coupled But by the mid-1990s, the grassroots construc- with the arrival of early computers, securely estab- tionist movement was eclipsed by a different kind of lished the programmed instruction movement in the “computer literacy” that had been gathering under 1950s. During this time, Skinner built his own the rubric of an integrated ICT curriculum and was teaching machine prototype; Gordon Pask and reinforced by David Jonassen’s (1996) constructivist Robin MacKinnon Wood invented the first typing notion of digital technology as cognitive or “mind- training system (Self Adaptive Keyboard Instruc- tools.” Designing algorithms to solve problems and tor—SAKI); and in 1959, Donald Bitzer established learning the grammars of software code were the PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic replaced by knowledge construction across the cur- Teaching Operations) computer-based educational riculum via office productivity software tools. Tech- system. PLATO originally ran on an ILLIAC I nology integration became the new buzzword in mainframe computer at the University of Illinois curriculum design; computing science and its eso- and was networked with schools through terminals. teric languages were relegated to LEGO robotics Besides offering a wide range of computer-assisted clubs (a remnant of Papert’s work) and occasional instructional modules or “lessons,” over the coming specialty courses in high schools. This pivotal mom- years the PLATO system also experimented with ent is marked by the confluence of several important many concepts familiar to us today, including online developments in mainstream computing technology: testing, online forums, email, instant messaging The explosion of the personal computing market (“Term-Talk” with emoticons), chat rooms stabilized productivity software (word processing, 11. Subject Matters of Digital Technology and Computing Science Curriculum –•–89

PowerPoint, and spreadsheets were now taken-for- technologies in their computational tongues, that is, granted tools); web browsers arrived to ease search- the many algorithmic languages of the machine. ing online; and the Internet’s capillaries extended Over the last decade, schools have witnessed an into businesses, schools, and homes at an astonishing intense proliferation of mobile technologies, social rate. Between 1997 and 2000, the number of Internet media, and online instructional resources. Teachers users worldwide tripled. Unsurprisingly, the online and students have been discovering previously education or e-learning movement also took off dur- unimagined benefits from using these new media ing this period. In 1994, for example, the first accred- technologies for teaching and learning. Simultane- ited online high school, CompuHigh, was founded. ously, they are grappling with unexpected challenges Web-based learning management systems like and new worries such as cyberbullying, videogame WebCT (now Blackboard) were being adopted by addiction, online paper mills, and copy-and-paste postsecondary institutions, a trend that would soon plagiarism. Today, the digital technology curricular make its way into K–12 schools. landscape is complex, fluid, and highly diverse: At the turn of the 21st century, Marc Prensky from learning analytics to virtual laboratories; from (2001) declared the arrival of a generation of digital m-learning to massive open online courses; from natives in schools. Claiming that “students today serious games to gamification; from open content to are all ‘native speakers’ of the digital language of cloud computing. Indeed, the balance of this chapter computers, video games and the Internet” (p. 1), could be spent listing the new technologies, their Prensky’s potent rhetoric dealt a decisive blow to manifold curricular implications, as well as the inten- the question of teaching computing science in sification of teaching and learning practices. Yet, as schools. If the young could already speak the of 2014, no states or provinces in North America “digital language of computers,” there should be no require a computing science course as a condition of need for computing science education. In larger graduation. This scene may be changing dramatically society, the dramatic loss of Internet sector jobs in over the next decade. Meanwhile, digital technolo- the aftermath of the dot-com bubble bust sealed gy’s hidden curriculum—the programmed software public perception that computing science as a career and hardware infrastructure—is withdrawing ever had a limited future. Unfortunately, the net deeper into the prereflective spheres of our everyday generation did not in fact know the “language” of teaching and learning practices. The coded algo- computers at all, but were merely growing up using rithms that so few of us can read or write are silently computing technologies (Selwyn, 2009). An analogy infecting, undoing, and profoundly restructuring cur- is helpful here: Most of us grew up with electricity ricular interests, activities, and ways of knowing and thus know how to use an electrical outlet and a across all subject matters. light switch; however, this practical understanding by no means equips us to grasp electricity as a physical phenomenon (electrical charge, direct and Contemporary Concerns About Digital alternating current, electromagnetic fields), nor to Technology as Curriculum comprehend electrical circuitry and wiring, etc. Without a modicum of schooling regarding the In the following section, the three interconnected but modern domestication of light and energy, we vitally different aspects of digital technology curric- would remain blithely ignorant of one of the core ulum are explicated: (a) the integrated ICT infrastructures supporting today’s society. So it curriculum—using digital technology; (b) the absent is with digital technologies and the presumption computing science curriculum—creating digital that a child grows up speaking the “language of technology; and (c) digital technology’s hidden computers.” Students of today’s integrated ICT cur- curriculum—becoming integrated (with the govern- riculum are urged to use digital technologies—a ing structures of code). The first two curricular task made easy and “transparent” by the human– concerns were situated historically in the previous computer interaction designers and developers of section. The third concern has developed primarily software and hardware, but those same students outside of educational technology scholarship, which are seldom encouraged to understand these will be addressed in the following section. 90–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

The Integrated ICT Curriculum: scholarly literature has increased by nearly 10-fold; Using Digital Technology technology integration in schools now embraces a seemingly endless range of digital technologies. The International Society for Technology in Edu- The same year Prensky proclaimed the arrival of cation (ISTE), a U.S.-based organization founded in the digital native, Larry Cuban (2001) published 1998, has been instrumental in providing curriculum Oversold and Underused, where he detailed dramatic standards for technology integration worldwide. The discrepancies between the huge fiscal investments in original 2000 ISTE National Educational Technology digital technologies in schools relative to the mini- Standards for Teachers included developing one’s mal academic gains being reported. Educational technology skills; designing learning experiences technology integrationists offered two main retorts: with technology; implementing curriculum plans that (a) Cuban is right, and teachers simply need to do a include technology to “maximize student learning”; better job of integrating technology in the curricu- applying technology to facilitate assessment; using lum, and (b) current academic assessment techniques technology to enhance professional productivity; and do not appropriately measure the true gains afforded modeling ethical practices with technology. ISTE by digital technology in schools. Other objections to updated its teacher standards significantly in 2008, ICT integration were also mounted, including Colleen primarily clarifying that “ technology” refers to digi- Cordes and Edward Miller’s (2000) Fool’s Gold: tal tools and virtual environments, and that “digital A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood. Fool’s age teaching” involves “facilitating and inspiring Gold questioned the widespread adoption of comput- student learning and creativity” with these tools. ing technology especially in elementary schools, Notably, the term technology integration has shifted arguing that an overemphasis on computers in child- to technology infusion in ISTE’s recent documents, hood posed a variety of developmental risks—social, signaling an even more finely woven vision of digital emotional, intellectual, physical, and moral. technology use across the curriculum. The idea of integrating or infusing computing tech- The Absent Computing Science Curriculum: nology into school curriculum actually dates back at Creating Digital Technology least 30 years (Winner & Holloway, 1983); however, at the close of the 1980s, only three scholarly articles While First World nation schools have been dili- had been published on the topic.2 A decade later, gently integrating ICT across the curriculum, the nearly 100 had been published, many reporting subject matter of computing science has been ironi- research on government funding initiatives aimed at cally neglected, often conflated with using comput- fostering the use of technology in K–12 public schools ing technology and thus naïvely overlooked. The via hardware and software purchases, systemic inte- language of computing and computational thinking grative program changes across the curriculum, as still remains the province of specialists, rather than well as pre- and in-service teacher technology train- addressed as “the fundamental new literacy” for the ing. In the professional literature, technology future (Wilson, 2013, p. 32). Few of us know how to integration was—and continues to be—portrayed as read or write the coded algorithms—the software and intimately linked to 21st-century teaching: “The hardware programs—that quietly script our daily teacher of the future must be not only accomplished in lives; even fewer have a working grasp of the theo- instructional techniques and technology, but also in retical underpinnings of this 20th-century science the integration of technology into the curriculum,” that has transformed our society and inaugurated the where technology integration was described then as age of the posthuman. “using software supported by the business world for Computing science is a knowledge discipline with real-world applications so students learn to use com- its own history, its own theoretical base, its own puters flexibly, purposefully and creatively . . . [and] specialty areas, and its own set of cutting-edge organizing the goals of curriculum and technology problems that it grapples with. Computing science’s into a coordinated, harmonious whole” (Dockstader, basic principles and logical grammars are graspable 1999, p. 73). Since the year 2000, the number by young children. As described earlier, there was of technology integration curriculum articles in the a brief moment in the 1980s where computer literacy 11. Subject Matters of Digital Technology and Computing Science Curriculum –•–91

in the schools was equated with developing the skills new technologies, they too take hold of us. Each time of computing science and computational thinking. we adopt and integrate a new digital technology, we Following the ACM publication of Running on invite and then submit our practices to be guided, Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science supported, and finally empowered by its responsive in the Digital Age (2010), multiple U.S. organizations programs and scripts. Here, technology becomes including Code.org, the Computer Science Teachers unseen curriculum and teacher (Adams, 2012). In the Association, and Computing in the Core gathered to performative and prosthetic context of human– advocate for K–12 computing science education at the technology relationships, previous gestural regimes national level. In 2011, ISTE added computing sci- and habits of thinking are toppled in order to make ence to its list of standards, stating that, “while most way for new ways of doing and thinking. Too, as we people use technology, it is the computer scientists integrate digital technologies more and more thor- who create and design it” (italics in original). Then in oughly into teaching and learning practices, they June 2013, bipartisan legislation—the Computer necessarily withdraw into the prereflective sphere of Science Education Act—was introduced in the U.S. the ready-to-hand, taken-for-granted lifeworld. This Congress, in an effort to encourage major K–12 disappearance of the digital into the immediacy of curriculum change across the states. This bill was practice tends to elide teachers’ professional respon- introduced on June 27, 2013, in a session of Congress, sibility to question the technologies they adopt. but was not enacted. Instead, digital technology is dismissed as neutral In January 2012, The Royal Society of the United (“it’s just a tool”), thereby covering over its Kingdom released Shut Down or Restart? The Way participation in co-constituting particular teaching Forward for Computing in UK Schools. Subsequently, and learning situations, and in inaugurating new the UK Department of Education announced the ontological and epistemplogical frameworks. withdrawal of its integrated ICT curriculum in prepa- More radically, Bernard Stiegler (2010) has sug- ration for a September 2014 roll-out of its new com- gested that our educational institutions are being puting curriculum. This comprehensive, four-stage destabilized by and synchronized with the current program begins with primary students (ages 5–7) “mnemotechnical” infrastructure—a global complex learning about algorithms and creating and debug- of memory and information technologies. He argues ging simple programs and concludes in adolescence that the “programming industries” are engaged in with further “developing and applying analytic, prob- collapsing of our prereflective umbilical to local lem-solving, design, and computational thinking space (cardinality) and time (calendarity) and resitu- skills” (Department for Education, 2013, para. 8). ating our attentional structure—consciousness—in a synthetic, deeply programmed substratum. Such a Digital Technology’s Hidden Curriculum: collapse affects both directly and deleteriously the Becoming Integrated traditional mandate of schools to educate and develop orthographic, critical consciousness. Stiegler (2011) Digital technology is sponsoring new epistemo- predicted that the outcome of our submergence in logical and ontological regimes, “an increasingly this digital psychotechno-pharmakon, a complex complex geography of encoding [that] is evolving global system designed to anticipate and thus control with its own emergent performative outcomes . . . our acting and thinking patterns, will be the loss of [and] silently shaping our present and future possi- individuation, a “dissolve into a globalized, imper- bilities of becoming” (Introna, 2011, p. 114). This sonal One” (p. 5), and ultimately profound existential evolving “geography of encoding” is digital technol- suffering or quasi-inexistence. ogy’s hidden curriculum. The curriculum of the digi- tal is a deeply programmed, invisible infrastructure that reaches into and infects the corporeal, relational, Theory of Digital Technology temporal, and spatial niches of our prepredicative as Curriculum experiences and primal practices. The relationship we share with our technologies is Multiple frameworks, associated with several epi- co-constitutive. As we grasp hold of these powerful stemological perspectives, have been proposed to 92–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

theorize digital technologies across the curriculum. Actor-network theory (ANT), a more radical con- Skinner’s behaviorist operant conditioning theory, structivist approach than AT, frames social activity which explicitly linked programming in schools with and knowledge construction in terms of heteroge- the programming of teaching machines, continues to neous assemblages of humans and nonhumans. ANT resonate with adaptive learning researchers today. is relatively new to curriculum inquiry, but is becom- Building on Lee Shulman’s (1986) forms of teacher ing increasingly popular in theorizing 21st-century knowledge and pedagogy, Punya Mishra and sociomaterial or “posthuman” learning environ- Matthew J. Koehler (2006) have offered the Techno- ments. Too, the current explosion of social media, logical Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) cloud computing, and massive open online environ- framework as a way to account for the different ments has brought renewed interest in social con- knowledge forms inhering in technology-enhanced structivism and other social theories such as Albert learning environments. But it is constructivism in its Bandura’s social learning theory. George Siemen in manifold forms—personal or “trivial,” radical, 2005 proposed connectivism as a new approach here, social, cultural, and critical—that has been adopted although some have argued it is does not represent most thoroughly in digital technology curriculum a substantially new theory. circles. As mentioned, Piaget’s constructivism found Critical theorists like Michael Apple (1991) have early traction in the constructionist work of Papert pointed out that it is naïve to perceive digital tech- (1980). So far, Jonassen’s (1996) version of con- nologies in classrooms as “just an assemblage of structivism has had the most enduring practical machines and their accompanying software. [Each impact on mainstream educational technology theory new technology] embodies a form of thinking that and curriculum change, most notably on the develop- orients a person to approach the world in a particular ment of the integrated ICT curriculum. In 1990, way” (p. 75). In Let Them Eat Data, Chet Bowers Papert and Sherry Turkle detected the emergence of (2000) examined educational computing and its indi- “epistemological pluralism” in educational (com- vidualist, constructivist narrative and argued that puter) technology culture, including a rise of interest both are serving to reinforce patterns of thinking that in feminism, ethnography of science, and psychol- undermine local cultural and environmental ogy. However, of these only psychology has had a commons. substantive and continuing impact on educational Media ecology, with roots in the work of Marshall technology theory, for example, John Sweller’s McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Neil Postman, implicates (1988) cognitive load theory. technologies in the creation of new forms of culture In the late 1980s, John Sealy Brown’s situated and has maintained an ongoing interest in the rela- cognition along with Jean Lave’s situated learning tionship of technology, media (the environment that theory became especially popular theories during the technologies create), and schooling. While McLuhan early years of the Internet and now in the context of is most famous for his media theory (“the medium is social media and cloud computing. Instructional the message”), he wrote about pedagogy and media designers continue to use the notion of cognitive education throughout his career. For example, City apprenticeship to design curricular programming that as Classroom: Understanding Language and Media provides early learners with considerable support or (1977), cowritten with Kathryn Hutchon and scaffolding, while advanced learners are afforded McLuhan’s son Eric McLuhan, was intended as a more open frameworks to maximize exploration. high school text to engage students with the taken- Activity theory (AT), with its roots in Lev Vygotsky’s for-granted world around them and to equip them social constructivism as well as cognitive and infor- with analytic tools to understand the broader signifi- mation science, has also gained some prominence in cances of their new media environment. For McLuhan educational technology research because of its and McLuhan, explicit inclusion of tools in analyzing human action. In AT, learning is understood as an activity system of The ground of any technology or artifact is both the situation that gives rise to it and the whole environment the learner (the subject), an activity (the object), and (medium) of services and disservices that bring it into mediating artifacts or tools all embedded in a play. These environmental side-effects impose them- community. selves willy-nilly as a new form of culture. (1988, p. 5) 11. Subject Matters of Digital Technology and Computing Science Curriculum –•–93

For media ecologists, technology is the petri-dish in arts-based research, as well as place-based, wisdom, which a culture grows, silently shaping political and eco-pedagogies. At this juncture, it is clear that impulses, social organizations, and habits of thinking. curricular theorists must situate their many curricular Educational philosophers such as Michael questions concerning digital technology across broad, Bonnett, Nicholas Burbules, and more recently Anna critical, and multiperspectival approaches in order to Kouppanou and Joris Vlieghe have drawn on phe- “draw on a wide range of textual and critical strategies nomenology, postphenomenology, and philosophy of to interpret, criticize, and deconstruct” (Kellner, 1995, technology to grapple with the possible significances p. 98) digital technology and its unexpected but and implications of technology integration in schools. increasingly central place in curriculum studies. Most rely on Heidegger’s early observation that today’s computing technologies are both symptoms of and complicit in setting in motion a new ontotheo- Conclusion: Need for Continuous logical order or technological understanding of being, Questioning wherein the world, and all things in it including ourselves, increasingly shows up to us as a “standing- Weaver (2010) wrote recently, “What is lacking in reserve” or resources that can be liquefied for effi- curriculum conversations is technology” (p. 143), cient ends. Finally, cultural studies, via the work of and gestured toward the posthuman. Our humanity such theorists as Donna Haraway, has given rise to is, was, and always will be thoroughly intertwined the posthuman and eroded the once taken-for-granted with and inseparable from our technologies. A quar- borders between nature and culture, animal and ter of a century ago, computer scientist Mark Weiser human, human and machine. Such epistemological (1991) predicted the arrival of “ubiquitous comput- disturbances have ushered in considerations of cyber- ing or embodied virtuality” (p. 94) whereby digital pedagogy and cyborg curriculum (Gough, 2003; technologies would become as commonplace and Weaver, 2010). “ready-to-hand” as alphabetic writing, that is, our first information technology. The three R’s—reading, writing, and arithmetic—decided the skills-oriented Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression program of traditional schooling and initiated a child into orthographic (and historical) consciousness, a Science grew up in modernity, but computing sci- state of being we call literate: “Only one who writes ence and the digital belong to postmodernity. There lines can think logically, calculate, criticize, pursue is thus little surprise that the forms of inquiry into knowledge, philosophize—and conduct himself digital technology across the curriculum are multi- appropriately. Before that, one turned in circles” ple, hybrid, and fluid. Denis Hlynka and (Flusser, 2011, p. 7). Citing Heidegger, Weiser John C. Belland’s (1991) prescient collection, Para- (1991) importantly noted that “the most profound digms Regained: The Uses of Illuminative, Semiotic, technologies are those that disappear. They weave and Post-Modern Criticism as Modes of Inquiry in themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they Educational Technology, provided early hint of the are indistinguishable from it” (p. 94). varied methodological frameworks and novel heuris- The ICT curriculum and widespread technology tics necessary to articulate and critically address the integration in schools have been instrumental in questions concerning technology across curriculum weaving digital technologies into the fabric of subject studies. matter, to the point where it is virtually impossible to Today, an expanded range of quantitative and quali- imagine teaching and learning without them. In this tative forms of inquiry and interpretive modes of way, the technologies of computing are increasingly expression inform the field, for example, informing, conforming, as well as transforming David G. Smith’s (2014) hermeneutics of globaliza- knowledge forms and practices, that is, the represen- tion, Norm Friesen’s (2011) phenomenology of tech- tation and presentation of subject matters. Software is nology, and John A. Weaver’s (2010) posthuman increasingly “everyware” (Kitchin & Dodge, 2011, discourse. Emerging and intersecting interdisciplinary p. 217). Just as the technology of writing served to approaches include critical digital ethnography and shift oral culture to literate culture, computing 94–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

technology is shifting literate culture to digital cul- devoted to the design, implementation, and study of ture. In our current situation, “the human becomes the ICT curriculum. Meanwhile, two other related but either the machine’s servant or its assembler” distinctly different curricula have been overlooked or (Stiegler, 1998, p. 23). Such potent binaries name conflated with the ICT curriculum: computing sci- permeable, fluid, and complex boundary conditions ence education, and the hidden curriculum of digital and ethical challenges that need to provoke educators technology. In order to grasp the larger significances and curriculum scholars toward further questioning of the digital in today’s educational landscapes, cur- and exploration, not to either/or problem solving and riculum scholars must begin to take into account all calculation. three curricula. Such a tripartite view will provide a Since the turn of the millennium, significant prac- clearer vantage for discerning the place of schooling tical, theoretical, and research interest has been in the lives of tomorrow’s posthuman children.

Notes 2. The number of scholarly articles reported here is based on a search of the ERIC database 1. The term computing science is used in this chapter using the search terms technology integration to denote the discipline known also as “computer and curriculum . The actual number of science.” I prefer the former term in part because it educational research articles on “technology serves to destabilize preconceived notions integration” in schools is significantly regarding what the field entails. higher.

References and Further Readings MD: The Alliance for Childhood. Retrieved from http://drupal6.allianceforchildhood.org/fools_gold Adams, C. (2012). Technology as teacher: Digital media Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers and the re-schooling of everyday life. Existential in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Analysis, 23(2), 262–273. University Press. Aoki, T. T. (1987/1999). Toward understanding Department for Education. (2013, September 11). “computer application.” In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), National curriculum in England: Computing Contemporary curriculum discourses: Twenty programmes of study. Retrieved from https://www years of JCT (pp. 168–176). New York, NY: .gov.uk/government/publications/national- Peter Lang. curriculum-in-england-computing-programmes- Apple, M. W. (1991). The new technology: Is it part of of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-computing- the solution or part of the problem in education? programmes-of-study Computers in the Schools, 8(1/2/3), 59–81. Dockstader, J. (1999, January). Teachers of the 21st Bell, T., Witten, I. H., & Fellows, M. (2010). Computer century know the what, why, and how of technology science unplugged: An enrichment and extension integration. T.H.E. Journal, 26(6), 73–74. programme for primary-aged children. Retrieved Flusser, V. (2011). Does writing have a future? from http://csunplugged.org/ (N. A. Roth, Trans.). Minneapolis, MN: Beyer, L. E., & Apple, M. W. (Eds.). (1988). The University of Minnesota Press. curriculum: Problems, politics and possibilities. Friesen, N. (2011). The place of the classroom and Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. the space of the screen: Relational pedagogy Bowers, C. A. (2000). Let them eat data: How computers and Internet technology. New York, NY: affect education, cultural diversity, and the prospects Peter Lang. of ecological sustainability. Athens, GA: Furber, S. (2012). Shut down or restart? The way forward University of Georgia Press. for computing in UK schools. London, UK: The Burbules, N. C. (2004). Rethinking the virtual. Royal Society. Retrieved from http://royalsociety.org/ E-Learning and Digital Media, 1(2), 162–183. uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/education/ Cordes, C., & Miller, E. (2000). Fool’s gold: A critical policy/computing-in-schools/2012-01-12- look at children and computers. College Park, Computing-in-Schools.pdf 11. Subject Matters of Digital Technology and Computing Science Curriculum –•–95

Gough, A. (2003). Emboding a mine site: Enacting Selwyn, N. (2009). The digital native—myth and reality. cyborg curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives, Theorizing, 19(4), 33–47. 61(4), 364–379. Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational thinking in Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: K–12: A review of the state of the field. Educational Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 42(1), 38–43. Researcher, 15(4), 4–14. Hlynka, D., & Belland, J. C. (Eds.). (1991). Paradigms Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, regained: The uses of illuminative, semiotic, and 128(3330), 969–977. post-modern criticism as modes of inquiry in Smith, D. G. (2014). Teaching as the practice of wisdom. educational technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: New York, NY: Bloomsbury. Educational Technology Publications. Stiegler, B. (1998). Technics and time, 1: The fault of Introna, L. D. (2011). The enframing of code: Agency, Epimetheus (R. Beardsworth & G. Collins, Trans.). originality and the plagiarist. Theory, Culture and Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Society, 28(6), 113–141. Stiegler, B. (2010). Taking care of youth and the Jonassen, D. H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: generations (S. Barker, Trans.). Stanford, CA: Mindtools for critical thinking. Englewood Cliffs, Stanford University Press. NJ: Prentice Hall. Stiegler, B. (2011). Technics and time 3: Cinematic time Kellner, D. (1995). Media culture: Cultural studies, and the question of malaise (S. Barker, Trans.). identity and politics between the modern and Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. postmodern. New York, NY: Routledge. Streibel, M. J. (1991). A critical analysis of the use of Kitchin, R., & Dodge, M. (2011). Code/space: Software computers in education. In D. Hlynka & J. C. and everyday life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Belland (Eds.), Paradigms regained: The uses of McLuhan, M., Hutchon, K., & McLuhan, E. (1977). City illumination, semiotic and postmodern criticism as as classroom: Understanding language and media. modes of inquiry in educational technology Agincourt, ON, Canada: Book Society of Canada. (pp. 283–334). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational McLuhan, M., & McLuhan, E. (1988). Laws of media: Technology Publications. The new science. Toronto, ON, Canada: University Streitz, N. A., & Kameas, A. (2007). The disappearing of Toronto Press. computer: Interaction design, system infrastructures Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological and applications for smart environments (Vol. 1). pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem 108(6), 1017–1054. solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, Molnar, A. (1990). Computers in education: A historical 12(2), 257–285. perspective of the unfinished task. Technological Van Manen, M. (2014). Phenomenology of practice: Horizons in Education, 18(4), 80–83. Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and research and writing. Walnut Creek, CA: Left powerful ideas. New York, NY: Basic Books. Coast Press. Peters, M. A. (2003). Technologising pedagogy: The Weaver, J. A. (2010). Educating the posthuman: internet, nihilism, and phenomenology of learning. Biosciences, fiction, and curriculum. Rotterdam, SIMILE: Studies in Media & Information Literacy Netherlands: Sense. Education, 3(1), 1–10. Weiser, M. (1991). The computer for the 21st century. Pinar, W. F. (2012). What is curriculum theory? Scientific American, 265(3), 94–104. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Wilson, C. (2013, November). Making computer science Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The surrender of count. Communications of the ACM, 56(11), 32–33. culture to technology. New York, NY: Knopf. Wilson, C., Sudol, L. A., Stephenson, C., & Stehlik, M. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. (2010). Running on empty: The failure to teach K-12 On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–2. Retrieved from http:// computer science in the digital age. New York, NY: www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20 ACM. Retrieved from http://www.acm.org/ Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20- runningonempty/ %20Part1.pdf Winner, A. A., & Holloway, R. E. (1983). Technology Pressey, S. L. (1926). A simple apparatus which gives integration for a new curriculum. Journal of tests and scores—and teaches. School and Society, Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 23(586), 373–376. 2(4), 30–35. 12

INTEGRATED, HOLISTIC, AND CORE SUBJECT MATTERS

WADE TILLETT University of Wisconsin–Whitewater

ntegrated, holistic, and core subject matters per- Over the years, and with the recent introduction of meate the experience of a learner as she or he the Common Core State Standards, the term core Iinteracts with the world. Learning is not an exte- curriculum has often been used to refer to a basic rior set of knowledge. Rather, it is a process by required set of courses or knowledge and skills which the learner explores the self and the world. (Schubert, 1986, p. 236). A required core curriculum The curriculum is not organized around a preset stems from questions about what knowledge and linear progression based on academic disciplines. values are necessary. However, such a required core Rather, it evokes questions that are worthwhile for does not necessarily involve students in asking or students to explore. Because of this, the curriculum answering these questions. This differs significantly emerges each time differently, based on specific from a historical lineage of “real core” curricula learners, schools, communities, and/or events. Inte- (term from Faunce & Bossing, 1951; see Kridel, grated, holistic, and core curriculum can be traced 2010, p. 144). An important aspect of real core is that back to the educational philosophy of John Dewey students take up the questions that shape the curricu- (1897, 1916, 1938). Dewey (1931) warned that one lum: What knowledge or values are necessary to of the greatest sources of educational confusion function in or as a society? Could a society exist or resides in the artificial and arbitrary categorizations function without a core of knowledge and values? of knowledge. He said that such categories are fine What are the advantages and disadvantages of a par- for encyclopedias but not for pedagogical or curric- ticular knowledge or value? How are societal values ular purposes. Others who have built on Dewey’s passed on? What is an individual’s place in a demo- idea of curriculum integrated around the holistic cratic society? What are the big problems facing core of personal and social concerns include L. society? What are possible solutions? Thomas Hopkins (1937, 1954), Boyd Bode (1938), The term integrated curriculum is sometimes used Carter G. Woodson (1933), Caroline Pratt (1948), to describe an interdisciplinary curriculum that unites Harold Alberty (1947), James Beane (1993, 1997), two or more traditional academic disciplines or sub- Herb Kohl (1967), John Holt (1964), and Brian disciplines, sometimes under a theme (Schubert & Schultz (2008). Lopez-Schubert, 1980, p. 68). Such use, however,

96 12. Integrated, Holistic, and Core Subject Matters–•–97

leaves out the heart of real integrated curricula: the social groups (or individuals) to answer these ques- act of integrating—the mutual adjustment of learner tions. As Beane (1993) pointed out, caring is both a and environment (Hopkins, 1937, p. 8). Integrating personal concern as friendship and a social concern curricula explores the questions: How are personal as social welfare (p. 41). Living core looks to these and societal values related? How do a continuously recurrent concerns and actions that constitute living changing self and world affect one another? What is a life—large and small, singular and social, contem- necessary to empower this continuous adjustment? porary and historical. Living core curriculum taps (Beane, 1993, 1997) into the larger living curriculum that already exists. Holistic learning is sometimes used as another People are already asking, who am I (for example), term to describe teaching the “whole child,” an and living core aids in the exploration of such a approach that goes beyond a learner’s interaction question. To begin an inquiry, one can look at with academic content. Holistic curricula, similar to today’s news, yesterday’s diary entry, or the tool integrating curricula and real core curricula, empha- that one uses for writing. If one slows down enough size a balance and interaction between the personal to look at the daily mysteries that are often over- and social, and there is an added emphasis on spiri- looked, an avalanche of intrigue presents itself: Why tuality. Holistic educators might look toward a tran- do I breathe? How do I see color? How can sound scendent spirituality that connects an individual’s travel invisibly? What happens when I go to sleep? “inner or higher self to this unity” of the universe Why do we speak this language? Why do people (Miller, 1988, p. 20; see also Miller, 1997, p. 106). argue? How do you make glass? Any one of these Holistic curriculum involves the questions: How can questions could be the beginning of an inquiry that one achieve unity in a fractured and disjointed could be explored for lifetimes. The distinction of world? How can one find meaning in life? How is living core is that it actually takes up such inquiry spirituality learned? and pushes it further, looking for deep concerns and While integrated, holistic, and core curricula do intersections. have differences in focus and lineage, in this chapter, Because living core occurs within the immediate living core is used as an umbrella term to refer to life of the learner, the learner enters a deliberative them as a group. Living core is quite different from a mode where they try to determine what is the best contemporary usage of “core” curriculum to mean a course of action out of what’s possible (Schwab, base set of required standards (such as the Common 1970). Learning is a means by which to address and Core). Living core is derived from and with the con- deliberate on the pressing question of how to live. cerns, needs, and involvement of the students, whereas the Common Core has already been designed for them by authoritative others without student par- Context ticipation in formulating the purposes. In living core, students see purposes and learning experiences as Since the creation of the “common school,” a central relevant to their lives; however, in Common Core, question has been what should students learn in com- they too often do not see the connections of studies mon (i.e., the required core). For Horace Mann, “the to building their lives. function of the school is to build into the coming generation a common set of beliefs and attitudes” (Karrier in Miller, 1997, p. 32). The selection of a Contemporary Concerns required curriculum mandates knowledge, and sub- sequently a public. A required curriculum creates a Who am I? Who are we? Where did we come from? common ethos. A living core curriculum encourages Where do I belong? How did this happen? What can learners to shape that common. I do? What can we do? And yet, in an Orwellian twist, the Common Core Such questions are repeatedly asked, explored, (required core) Standards exist largely devoid of the and tentatively answered throughout one’s life. In explicitly described inquiry into cultural values that fact, many world events can be seen as attempts by are the legacy of living core curriculum as Smith, 98–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Stanley, and Shores (1957) characterize it. Conspicu- justice be done (Michie, 1999, pp. 145–162). Or, in ously absent from the Common Core’s (2010) stated an example from Schultz (2008), students from the goals of being “college and career ready” are living Cabrini-Green housing project in Chicago decided, core notions of citizenship and personal meaning. It after listing the things wrong with their school, that is as if, instead, mandatory comparison structures what was really needed was a new school altogether. built into schools are enough to ensure each student Schultz’s fifth-grade class then organized a publicity sees his or her options as essentially contained. It is campaign designed to pressurize Chicago Public as if a uniform standard is set not to ensure equality, Schools into building a new school. In living core but to justify inequality—to see one’s “proper place” curricula, students act in the world on issues that (Woodson, 1933/1992, p. xiii). Indeed, it is precisely affect them. A two-way connection is built between the fact that cultural values such as competition por- personal and societal actions. The contemporary con- tend to be invisible, existing as structure rather than text of a learner’s life is a beginning point and content, that indicates the depth to which they are organizing center of living core curricula. It is this embedded (Smith et al., 1957, p. 12). The host of immediate, authentic aspect of living core that pro- standardized tests and accountability measures vides a motivation for learning absent in canned cur- enacted by policies such as the No Child Left Behind ricula: The learner needs to learn in order to address Act and Race to the Top grant program effectively their concerns now. Learning is not in preparation for replaces questions as to what it is that American stu- “real life,” college, or a career, but something that dents “need” with a more empirical mandate to get affects living life now (Dewey, 1897, 1916, 1938). higher test scores in math and reading. Authors of the Common Core claim that it is not a curriculum at all; rather, it only specifies “required achievements.” Theory Accordingly, “Teachers are thus free to provide stu- dents with whatever tools and knowledge their pro- Perhaps integrating, holistic, and core curricula fessional judgment and experience identify as most attempt to overcome the division originally mounted helpful for meeting the goals set out in the Stan- by creating a separate space (the school) for “educa- dards” (Common Core, 2010). In this way, the ques- tion.” Dewey (1933) himself suggested that in tion of the purpose of schooling is bypassed. The Utopia, there would be no schools. (For an extensive “results,” the goals of education (an important aspect discussion of this Utopia, see Schubert, 2009.) Fur- of curriculum inquiry; Short, 1991), are once again ther subdivision within the schools into disciplines removed from democratic discussion as “already and subdisciplines, along with other divisions such decided.” as grade levels, classes, grade-level standards, text- Nevertheless, everything is not “already decided.” books, pacing guides, and even scripted lessons, can A living core curriculum reopens questions that have combine to create canned lessons that are deployed to been “answered” by someone else by involving students. In contrast, living core seeks to create a learners in the direction of their own learning. In liv- democratic curriculum of, by, and for students that ing core curricula, the process of deciding what and addresses concerns that are important to them how to learn is considered an essential part of learn- (Dewey, 1938, p. 29; Schubert & Lopez-Schubert, ing. An emerging living core allows for repurposing, 1980). This is not to say that disciplinary structures, for the changing of goals and questions as the inquiry standards, or textbooks are not used; rather, these are progresses and the general and specific inform one used as frames and resources in the service of an another. For example, after the only African American emergent exploration of selected concerns. learner, Reggie, in Gregory Michie’s (1999) class Living core curricula involves learners in organic was attacked by a Chicago police officer, students exploration of topics where the learning outcomes, met with a lawyer and the Chicago Police Depart- scope, and sequence are not predetermined, but ment’s Office of Professional Standards, alerted the rather emerge out of the current inquiry (Alberty, media, circulated a petition, wrote letters to the 1947; Hopkins, 1937). Such inquiry need not involve mayor and the state’s attorney, and held a demonstra- a school, institution, or teacher. Viewed broadly, self- tion in a show of support for Reggie and to demand or group-directed reflective inquiry and action around 12. Integrated, Holistic, and Core Subject Matters–•–99

a significant concern constitutes a living core cur- described as a part of a private self, as opposed to a part riculum. An activist group might investigate solitary of the system. However, the constitution of one’s seem- confinement in prisons, centering around questions ingly personal thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and actions must be understood as socially prepared and organized. such as what is just, what is humane. An artist group (p. 375) might explore movement through experiments in various media, centering on questions such as what is A living core curriculum must be careful to keep time, what is life. A group of students might inquire in mind the many structures that delimit individual, into the local knowledge of the community, centering group, and world. Actions should not be taken to around questions like, Where do I come from? What stem from a “true self.” The possible subjectivities do my community members know and value? and actions change based on the dynamics of the Living core curriculum takes the form of combin- specific situation. What sort of “self ” is taken up here ing personal and social, self and world, general and is different from the sort taken up there. A thoughtful specific (Schubert, 1986). Such a focus hopes to curriculum will acknowledge and explore the forces make the learner more conscious and conscientious. that simultaneously enable and constrain possible Beane (1993) proposed some of the skills learned subjectivities. during such an inquiry are: reflective thinking, criti- cal ethics, problem solving, valuing, self-concepting, Social social action, and searching for completeness and meaning (pp. 40–41). Living core curriculum focuses Living core continues much of Dewey’s (1897, on the intersection of the personal and social; how- 1916, 1931, 1933, 1938) thought, which under- ever, historically, there has been some distinction stands education as a way to remake society as well between the child-centered and social reconstructionist as the person. Over the years, various descriptors lineages (see Bode, 1938; Dewey, 1938). have been used to describe curricula that begin with the social or world: problem-based, experience, Personal social integration, authentic, critical. Society is in flux, and living core emphasizes this flux as some- Tracing back to Jean-Jacques Rousseau and thing that can be influenced. Living core can be Friedrich Froebel, child-centered advocates often seen as an attempt to practice democracy, using describe the life and personality of the child as means that match the ends (Alberty, 1947, p. 43). “unfolding” (Krogh, 1990, p. 33). Over the years, Smith et al. (1957) explicitly stated that common various descriptors have been used to describe education transmits cultural values. Inquiry into this curricula that begin with the child: project-based, cultural core is a basis of living core. From Harold activity, personal integration, holistic, whole child, Rugg (1936) to Paulo Freire (1970), such an inquiry child-centered. Some child-centered advocates see asks which and whose cultural values are handed society as something that gets in the way of unfet- on, and how. To the degree learners and teachers are tered individual freedom; therefore, the educator’s unconscious of the values embedded in learning, role is to protect the learner from the repressive they are uncritically transmitting and reinforcing forces of society in order to allow self-exploration those values. All school-based curricula can be ana- and “natural” growth. The self is seen as singular, lyzed for their site- and learner-specific functions as predefined, and inherently good. they interface with the multitude of curricula that However, such a purist approach overlooks the exist both beyond and within the school (Cremin, effects of the world on the self. L. Thomas Hopkins 1975, p. 33). (1937) contended that the self is learned: “The self Even though living core attempts to allow self- is not inherited but is built into the individual as a critique, the power and responsibility of the teacher part of the process of interacting in the social cul- to direct the questions and shape the inquiry amounts ture” (p. 12). Likewise, following Michel Foucault, to an implicit required core. Living core curriculum Hammerberg (2004) argued, necessarily has underlying values that are transmitted. The techniques used to govern oneself in the learning No curriculum exists in a power vacuum. To select is environment are internalized in such a way that they are necessary and unavoidable. This selection privileges 100–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM some knowledge and values over others. This selec- Forms of Inquiry and Modes tion is done in the context of power relations among of Expression individuals and social groups. To the degree that liv- ing core assumes (creates) the grounds of a commons One of the most well-known inquiries into living within which a position may be taken, limitations exist core curricula is the Eight-Year Study, which found (Ellsworth, 1997, p. 93). To the degree that living core that “the more experimental the school, the greater requires participation, the message of that require- the degree of success in college” (Chamberlin, ment is one of power: “A participant, or else” (p. 105). Chamberlin, Drought, & Scott in Smith et al., 1957, The effective required curriculum then, the one a p. 416). The Eight-Year Study used measures beyond teacher should attempt to open for student critique, is improved academic content knowledge and instead that which students can’t help but learn. attempted to get a picture of the overall impact in the A self-reflective approach to living core focuses learner as a whole. Researchers of living core often on the creation, definition, and connections between use qualitative or mixed-methods approaches, where the personal and social. Learner disintegration is one can see the teachers and learners, not just the seen as something to be valued rather than over- teacher or the scores. A broad range of methods can come. Students may refuse frameworks through be taken up by researcher and learner alike from active “ignore-ances” and other forms of resistance documentary, ethnographic, and autoethnographic or persistence (Ellsworth, 1997, p. 57). The students (ethnographic writing focused on the researcher), to enact multiple identities despite demands for unity narrative and arts-based. Further alignment with the (integration) of a singular self and singular world. theory of living core can be accomplished through methods that take the intersection of the self and the The students themselves are actors who resist, world, and the researcher and the subject, as one that select, and modify both in the real world beyond the is in process and in flux, where it is understood that classroom and in the real world within it. A contem- the researcher is part of the process that creates porary living core practitioner must not only engage descriptions of self and world, self-referentially students in personal and social inquiry but also acknowledging the location of the researcher–learner pursue such inquiry himself or herself. Such a phi- and the impossibility of an “objective” description of losophy is evident when teacher Avi Lessing said, the world (St. Pierre, 2011). “Working on myself as a human being and working First-person accounts by teachers or learners are on my teaching are not separate events. To me, we an important means of describing a living core explo- can only know our work to the extent that we know ration. Kohl’s (1967) book, 36 Children, is represen- ourselves” (in Ayers & Ayers, 2011, p. 55). His class tative of a genre discussing both the contextual takes up issues such as race, gender, loss, and love disintegration (disunity) of schooling and possible as they “play out in the room,” with the expectation living core enactments that would overcome the per- that honesty and discomfort will lead to self-discov- sonal–social rifts. June Jordan’s (1985) college class’s ery (pp. 53–55). A thoughtful living core curriculum exploration of Black English and the police murder must attempt to be self-conscious of its mandates of a classmate’s brother offer another well-known and limits, open to critique, and accepting of a mul- example. titude of strands that may disagree with one another. Because living core curricula often involve The salient aspect for contemporary explorations authentic action beyond the school walls and the extending these traditions is that both the personal students are involved as researchers, it is usually the and the social are not merely predefined or static. case that the group produces its own expressions of There is an important emphasis on the interaction of inquiries. For example, Foxfire Magazine was cre- the personal and the social, as well as the self and the ated in 1966 by students to publicly share the world. Over the years, various descriptors have been knowledge of their Appalachian community’s used to describe curricula that emphasize this inter- knowledge and traditions. Students interview their action: organismic, integrating, emerging. Dewey elders about topics ranging from moonshining to was careful to maintain this middle ground in his faith healing; production continues to this day many works on education. (Wigginton, 1972). 12. Integrated, Holistic, and Core Subject Matters–•–101

Living core curriculum inquiry need not involve Conclusion formal expression through writing (or even students who are old enough to write). Play can be its own Integrated, holistic, and core curricula differ mark- inquiry and expression. Learners might create their edly from dominant forms of curriculum designed own houses and community, as Meredith Smith by educators for students; they are co-created by proved in 1921 that her first-grade class did. Projects educators and students based upon lived interests involving whole-hearted learner engagement in an and concerns of students. A central feature of inte- activity are also a way to inquire and express, as grated, holistic, and core curricula is that they Kilpatrick (1918) advocated. evolve as students work with their teachers to con- While there is a historical lineage of school-based tinuously reconstruct their understanding of and curriculum theorists, to limit living core to the relationship with the world. Students learn that all domain of school and scholars is to make the same areas of knowledge and experience have potential error that living core attempts to overcome: arbitrary value to enhance their reflection, decision, and division of life and learning. Taken more broadly action; thus, they perceive connections between then, any in-depth inquiry that focuses on self and studying and creating their lives. This act of living world could be described as a living core curriculum. the curriculum may occur in schools or outside of For example, an autobiographical and/or activist them (e.g., Hopkins, 1954). Lived curriculum is not project may be seen as a description of real core to written in advance, because it is only known as it the degree that it is taken up as an open-ended emerges. Each instance of the living of integrated, inquiry, as when Frederick Douglass (1845) vividly holistic, or core curriculum is a seedbed for cultiva- described the process whereby learning and living tion of subsequent instances and lifelong learning interact with one another in his life. that ensues.

References and Further Readings Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York, NY: Macmillan. Alberty, H. B. (1947). Reorganizing the high school Dewey, J. (1931). The way out of educational confusion. curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ayers, R., & Ayers, W. (2011). Teaching the taboo: Dewey, J. (1933, April 23). Dewey outlines utopian Courage and imagination in the classroom. schools. New York Times, p. 7. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, Beane, J. A. (1993). A middle school curriculum: From NY: Macmillan. rhetoric to reality. Columbus, OH: National Middle Douglass, F. (1845). Narrative of the life of Frederick School Association. Douglass: An American slave. New York, NY: Beane, J. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing a Signet. core of democratic education. New York, NY: Ellsworth, E. (1997). Teaching positions: Difference, Teachers College Press. pedagogy, and the power of address. New York, Bode, B. H. (1938). Progressive education at the NY: Teachers College Press. crossroads. New York, NY: Newson. Faunce, R. C., & Bossing, N. L. (1951). Developing Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2010). English the core curriculum. New York, NY: language arts standards >> Introduction >> Key Prentice Hall. design consideration. Retrieved from http://www Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, .corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/introduction/ NY: Herder & Herder. key-design-consideration Hammerberg, D. D. (2004). Technologies of the self in Cremin, L. A. (1975). Curriculum making in the United classrooms designed as “learning environments”: States. In W. Pinar (Ed.), Curriculum theorizing: (Im)possible ways of being in early literacy The reconceptualists (pp. 17–35). Berkeley, CA: instruction. In B. M. Baker & K. E. Heyning (Eds.), McCutchan. Dangerous coagulations? The uses of Foucault in Dewey, J. (1897). My pedagogic creed. The School the study of education (pp. 359–376). New York, Journal, 54, 77–80. NY: Peter Lang. 102–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Holt, J. C. (1964). How children fail. New York, NY: Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, Dell. paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Hopkins, L. T. (1937). Integration, its meaning and app- Macmillan. lication. New York, NY: D. Appleton-Century Co. Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice and education: Hopkins, L. T. (1954). The emerging self in school and John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: home. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Information Age Publishing. Jordan, J. (1985). On call: Political essays. Boston, MA: Schubert, W. H., & Lopez-Schubert, A. L. (1980). South End Press. Curriculum books: The first eighty years: Context, Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method: The use commentary, bibliography. Lanham, MD: University of the purposeful act in the educative process. Press of America. New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia Schultz, B. D. (2008). Spectacular things happen along University. the way: Lessons from an urban classroom. New Kohl, H. R. (1967). 36 children. New York, NY: New York, NY: Teachers College Press. American Library. Schwab, J. J. (1970). The practical: A language for Kridel, C. (2010). Core curriculum. In C. Kridel (Ed.), curriculum. Washington, DC: National Education Encyclopedia of curriculum studies (pp. 143–144). Association. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Short, E. C. (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Krogh, S. (1990). The integrated early childhood Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. curriculum. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. O., & Shores, J. H. (1957). Michie, G. (1999). Holler if you hear me: The education Fundamentals of curriculum development. of a teacher and his students. New York, NY: New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World. Teachers College Press. Smith, M. (1927). Education and the integration of Miller, J. P. (1988). The holistic curriculum. Toronto, ON, behavior. New York, NY: Teachers College, Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Columbia University. Press. St. Pierre, E. A. (2011). Post qualitative research: The Miller, R. (1997). What are schools for? Holistic critique and the coming after. In N. K. Denzin & education in American culture (3rd rev. ed.). Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press. qualitative research (pp. 611–625). Thousand Oaks, Pratt, C. (1948). I learn from children: An adventure in CA: Sage. progressive education. New York, NY: Simon & Wigginton, E. (1972). The Foxfire book. Garden City, Schuster. NY: Anchor Press, Doubleday. Rugg, H. O. (1936). American life and the school Woodson, C. G. (1933). The miseducation of the Negro curriculum: Next steps toward schools of living. (1st ed.). Hampton, VA: U.B. & U.S. Communication New York, NY: Ginn & Company. Systems. 13

CURRERE AS SUBJECT MATTER

MARLA MORRIS Georgia Southern University

urrere is a paradigm shift in the way we think meaningful learning experiences for students. I urge about educational experience. Currere offers students to study the notion of currere in order to Ca method to examine the inner life in relation think more about what their lives mean in the context to the larger society in order to deepen learning and of education. If students have the opportunity to understanding. Currere is the Latin root of the word explore their own experiences in relation to a larger curriculum. In this sense, curriculum does not mean educational context, perhaps students would be more the syllabus, the course, the textbook, or the objec- interested in school because school would be more tives of learning. Curriculum “reconceptualized” interesting and meaningful. (Pinar, 1974/2006) as currere points to the running of the course. The phrase “the running” is a metaphor for lived experience. Currere is about exploring lived Currere experience as it is related to deep understanding of education. William F. Pinar and Madeleine R. Grumet In his essay titled “Self and Others,” Pinar (1974/ (1976/2006) in their important text Toward a Poor 2006) argued that Curriculum (which was originally published in the curriculum reconceptualized is currere; it is not the 1970s) “reconceptualized” the notion of curriculum course to be run, or the artifacts employed in the run- by exploring the Latin root of the word curriculum as ning of the course; it is the running of the course. The currere. course most broadly is our lives, in schools and out, and This chapter explores currere as a method of the running, is our experience of our lives. (p. 18) doing autobiography. First, I unpack various theories Currere—as the examination of our lived of autobiography in the context of currere. I then experiences—is a way to explore our interiority, our look at how currere has opened the door to a wide inner lives in the context of education and in the con- variety of types of autobiographies. Finally, I discuss text of our relations with others and the larger society. how various types of autobiographies are expressed The self cannot be understood in a vacuum but only in the field of curriculum studies. I argue that policy in the context of the world around us. As we learn makers have damaged public education via mandates about others we learn about ourselves; as we learn of standardized testing and other policies, including about ourselves we learn about others. It is important those promoted by the No Child Left Behind Act and to note that Pinar suggests that education can happen Race to the Top grant program. I urge policy makers outside the formal structures of the school. In her to think differently about what might provide more essay titled “Psychoanalytic Foundations,” Grumet

103 104–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

(1976/2006) stated, “Currere is what the individual by working regressively, progressively, analytically, does with the curriculum, his active reconstruction synthetically, one begins to reclaim oneself from intel- of his passage through its social, intellectual, physical lectual and cultural conditioning. It is work to initiate a structures” (p. 111). From a psychoanalytic perspec- dialectical (rather than passive) relation to scholarly work, to oneself, to the world. (p. 108) tive, Grumet is interested in the “passage” made, the psychological “passages” students make while study- Thus, scholarly work is always already in relation to ing the various school subjects. School subjects affect the interior life of the student. Thus, both Pinar interiority and with others. Scholarship is not done in and Grumet are interested in the way in which a vacuum but in dialectic relation with the political. education—conceived broadly—affects students psy- Thus, Pinar emphasized that currere is both a study chically. Interiority is of great concern to both Pinar of the subjective and the social; it is both about the and Grumet. self and the political. More specifically Pinar (1975/2006) fleshed out a Pinar (1979/1994) wrote about the dialectical in “method” of currere that unfolds in four move- the context of currere in another way. Here he stated, ments: the regressive, the progressive, the analytical, and the synthetical. For Pinar the self is fluid and This method, as [sic] its most basic, represents a call for interiority complicated. Most simply, for Pinar, the the cultivation of an internal dialectic. It is a call to examine one’s response to a text, a response to an idea, student of currere should look backward, remember- response to a colleague, in ways which invite depth ing the past—especially one’s childhood—then look understanding and transformation of that response. to the future in order to see what lies ahead educa- (p. 119) tionally, psychically, and spiritually, then take things apart in an analytic sense and finally synthesize the This “internal dialectic” concerns one’s “response” movements in order to experience life as continual to texts and to others. Currere as a method is also movement. Pinar (1975/2006) asked that we ponder about the ways in which we move through the world regressively what “academic interests” (p. 57) we via response to others and the ways in which we had in the past and progressively “where your intel- respond to our own interiorities. Currere allows us to lectual interests are going” (p. 59). In discussing the arrive at a deeper understanding—as Pinar so elo- analytic movement, he wrote about what he calls “the quently puts it—of the educative experience. This biographic present” (p. 59). Here Pinar suggested depth comes from our interactions with others. Self- that we better understand “what ideas, what fields of study always already includes relations with others study” (p. 59) we are attracted to, and finally he asks and this sets up a dialectic. The self is never studied us during the synthetical movement to place together in isolation although, as Pinar points out, under- “one’s intellectual interests biographically” and to standing at its deepest level must come from within. ask whether these interests are “liberative” in the To avoid the dangers of solipsism, Pinar suggests sense of “ontological movement” (p. 60). Pinar is that one looks within in order to respond—with a interested in the connections between psyche and deeper understanding—to the lived experience of the academic knowledge and whether psyche is allowed other. free movement or becomes reified by academic Pinar (2004) continued to couch his insights in a work. Ultimately for Pinar academic work should dialectic as he claims: “The method of currere is not “liberate” and make one more free, more open to a matter of psychic survival, but one of subjective questions, and open to more meaningful ways of liv- risk and social reconstruction, the achievement of ing life. For Pinar living a more full and meaningful selfhood and society in the age to come” (p. 4). It life begins with looking at one’s interiority and exam- becomes imperative that we deconstruct Pinar’s ining the self in relation to academic knowledge and words with care as he points out that currere again psychic well-being. always involves the double movement of self and The basic four movements of currere stay intact society, of the personal and the political, of “subjec- over the course of Pinar’s career. Pinar (1979/1994) tive risk and social reconstruction.” Here Pinar has later added to his method the notion of what he calls suggested that currere means taking “risks” in order the “dialectic” (p. 108). Pinar stated that to understand interiority but that is not all. He went 13. Currere as Subject Matter–•–105

on to emphasize that once one begins to look within, always must doubt any particular understanding of one must also work to change the political and psy- the self, because of the fluidity of the self. This apo- chosocial landscape. Students of currere know that it retic movement is necessary for self-understanding. is imperative—as educational workers—to change Further, understanding is always partial. Problems society for the better. Currere is not simply navel arise, however, if one gets stuck psychically in any of gazing. Pinar (2011) continued his discussion of cur- these movements. This Pinar (1976/1994) called psy- rere in his later work and broadened it to include the chic “arrest” (p. 61). To avoid psychic arrest, one importance of history and culture as he stated, must be watchful to keep the self fluid and continue to have complicated conversations about the past, Expanding, then, my initial emphasis from individual present, and future as these are all interrelated pieces existential experience to the intersubjective engage- of our lives. We are to continually have complicated ment that can occur through complicated conversation, conversations not only with others but also within currere incorporates questions of history, society, and ourselves. Pinar (2011) returned to the notion of culture as they are personified in individual lives, complicated conversation in relation to currere as he passionately expressed in public service. (p. 149) stated, The notion of “complicated conversation” was The running of the course—currere—occurs through first introduced in the 1995 book Understanding conversation, not only classroom discourse, but also Curriculum, which Pinar co-wrote with Peter dialogue among specific students and teachers and Taubman, Patrick Slattery, and William Reynolds. within oneself in solitude. Because the running of the Currere is, at root, this complicated conversation. course occurs socially and subjectively through aca- A conversation suggests that at least two persons are demic study, the concept of currere forefronts the involved in understanding the world around us and meaning of curriculum as complicated conversation our psychic worlds. Currere also includes “history, encouraging educational experience. (pp. 1–2) society, and culture” as understood by the individual It is important to note that complicated in the context of his or her “public service.” The indi- conversation—in relation to currere—happens when vidual must be engaged in the world in order to make we engage in “academic study.” Pinar emphasized changes to that world. Pinar pointed to the ongoing this central tenet of currere especially in his later dialectic between self and other, interiority and cul- work (2011, 2012). In the second edition of What Is ture, history and subjectivity, psychic awareness and Curriculum Theory? (2012), Pinar said: politics. To do public service means engaging in poli- tics. It is imperative that one has to understand the Put in another way, the method of currere seeks to context of that service against the larger backdrop of understand the contribution academic studies makes history and culture. It is interesting to note that Gru- to one’s understanding of one’s life (and vice versa), met (1976/2006)—in Toward a Poor Curriculum— and how both are imbricated in society, politics, and pointed out that “currere does not seek to resolve . . . culture. (p. 45) these opposites. Rather it identifies their tension as the source of energy” (pp. 112–113). Thus, the dia- Those who advocate for the standardized testing lectic “tensions” of currere do not “resolve.” This is movement seem not to see the connection between what makes currere a “complicated conversation” what one studies and one’s interiority. There seems (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 1995). In that to be a disconnect between the student and what he dialectic tension, as Grumet (1976/2006) pointed or she studies. Standardized knowledge—whatever out, is “energy” (pp. 112–113). Henceforth, the dia- that means—is supposed to make students better lectical tension between the different movements of workers for a capitalist, neoliberal world. But when currere—the regressive, progressive, analytic, and students are focused on learning material to pass synthetic movements—is its source of “energy.” The tests, they do not have the opportunity to explore self is fluid and moves back and forth between these what learning means to them or how learning movements, and the question of the self is never changes them. The idea behind the standardized test- “resolved,” as Grumet suggested. The notion of cur- ing movement is that the knowledge one gains when rere as a complicated conversation means that the memorizing disconnected facts does not have to have self is indeed aporetic (inclined to doubt); that is, one anything to do with the students’ lived experience. In 106–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM fact, the students’ lived experience is irrelevant. This Theories of Autobiography is why many students do not like school and are uninterested in learning. If students study things that Erika Hasebe-Ludt, Cynthia Chambers, and Carl are relevant to their lives, they might like school bet- Leggo (2009) claimed that “if curriculum is currere, ter and might be interested in becoming erudite. then autobiography is the theorizing of currere” What is exciting about what Pinar (2011) proposed is (p. 31). In order to better understand the notion of that academic knowledge should have everything to currere, we must examine various theories of autobi- do with “self-formation”(p. 75) and that study and ography since currere is an “autobiographic method” political activity helps students to change the world (Pinar, 2004, p. 4). Autobiography can change one’s into which they are thrown. view of the world, and it can change the ways in Many policy makers have ignored the writings on which the self relates to others in the world. Autobi- currere for decades and instead have focused on stan- ography can change our relationships with each other dards and assessments. It would behoove policy mak- because we understand relations differently. William ers to consult curriculum theorists in order to better Schubert (1986) stated: understand what has gone wrong with public school- ing, especially since Sputnik when curriculum theo- Based on the sharing of autobiographical accounts with rists and teachers lost control of the curriculum as others who strive for similar understanding, the curricu- states began to adopt more detailed standards. Pinar lum becomes a reconceiving of one’s perspective on life (2012) discussed John Dewey’s concern over the (Grumet, 1980). It also becomes a social process whereby individuals come to greater understanding of threat of authoritarianism in schools, referencing themselves, others, and the world through mutual Richard Hofstadter’s 1963 work Anti-Intellectualism reconceptualization. (p. 33) in American Life: Perspectives are not easily changed. However, For Dewey, according to Hofstadter (and as Hethering- thinking autobiographically helps to change perspec- ton and Weiler [2009, p. 49] point out), what is at stake tives, as Schubert pointed out. In a sense, one has to is nothing less than democracy itself, as democracy understand the self before understanding the other. becomes an impossibility in the face of mass conform- But a key way to understand the self is through ist education characterized by, in Hofstadter’s words, an “authoritarian” pedagogy. Converting public schools studying others, that is, through reading autobiogra- into cram schools institutionalizes just such authori- phies. When writing autobiographies, the self does tarianism; in doing so, school reform threatens social indeed change perspectives. Sigmund Freud sug- democracy in America. (p. 3) gested that in order to understand psychic problems one has to write out those problems to come to a Policy makers have turned American public better understanding of who one is and what one schools into dictatorial spaces where students “cram” wants to become. Freud also called for the talking for the next standardized test that has little to do with cure—talking through problems of self can change their own lives. This is a form of conformism, as Pinar perspectives and help heal psychic wounds. The suggests. Policy makers should consult curriculum healing of psychic wounds can happen as a result of theorists and examine major shifts and trends in the writing autobiographies. Joe Kincheloe and Pinar academic knowledge about schooling and what it (1991) suggested that “autobiography can confront means to be an educated person in the 21st century. the meaning of a given world, reject it, reformulate it, We live in very complicated times, especially in view and reconstruct it with a social vision that is authenti- of terrorism, AIDS, tsunamis, political corruption, and cally the individual’s” (p. 21). If one lives in an nuclear proliferation. How are we educating our chil- oppressive environment, one does need to “confront” dren to live in a world such as this? What standardized that environment. This is an oppositional stance that exams have to do with a world in utter chaos? Currere must be taken in the face of oppression. Confronting again is a major paradigm shift in education that the world might also result in changing that world. allows students to not only explore their inner worlds And the point of understanding one’s life and the but also explore and change the world around them. world into which one is thrown is to change the Standardized testing does not prepare young people world for the better. As was mentioned earlier, there for the world they are about to enter. is nothing solipsistic about autobiography. Thinking 13. Currere as Subject Matter–•–107

more autobiographically, writing autobiographies or that autobiography is connected to many pressing studying autobiographies means that one is always issues: already in relation to the other. Some write autobiog- raphies in order to help others or to change others Autobiographical writing enables students to study while changing the self. Change involves movement. themselves. Such study links self to place, and place is Indeed, Pinar (2004) pointed out that “my work in simultaneously historical, cultural, and racial. . . . Via curriculum theory has emphasized the significance another’s life one understands more fully one’s own, as of subjectivity [or thinking autobiographically] to well as social and historical ties that link both lives to a particular place. (p. 78) teaching, to study, to the process of education. The significance of subjectivity is not a solipsistic retreat Edgerton complicated the notion of autobiography from the public sphere” (p. 4). Some would like to by connecting it to the pressing concerns of history, drive a wedge between the private (thinking autobio- culture, race, and place. In the context of race and graphically) and the public (changing the world), but place, Kincheloe and Pinar (1991) reminded us of the there is no wedge between the private and the public. autobiography of Richard Wright—called Black Boy. What is private becomes public through the writing This book is a powerful and stunning historical of autobiographies. account of an African American man’s struggle with Pinar (2004) emphasized that autobiography is the Jim Crow South. Kincheloe and Pinar (1991) said also political. Janet Miller (2005) stated: that “Wright is certainly aware of the tragedy of his Mississippi place and hates and hurts because of it” Drawn to autobiography conceptualized as a form of political work, especially because of my growing affili- (p. 7). The reader cannot help but be stunned by the ation with feminist concerns in education, I struggled to visceral descriptions of hate and cruelty Wright had figure out how I might variously voice contributions to to withstand living in the South. We learn much the “complicated conversation” that now constitutes about history and the cruelties of history, especially contemporary curriculum studies. (p. 2) in the South, by reading this book. The reader can be changed by studying this stunning and disturbing Miller echoed the feminist mantra that the per- autobiography. sonal is the political. But many do not see it this way. In fact, Pinar et al. (1995) pointed out that many political scholars in curriculum studies, especially in the 1970s, claimed that autobiography was not about Types of Autobiography politics and critiqued it for being irrelevant to cur- riculum research and study. Miller (2005) responded Pinar (1994) pointed out that when autobiography to this by saying that she is “disturbed by the ways in and currere—as a method of doing autobiography— which such work sometimes is dismissed as ‘soft,’ were introduced in curriculum studies many scholars ‘idiosyncratic,’ ‘under-theorized,’ . . . even ‘narcis- did not take them seriously. By the 1990s, though, sistic’” (p. 89). It is not only political scholars who things had changed. Pinar told us that currere tend to dismiss autobiography as a serious form of spawned a variety of ways of doing autobiography, research but also—as Pinar et al. (1995) pointed and autobiography became a popular way of writing out—quantitative researchers who dismiss autobiog- about educational experience. Currere—as a method raphy as a method of study and research. Pinar et al. of doing autobiography—opened the door for many (1995) stated: “The earliest formulations of autobi- educational scholars to write about autobiography in ography were linked with disputes with politically their own way. Pinar (2004) pointed out: oriented scholars . . . and quantitative researchers” against which it is still being defended (p. 516). At least four major projects employing autobiography Even today, more conservative educationists feel in some form are underway on the North American that autobiography as a research method is problem- continent: F. Michael Connelly and Jean Clandinin’s atic because it is not really “real” research. What is work on “personal practical knowledge,” William Schubert and William Ayers’ “teacher lore” and real are numbers, statistics, graphs, and so forth. But “student lore” projects, Richard Butt and Danielle again autobiography is more than someone simply Raymond’s elaboration of collaborative autobiography, telling their story. Susan Edgerton (1991) pointed out and Margo Figgins exciting theatrical work. (p. 2) 108–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Recall that the first book in the field to address currere since the 1970s, Goodson’s work might have autobiography by Pinar and Grumet (Toward a Poor evolved in different ways. Curriculum) was written in the 1970s. It took almost 20 years for others in curriculum studies to see the relevance of this kind of work. Without the notion of Autobiographies in the Field currere—as put forth by Pinar and Grumet—these other forms of autobiography would not have arrived A younger generation of curriculum scholars has on the scene. Pinar and Grumet opened an entirely taken up the challenge of writing autobiographies. new avenue of scholarship. Here we will only mention a few of these so that Miller (2005) acknowledged the work of Connelly students of autobiography can study these texts in and Clandinin—who do what is called narrative more depth on their own. This serves as a guide only inquiry: and not a detailed analysis of these books because that is beyond the scope of this chapter. Mary Aswell Michael Connelly and Jean Clandinin have provided a Doll, in her work titled To the Lighthouse and Back: discussion of methodological issues involved in narra- tive inquiry as well as “an overview of narrative story- Writings on Teaching and Living (1995), a feminist telling approaches . . . to help locate narrative in an autobiography, used depth psychology as her theo- historical intellectual context.” (pp. 93–94) retical framework. Ming Fang He, in her work A River Forever Flowing: Cross-Cultural Lives and The story of the self is always already webbed Identities in the Multicultural Landscape (2003), a inside of an historical context. Stories of the self are multicultural autobiography, used narrative inquiry also stories of history. The self does not live in a as her theoretical and methodological framework to vacuum. Self is always in relation to the larger world. explore her cross-cultural struggles before, during, Connelly and Clandinin emphasize the practical and after the Cultural Revolution in China. Rita value of storytelling and narrative inquiry. Pinar, on Ugena Whitlock in her autobiography This Corner of the other hand, emphasized the theoretical value of Canaan: Curriculum Studies of Place and the Recon- autobiography through the method of currere. Of struction of the South (2007) wrote through the theo- course one cannot separate the practical from the retical framework called queer theory while also theoretical, but different theorists emphasize different emphasizing the importance of place. Brian Case- aspects of autobiography. more, in his work titled The Autobiographical Another educationist who is involved in a form of Demand of Place: Curriculum Inquiry in the autobiography is Ivor Goodson. Goodson did what American South (2008), wrote by examining white- he calls life history. Goodson (1998) explained: ness, race, and White male privilege through the lens In the life history, the intention is to understand the pat- of psychoanalytic theory. Laura M. Jewett, in her terns of social relations, interactions, and constructions book titled A Delicate Dance: Autoethnography, in which lives are embedded. The life history pushes Curriculum, and the Semblance of Intimacy (2008), the question of whether private issues are also public used authoethnography as her theoretical framework matters. The life story individualizes and personalizes; to examine zydeco dancing, race, and aesthetics. My the life history contextualizes and politicizes. (p. 11) 2008 book, Teaching Through the Ill Body: A Spiri- Goodson argued that life history is, in fact, tual and Aesthetic Approach to Pedagogy and Illness, broader than autobiography because autobiography was an autobiography written through the lenses of does not forefront the context into which a life is psychoanalytic theory and medical humanities. I also thrown. Autobiography for Goodson, then, is too nar- wrote a 2009 autobiography titled On Not Being Able row a term to capture the ways in which the individ- to Play: Scholars, Musicians and the Crisis of ual is thrown into a larger world. However, Pinar— Psyche, which examines my life story through the throughout his work—suggested that autobiography theoretical frames of psychoanalytic theory and aes- is always already political, historical, and contextual. thetics. There are many more autobiographies being Pinar’s method of currere is what separates his work written today—too many to mention here—but one from Goodson more than anything else. But again if can see that this genre is alive and well in curriculum it weren’t for currere and intellectual work done on studies. 13. Currere as Subject Matter–•–109

In sum, in this chapter, I have addressed currere as view educational experience. I argued also that stu- a method of doing autobiography, theories of autobi- dents would find school a much more worthwhile and ography, and types of autobiographies. I have intro- meaningful project if they were allowed to explore duced our readers to recent autobiographies that have their own lives in relation to academic knowledge. been written in curriculum studies. I argued early on Further I argued that policy makers could learn much in this chapter that currere as a method of doing auto- about education by studying the groundbreaking biography is a paradigm shift in the ways scholars work done in currere and autobiography.

References and Further Readings Miller, J. L. (2005). Sounds of silence breaking: Women, autobiography, curriculum. New York, NY: Peter Casemore, B. (2008). The autobiographical demand of Lang. place: Curriculum inquiry in the American south. Morris, M. (2008). Teaching through the ill body: A New York, NY: Peter Lang. spiritual and aesthetic approach to pedagogy and Doll, M. A. (1995). To the lighthouse and back: Writings illness. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense. on teaching and living. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Morris, M. (2009). On not being able to play: Scholars, Edgerton, S. H. (1991). Particularities of “otherness”: musicians and the crisis of psyche. Rotterdam, Autobiography, Maya Angelou, and me. In Netherlands: Sense. J. L. Kincheloe & W. F. Pinar (Eds.), Curriculum as Pinar, W. F. (1974/2006). Self and others. In W. F. Pinar & social psychoanalysis: The significance of place M. R. Grumet (Eds.), Toward a poor curriculum (pp. 77–97). Albany, NY: State University of (pp. 7–29). Troy, NY: Educator’s International Press. New York Press. Pinar, W. F. (1975/2006). The method. In W. F. Pinar & Goodson, I. F. (1998). Storying the self: Life politics and M. R. Grumet (Eds.), Toward a poor curriculum the study of the teacher’s life and work. In W. F. (pp. 51–63). Troy, NY: Educator’s International Pinar (Ed.), Curriculum: Toward new identities Press. (pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc. Pinar, W. F. (1976/1994). Autobiography, politics and Grumet, M. (1976/2006). Psychoanalytic foundations. In sexuality: Essays in curriculum theory 1972–1992. W. F. Pinar & M. Grumet (Eds.), Toward a poor New York, NY: Peter Lang. curriculum (pp. 111–141). Troy, NY: Educator’s Pinar, W. F. (1979/1994). The abstract and the concrete in International Press. curriculum theorizing. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), Grumet, M. (1980). Autobiography and Autobiography, politics and sexuality: Essays in reconceptualization. The Journal of Curriculum curriculum theory 1972–1992 (pp. 101–115). Theorizing, 2(2), 155–158. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Hasebe-Ludt, E., Chambers, C. M., & Leggo, C. (2009). Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? Mahwah, Life writing and literary metissage as an ethos for NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. our times. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Pinar, W. F. (2011). The character of curriculum studies: He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural Bildung, currere, and the recurring question of the lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. subject. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Pinar, W. F. (2012). What is curriculum theory? Hetherington, M. J., & Weiler, J. D. (2009). (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Authoritarianism and polarization in American Pinar, W. F., & Grumet, M. R. (2006). Toward a poor politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University curriculum. Troy, NY: Educator’s International Press. Press. Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, Jewett, L. M. (2008). A delicate dance: Autoethnography, P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum: An curriculum, and the semblance of intimacy. New introduction to the study of historical and York, NY: Peter Lang. contemporary discourses. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Kincheloe, J. L., & Pinar, W. F. (Eds.). (1991). Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, Introduction. In J. L. Kincheloe & W. F. Pinar paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Macmillan. (Eds.), Curriculum as social psychoanalysis: The Whitlock, R. U. (2007). This corner of Canaan: significance of place (pp. 1–23). Albany, NY: State Curriculum studies of place & the reconstruction of University of New York Press. the south. New York, NY: Peter Lang. 14

MULTICULTURAL CURRERE AS SUBJECT MATTER

HONGYU WANG Oklahoma State University–Tulsa

sing narrative and autobiography in multi- This chapter focuses on a particular form of mul- cultural education has increasingly drawn ticultural autobiography that one way or another Uattention in teacher education (Guillory, involves currere in the making. Currere is a process- 2012; Li, 2007; Wang & Olson, 2009) and is a form oriented and autobiographically informed curriculum of inquiry engaged by scholars and activists from (Pinar, 1975, 2004; Pinar & Grumet, 1976), struc- diverse backgrounds. Such a form of inquiry cap- tured as four steps (regressive, progressive, analytic, tures the complexity of lived experience and the and synthetical), which guides students in teacher nuances of multicultural life (Phillion, He, & education to make connections between their life Connelly, 2005), cultivates critical self-understand- histories and their commitments as educators. It is a ing, engages radical self-making as a social justice moving form of curriculum that unites content with project (Taliaferro-Baszile, 2010), and encourages method to achieve a deeper understanding of educa- critical, self-reflexive practices for decolonizing edu- tional experience in its political, social, and psychic cation (Asher, 2005). The necessity that personal dimensions and to transform one’s psychosocial transformation and social transformation go hand in condition by taking oneself as data and seeing things hand for both mainstream students (Howard, 2006) in new ways. When the focus of self-reflexive and and minority students (Nieto & Bode, 2008) is also critical understanding is multicultural diversity acknowledged. “Going within oneself ” is part of the issues, defined in a broad, multiple, and intersec- indigenous tradition of storywork, the first phase of tional way to include race, ethnicity, gender, class, teacher preparation for teaching through storytelling sexuality, and language (among other layers), multi- (Archibald, 2008). In short, working through their cultural currere reveals the complex, lived reality of inner landscapes, prospective and practicing teachers social difference and promises to move students out can fundamentally challenge the taken-for-granted of their comfort zones for critically and respectfully assumptions about what it means to be a teacher in a engaging others and other worlds (Wang, 2010). multicultural society and generate alternative educa- Multicultural currere as subject matter asks both tional possibilities for a sustainably mutual sharing teacher educators and teachers to examine their own of a public and planetary life. subjectivity as beings from a particular race, gender,

110 14. Multicultural Currere as Subject Matter –•–111

and class; to unlearn social norms that play the role Multicultural education is distinct from cross- of exclusion; and to resituate their commitment to the cultural or global education. Multicultural education work of social justice. Transforming teachers’ per- is necessarily related to cross-cultural education sonal and professional identities lies at the heart of because of the history of colonization, migration, and transforming teachers’ educational relationships with immigration. For instance, U.S. third-world femi- students, communities, and society at large. Tradi- nism, a strand of feminism involving women of color tionally, the site of currere is subjectivity, although distinct from the prevailing White feminism (see situated in history, place, society, and culture, and Mohanty, 2003; Sandoval, 2000), from its birth has the primary concern of multicultural education is to had a complex relationship with global decoloniza- change unequal and unjust social and cultural tion movements and feminism, which sits both structures and institutions, although each person is within and outside U.S. borders. Cross-cultural nar- expected to unlearn internalized oppression. rative curriculum inquiries (e.g., He, 2003; Li, 2002) Multicultural currere adopts double lenses of per- also demonstrate how cross-cultural work can sonal transformation and structural change, which address race/ethnicity, class, and gender in more complement each other’s strength and avoid either complicated and broader ways. However, as James the self-centered tendency of individual stories or the A. Banks (2008) pointed out, despite some of the abstraction of social categories that subsumes the shared aims between global education and multicul- specificity of individual life. tural education, “global education can hinder teach- Multicultural currere also requires interaction ing about ethnic and cultural diversity in the United between autobiographical narratives and multicul- States” (p. 42) because some teachers are more tural theories for students to reach new awareness. comfortable teaching about another country than Allowing new perspectives to emerge from stories to teaching about what happens within the United inform theory and using social justice theories to States. The history, concept, and dynamics of cross- reexamine narratives can form a dynamic interplay cultural education intersect with but also differ from between theory and practice, which leads to in-depth multicultural education; these intersections and and contextualized understandings, meaningful differences are not fully discussed in this chapter. emotional work, and committed social action. In addition, multicultural currere as subject matter asks curriculum and educational researchers to understand Contemporary Concerns their own subjective and intersubjective journey as they engage in multicultural research (Grant, 1999; With the rapid growth of minority student popula- Ng-A-Fook, 2006). Situated at the tensioned inter- tions in U.S. schools, the ability of a predominately section between the personal and the cultural in White, female teaching force to connect to students education, multicultural currere challenges the dual- across cultural differences has become a growing ism between individual and society and creates concern. While professional development and work- leading-edge pathways in social justice education. shops in multicultural diversity issues have been Multicultural autobiography has various forms, offered at schools and sometime mandated for teach- but currere has a particular mode of temporality to ers, this training usually focuses on content areas and encourage the nonlinear flow of time within and testing-oriented methods and has hardly addressed across the past and the envisioned future, as well as the needs of White teachers who are challenged more facilitate students’ reentry into the present with a new than ever to become multicultural educators. As consciousness, which makes multicultural currere Sonia Nieto and Patty Bode (2008) pointed out, to unique among other forms. By integrating life history become a multicultural educator, a teacher must and multicultural understanding, students learn to become a multicultural person who is open to learn- embrace social differences through embracing differ- ing from other cultures, confronts racism and biases ences within the self (Wang, 2010). The primary site from within, and is able to see reality from multiple considered here is teacher education because currere perspectives. Such a process of reeducation for in its origin was designed for adults who could teachers means “not only learning new things but independently engage in critical reflection. also unlearning some of the old” (p. 425), emphasis 112–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

in the original). White teachers must understand their landscape, and in its method, the emotional descrip- own assumptions, perspectives, and subjectivity and tion of the past, future, and present is essential to the challenge existing biases and stereotypes, especially four steps. It addresses difficult emotions to release those related to cultural diversity, in order to build students into movement beyond where they have been the groundwork for making connections with a stuck. Working through emotions of guilt, shame, diverse student body. As Gary Howard’s (2006) fear, and anger to enable compassionate relationships autobiographical narrations and James Jupp’s (2013) is important not only for White students but also for life history studies of White male teachers demon- all students, and it cannot be accomplished only by strate, White teachers become educators committed emphasizing the importance of empathy. Moreover, to social justice through a journey of learning and multicultural currere encourages students to trace the unlearning. It is also important to point out that the sources of their assumptions back to family, school, emphasis on the current gap between the White community, and the larger society to understand how teacher force and the diverse student body does not their cultural identities are socially and culturally con- assume that minority teachers are automatically bet- structed. In this way, they can situate their own indi- ter equipped to teach in diverse settings, because vidual lives in a broader context and understand growing up in a White society, they also need to structural and systematic injustice with its profound unlearn internalized assumptions to claim their own impact, visible or invisible, on individual lives while sense of the self (Prevett, 2009). at the same time claiming their own agency to Multicultural currere offers a unique opportunity proactively teach against the grain in their own work. for such a process of unlearning and relearning for Multicultural education has been under critique both White teachers and minority teachers. In its from both conservative and radical approaches. One combination of critical lens and autobiographical of the critiques from its sympathizers is that multi- lens, multicultural currere helps students understand culturalism implies cultural identity as a static, sepa- the power dynamics of contemporary American soci- rate, and essentialized entity. Such an essentialism ety through their own lived experiences so that their has been challenged by postcolonial theory questioning of the existing injustice at school and in (Asher, 2005; Chilisa, 2012), poststructural feminist society comes from encountering difference through theory (Miller, 2005), and womanist thinking dialoguing with themselves and with others. The (Phillips, 2006). It is important to acknowledge that emotional and spiritual dimensions of storytelling cultural identity is fluid, dynamic, in between (He & are enhanced by critical, self-reflexive class conver- Ross, 2012), and complicated (Edgerton, 1996) and sations to open up personal and collective spaces for cannot be objectified into a fixed image. In today’s radical curriculum making toward democratization education, the complexity of cultural diversity of both self and society. To create multicultural requires us to understand the importance of intercul- schools, teachers, administrators, and staff must all tural space that blends or integrates different cultural journey internally to empty out presumptions in identities not only at the intersections of race, gender, order to construct nonviolent relationships with class, sexuality, and language but also within one students, parents, and communities. layer of identity. According to U.S. Census projec- With the introduction of multicultural education in tions, the population from multiracial backgrounds teacher education, pre-service and in-service teach- will triple from 2012 to 2060 (U.S. Census Bureau, ers’ resistance toward learning difficult knowledge, 2012), and more and more people have identified especially knowledge related to racism and White themselves as multiracial, which makes a singular privilege, has been noted for more than a decade racial identifier problematic. Multicultural currere (Wang & Olson, 2009). Discussions at only theoreti- does not portray cultural identities as separate enti- cal levels have not effectively addressed students’ ties but as interactive and embodied, dwelling in dif- emotional dissonance, but multicultural currere pro- ferences to generate new possibilities (see students’ vides a space for students to grapple with the difficult own writings in Wang & Olson, 2009), so it positions issues of race, class, and gender both at the emotional multicultural education away from simplistic identity and the intellectual level. Currere pays particular politics and toward meeting the challenge of a attention to the emotional component of the inner multiracial, multiethnic, and multilingual society. 14. Multicultural Currere as Subject Matter –•–113

Context children, they do not necessarily have multicultural awareness, understanding, and insights to achieve The face of the United States is changing rapidly. In such a goal because their own education and 2012, the non-Hispanic White population was 63%; upbringings hardly addressed such issues. the Hispanic population, 16.9%; the Black popula- Historically, multicultural education originated in tion, 13.1%; the Asian population, 5.1%; American the civil rights movement of the 1960s and the 1970s Indians and Alaska Natives, 1.2%; and Native when African Americans, Native Americans, Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0.2% (U.S. Mexican Americans, and other minority groups pro- Census Bureau, 2013). According to 2012 U.S. tested the dominance of White culture and demanded Census projections, the nation is becoming increas- political and educational equality. While the original ingly diverse with the Hispanic population projected focus was on race and ethnicity, low-income students to increase to 38% in 2060, the Black population to and students whose native language was not English 14.7%, and the Asian population to 8.2%. Further- quickly surfaced as groups that were also education- more, in 2043, the White population is projected to ally disadvantaged. Other social movements, such as decrease to 43% and the non-White population is the feminist and gay rights movements, drew public projected to increase to 57%; for the first time in this attention to other forms of discrimination and disad- nation, the White population will fall below 50% and vantage. Gradually multicultural education has the minority population rise above 50% (U.S. Census become a broad term to consider how factors of race, Bureau, 2012). class, gender, sexuality, language, and disability (and The student population reflects the trend of their interactions) influence educational input, pro- increasing diversity: In 1970, the student population cess, outcome, policy, and structure in order to was 79% non-Hispanic White, 14% Black, 6% challenge all forms of discrimination and pursue Hispanic, and 1% Asian and Pacific Islander and educational equity and social justice for all students other races (Center for Public Education, 2013). In (Banks, 2005; Nieto & Bode, 2008). 2008, the student population was 59% non-Hispanic Currere came from the reconceptualization White, 18% Hispanic, 15% Black, and 5% Asian; movement in the 1970s in the field of American cur- moreover, foreign-born students made up 7% of all riculum studies, a movement from the exclusive students (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Of students focus on techniques and procedures with ahistorical aged 6 to 17 years, 20% spoke a language other than and apolitical tendencies to autobiographical, his- English at home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). How- torical, and political understandings of curriculum ever, the teacher force is far from being linguisti- and education (Miller, 2005). Currere, formulated cally, culturally, intellectually, and pedagogically as a four-step process of understanding educational prepared for such diversity. In the 2007–2008 school experience, contributed to such a move. Over the year, public school teachers were 83% White, 7% years, it has evolved to emphasize the fluidity, mul- Hispanic, 7% Black, and 1% Asian, and in terms of tiplicity, and uncertainty of the self due to the influ- gender ratio, 76% female (National Center for ence of poststructural theories (Miller, 2005; Pinar, Education Statistics, 2012). The high percentage 2004). Currere did not explicitly address racial of White teachers compared to the high percentage of diversity initially but has developed over the past multicultural students nationwide has been widely several decades to discuss multiple diversity issues acknowledged in American education. Such demo- such as gender, race, and sexuality (Grumet, 2010; graphic changes make a historical gap more visible Pinar, 2004). between teachers and students, due to the lack of The multicultural and reconceptualization move- multicultural understanding on the part of teachers, ments did not necessarily intersect at their origins, but which leads to cultural conflicts between the home their intersections have become a site for curriculum and the school and between teachers and students scholars’ and teacher educators’ critical engagement, (Banks, 2005; Ladson-Billings, 1994). This gap leading to hybrid modes such as the currere of poses a profound challenge to contemporary marginality informed by cultural studies ( Edgerton, education and teacher education. While the majority 1996), critical race currere (Taliaferro-Baszile, 2010), of teachers have the best intention to educate all postcolonial feminist autobiography (Asher, 2005), 114–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

and autobiography as a queer curriculum practice existentialism, literary criticism, theatrical embodi- (Miller, 2005), based upon both appreciation and ment theory, and Zen Buddhism). Currere is the critique of each movement. The recognition that Latin root of the word curriculum, meaning “the both the inner work and the outer work are necessary running of the course” (Pinar & Grumet, 1976, for teachers’ subjective and intersubjective transfor- p. 18). Reconceptualizing curriculum as a process of mation and social change, shared by contemporary running the course shifted the focus from disciplines developments in both movements, becomes an to the individual in exploring how education is expe- underlying thread of multicultural currere. rienced temporally and conceptually in order to go Such a merging of the inner and outer work goes beyond past and social constraints. This process- along with the contemporary social, political, eco- oriented curriculum is composed of four steps: First, nomic, and cultural changes in a complex postcolo- the regressive step is the free associative remem- nial, multilingual, ecological, and postmodern world. brance of the past. One works to excavate the present Subtle forms of social biases and discrimination by focusing on past experiences, attending to both allow people to use the rhetoric of equality without cognitive and emotional aspects. Second, the pro- emptying out internalized messages, and these forms gressive step is the meditative pondering of the need to be challenged from within. Multicultural cur- future. One works to uncover one’s aspirations in rere, which works simultaneously from both the order to perceive where one wants to go. Third, the inside and the outside of individuals, provides an analytic step is to examine what one uncovers in the opportunity for students to work though issues both regressive and progressive steps in relation to one’s internally and externally. Ironically, in an increas- current biographic situation, devoted to both under- ingly diverse society, public education has been standing and intuition. Fourth, the synthetical step is under the burden of externally imposed standardiza- about getting things together and transforming one’s tion and accountability for at least 3 decades. relationship with the present, renewed for higher Especially in such a difficult time, teacher educators levels of meaning and being (Pinar, 1975, pp. 21–27). need to embrace the possibilities that are offered by In such a biographical movement enabled by criti- multicultural currere to respond to the multicultural cal and rigorous reflection, fundamental life themes needs of schools and children and to carve out a emerge for students. Free association as a self- space for students to become “multicultural persons” understanding technique from psychoanalysis is evi- (Nieto & Bode, 2008, p. 425). dent in the first two steps and is used to free students’ While considering the demographic, intellectual, minds from the present situation. Students are and social contexts, teacher educators also need to encouraged to go deeper to uncover what is obscured consider the geographical context of local history, by everyday life to find their life interests and aspira- which is usually laced with particular forms of tions. The analytical and synthetical steps reflect the racism, sexism, classism, homophobia, and their interpretive aspect of psychoanalysis and its interest intersections. Autobiographical understandings of in both the manifest and the latent and both the con- place such as the South (Casemore, 2007; He & scious and the unconscious. While currere does not Ross, 2012) provide a productive site for unraveling attempt to alter personality structures, it offers stu- the knots of race, gender, and social class. Economic dents an opportunity to integrate themselves and globalization and the increasing gap between the rich claim agency for making (new) meanings (Pinar & and the poor in the United States also challenge Grumet, 1976). Moreover, the phenomenological multicultural educators to pay particular attention to emphasis on the lived experience and concepts of how social class, nationality, race, and gender are bracketing and temporality are demonstrated through- intertwined with both the local and the global. out the process. Time in currere works recursively rather than linearly, and the blending of different life historical periods in memory and vision often occurs Theory to allow internal connections to emerge (Wang, 2010). Internal time as experienced and external time The theoretical foundations of currere are mainly as chronological interact in both phenomenological phenomenology and psychoanalysis (along with reflection and psychoanalytic hermeneutics. At the 14. Multicultural Currere as Subject Matter –•–115

intersection, phenomenological descriptions of imm- change and to create multicultural schools for all ediate, preconceptual experience are connected with children to fully develop their potential. the free associative record of the past, and suspend- Since currere and multicultural education are both ing judgment in phenomenological bracketing is concerned with identity and subjective formation, compatible with self-distancing in psychoanalysis. multicultural identity theory is particularly relevant The combination of phenomenology and psycho- here. Critical race theory, feminist theory, social analysis encourages pre-service and in-service teach- class theory, cultural studies, queer theory, womanist ers to reexamine taken-for-granted assumptions and theory, poststructural theory, and hybrid theories to reenter the present with a renewed understanding such as U.S. third-world feminism or poststructural of the past and a vision for a better future. After the feminist theory all have underlying assumptions of 1980s currere has also been influenced by poststruc- identity and contribute to multicultural currere as tural and postmodern theories to further complicate subject matter. The example of critical race currere is the notion of the self. discussed here to illuminate how theories of multi- Multiculturalism in education first flourished in cultural currere are usually situated at the intersec- ethnic studies on college campuses in the 1960s and tions of identity and subjective formation. Blending 1970s. Its purpose was to transform curriculum so curriculum theory and critical race theory, working that educational institutions reflected histories, expe- through autobiographical educational experiences as riences, and perspectives of ethnic groups; to counterstorytelling against the official knowledge, eliminate discrimination; and to affirm the cultural Denise Taliaferro-Baszile (2010) proposed a critical identities of minority students. As it developed, mul- race currere that highlights the educational signifi- ticultural education went beyond curriculum reform cance of the Black, Latino, Asian, and Native to influence educational process, structure, and poli- autobiographical voices as ontoepistemological cies. Now it involves all dimensions of education intervention. Asserting that critical race currere is a from curriculum to teaching, from school structure to particular form of currere, Taliaferro-Baszile (2010) community involvement, and from disciplinary pol- linked the politics of the individual in currere and the icy to testing (Nieto & Bode, 2008). Multicultural cultural politics of liberation to democratize the theory has different orientations, including liberal interior world and to unveil the subjugated multiculturalism that emphasizes individual equality knowledge. and common humanity and advocates providing Three aspects of critical race currere work at the equal opportunity to minority students; pluralist mul- intersections. First, the emphasis on the significance ticulturalism that emphasizes racial or gendered dif- of race in critical race theory takes into consideration ferences as positive to form plural social groups; history and context as well as feelings and the uncon- minority-centered multiculturalism such as Afrocen- scious. Taliaferro-Baszile (2010) acknowledged that trism that emphasizes that curriculum and education race intersects with class, gender, sexuality, and should center on African American experiences in other subjectivities, but highlights the role of race. order to resist White domination; critical multicultur- The emphasis of currere, although not necessarily alism that emphasizes the need to address power focusing on one particular identity layer, also high- structures and formulate modes of resistance to work lights the work of the subconscious and the uncon- against oppression and for social justice; and postco- scious in subjective reformation as well as the role of lonial and poststructural multiculturalism that life history and its social contexts. Second, “bracket- emphasizes the fluidity of cultural identity and works ing” in currere to let repressed knowledge emerge to mobilize power relationships toward creating intersects with counterstorytelling in critical race more space for democracy and social justice. It is theory to reveal what rationalistic academic knowl- beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss all influ- edge hides so that Black or other minorities’ subjec- ential theories, but we can see that the underlying tivity can affirm its epistemological and ontological thread of multicultural theory is to question existing significance. Third, the focus of the individual self in social, political, and cultural systems and structures currere and the primacy of the collective agency in that marginalize minority students and to advocate critical race theory give way to critical race currere pedagogical and social action to promote cultural as “simultaneously private/public autobiographical 116–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

excavation for the good of the self and the group in the multiple, fluid, contradictory nature of subjectiv- one signifying move” (Taliaferro-Baszile, 2010, ity and intersubjective formation and reformation. p. 492). The African American self is necessarily For instance, Jill Voorhies Martin (2009) used a relational and collective, similar to that of other cinematic-autobiographical lens, which combines minority groups such as Native Americans, Hispan- poetry, stories, currere writings, the double text of ics, and Asian Americans, so the work of critical race academic and narrative voices, and film analysis to currere is to cultivate a radical Black intersubjectiv- perform the rebirth of the female self. ity in which subjectivity is situated. In this third When a curriculum inquiry involves a marginal- aspect, currere and critical race theory become ized group, it is necessary that the mode of inquiry complementary, while the first two aspects work respect the cultural perspective and methodology of more as intersections. Both knowing and being are that particular group. The methodological lens of the racialized and radicalized in education for liberation oppressed (Sandoval, 2000), postcolonial indigenous in Taliaferro-Baszile’s (2010) formulation. research that centers on relational ontology, episte- Working at intersections or combinations, multi- mology, and axiology (Chilisa, 2012), and womanist cultural currere theory is inherently in between, thinking can inform multicultural currere to destabi- hybrid, and fluid, yet at the same time affirmative of lize the boundary of the self and the other in social, students’ cultural identities against oppression and cultural, and historical contexts. Teacher education discrimination. The multicultural necessity of students from different social positions have differ- claiming minority students’ autobiographical voices ent relationships with various contexts; for example, and acknowledging the multiplicity, fluidity, and while the majority of them have racial privilege, they intersectionality of cultural identity are mutually are often disadvantaged in gender or social class, or enhancing and enriching. both. So understanding the role of race, social class, and gender in their own lives is complicated for all students, and while currere serves as an important Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression method for teacher education students to critically reflect on their lives, studies of postcolonial, indige- Major forms of inquiry and modes of expression in nous, critical, and feminist theories in such an multicultural currere are phenomenological inquiry, inquiry are also essential for them to achieve new autobiographical narratives or fiction, personal awareness. journals, poetic expression, and critical inquiry. These diverse modes of inquiry can reach a broad Some studies also combine multicultural currere audience and invite more participants to join in the with other forms of inquiry such as autoethnogra- shared effort to transform both the self and society phy, aesthetic inquiry, and narrative inquiry. For and to create a better world. Multicultural currere as instance, Xin Li (2007) has designed a multicultural subject matter transforms teacher education pro- autobiographical curriculum, which combines cur- grams, encourages teacher educators to educate pre- rere, narrative inquiry, and James Banks’ (2001, service and in-service teachers as whole persons, 2005) six-stage typology of cultural identity devel- makes an impact on teachers’ identity and practice in opment in a teacher education course. Furthermore, social justice education, invites policy makers to under the influence of poststructuralism, double redesign teachers’ professional development, and texts or juxtaposition (Martin, 2009; Miller, 2005) productively influences the educational contexts that are also used to visually and textually demonstrate provide fertile soil for transformative initiatives.

References and Further Readings Asher, N. (2005). At the interstices: Engaging postcolonial and feminist perspectives for Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating a multicultural education pedagogy in the the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Vancouver, BC: South. Teachers College Record, 107(5), UBC Press. 1079–1106. 14. Multicultural Currere as Subject Matter –•–117

Banks, J. A. (2001). Cultural diversity and education: Li, X. (2002). The Tao of life stories: Chinese language, Foundations, curriculum, and teaching. Boston, poetry, and culture in education. New York, NY: MA: Allen & Bacon. Peter Lang. Banks, J. A. (2005). Cultural diversity and education Li, X. (2007, Summer). Multiculturalize teacher identity: (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. A critical descriptive narrative. Multicultural Banks, J. A. (2008). An introduction to multicultural Education, 14, 37–44. education (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Martin, J. V. (2009). Currere and the hours: Rebirth of the Education. female self. The Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, Casemore, B. (2007). The autobiographical demand of 25(1), 100–109. place. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Miller, J. (2005). Sounds of silence breaking: Women, Center for Public Education. (2013). The United States of autobiography, curriculum. New York, NY: Peter education: The changing demographics of the Lang. United States and their schools. Retrieved from Mohanty, C. T. (2003). Feminism without borders: http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/You-May- Decolonizing theory, practicing solidarity. Durham, Also-Be-Interested-In-landing-page-level/ NC: Duke University Press. Organizing-a-School-YMABI/The-United-States-of- National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). Fast education-The-changing-demographics-of-the- facts. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/ United-States-and-their-schools.html display.asp?id=28 Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Ng-A-Fook, N. (2006). The indigenous curriculum Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. of place: The United Houma Nation’s Edgerton, S. H. (1996). Translating the curriculum: contentious relationship with Louisiana’s Multiculturalism into cultural studies. New York, educational institutions. New York, NY: NY: Routledge. Peter Lang. Grant, C. A. (1999). Multicultural research: Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2008). Affirming diversity: A reflective engagement with race, class, gender The sociopolitical context of multicultural and sexual orientation. London, UK: education (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & RoutledgeFalmer. Bacon. Grumet, M. (2010). Response to Nina Asher: Phillion, J., He, M. F., & Connelly, F. M. (Eds.). (2005). Subject position and subjectivity in curriculum Narrative and experience in multicultural education. theory. In E. Maleski (Ed.), Curriculum studies Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. handbook (pp. 403–409). New York, NY: Phillips, L. (2006). The womanist reader: The first Routledge. quarter century of womanist thought. New York, NY: Guillory, N. A. (2012, Spring). Moving toward a Routledge. community of resistance through autobiographical Pinar, W. F. (1975/1994). The method of currere. inquiry. Multicultural Education, 19, 11–16. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), Autobiography, politics and He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross- sexuality: Essays in curriculum theory, cultural lives and identities in the multicultural 1972–1992 (pp. 19–27). New York, NY: landscape. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Peter Lang. Publishing. Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? He, M. F., & Ross, S. (2012). Narrative of curriculum in Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. the South: Lives in-between contested race, gender, Pinar, W. F., & Grumet, M. R. (1976). Toward a poor class, and power. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, curriculum. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. 28(3), 1–9. Prevett, D. (2009). Growing up Native American in Howard, G. (2006). We cannot teach what we don’t a White society: My educational journey. know (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College In H. Wang & N. Olson (Eds.), A journey to Press. unlearn and learn in multicultural education Jupp, J. (2013). Becoming teachers of inner-city students: (pp. 87–92). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Life histories and teacher stories of committed Sandoval, C. (2000). Methodology of the oppressed. White teachers. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Publishers. Taliaferro-Baszile, D. (2010). In Ellisonian eyes, what is Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: curriculum theory? In E. Malewski (Ed.), Successful teachers of African American children. Curriculum studies handbook (pp. 483–495). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. New York, NY: Routledge. 118–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

U.S. Census Bureau. (2011). School enrollment in the U.S. Census Bureau. (2013). USA QuickFacts. Retrieved United States, 2008: Population characteristics. from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000 Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/ .html prod/2011pubs/p20-564.pdf Wang, H. (2010). The temporality of currere, change, and U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). U.S. Census Bureau teacher education. Pedagogies: An International projections show a slower growing, older, more Journal, 5(4), 275–285. diverse nation a half century from now. Retrieved Wang, H., & Olson, N. (Eds.). (2009). A journey to from http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/ unlearn and learn in multicultural education. New archives/population/cb12-243.html York, NY: Peter Lang. 15

CRITICAL RACE/FEMINIST CURRERE

DENISE TALIAFERRO BASZILE Miami University

f we understand education as a journey toward primarily from the male psyche, from the White self-understanding, then the critical and reoccur- psyche, from the White male psyche. How is her self- Iring question (perhaps in different forms) is who understanding and thus her sense of agency impacted am I? The question can be answered in a superficial when she cannot see herself or can only see herself sense by stating one’s name, race, gender, religion, through the eyes of her others? parentage, and then some. But to be consciously and Critical race/feminist currere is an autobiographical willfully on a journey toward self-understanding exploration guided by the question: Who am I as a would require that the question be engaged through non-White woman? Thus, it is a kind of currere deep and ongoing contemplation, the kind proposed inspired by the reality of one’s absence and a quest to by the method of currere (Pinar, 2004). In the field of make oneself subject. It seeks to understand how the curriculum theory, currere is often engaged as a way dynamics of race, gender, class, and other important to think specifically about one’s own educational makers of self and the ways in which they intersect experience in the context of the historical, social, and are inflected in the perpetually evolving question— political, and cultural realties that give it meaning. It Who am I? She tries to grapple with that question in helps one explore how the academic subjects help in part by reading autobiographically; that is to bring a understanding one’s life and how life experiences text into the fold of her internal conversation. For help one understand academic knowledge (Pinar, instance, when she reads Plato, Charles Darwin, 2004). To do currere is to move through and among Michel Foucault, or Karl Marx, she asks, Who are four moments of critical self-reflection and internal you? Where are you? Where am I? Who was I when dialogue. In short, currere asks that one (1) remem- you were writing? What has not been said? What is ber and reflect on her/his past educational experi- lurking in the shadows of your thinking? What other ences, (2) contemplate desires and fantasies of the stories are happening alongside your story? How future, (3) consider the impact of both the past and might we work together? Is that possible? To what future on the shape of the present, and (4) synthesize extent? Or not? In essence, to read autobiographically thinking across these moments as a way to means to read as if one is a co-producer of knowledge purposefully engage one’s learning in the present. and not simply the consumer of someone else’s knowl- But what if, in the process of this complicated con- edge. Reading in this way sends her on a journey in versation within herself, the woman of color realizes search of the answers to these kinds of questions. her own absence; that is, her conversation is taking In her journeying, she realizes the importance of shape around ideas, concepts, and texts that emerge seeking insight from her co-subjects, from those who

119 120–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

have shared the space of otherness with her. In criti- meaning or possibility for others. There are all kinds cal race/feminist currere, the others who are invited of possibilities to consider, and I try diligently to into the conversation represent the voice/s that have point the reader toward other avenues, alleys, and been absent, ignored, misconstrued, distorted, angles of vision. The reader might want to contem- repressed in the curriculum/s that shapes our lives— plate, for one, how my experiences frame my under- the curricula of schooling and media, in particular. standing, and how her or his experiences might shape What voices have been silenced in and through her her or his understanding in very different ways, and educational experiences? What do the thinkers who then consider how our different experiences of cur- are women of color say about this idea or that one? rere might talk with each other, and how might we To them she might ask: What does it mean to be a co-theorize the possibilities? person who is non-White and a woman? What kinds of gendered and raced politics, geographies, and cul- tural cancers border your/my “I” giving it definition Contemporary Concerns and deep meaning while also robbing it of its full humanity? How has your/my relationship with the How is justice possible in a richly diverse and com- other been constituted? How did you persevere and plex world, if our conceptions of justice are deeply how might I? How are you healing and how might I rooted in one group of people’s ways of knowing? heal? What might our futures look like? How might How is it possible when those ways of knowing are I/we think, speak, and act for justice in my/our own also deeply implicated in structuring and maintaining voices? These are but a few of the questions begging oppressive relations of power? How might other for deep and critically conscious self-reflection; they people with other ways of knowing contribute to the are questions that seek to decolonize one’s mind; that conversation? How might they intervene on domi- is to “free” oneself from being utterly occupied by nant perspectives and offer other conceptions of jus- male-centered European/American conceptions of tice? How is this possible, when those other ways of “lesser” people. knowing and being are understood as inferior? How Critical race/feminist currere is compelled by a is it possible when she believes the only way to be desire to both understand and to free oneself from the heard is to speak in the language of power, even when confines of oppressive ways of knowing and being. that power is abusive? How is it possible, as a woman The practice of critical race/feminist currere is not or a person of color, to say anything, anything at all committed to a search for universal Truth; it is not that is not mediated by the language of domination invested in feigning neutrality; it is not interested in and still be heard? How might she enter the conversa- objectification; it is not wed to hierarchical or binary tion in her own voice? ways of thinking. It is a process through which The contemporary concerns are deeply rooted in a women of color, and perhaps other people too, can long-standing and persistent problem—the dilemma wrestle with the epistemological dimensions of of the colonized mind. Many scholars have long spo- domination; that is to say that projects of domination ken to the psychological chains of colonization, (in terms of race, gender, class, sexuality, and more) slavery, and imperialism set into motion by European are most intractable when those who are being domi- domination that was facilitated not simply by coloni- nated cannot think, cannot imagine, cannot be out- zation and exploitation of land but essentially side of the ways of knowing, being, and doing that sustained through the long-term colonization of edu- have brought about the situation of domination in the cational systems designed to keep the dominated first place. believing in the superiority of European and male Because currere is essentially a meaning-making ways of knowing and being and the inferiority of oth- process, it is important for the reader to note that the ers. Some classic reads along these lines include the description that follows is one that emerges from my following: Carter G. Woodson’s Mis-Education of the experiences of doing currere as a Black woman in the Negro, Harold Cruse’s Crisis of the Negro Intellec- United States, as such it grapples particularly with tual, Gayatri Spivak’s Can the Subaltern Speak? blackness and womanness. However, this does not Gloria Anzaldúa’s Borderlands/La Frontera, and mean that critical race/feminist currere holds no Patricia Hill Collins’s Black Feminist Thought. Each 15. Critical Race/Feminist Currere–•–121

of these authors addressed the complex dynamics of or the other? Or carve out a space where she can power, knowledge and difference, situating racism/ speak to both from the experience of having a per- sexism as not simply a problem of resource alloca- sonal stake in eradicating sexism and racism? What tion but more broadly as a problem of knowledge ideas, images, stereotypes belie her dilemma? production, circulation, and validation. How do perpetually negative stereotypes of Without question, all of these scholars explicitly Blacks, Latinos/as, Asians, Native Americans, and or implicitly locate the problem in education, or women impact the psyches of girls and women of more specifically how European or Western (to color? How do they impact the psyches of others? include the United States) ways of knowing the How do they facilitate and reinforce race and gender world inform and often restrict what and how we can hierarchies? And how do those race and gender hier- know. While these scholars and others offer new archies lead to invisibility, silencing, and disregard? ways of thinking about the dilemma in contemporary How do they arrest her sense of agency and poten- contexts where slavery and formal colonization, for tially usurp her contributions to the project of justice example, no longer exist but linger in legacies of for all? knowledge, critical race/feminist currere is interested Thinking critically about the reproduction of ste- in speaking to how one might undergo the process of reotypes is one way to begin the journey toward decolonizing one’s mind, or delinking from domi- understanding how racism, sexism, and other rela- nant perspectives and their reinforcement of race and tions of power are maintained largely by convincing gender hierarchies. Once the woman of color recog- people to know themselves as “othered,” as inferior nizes that this is in fact a problem, and that she too is to some other group or groups of people. In a society in its grip, that she too has been convinced that she is where we have been led to believe that blackness and not as good as, as smart as, as worthy as her male womanness are not only decidedly less than but also and/or White peers, how shall she proceed? the very opposite of whiteness and maleness, all people are deeply entangled in “spirit murder,” albeit to varying degrees and enacted in different Context ways. Spirit murder is the ongoing series of racist and/or sexist injuries (and other kinds of disregard) Imagine this: In a course about great American intel- spurred by the constant and even violent disregard lectuals, there is one man of color and no women of for one’s humanity, blocking the self from fully see- color out of the 20 intellectuals considered. What are ing itself ( Williams, 1991). Negative images and the women of color in the course to think? What are ideas of blackness as dirty, lazy, uncivilized, irratio- they to conclude about the intellectual capacities of nal, criminal, anti-intellectual, and/or intellectually women of color? What are they to make of the fact inferior have existed globally in various forms since that others failed to notice the absence? When a before U.S. slavery and have continued into the woman of color tries to write the experiences and present day in increasingly more subtle, but no less struggles of like women into the curriculum through damaging, terms. Likewise, there are also gender her choice of paper topics and extra reading, she is stereotypes that depict women as overly emotional required to validate her argument with the work of and not capable or not as capable as men physically, the most important scholars, the White scholars, the intellectually, and otherwise. The stereotypes that male scholars, the White male scholars. Does she just impact women of color often reflect an intermin- chalk her silencing up to necessary academic ritual? gling of the two, as racial stereotypes have histori- What does she become when she can only speak in cally been used to bolster gender stereotypes and the language of her other, the language that has been vice versa (Harris-Perry, 2011; White, 2001). instrumental in her own oppression? When she tries Some of the images that have historically disfig- to articulate herself at the intersections of race and ured, for example, Black women in the American gender, she does not quite fit the male-dominated imagination include: the docile, overweight mammy perspectives on racial struggle, nor does she quite fit who happily serves the needs of everyone but her- neatly into the White middle-class feminist perspec- self; the licentious jezebel who “asks” for whatever tives. What should she do? Submerge herself in one sexual mistreatment she might encounter; the angry 122–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Black woman who emasculates Black men; and the intellectual—with others in the social reconstruction tragic mulatto who is the confused offspring of inter- of the public sphere” (2004, p. 37). Although currere racial relations. Although these images are historical, is conceptualized as an autobiographical method several scholars have studied how they have been open to everyone, certainly how one engages the pro- rearticulated in contemporary culture (i.e., welfare cess of currere is likely to vary depending on one’s queen, video vixen, and the angry Black bitch) and sociocultural context and one’s position in the rela- continue to circulate through cultural discourses that tions of power that govern our world (i.e., race, gen- affect a wide range of social, economic, and political der, class, sexuality) and thus also in the knower/ realties for Black women and other women of color, known relationship. including health care, social services, employment, To this point, Susan Edgerton (1996) in Translat- and education (Browne, 1999; Hill Collins, 2004). ing the Curriculum introduced currere of marginal- If these are the common and widely circulated ity, as she tries to capture the complexity of what it images in a society where there are few if any posi- means to know from the perspective of a person who tive or complex images of Black women in school is part of a historically marginalized group. Edgerton curricula or media, what do we learn to think of her surmises that knowing from the margins is inextrica- and what does she learn to think of herself? Can she bly linked to but distinct from knowing from the think? Does she think? What does she think? How do privileged space of the center. Those who dwell on the stereotypes of Latina, Asian, or Native women the margins must know the cultural and social con- circulate in the public sphere, and what should we text of the center in a way that those who dwell at the make of her absence in school curricula? center are not expected to know the context of the margins. To know from the margins is to confront a persistent double-bind, which reflects both the need Theory to say something about who you are and what you mean and to simultaneously challenge the center’s Critical race/feminist currere emerges at the intersec- attempts to define you: “I am this,” “Don’t label me tions of three theoretical traditions: curriculum as this” (Edgerton, 1996, pp. 48–49). theory, critical race theory, and Black feminist theory. To better illuminate the significance of Edgerton’s Curriculum theory is, in short, the study of educa- point, consider, for instance, the nature of this tional experience and thus not only offers the oppor- dilemma in Patricia Hill Collins’s (1990) Black tunity for one to contemplate her experiences but also Feminist Thought. In this groundbreaking work, Hill values self-understanding as a critical social justice Collins delved into the complexities of power, knowl- project in and of itself. There are two major works in edge, and difference in her attempt to say something curriculum theory that are foundational for critical about how Black women’s ways of knowing are race/feminist currere. In What Is Curriculum Theory? different than those ways of knowing considered Pinar (2004) reintroduced currere and speaks to its legitimate in the mainstream. Yet in her effort to significance by arguing that it is not really possible to define Black women’s ways of knowing as distinct, engage in a politics of justice without working to she confronted the challenge of not essentializing democratize oneself. While critics of curriculum the experiences of all Black women. In essence she theory might suggest that such strategy for living life needs to say something important about how the democratically is too self-absorbed, others might just experiences of Black women matter and differ, but note that the only access the self has to understanding she must do so without assuming that all Black and advocating for and/or with others is through the women’s experiences are the same. For some read- self, and an unexamined self is a potentially danger- ers, she failed to do so and was aptly criticized for ous self, as it inflicts harm with no realization of that not considering the diversity of experiences among fact. Importantly, Pinar also pointed out that this Black women and for reinforcing oppressive ideas process of self-actualization is not simply a private while challenging them. For others, the significance self-focused affair, but rather “an ongoing project of of her work was in her ability to map other ways of self-understanding in which one becomes mobilized knowing that, for the most part, were outside of and for engaged pedagogical action—as private-and-public often in contestation with mainstream ways of 15. Critical Race/Feminist Currere–•–123

knowing. And still for others her dilemma was con- our society (Delgado & Stefancic, 2012). They have stituted more by the fact that she tried to capture a interrogated and situated the concept of white prop- different reality in a language—rational argument— erty as the means by which citizenship has been that can only be presented in and thus read as map- conferred, respected, and enacted (Harris, 1993). ping essentialist notions. In any case, Hill Collins They have encouraged us to look at the enduring found herself in the inescapable double-bind noted racial patterns that continue to define what it means by Edgerton (1996). Critical race/feminist currere is to live in the United States as marginalized people interested in the race/gender dynamics of this per- (Bell, 2005). They have embraced and reinvigorated petual double-bind and as such adds to the currere of the tradition of counterstorytelling, naming and thus marginality by drawing on critical race and Black validating the importance of the experiential knowl- feminist theories (see Baszile, 2009, for an initial edge of people of color (Delgado, 1989). Critical attempt at conceptualizing a critical race/gendered race feminist scholars, in particular, have given us currere). the concept of intersectionality, or thinking about Critical race theory is concerned with interrogat- how race, gender, and other markers of difference ing and reconstructing the relationship among race, work in coinciding and contradictory ways to shape knowledge, and the law. At least it emerged in the our realties (Crenshaw, 1989). Without these insights, 1980s within and as a concern with race and legal without a radical shaking up of her habits of mind rationality. As it has migrated into and through other about race and racism, without the opportunity to disciplines, it does not always stay true to its legal explore race—blackness in particular—within a roots. Some scholars find this disturbing, not in the complicated conversation significantly inhabited by spirit of true critical race theory. Others might sug- the Black/non-White psyche, a woman of color in gest that while it seems prudent to acknowledge the search of self-understanding is likely to be utterly legal roots of critical race theory, it also seems that unable to see herself beyond the racist or raceless the spirit of critical race theory—as an interrogation rhetoric that denies her a voice, a self not completely of the relationships among race, knowledge, and occupied by the other. power—need not be shackled to law, but must also Likewise Black feminist insight and testimonies recognize the power of culture to not only determine are also foundational to any search for self- the law but also decide if, when, and how it chooses understanding among Black women and other women to represent and abide by the law, literally or in the of color, as they offer not only examples of critical spirit of. race/feminist currere but also important ideas, strate- To this end, critical race/feminist currere is most gies, and concepts that illuminate the importance of interested in looking at the relations among race, making ourselves radical subjects, committed to anti- knowledge, power, and the self. A scholar in this oppressive struggles. Critical race/feminist currere is vein might ask, how are these relations reproduced first and foremost the cultivation of what bell hooks through a number of interlocking rationalities— (1992) has called radical Black female subjectivity. legal, scientific, neoliberal, technological—that Although Black women are disadvantaged by living circulate in U.S./world culture/s and work to in a society structured by racist, sexist, and other discipline our thinking and our behavior in racist, hierarchies of oppression, this does not have to damn sexist, heterosexist, ablest, and other oppressive and them to a life of pain and arrested development. It undemocratic ways? In other words how do these could or should instead encourage them to willfully rationalities—despite the worthy things achieved challenge the ways in which racist, sexist, and other within their logics—work to make invisible, to oppressive dynamics work to silence and make invis- silence, to create the conditions for disregard? There ible those who live life at the bottom of oppressive are a number of ideas and concepts generated or hierarchies. To do so however, it is necessary for revived by critical race theory that are useful, if not them first to realize their own invisibility and then to crucial, to both the theorizing and the practice of embark on the journey toward making themselves critical race/feminist currere. subject and investing themselves in collective strug- Critical race scholars embrace the centrality of gles against racist, sexist, and other forms of domina- race as a powerful and organizing social construct in tion (hooks, 1992). Importantly, cultivating a radical 124–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Black female subjectivity requires an engagement and other women of color interested in cultivating a not only in collective struggle but also with the work radical subjectivity. Drawing on the work of Alice and life stories of radicalized Black women (hooks, Walker (1983), Audre Lorde (1984), and June Jordan 1992). The testimonies of radicalized Black women (2002), Nash spoke to how the work of these Black are essential for the wisdom and affirmation they feminists has situated love as a radical theory/ offer those who are cultivating, or are interested in practice of social justice. Black feminist love- politics, cultivating, a radical subjectivity; it is in dialogue surmised Nash, emerges out of the practice of com- with these voices especially that the becoming radi- ing to know oneself in the context of the communi- cal Black female subject is prepared, fortified, ties that help define self (I/We), learning to love inspired, and encouraged to stand publicly for justice. oneself because of and in spite of the trauma that How might other feminists of color contribute to the comes with living in a racist/sexist society, and internal dialogue? What might currere look like when challenging oneself to confront and embrace it is nurtured by Chicana feminisms or African femi- difference—all as a way to envision and work for a nisms or queer theory or theories of Black more just world. In other words, how might a Black masculinity? woman, through a radical politics of love, contribute We cannot be actively engaged in a process of self- to reconstructing the public sphere? Critical race/ actualization without asking from when, where, who, feminist currere is one way to begin the difficult and how we became. This is the point of currere’s work of self-love, loving others, and loving the world regressive moment, to remember the people, events, enough to commit oneself to working for better and moments of our educational lives that have futures. marked our becoming in significant ways. Part of this Although Black feminist theory contributes in process is about recalling the reachable past (child- significant ways to understanding critical race/ hood). The other part of the process is about trying to feminist currere, it is certainly not the only body of imagine the significance of the unreachable, but ever feminist work that can or should make meaning of present past. Cynthia Dillard’s (2012) recent work on currere for Black and other women of color. How (re)membering is helpful for theorizing the nature and might the theorizing of Gloria Anzaldúa, Chela the significance of the past in terms of critical race/ Sandoval, Chandra Mohanty, Trihn T. Minha, and feminist currere. (Re)membering, according to Sylvia Wynters, among others, contribute to one’s Dillard, is the act of not only recalling the past but internal dialogue, to one’s move toward radical non- also putting it back together. Engaging currere, from White/nonwestern female subjectivity? Indeed what a critical race/feminist standpoint, requires not only other voices, what other theoretical orientations (re)membering the childhood that has made one who might compel one to enter into the collective struggle she is, but also (re)membering the collective past that for justice through a deep and contemplative ongoing she has been taught, warned, and seduced to forget. conversation with oneself? The voices don’t have to How did I come to understand myself as a woman, as always agree. What they should do, however, is pro- a Black person? Black? I am not in fact the color of voke the questions: Who am I? Where do I stand? black night or crayons or tar, where did that notion What am I struggling for?—and they should encour- come from? West Africa, slavery, reconstruction, Jim age searching for, reflecting on, and living with the Crow, and then some. I did not experience these always-evolving answers. places, laws, and tragedies and yet they help to define me. How is this so? And why does it matter? Who can help me (re)member? And what good will remember- Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression ing do anyway? Re-searching and (re)membering in this way changes our ways of being and knowing; (re) It should go almost without saying that critical race/ membering in this sense is an act of decolonization feminist currere is itself a form of inquiry; it is (Dillard, 2012). inquiring about the self and its position in the world Jennifer Nash’s (2013) conceptualization of Black and its relation to justice. It is, in short, an autobio- feminist love-politics is also helpful for understand- graphical exploration grounded in the method of ing the process and importance of currere for Black currere, which seeks above all else to begin the work 15. Critical Race/Feminist Currere–•–125

of decolonizing the mind. While it shares an empha- shared quite explicitly the ways in which their sis on the self with other modes of inquiry, such as educational experiences inspire and influence their self-study, teacher research, action research, autoeth- theorizing. Some excellent examples include the nography, and the like, critical race/feminist currere autobiographical writings of W. E. B. DuBois, is not intended to be a “research” project in the Malcolm X, Angela Davis, Nina Simone, Ida traditional sense. It is an ongoing practice of indi- B. Wells, Gloria Anzaldúa, Grace Lee Boggs, Russell vidual well-being (self-actualization) and how it Means, Derrick Bell, and Patricia Williams, among might contribute to the project of collective well- others. In fact, locating knowledge production in and being (justice for all). Practicing a critical race/ through the body is indicative of Black feminist the- feminist currere, then, is like doing yoga, tai chi, or ory, critical race theory, and several other approaches one’s hair; one must always be engaged in it to see to knowing that challenge the dominate European- the promise of it. centered conception of knowing as a relationship Critical race/feminist currere could also illumi- between subject and object, rather than one between nate and be illuminated by other modes of inquiry and among subjects located in places, times, and bod- that in fact work to hide the self, like quantitative ies. Sharing one’s experiences or giving testimony research, some forms of qualitative research, and was at one time the main mode of education for many some forms of conceptual analysis—in short, all groups of people who were denied schooling. Critical forms of work that claim an objective perspective. race/feminist currere works to “(re)member” ( Dillard, For example, although we all bring biases into our 2012) and to continue the practice of educating research, in many instances we are not “allowed” to through testimony—sometimes as an entrée into acknowledge or explore those biases and the impact theory, sometimes as theory, and sometimes as an they may have on the doing and reporting of the interrogation of theory (see Baszile, 2009, 2011). research. However, she who is engaged in currere is Lastly, because writing/language—perhaps more likely to take up these tensions in her internal dia- than anything else—requires us to struggle with and logue, working through them and deciding what she through the language of our own oppression and as will do with or about them. such blocks as much as it reveals, critical race/ Moreover, it is important to note that currere is not feminist currere encourages creativity. How might necessarily the work of writing autobiography; that is photographs, music, soul writing, dancing, listening, to say that it does not have to result in the stories of relocating your desk or your whole life help you one’s life written or spoken for a public. The hope is decolonize your thinking and being? If we stay true that it does bring about self-transformation and as to those ways of knowing and expressing deemed such it will shape one’s public work toward justice. legitimate, how can we be free enough to intervene Many women and men of color, however, have on the language of our own oppression?

References and Further Readings Bell, D. (2005). Racial realism. In R. Delgado & J. Stefancic (Eds.), The Derrick Bell reader. Anzaldúa, G. (1999). Borderlands/La frontera: The new New York, NY: New York University Press. Mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Books. Browne, I. (1999). Latinas and African American women Baszile, D. T. (2009). In Ellisonian eyes: What is at work: Race, gender, and economic inequality. curriculum theory? In E. Malewski (Ed.), New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Curriculum studies—The next moments: New York, Crenshaw, K. W. (1989). Demarginalizing the NY: Routledge. intersection of race and sex: A black feminist Baszile, D. T. (2011). The riot in my soul—Part I: critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist A critical rant on race, rage, and the limits of formal theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago education on these matters. In E. Malewski & Legal Form, 140, 139–167. N. Jaramillo (Eds.), Epistemologies of ignorance in Delgado, R. (1989). Storytelling for oppositionists and education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age others: A plea for narrative. Michigan Law Review, Publishing. 87, 2411. 126–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory: Lorde, A. (1984). Sister outsider: Essays and speeches. An introduction. New York, NY: New York The Crossing Press feminist series. Trumansburg, University Press. NY: Crossing Press. Dillard, C. (2012). Learning to (re)member what we have Nash, J. C. (2013). Practicing love: Black feminism, been taught to forget: Endarkened feminisims, love-politics, and post-intersectionality. spirituality & the sacred nature of research & Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, teaching. New York, NY: Peter Lang. 11(2), 1–24. Edgerton, S. H. (1996). Translating the curriculum: Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? Multiculturalism into cultural studies. New York, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. NY: Routledge. Spivak, G. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In Harris, A. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.), Marxism Review, 106(8), 1707–1791. and the interpretation of culture (pp. 271–316). Harris-Perry, M. V. (2011). Sister citizen: Shame, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois stereotypes, and Black women in America. New Press. Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Walker, A. (1983). In search of our mothers’ gardens: Hill, C. P. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, Womanist prose. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Jovanovich. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman. White, E. F. (2001). Dark continent of our bodies: Hill, C. P. (2004). Black sexual politics: African Black feminism and the politics of Americans, gender, and the new racism. New York, respectability. Philadelphia, PA: Temple NY: Routledge. University Press. hooks, b. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation. Williams, P. J. (1991). The alchemy of race and Boston, MA: South End Press. rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Jordan, J. (2002). Some of us did not die: New and Press. selected essays of June Jordan. New York, NY: Woodson, C. G. (1977). The mis-education of the Negro. Basic Civitas Books. New York, NY: AMS Press. 16

CURRICULUM IMAGINATION AS SUBJECT MATTER

ROBERT L. LAKE Georgia Southern University

ducators and members of the general public this method espouse the views of leaders such as often hear that imagination is one of the major E. D. Hirsch and his Core Knowledge Foundation, Epurposes of curriculum and teaching. Others which has become an increasingly popular primary counter by saying that we don’t want students to be source for the Common Core movement. According overly imaginative without being practical and seri- to this view, equal educational opportunity is the ous. What lies behind these positions? Is an imagina- result of the acquisition of knowledge as a standard- tive citizenry wanted, or is it feared because it might ized commodity where the emphasis is more on what push against too many of our basic convictions and should be known rather than how to know, which assumptions? makes content knowledge central to learning. In this Imagination is a term that has been appropriated view, knowledge acquisition is treated as a commodity in recent years in a wide range of commercial inter- or product to be dispensed. ests from public relations concerns and advertising In counterpoint to this, educators who value firms, to super-high-technology movie studios. Most imagination recognize the immense developmental of these uses of the word focus on selling or improv- value in children’s play and view individual student ing products. In this present climate of schooling for capacities, interests, and cultural backgrounds as homogeneity through the Common Core State Stan- vital features of the learning process (Lake, 2013). In dards and standardized outcomes, imagination is this view, education is a process of exploration and conspicuous by its absence. At best it is viewed as an interaction between content area subjects, personal optional add-on through art or music education, meaning making, and the creation of new ideas. which is usually the first to go when school budgets Indeed one of the greatest functions of imagination is are trimmed. that it “brings severed parts together” (Greene, 1995, The most frequently given reasons for standard- p. 99). The joined parts may look to others to be ized curriculum come from traditionalist views that completely unrelated, yet to the imaginer, they may believe the answer to poorly performing schools become one entity. For example, what possible con- should be to implement a more rigorous teaching of nections exist between sea algae and fuel for the literacy, numeracy, and science skills, continually internal combustion engine, or between a percentage assessed through standardized testing. Proponents of problem in math and a rock guitar solo? Although

127 128–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM imagination is one of the primary sources of learning Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter in children’s activities, especially in play, it is often treated as fanciful, “off the deep end,” or not “rele- It would be impossible to honor and acknowledge all vant” in this present climate of highly scripted class- of the contributions made to our understanding of the room procedures and practices. These two views do value of imagination across all time periods and cul- not have to be mutually exclusive. For example, it is tures, but a good place to begin is with the work of a good idea for aspiring musicians to be familiar with John Dewey. Dewey’s work could be seen as a the core structure of musical scales through rigorous movement away from standardized, static views of repetitive application before attempting to improvise education and as an advocacy of personalized, or create new material. Both aspects can work dynamic, experiential learning through imagination. together if core knowledge is treated as a tool for Dewey (1934) summarized: personal discovery and not an end in itself. Through imagination, students have the opportunity to experi- For while the roots of every experience are found in the ence the creation of their own “core” connections, interaction of a live creature with its environment, that which is much more valuable than current trends to experience becomes conscious, a matter of perception, only when meanings enter it that are derived from prior reduce the curriculum to the lowest “common” experiences. Imagination is the only gateway through denominator. which these meanings can find their way into a present interaction; or rather, . . . the conscious adjustment of the new and the old is imagination. (p. 272) Imagination in the Present Context In contrast to this, Dewey aptly described stan- The federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 dardized knowledge through the analogy of “a (NCLB) and the subsequent adoption of the Common sausage machine which reduces all materials indif- Core Standards in many states have led to greater ferently to one marketable commodity” (1910, p. 39). standardization of curriculum around the country. He contends that “thinking is specific, in that differ- ent things suggest their own appropriate meanings, Under NCLB, schools receiving federal Title I funds tell their own unique stories, and in that they do this have to give standardized tests as a condition of in very different ways with different persons” (p. 39), funding and can face sanctions for failing to meet test asserting that imagination as subject matter is a score targets. Critics argue that a profound injustice manifestation of personally “appropriate meanings” of this trend is that students must align to the same and “unique stories.” Imagination as subject matter benchmarks despite their myriad uncommon differ- emerges out of union of inward personal meaning ences in cultural background knowledge, socioeco- and the external world. Through these unique combi- nomic status, interests, and physical abilities. School nations, imagination enables personal expression districts and individual teachers’ futures are deter- through what James Moffett (1968) called the “uni- mined by test scores, which at best only measure a verse of discourse” (p. 46) in thinking, speaking, narrow range of abilities, certainly not imagination. writing, building, moving, cooking, caring, teaching, Even though many companies use imagination as reflecting, understanding, creating works of art, a buzzword, it seems to come up less often in writ- invention, and problem solving of all kinds, includ- ten works than it did 2 centuries ago. In fact, accord- ing social relationships between individuals and ing to the Google research tool Ngram Viewer, groups from the local to the universal. which tracks the frequency of word usage across The critical aspect of imagination as subject mat- decades, the word imagination is used less often in ter enables us to question, to wonder, and to sense recent published works than it was in 1800. Books gaps of incompleteness in the way others interpret and authors on creativity and imagination in educa- things. This “approach challenges subject-object tion are conspicuous by their absence. This is separations” (Greene, 1995, p. 99) and breaks with astounding when we consider that one of the pri- the “hegemony of language over perception and con- mary ways that children learn is through imaginary ceptualization of reality” (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 369). role playing (Brown & Vaughan, 2009; Gallas, 2003; Moreover critical imagination enables students to Vygotsky, 1978). “interrogate and selectively appropriate those aspects 16. Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter –•–129

of the dominant culture that will provide them with to be placed on these “process oriented skills” the basis for defining and transforming, rather than (p. 180), which are part and parcel with students merely serving, the wider social order” (Aronowitz “becoming” what they learn, not just “having” infor- in Freire & Macedo, 1987, p. 152). It is instructive to mation. In a similar fashion, curriculum imagination contrast this with what is mentioned in the beginning as subject matter can be experienced and personified of this chapter regarding commercial uses of imagi- across all content areas in and out of classrooms and nation that reinforce the role of serving and having sites of learning. Berman acknowledges the role of rather that transforming and being. Where curricu- perception in works of imagination since perceiving lum imagination is the subject, both critical and is inseparable from the formation of personal creative aspects function in dialectical relationship. connections within the perceiver. The creative aspect of imagination as subject mat- This brings us to Eisner’s (2013) notion of con- ter creates synthesis between a student’s internal noisseurship, which he defined as the “ability to perspective and the world as text. Once these con- recognize differences that are subtle but significant nections are made, they can be transformed into an in a particular qualitative display” (p. e-3). These infinite variety of personal expression. Writing, subtle and significant differences are often made music composition, interpretive dance, works of art, salient through experiences of seeing how specific and every known variety of craftsmanship are acts of features relate to each other. Eisner continued: imaginative thinking. Greene (1995) lucidly summed “Thus, the perception of qualitative relationships and up the power of imagination as subject matter: the kinds of experience that those relationships evoke become extraordinarily important resources” Once we do away with habitual separations of the sub- (p. e-3). Eisner’s connoisseurship makes vivid what jective from the objective, the inside from the outside, is present in the content under examination and also, appearances from reality, we might be able to give through discrimination, what is missing. imagination its proper importance and grasp what it means to place imagination at the core of understanding. (p. 141) Sensing Gaps as a Form of Inquiry Dewey (1902/1990) stated that “personality, char- For Maxine Greene as well as for Eisner, imagina- acter, is more important than subject matter. Not tion as subject matter emerges out of a personal sense knowledge or information but self-realization is the goal” (p. 187). When curriculum imagination is cul- that something is missing, that there are gaps in tivated, self-realization ensues, because it is insepa- understanding experience that evoke a quest that rable from personal meaning creation, which joins takes us beyond secondhand knowledge into personal the imaginer with all that he or she imagines. experiences of knowing. Greene (1995) wrote that Louise Berman (1968) built on Dewey’s view of we are moved to do that, however, only when we the primacy of perception in character and personal- become aware of rifts, gaps in what we think of as real- ity formation over isolated disciplines of subject mat- ity. . . . It requires imagination to be conscious of them, ter in writing that “at the base of all man’s peculiarly to find our own lived worlds lacking because of them. human functions, such as creating, knowing, valuing, (p. 110) and caring, is a mode of observing the world about In my 2013 book, A Curriculum of Imagination in him” (p. 25). She termed this as the ability to per- an Era of Standardization, I drew upon William ceive, which she believed can be hindered by false James’s (1890, p. 251) pioneering work in psy- categorization of subject matter into “disciplines.” In chology, which held that “sensing gaps” is integral to her view, curriculum design can become transdisci- the imaginative process. James saw the seeking of plinary through what she calls the cultivation of answers as a kind of “beckoning” that yields “process-oriented persons” (p. 179) by placing the metaphoric connections through conscious or focus of learning on “perception, valuing, creating, subconscious metaphoric thought. Such processes communicating, knowing, loving, decision making can be connected with recent perspectives from and organizing” (p. 181) in conjunction with content- Malcolm Gladwell (2005), who suggested that specific teaching. Berman called for greater emphasis breakthroughs of discovery are often not the result of 130–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

lengthy pondering, but might occur in a mere blink noticed that in story form Dennis was creating meta- (Lake, 2013). Conversely, Albert Einstein pondered phors of action to rid himself of opposing forces. For gaps in his musings about the nature of time for well example, in a second story, he is pursued by a tiger over seven years as he framed his famous theory of with yellow eyes and finds a place of refuge in a relativity (see Henle, 1986, p. 175). Moreover Walter house where a woman is baking cookies (perhaps a Isaacson’s (2007) biographical study of Einstein metaphor for Igoa’s classroom). “After, a man came indicates that Einstein perceived origins of his most home. We said to the man, ‘We saw a tiger near the powerful theorizing when he was a teenager in a high mountain.’ At night time, the man saw the tiger. He school founded by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. He shot the tiger and the tiger was dead” (p. 28). At this claimed that Pestalozzi’s emphasis on visualization point in Dennis’s life, he began to socialize more and brought him to imagine himself riding on a beam of become more expressive and confident in his school light, which in turn helped him conceptualize work. A few years later, before his graduation to high complex theories of physics during the decades that school, Igoa arrived to find a beautifully designed followed. Such extremes indicate that gaps may be poster with a message in two languages. In English, sensed during the long or short term—or anywhere it said “Dennis is Alive.” The Chinese characters said in between. Perhaps they transcend the notion “Qiu Liang is full of energy and curiosity” of time. (pp. 30–33). With the opportunity to feel safe and Henle offered several reasons that gaps are sensed cared for at the center, his true self had emerged. in our experience. These include “contradictions of Another illustration from the world of music all kinds” (p. 176) as well as “unexpected similari- involves noted conductor and composer Leonard ties” (p. 178). Gap sensing also occurs “when we Bernstein, who sensed connections between music encounter strange, unusual, striking, or new phenom- and linguistics. In his book The Unanswered Ques- ena” (p. 179). Henle also mentioned “difficulties tion (1976), Bernstein told the story of posing a ques- arising out of the formal characteristics of prevailing tion during graduate studies at Harvard in the 1930s theories” (p. 181) as a source. These forms of inquiry and pursuing it for 2 decades until he eventually are illustrated in the following examples. connected with linguist Noam Chomsky’s contention In The Inner World of the Immigrant Child, that language has a deep grammatical structure. Christina Igoa (1995) relayed a gap she sensed as a Bernstein sensed a gap while listening to Aaron Cop- contradiction in one of her students that led both land’s 1932 Piano Variations, wherein he discovered student and teacher into a life-changing encounter that the first four notes of that composition served as with imagination as subject matter. Igoa, who was a foundation for understanding many musical compo- director of a center for refugee children in California, sitions in cultural context. Consequently, after 2 relayed the story of Dennis, a 12-year-old student decades, Bernstein (1976) sensed the need to search from China. The contradiction was in the name. Why for “some deep primal reason for a world-wide inborn was he called Dennis when he was clearly from musical grammar” (1976, p. 7) and decided that the China under Mao’s Cultural Revolution? When Igoa unlikely pairing of music and linguistics could lead to asked Dennis to write his name in Chinese, analogies that might clarify or refute the cliché that music is a “universal language” (p. 10). Bernstein he abruptly pushed the pencil away and shook his head made imaginative connections between music and with an emphatic “No!” At that moment, he revealed to linguistics as he perceived the infant’s utterance of me the energy and force inside him. He acted out the “ma” as both a cry for mother and a morpheme rein- lack of connection between us that still was unable to find expression in words. Silence. (p. 13) terpreted as a pitch event (1976, p. 15), one that connected the origins of music and language and Igoa allowed Dennis to work in a quiet part of the eventually led him to suggest that there are musical classroom until he was ready to choose to break his phrases that parallel sentences, verses as paragraphs, silence on his own. She also discovered that he liked and complete songs as essays (Lake, 2013). to create stories with accompanying pictures on Henle (1986) emphasized the experience of blank film strips. Gradually the theme of his stories “strange, unusual, striking or new phenomena” went from being alone to including others. She also (p. 179) as a reason for sensing gaps. An example of 16. Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter –•–131

this can be found in Philip Jackson’s (2002) careful For some years I have been afflicted with the belief that analysis of John Dewey’s multiple revisions of his flight is possible to man. My disease has increased in work Experience and Nature, first published in 1925 severity and I feel that it will soon cost me an increased amount of money if not my life. (Wright, 1900) (Lake, 2013). Jackson meticulously studied Dewey’s changing mind amid cultural change over a quarter Further into his letter, Wright went on to discuss his of a century and concluded after reading many of observation of the flight of birds and the tilt of their Dewey’s other works, especially his poetry, that he wings and drew inspiration from the mode of their was studying the life of a scholar engaged in flight in ways that fired his imagination to harness continuous reflection that simultaneously invoked and extend these aerodynamic “torsion principles” to certainty, uncertainty, and much in between. the flight of humans. Together, Dewey and Jackson studying Dewey exem- On another occasion, Orville Wright astutely plify inquiry that embraces the need to study a broad spoke of not accepting things as they had always array of disciplines and areas of inquiry. Both been understood. “If we worked on the assumption Dewey and Jackson studying Dewey illustrate the that what is accepted as true really is true, then there need to make analogies from a wide array of sources would be little hope for advance” (quoted in Goddard, when seeking to discover the whys and wherefores 2003, p. 117). The brothers studied the failures of of gaps that occur in the novel, the new, or the others in theories of flight and learned from gaps in strange. Imaginative sensing of gaps does not neces- their own thinking as well. Orville wrote of his expe- sarily imply connecting those gaps (Lake, 2013); riences of imagination as subject this way: “We were rather, it may be more valuable to continue the pro- lucky enough to grow up in an environment where cess of alternately seeing the strange as familiar and there was always much encouragement to children to the familiar as strange as Maxine Greene has con- pursue intellectual interests, to investigate whatever tinuously reminded us (see Greene, 1995; Lake, aroused curiosity” (O. Wright quoted in Kelly, 1943, 2010). Similarly, we can see this as well in the p. 15). Eight years after Wilbur Wright wrote his first advice of Paulo Freire (1970) that problem posing letter to Chanute, and after enduring much scorn by yields both tentative solutions brought by meta- naysayers, the world finally began to welcome the phoric connections while opening the door on many breakthroughs that the Wright Brothers made when more problems to be posed and pursued. So, the they were awarded government contracts. The gaps work of Dewey, Jackson, Greene, Freire, and others they sensed and acted upon created a worldwide cul- brought to bear on Henle’s notion of sensing gaps tural revolution that made it possible for people all has led me to suggest that a curriculum of imagina- over the world to come much closer together with tion must not be deemed as a finished product that is much less travel time. formed in linear steps; it is rather a process of becoming through the exercise of more imaginative connections (Lake, 2013). Arts-Based Education and Metaphor Henle’s (1986) final source of sensing gaps embraces “difficulties arising out of the formal char- Another form of inquiry in curriculum imagination acteristics of prevailing theories” (p. 181). To exem- that holds tremendous promise across all content plify this source, I have drawn upon Copernicus and areas is arts-based education, rooted in Dewey’s the Wright Brothers (Lake, 2013). Copernicus helped notion of aesthetics and Eisner’s work of connois- overcome the myopic, geocentric conception of the seurship, mentioned earlier. This field of inquiry is universe, while the Wright Brothers demonstrated a focused on ways that the arts apply imagination to deep commitment to the power of imagination as create personal spaces of knowing, understanding, subject matter that helped humans move above the and being with self and others in the world. For Earth itself. Wilbur Wright’s high level of gap- example, the arts can open up multiple perspectives sensing imagination is demonstrated in a letter he beyond words and numbers to teach more about all wrote on May 13, 1900, to Octave Chanute, a wealthy aspects of life, including more about words and num- businessman and successful engineer. bers. Greene (2001) referred to this as aesthetic 132–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

education in contrast to Dewey’s (1934) notion of an with present experience. Arts-based inquiry “anesthetic” (p. 39) condition. Again Greene (2001) (Barone & Eisner, 2011) has potential to illuminate emphasized the cultivation of perception in students these connections through visual, musical, literary, because art does automatically create personal and kinesthetic metaphors, analogies, and similes. meaning for the beholder:

My point is that, if the painting or the dance perfor- Need for Continuous Questioning mance or the play is to exist as an aesthetic object or event for you, it has to be attended to in a particular In a curricular imagination, the subject matter is way. You have to be fully present to it—to focus your boundless and multidimensional, yet holistic and attention on it and, again, to allow it to exist apart from your everydayness and your practical concerns. I do not personal. It is not contained in any one discipline but mean that you, as a living person with your own biog- shuns fragmentation. It welcomes multiple meanings raphy, your own history, have to absent yourself. No, and newly created metaphoric connections. The only you have to be there in your personhood, encountering limitations on its scope are the present horizons of the work much in the way you encounter other persons. the imaginer. The subject matter can be anything The proper way to encounter another person is to be from the microcosm to the macrocosm. In the actual open to them, to be ready to see new dimensions, new facets of the other, to recognize the possibility of some experience of imagination as subject matter, the fresh perception or understanding, so you may know dichotomy between objective and subjective the other better, appreciate that person more variously. understanding disappears. This is, actually, how we ordinarily treat each other Curriculum imagination as subject matter wel- as persons. We do not treat each other as case histories, comes polyphonic expression and dialogue across or instances of some psychological or sociological reality—not, that is, in personal encounters. Nor do we differences because the exact same subject matter come up against each other as if the other were merely could have a range of meanings to individual learn- an inanimate object, incapable of reciprocation. There ers. The focus of learning can be on anything that the are analogues between this and encounters with works imaginer can question or wonder about. In fact, the of art, especially in the readiness for fresh illumination, subject matter often makes itself known through in the willingness to see something, to risk something questions that arise out of sensed gaps from within or unexpected and new. (pp. 53–54) found problems. The subject matter is multidimen- The arts give primacy to the creation of metaphor sional because in the realm of imagination, objective and analogy as means of forming new connections notions become personalized through metaphoric and personalized meaning. Key scholars regard blending and repeated musings until new connec- metaphoric thinking as that which gives uniqueness tions are made and new applications are discovered. to humanity (e.g., Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Modell, Curriculum imagination as subject matter is holisti- 2003) by connecting subconscious and conscious cally explored across multiple content areas. When functioning and uniting mind and body, perceptions imagination becomes the subject matter, the whole and conceptions from the several senses, and past universe and all that is in it can be a text.

References and Further Readings Bernstein, L. (1976). The unanswered question: Six talks at Harvard. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Alkin, M. C. (Ed.). (2013). Evaluation roots: A wider Press. perspective of theorists’ views and influences. Brown, S. L., & Vaughan, C. C. (2009). Play: How it Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four invigorates the soul. New York, NY: Avery. essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Copland, A. (1932). Piano variations [Musical Score]. Barone, T., & Eisner, E. (2011). Arts based research. Cos Cob, CT: Cos Cob Press. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dewey, J. (1899 & 1902/1990). The school and society: Berman, L. M. (1968). New priorities in the curriculum. The child and the curriculum. Chicago, IL: Columbus, OH: C.E. Merrill. University of Chicago Press. 16. Curriculum Imagination as Subject Matter –•–133

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston, MA: D.C. Igoa, C. (1995). The inner world of the immigrant child. Heath & Co. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Dewey, J. (1929). Experience and nature. New York, NY: Isaacson, W. (2007). Einstein: His life and his universe. W. W. Norton. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York, NY: Jackson, P. (2002). John Dewey and the philosopher’s Perigee Books. task. New York, NY: Teachers College Eisner, E. W. (2013). The roots of connoisseurship and Press. criticism: A personal journey. In M. C. Alkin (Ed.), James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York, Evaluation roots: A wider perspective of theorists’ NY: Henry Holt. view and influences (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Kelly, F. (1943). The Wright brothers: A biography. Sage. New York, NY: Dover. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Lake, R. (Ed.). (2010). Dear Maxine: Letters from the NY: Continuum. unfinished conversation with Maxine Greene. Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the New York, NY: Teachers College Press. word and the world. South Hadley, MA: Bergin & Lake, R. (2013). A curriculum of imagination in an era Garvey. of standardization. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Gallas, K. (2003). Imagination and literacy: A teacher’s Publishing. search for the heart of learning. New York, NY: Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we Teachers College Press. live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Gladwell, M. (2005). Blink: The power of thinking without Press. thinking. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Co. Modell, A. H. (2003). Imagination and the meaningful Goddard, S. (2003). Race to the sky: The Wright brothers brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. versus the United States Government. Jefferson, NC: Moffett, J. (1968). Teaching the universe of discourse. McFarland & Co. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Google. (n.d.). Imagination. Retrieved from http:// Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development ngrams.googlelabs.com/ of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: graph?content=imagination&year_start=1800&year_ Harvard University Press. end=2010&corpus=0&smoothing=2 Willis, G. H., & Schubert, W. H. (Eds.). (2000). Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination. San Reflections from the heart of educational inquiry: Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Understanding curriculum and teaching through Greene, M. (2001). Variations on a blue guitar: the arts. Troy, NY: Educator’s International The Lincoln Center Institute lectures on aesthetic Press. education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Wright, W. (1900). Letter to Octave Chanute. Octave Henle, M. (1986). 1879 and all that: Essays in the theory Chanute papers: Special correspondence—Wright and history of psychology. New York, NY: Brothers, 1900. Library of Congress. Retrieved from Columbia University Press. http://www.loc.gov/resource/mwright.06001 17

POPULAR CULTURE AS SUBJECT MATTER

GREG DIMITRIADIS University at Buffalo

opular culture is a complex term. It can denote different purposes over time. So instead of asking everything from mass-marketed, commodified “if ” Shakespeare is elite culture or not, one might Ppop culture to the everyday cultural practices ask: “Why” is he largely considered a part of elite of particular groups. For example, the term can culture today? Do certain groups benefit by reserv- encompass the mass culture appeal of reality shows ing Shakespeare for the few? Moreover, have others such as Jersey Shore as well as the traditional, elabo- looked to reappropriate Shakespeare for the many? If rate quinceañera parties that many Latino families so, why? One need not only find Shakespeare in the throw on their daughter’s 15th birthday. Each are Royal Shakespeare Company’s performances at “popular” practices. In the first case, popular denotes Lincoln Center on the Upper West Side of Manhat- something like “mass culture.” In the second case, it tan. One can also find him on screens across the denotes something like “folk culture.” Both are globe in Baz Luhrmann’s popular film Romeo + examples of “popular culture.” Juliet (1996), which featured the stars Leonardo The term itself underscores how difficult it is to DiCaprio and Claire Danes in a modernized version locate the specific “content” of popular culture in of the story. Clearly, one cannot locate the “popular” popular culture texts. After all, no less than Shake- in a timeless, formal set of textual criteria. speare himself was considered “popular culture” for Complicating the elasticity of popular culture is a long time (Levine, 1998). Shakespeare’s plays the fluidity of media itself. In the past, popular cul- were first performed in the Globe Theater in London. ture texts were largely located in specific media. Built in 1599 to feature the playwright’s works, it Television was largely viewed on TV sets. Movies famously featured a “pit” where members of the poor were largely seen in movie theaters and later on and working classes could enjoy his plays for a home video machines. Music was largely consumed penny. While Shakespeare has long come to symbol- on home stereo or portable devices. Over the last ize the very pinnacle of “high art,” his roots are in the several years, popular culture has become more popular. fluid, moving across multiple media platforms. Tele- As this example makes clear, what counts as vision shows do not have to be viewed anymore at popular culture varies both in and across moments in particular times, on particular channels, on a TV set. time. Following Stuart Hall (Morley & Chen, 1996) Rather, television shows move from smartphones, to and others, popular culture is best seen as a site of desktop computers, to Internet streaming players for contestation—that is, popular culture itself is best TV, and through streaming services such as Netflix, seen as a term struggled over by different groups for hulu, or YouTube. Moreover, these new devices give

134 17. Popular Culture as Subject Matter–•–135

consumers new control over popular content, how it images. Much of this work has been concerned with is used, disseminated, and responded to. Popular helping students protect themselves from what are culture is best seen as a set of processes, traveling often perceived to be the sexist, racist, or otherwise across multiple media platforms, morphing in unpre- problematic content of mass culture. Most of this dictable ways. With the line between “consumer” work has been done in English and other language and “producer” blurring, popular culture is moving arts classrooms. More recently, young people have into ever more complex terrain and posing ever more been encouraged to create their own media content as complex challenges for educational researchers and a way to understand how popular culture works practitioners. (Buckingham, 2003; Miller & McVee, 2012). Popular For educational theorists, popular culture has long culture, here, is more of a pragmatic “tool” than politi- been seen as a destabilizing force—for good or for cally invested set of commitments or set of proxies for ill. For many on the right, popular culture has chal- larger discussions about the status of knowledge. lenged the long-standing, elite kinds of knowledges In sum, it is very difficult to locate popular culture taught in school. Recall here the so-called culture within a formal set of criteria. Popular culture is best wars of the late 1980s. Critics such as Allan Bloom seen as a site of contestation over what counts as “the (1987) argued that higher education was failing to popular.” With the rise of Web 2.0, audiences have inculcate students into so-called high culture and its played a more active role in the production and pro- distinctions. In a typical statement on popular (as liferation of popular content. The so-called “partici- opposed to “classical”) music, Bloom writes, patory turn” poses a new set of challenges for “ Without effort, without talent, without virtue, with- educators. out exercise of the faculties, anyone and everyone is accorded the equal right to the enjoyment of their fruits” (p. 80). For many on the right, this egalitarian- Contemporary Concerns ism has been viewed as destructive, a debasement of the “faculties” that higher education is meant to cul- Educators today are facing new pressures to make tivate. For many on the left, popular culture has chal- schooling more relevant to more youth. The massifi- lenged those very hierarchies and the kinds of cation of schooling has put pressure on education inequalities they represent and reproduce. For many systems at all levels to reach more and more people on the left, this has been an empowering move, par- and help prepare them for a future that is increasingly ticularly for marginalized groups. According to difficult to predict. One evidences this broad uncer- progressive critics, the very traits that Bloom high- tainty around education in the proliferation of lights—effort, talent, virtue—have been used in “reform” efforts that have come to the fore in the exclusionary ways to make sure that “everyone” is United States (Mehta, 2013). These efforts are driven not accorded access to higher education and its by a sense that the world economy is changing and promise. Popular culture has been a flashpoint in that young people will have to demonstrate compe- discussions of the stratification of knowledge and the tencies in areas such as math, technology, and sci- implications for social change. ence to compete for the next generation of jobs. For educational practitioners, popular culture has Many of these efforts (e.g., George Lucas’s Edutopia provided a different set of challenges. In particular, project) have stressed “technology-rich” forms of many practitioners have long been attracted to popu- schooling. Technology, here, is used to deliver lar culture as a way to bridge the interests of youth school content in the ways that draw on the compe- with the goals of schools. Perhaps the most obvious tencies with media that young people have seem- inroads have been made in discussions of literacy. In ingly already developed. These efforts underscore a particular, “media literacy” has made a particularly deeper anxiety about how the world is changing and strong impact in classrooms in the United States. The how our education systems fit into this evolving goal here is to expand the notion of what counts as landscape. “literacy” and include “media literacy” as one such Discussions around globalization tend to focus on iteration. While traditional literacy aims to decode schools as an economic driver. That is, these discus- written texts, media literacy looks to decode popular sions tend to assume that the purpose of school is to 136–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

prepare young people for their place in a global questions about the status of culture and knowledge economy. But the economic narrative is only one today. Take the film Slumdog Millionaire. In this such way to understand globalization (Steger, 2009). film, the main character, Jamal, is able to compete One can understand globalization as a set of cultural successfully on a television show by demonstrating a and political processes as well. More specifically, the wide range of knowledge about different subjects. As everyday culture that young people live in their daily the movie makes clear, the main character was born lives is now open to a very wide range of influences. into circumstances that should preclude his access to Young people are “on the move” in new ways—both such knowledge. Social stratification and the stratifi- literally in terms of travel and figuratively in terms of cation of knowledge are parallel phenomena. How- the range of influences to which they are exposed. ever, in the “new India,” Jamal is able to disrupt Young people are moving in new ways, including as these stratifications and become quite literally a mil- voluntary immigrants and as refugees, and they are lionaire. While clearly something of a fairy tale, the increasingly participating in new and emergent cul- film does underscore the ways access to new knowl- tural formations. As students are facing a world that edge through new technologies is disrupting social has changed politically, economically, technologi- stratification. New and emergent popular cultures are cally, and culturally, educators have had to face new developing around the world, blurring the line questions about the relevance of school curricula. between “consumer” and “producer” as never before. As a generation of sociologists of education has More and more information is now available across made clear, schools play a large role in reproducing more and more kinds of media platforms, in ways ideas about what knowledge is most valuable. unimaginable even a generation ago. While educa- Schools have historically played a critical role in tion has never been more important, core ideas about reproducing so-called “official knowledge,” often by culture and knowledge and expertise and authority way of high-stakes testing (Apple, 2011). Popular are now being challenged in new ways. culture is an arena where notions of what’s most valuable can be struggled over. Popular culture is a site where the authority of educators can be con- Context tested, challenged, and renegotiated. It is a site where young people’s often messy needs, wishes, and Popular culture today can only be understood desires are articulated in ways that can challenge the against the backdrop of the massive social and tech- presumed clarities and certainties of adults. That is nological shifts associated with “globalization.” not to say that popular culture will naturally lead to a According to Arjun Appadurai (1996), new flows of popular curriculum. Rather, it is a terrain upon which people, technologies, images, monies, and ideolo- that negotiation can happen. gies are circulating around the world in complex and In addition, new technologies such as Facebook disjunctive ways. The “work of the imagination” has and Twitter are playing new roles in generating new taken on a new role and importance here as people’s social formations and promoting social change. Infor- aspirations now transcend their local circumstances mation can now circulate around the world instanta- in complex and often radical ways. According to neously and in ways that cannot always be controlled Appadurai, people’s aspirations are very much or contained by governments and nation-states. One “social facts” that need to be taken seriously if we observed this most clearly in the recent uprisings are to understand the complexities of our moment. throughout the Middle East, where Twitter and other Take the case of China. China’s GDP is growing at social media played an important role. People were a very impressive rate, outpacing the GDP growth able to communicate with each other in ways that rate of the United States in recent years. But as often evaded the control of official state censorship. larger and larger groups of Chinese begin to imagine Countries such as China are also facing new questions their own futures in more expansive ways, this around how young people can communicate with each growth may not be as robust as is necessary. This is other in ways that challenge official state control. particularly the case for the more impoverished The rapid, worldwide proliferation of new tech- rural dwellers, many of whom are moving into cit- nologies and media forms has opened up important ies. Popular culture is engendering new imaginative 17. Popular Culture as Subject Matter–•–137

futures for people in ways that can have profound 4 minutes of extra footage, some of which featured social consequences. noted Chinese actors. The film soon broke the Popular culture is today very much caught up in billion-dollar mark, becoming one of the highest the paradoxes of globalization. On the one hand, grossing films of all time. Like other paradoxes asso- more and more people have access to more and more ciated with globalization, popular culture today kinds of information and entertainment. The sites of indexes extremes that are hard to understand from popular production now extend around the world in within single, coherent frameworks whether those ways that might have been hard to imagine even a are associated with the homogeneity or heterogeneity generation ago. Take the case of hip hop. Hip hop is of culture. arguably the most important youth culture movement One can approach popular culture with several to emerge since the 1970s. Hip hop originated on the such perspectives or contexts. For example, one can streets of New York City but soon became a commer- look at: the broad, changing economics of popular cially successful, global cultural art form. On the one culture industries; the range of ideologies that circu- hand, young people in the United States and around late around the world today through popular culture; the world are continuing to be creative, pushing the the ways these icons “travel” across media; or the genre in new directions. As the costs of technology more micro-level, shifting cultural landscape against fall, young people have the ability to produce and which youth now fashion selves. Each level of con- disseminate their work through YouTube or self- text has different implications for educational produced MP3 mix tapes on home computers or researchers and practitioners. (less often now) MySpace pages. The “cost of entry” Let’s return to the aforementioned Iron Man 3. for hip hop artists today is very low, opening up the Clearly, Iron Man is one of several superheroes who genre to a very broad range of people around the have become enormously popular over the last world. On the other hand, a handful of artists have decade through blockbuster films. Others include emerged as global icons and are supported by one of Batman, Spider-Man, the X-Men, and the heroes a handful of multinational conglomerates. For exam- associated with Marvel’s The Avengers. These films ple, Interscope Records is owned by Universal Music draw on characters that have long been popular with Group. Interscope has controlled a number of other children and certainly have pedagogical possibilities. labels including Aftermath Entertainment, Bad Boy One can imagine the character examined through Records, G-Unit Records, and Shady Records. Art- several lenses. ists on these labels include 50 Cent, Dr. Dre, and One can focus on the changing macroeconomic Eminem. Moreover, Interscope is home to other structure associated with the new resurgence of popular artists including Madonna, Lady Gaga, and superhero films. Marvel Comics was in bankruptcy U2. This is tremendous amount of power for one as recently as the mid- to late 1990s. The company company to hold. gained critical and commercial traction by aggres- The paradoxes of increasing heterogeneity and sively revising some of its main characters in comic homogeneity are evidenced in the broader question book form to a small number of very committed fans. of global cultural flows. On the one hand, the United These characters soon made several successful tran- States still dominates the globe in terms of film sitions to film, culminating with a sale of the com- exports. In 2012, seven of the top 10 films in China pany to Disney. The sale to Disney means that these were from the United States. On the other hand, characters are part of a multibillion-dollar entertain- demand is growing in China at unprecedented rates. ment industry with global reach. One can certainly China had the second largest box office revenues in understand a character like Iron Man as read through the world in 2012 (at $2.7 billion), growing 30% several different economic arrangements and their from 2011, according to the International Trade implications. How the central ownership of Marvel Administration (ITA, 2013). by Disney will affect these characters in their various Increasingly companies such as Disney are work- permutations lends itself to a political economic ing with Chinese partners to make their content more approach to the “curricula” of comic books. attractive to the Chinese market. For example, in One can also look at the ideologies associated 2013, Iron Man 3 was released in China with about with the modern superhero. These films have largely 138–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

embraced large-scale spectacular action. One can In sum, no one framework or approach can look at the ways the spectacle has come to replace exhaust our understanding of any popular cultural character-driven narratives in the contemporary film phenomena. They can be understood through various industry. One can look at the ways these films often frameworks such as those noted earlier. Each offers position official authority as either ineffectual or cor- a particular narrative or context for understanding rupt while stressing the role and importance of the popular culture and the work that it does. Each can individual hero. One can look at the ways these films be usefully employed by curriculum scholars to position imagined solutions to real-world issues understand some piece of the educative work popular (e.g., Iron Man 3 on post-9/11 trauma or The Dark culture can or might perform. Knight Returns on the Occupy movement). One can look at the gendered nature of the contemporary superhero in the largely male-driven genre. These are Theory all just examples of what a look at the ideology asso- ciated with a character like Iron Man might look like. Popular culture can be understood from several theo- These examples imply different work for curriculum retical frameworks. These include those associated studies scholars than those discussed previously. with Marxism, feminism, poststructuralism, and One can look at the ways characters have moved cultural studies. More recently, the field has seen an across different media platforms. Traditionally, the assemblage of approaches associated with “partici- paper comic book was the source text for superhero patory culture.” Several of these are long-standing. stories. Today, the “curriculum” of the superhero For example, work in Marxism has stressed the travels across multiple media—comic books, toys, importance of ideological reproduction through pop- video games, cartoons, and movies. One can usefully ular culture including through the stratification of look to understand how these stories and characters knowledge. This work assumes that all culture pro- are both continuous and discontinuous across these duction reflects the underlying economic relation- media. Increasingly, popular culture exists only in ships in a given society. For example, Frankfurt continuous motion between various media. One School critics were deeply distrustful of so-called might, therefore, ask: What are the representations of “mass culture.” These critics, including Theodor Iron Man like in a monthly comic book? In a car- Adorno and Max Horkheimer, thought that the “cul- toon? In a movie? How are these similar or ture industry” robbed people of the kind of authentic different? cultural experiences that would help people realize Finally, one can look at the ways people them- their full humanity (Horkheimer & Adorno, selves understand Iron Man or other popular super- 1944/2002). Rather, the mindless repetition associ- heroes. One recalls here Ann Dyson’s (1997) ated with popular music and other commercial forms important early work, Writing Superheroes, which served to dull people’s sensibilities and make them looked at how young people used superheroes during more amenable to exploitation by capitalist economic playground play and how these performances arrangements. changed in school. As Dyson argues, the informal While Marxism has various iterations, many stress playground play was different in significant ways that culture is largely dependent upon capitalist eco- from the kinds of work done in the classroom. There nomic arrangements. They do not challenge them but was, in particular, more attention to gender stereo- serve to justify them. types (e.g., who could play what roles) inside the Work in feminism has stressed the (gendered) classroom than outside of it. Curriculum studies pleasures of viewing and gird some of the first eth- scholars could usefully explore how such icons are nographic studies of popular culture. Much of this understood, talked about, and explored. These stud- work challenged the ways critics looked to “decode” ies are more agent-centered—that is, focused on how popular culture texts, reflecting the inherent biases of particular young people or communities live through (often male) critics. Many critics looked to decenter popular culture. Here, popular culture is a “lived cur- the authority of the critic (in particular) and the bias riculum” that may or may not be connected explicitly toward Marxist readings (in general). Many of the to the classroom. most important early feminist critics stressed 17. Popular Culture as Subject Matter–•–139

ethnography as a method. The goal was to under- “reappropriation” to discuss how young people used stand how women themselves viewed these texts and and reused dominant cultural symbols. In this study, made sense out of them. For example, Janice Rad- Hebdige focused on the range of subcultures— way’s (1984) Reading the Romance looked at the skinheads, punks, mods, teddy boys, Rastafarians, ways women at a local bookstore read romance nov- and others—that emerged in London in the mid-20th els and their responses to them. Radway showed that century. Cultural studies has been marked by an these women often read these texts in ways that were interdisciplinary set of approaches that has lent itself more complicated than often presumed. They also to a broad uptake in applied fields such as communi- used these texts to carve out private time for cations and education. Indeed, work in cultural stud- themselves. ies would have the most direct impact on opening up Work in poststructuralism has looked at the ways questions related to popular culture in education. discourses around “the other” have been produced Popular culture became a kind of “curriculum” that and circulated around the world. Much of this writ- could be examined with the range of resources. For ing would come to inform postcolonialism. Drawing example, my book Performing Identity/Performing on the work of Michel Foucault and others, this work Culture: Hip Hop as Text, Pedagogy, and Lived Prac- looks at the ways certain ideas about the world get tice explored hip hop as a kind of “lived curricula” produced, maintained, and sustained. Perhaps most for poor, marginalized youth (Dimitriadis, 2009). In notably, Edward Said (1997) in Covering Islam: the face of trying or pressing circumstances, young How the Media and Experts Determine How We See people looked to hip hop to understand notions of the Rest of the World looked closely at how notions of place, history, and self in ways that rendered tradi- the Middle East and Islam are produced in the imagi- tional schooling somewhat superfluous. Cultural nations of the West and disseminated through popu- studies was a useful framework for drawing these lar media. This writing has been important for concerns together. uncovering the deeper structures at work in popular Most recently, work on “participatory culture” has representations. In opposition to Marxist-influenced come to stress the blurred line between the produc- work, these texts take a much broader view of tion and consumption of popular culture through new notions of “difference.” Poststructuralists are inter- media. This work has its roots in the work of early ested in not only questions of deeper economic struc- cultural studies scholars such as John Fiske who tures but also those around ethnic, racial, and looked at the ways popular cultural texts, like televi- religious difference. sion shows, can be decoded in multiple ways. Fiske Work in cultural studies sparked something of an (1994) highlighted the ways “texts are neither com- explosion of academic interest in popular culture. modities nor agents of the dominant ideology, but While this work was influenced by Marxist sites of struggle where the subordinate can engage in approaches to economic inequality, early critics such contested relations with the social interests that as Stuart Hall and others looked at the ways culture attempt to subordinate them” (p. 197). Approaches itself has its own autonomy. Many key figures like that of Fiske opened up a space for important argued that popular culture is a key site where indi- work around fandom (most notably, that of Henry vidual power blocs work to gain broad assent for Jenkins), including how different groups of fans their agendas and projects. All popular culture can actively appropriated texts associated with Star Wars, only be understood in terms of the broader political Star Trek, and other such cultural phenomena (Jen- and social context. In addition, there were “no guar- kins, 2006). Extending his early work on fandom, antees” to how popular culture would play itself out Jenkins came to do important work on participatory socially, culturally, or materially. For example, Dick culture more broadly. This work has tended not to Hebdige’s (1979) Subculture: The Meaning of Style stress individual artifacts on particular platforms, but explored “culture” and “style” as a kind of “semiot- the ways popular culture itself can only be under- ics” for understanding youth culture. Hebdige looked stood as traveling across multiple media platforms, at how young people used everyday signs and sym- changing and being reworked at every step. This bols to create subcultural identities for themselves. work has also come to influence research in educa- Hebdige used the language of “appropriation” and tion, most especially in fields associated with literacy. 140–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

This work has stressed the active participation of ideological content. This kind of ideological critique individuals every step of the way. The stress on active lends itself to the critical, polemical essay form. agency is one reason why Web 2.0 approaches to Phenomenological and ethnographic inquiry lends culture have been picked up and mobilized by many itself to the personal introspection and reflection in education. Jenkins and Wyn Kelley’s (2013) new long associated with curriculum studies as well as book, Reading in a Participatory Culture: Remixing deep, empirical immersion in particular sites and set- Moby Dick in the English Classroom, is perhaps the tings. This includes the use of interviews and obser- best example of this “turn.” vations to build rich descriptions of how young people use popular texts. For example, Leif Gustavson’s (2007) important book Youth Learning Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression on Their Own Terms looks carefully at the creative practices of three youth and their respective invest- Popular culture can be understood through several ments in zine writing and slam poetry, graffiti distinct modes of inquiry. These include histori- writing, and turntable work as they traverse multiple cal inquiry, ideological inquiry, phenomenological sites in and out of school. Gustavson focused on the inquiry, and applied inquiry. Each can be associated deep learning that takes place in these multiple sites with a particular mode of expression. Historical as well as how that learning is mediated by these studies of popular culture tend to stress shifts in youth’s classed and raced positions. artifacts or processes over time—for example, chang- Applied inquiry tends to lend itself to action-type ing constructions of childhood or girlhood. Several studies—the effort to implement and document par- studies have looked at the ways “childhood” itself has ticular programs around popular culture in the class- been constructed over time as a privileged or “in- room. These studies tend to be aimed at teacher between” space. These studies lent themselves to his- educators. Marc Lamont Hill’s (2009) Beats, Rhymes, toriography or the critical use of archives and artifacts. and Classroom Life discusses a “Hip Hop Lit” class For example, Bernadette Baker (2001) has looked Hill helped develop and implement with a teacher at closely at the construction of childhood over time in a Philadelphia high school. The class was divided her magisterial In Perpetual Motion. Here, she looked into several modules, which covered various themes closely at the ways notions of “the child” as a discrete and facets of hip hop. In this book, Hill documented category and psychological entity emerged and the how he opened up important discussions with these role played by different philosophers and pedagogical youth around the politics of nostalgia, the importance strategies. While not about popular culture per se, of storytelling, as well as the ever complex notion of these kinds of studies allow us to adopt the kinds of “realness.” Popular culture played a very important categories employed to think about youth. Historical role in thinking through the complexities of this approaches can be quite helpful in this regard. program. Ideological inquiry lends itself to textual criti- Future studies of popular culture will have to cism—that is, close and politically engaged readings “ globalize” these methods in new ways. Just as popu- of “texts” broadly constructed. This work looks at the lar culture now “travels” between platforms and social, political, or material forces that can be read across time and space, our methods must be similarly off of such texts. Often, this work has stressed the mobile. These are concerns I have taken up in recent ways popular culture can reinforce particular notions work, including Studying Urban Youth Culture where of inequality. For example, Henry Giroux has long I (along with Lois Weis) argued that we must now explored the ways popular culture can reinforce always imagine our objects of inquiry as multisited notions of gender or racial inequity. In books such as (Dimitriadis, 2008). This will be the great challenge The Mouse That Roared: Disney and the End of Inno- of the next generation of scholars of popular culture cence (2001), Giroux looked at the ways Disney and the curriculum. Future work will have to look icons such as Pocahontas erase brutal history of colo- across single sites and think more relationally about nization and present a simple, sanitized version texts and practices. “Globalizing” the study of popu- of U.S. history. In this book and others, Giroux lar culture is the challenge of the next generation of looked to “decode” texts for their deeper political and curriculum studies scholars and practitioners. 17. Popular Culture as Subject Matter–•–141

References and Further Readings Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. (1944/2002). Dialectic of enlightenment. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large. Minneapolis, Press. MN: University of Minnesota Press. International Trade Administration (ITA). (2013, Apple, M. (2011). Education and power. New York, NY: April 25). Exporting entertainment to China and Routledge. Asia-Pacific: It’s a wrap! Retrieved from http://blog Baker, B. (2001). In perpetual motion. New York, NY: .trade.gov/2013/04/25/exporting-entertainment- Peter Lang. to-china-and-asia-pacific-its-a-wrap/ Bloom, A. (1987). The closing of the American mind. Jenkins, H. (2006). Fans, bloggers and gamers. New New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. York, NY: New York University Press. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education. London, UK: Jenkins, H., & Kelley, W. (2013). Reading in a Polity. participatory culture. New York, NY: Teachers Dimitriadis, G. (2008). Studying urban youth culture. College Press. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Levine, L. (1988). Highbrow/lowbrow. Cambridge, MA: Dimitriadis, G. (2009). Performing identity/performing Harvard University Press. culture: Hip hop as text, pedagogy, and lived Mehta, J. (2013). The allure of order. New York, NY: practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Oxford. Dyson, A. (1997). Writing superheroes. New York, NY: Miller, S., & McVee, M. (Eds.). (2012). Multimodal Teachers College Press. composition in the classroom. New York, NY: Fiske, J. (1994). Audiencing. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln Routledge. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative inquiry. Thousand Morley, D., & Chen, K. (Eds.). (1996). Stuart Hall: Oaks, CA: Sage. Critical dialogues in cultural studies. New York, Giroux, H. (2001). The mouse that roared. New York, NY: Routledge. NY: Rowman & Littlefield. Radway, J. (1984). Reading the romance. Durham, NC: Gustavson, L. (2007). Youth learning on their own terms. University of North Carolina Press. New York, NY: Routledge. Said, E. (1997). Covering Islam. New York, NY: Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture. London, UK: Routledge. Vintage. Hill, M. (2009). Beats, rhymes, and classroom life. Steger, M. (2009). Globalization. New York, NY: New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Oxford. 18

CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE

JULIE MAUDLIN Georgia Southern University

DANIEL CHAPMAN Georgia Southern University

t the turn of the 21st century, as the explo- that patterns the lives of today’s youth, who are sion of digital media propelled the country increasingly relying on social media networks and Aheadlong into a new technological revolu- mobile applications as primary sources of daily tion, American K–12 education experienced a marked information. shift toward standardized testing and corporate orga- Meanwhile, relatively little has changed in school- nization. More than a decade later, the digital revolu- ing. While some of the mandates of the No Child tion has transformed American culture as our daily Left Behind Act of 2001 have been relaxed, competi- lives have become more media-saturated, techno- tive federal funding that is dependent on the “volun- logically driven, and globally interconnected. As tary” adoption of the Common Core State Standards evidenced in the July 2013 media attitudes survey has perpetuated high-stakes accountability. Although conducted by the Pew Research Center, digital media proponents claim the standards—which as of has revolutionized the way we obtain and share infor- January 2015 had been adopted in 43 states, the Dis- mation. While 69% of Americans still look to televi- trict of Columbia, and four territories—will enhance sion as a main source of national and international critical thinking and provide students with the knowl- news, the percentage of the general public who rely edge and skills they need to be successful in college on the Internet for the same purpose has reached an and careers, it is yet unclear whether content demands all-time high of 50% (Caumont, 2013). Perhaps even will allow teachers to address the skills students need more revealing is the finding that 71% of those aged to navigate complex forms of media that dominate 18 to 29 report the Internet as their primary news everyday lives. Competencies of contemporary source, surpassing television at 55%. The Pew media literacy are not adequately assessed by multi- Research Center data also show that social media has ple-choice tests due to the need for students to use grown as a source of news and that more adults are and produce media, as well as to understand its role consuming news on mobile devices (Caumont, 2013). in society (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012). While lit- These statistics illustrate the hypermedia landscape eracy enables us to understand, interpret, and use

142 18. Critical Media Literacy in the Digital Age –•–143

print-based texts, media literacy allows us to engage Even though media systems are primarily image- with multimodal texts, which communicate a based and/or multimodal, American education still message using more than one channel of communi- relies almost exclusively on written texts. The idea of cation, including elements of video, audio, and print. studying moving images, still images, and audio clips The wide variety of different screen-like environ- as legitimate texts is still not taken seriously. In spite ments in digital media, including text messaging, of policy makers’ claims that the Common Core State search engines, social media platforms, and mobile Standards prepare students for the literacy demands applications, demand literacy of printed text and of the 21st century, a 2012 study concluded that the images, both still and moving (Buckingham, 2003; “exclusion of the Internet as a central text in the stan- Hobbs, 2007; Kist, 2004; Kress, 2003). According to dards and accompanying documents will underpre- Renee Hobbs (2011), developing multimodal litera- pare students for 21st-century literacy demands and cies requires competencies of curiosity, inquiry, has the potential to further alienate at-risk readers” interpretation, synthesis, and expression. (Drew, 2012, p. 324). The pedagogical necessity of A decade after he began writing about contempo- media literacy, however, is not a new concept. rary media culture, Douglas Kellner took up the issue Marshall McLuhan (1962, 1964), one of the earli- of critical media literacy in K–12 schooling. Kellner est proponents of media literacy, was interested in and Jeff Share (2005) examined the concepts, the ways media literacy impacted the interpretation debates, organizations, and policies that character- of the world of the first generation that grew up with ized the state of media education, defining critical television. His studies asserted that electronic media media literacy as “cultivating skills in analyzing would have a similar transformative impact on mod- media codes and conventions, abilities to criticize ern society that typography had on the Renaissance. stereotypes, dominant values, and ideologies, and The study of media and popular culture flourished competencies to interpret the multiple meanings and and grew into multiple fields, and by the 1990s the messages generated by media texts” (p. 372). They call for media literacy education gained momentum. addressed the appalling absence of media education By 2000, interest in media literacy attracted govern- in K–12 schooling in the United States, which con- mental attention and spawned numerous professional trasts starkly with the ubiquity of media culture in organizations and institutional foundations, but those everyday American life. Kellner and Share (2005) developments had little impact in U.S. classrooms. advocated “transformative pedagogy” (p. 4) for Considering the ways in which media has trans- media curriculum. While the pervasiveness of televi- formed American society, the epistemological sion, films, popular music, and, especially, advertis- imperative of media literacy should be a clear justifi- ing would seem to make the need for such pedagogy cation for its inclusion in U.S. schools’ curriculum; hard to deny, Michael Hoechsmann and Stuart however, there are political forces that perceive criti- Poyntz (2012) pointed out, “Despite these terrific cal media literacy as a threat. Both schools and potentials . . . there continues to be a prevailing senti- media transmit information to large swaths of people, ment of doubt on the part of some key educational and as Asa Briggs and Peter Burke (2009) reminded stakeholders” (p. 8). Because of such doubts, a us, this is political: “The need for information in reconceptualization of traditional education is not every age has been associated with the effort to con- likely to be realized until media literacy is accepted trol the present and the future for personal, political, as a necessity for participation in a digital and economic reasons” (p. 214). Both media and democracy. education walk the murky territory between people’s dreams of liberation and the desire of powerful elites to control those dreams. Media and education are Critical Media Literacy in Context subjected to forces of nationalism—loyalty to coun- try and unity of its citizens—despite controversial In 2005, Kellner and Share noted: “While some major and often destructive actions done in the name of inroads have been made . . . most teachers and stu- country and citizenship. Critical media literacy acts dents in the USA are not aware of issues involved in as resistance because it fosters “signaling, generat- media literacy education” (p. 369). Little has changed. ing, and building dialogue around particular power 144–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

imbalances and inequalities” (Abowitz, 2000, voices. In Manufacturing Consent, Edward Herman p. 878). In order to meaningfully advance media lit- and Noam Chomsky (1988) wrote that major U.S. eracy in education, policy makers must embrace networks “carry out a system-supportive propaganda critique as an essential competency. function by reliance on market forces . . . and self- censorship” (p. 306). Their “propaganda model” examined how the need for advertising marginalized From Network to Networked: important social topics like state crimes, racism, gen- Critical Media Literacy in Theory der stereotypes, poverty, and corporate corruption. As Johnston (2000) explained, a media system based The study of codes and conventions, dominant val- on profit serves as a bullhorn for the wealthy and ues, and multiple meanings became important during powerful. the early years of television’s rise, but the interpreta- During the last 2 decades, however, there has been tions and relational possibilities were specific to the a shift toward a decentralized networked media sys- centralized network system (ABC, CBS, NBC) that tem, a more complex, interconnected, and participa- existed during McLuhan’s time. Critique of codes tory assemblage of television, social media sites, and conventions of the network system focused on radio, movies, blogs, and newspapers. While the viewer passivity (Healy, 1999; Mander, 1977), reli- network system allowed only unidirectional and ance on stereotypes and dominant ideologies, and hierarchical communication—from commercial net- ways that it limited citizen interaction on important work to public audience—the networked system issues. promised to be more active, rather than passive, more Robert Kubey and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi open to marginalized voices, and more capable of (1990) concluded that television left people feeling allowing multidirectional communication. Jerry more passive than any other activity performed while Berman and Daniel Weitzner (1997) eagerly awake. The passivity of television exemplifies explained these egalitarian features of user-generated McLuhan’s famous assertion that “the medium is the content and prioritization that could wrest control of message.” McLuhan and Fiore (1967) contended that the media system from powerful corporations and codes and conventions of any given medium encour- place it in the hands of the people. age certain truths, possibilities, and relationships to form while excluding others. For example, our con- ventional living room arrangement points everyone’s Forms of Inquiry and Modes attention to the television, as opposed to an arrange- of Representation ment where chairs and couches face each other. This argument was vociferously articulated in Neil Post- Understanding the pedagogical implications of a net- man’s 1985 polemic, Amusing Ourselves to Death, worked media system requires us to consider the in which he asserts that we are oppressed by our political, social, cultural, and economic contexts addiction to entertainment. Postman argues that print within which digital media operates. In order to illus- culture encourages an active, rational engagement trate the landscape, a “thick description” (Geertz, with the texts, while image culture reduces every- 1973) using both quantitative and qualitative infor- thing, including politics, to entertainment. Postman mation is necessary. However, because the landscape observes that television watching is not conducive to of digital media is vast, encompassing many forms questioning, discussion, or critique; instead, it creates and modes, we narrow our detailed description to passive bodies and passive minds. social networking, as it is the fastest growing phe- Seeking revenue necessitated a primary focus on nomena in the digital age, and utilize that phenome- audience size, which encouraged producers to rely non to illustrate the ways that critical media literacy on stereotypes and dominant ideologies to attract is explored and represented in the digital age. large numbers of viewers. Having only three major A statistical analysis shows that 71% of Internet networks owned and operated by wealthy corpora- users in the United States, or 58% of the adult popu- tions limited the range of public discourse and left lation, are on Facebook (Pew Research Center, out important controversial minority and dissident 2015). Other popular networking platforms, such as 18. Critical Media Literacy in the Digital Age –•–145

Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, and Pinterest, continue also actively rearranged in the form of mashups, fan to grow and the number of people using mobile fiction, etc. devices to access social media sites has climbed into These terms are particularly helpful in under- the billions. Today’s digital media landscape offers standing the theoretical landscape surrounding the more opportunities than ever before for users, young emergence of the Internet as an informal curriculum, and old alike, to engage virtually with others, not the participatory potential of which gave rise to a only through the dominant social media networks but vision of a media system that was created and main- also through message boards, gaming groups, fan tained from the bottom up, freeing ourselves from fiction, blogs, podcasts, and peer-to-peer messaging the grip of filtered information and culture-generating platforms such as Skype, Kik, and Snapchat. Social machines with commercial interests (Benkler, 2006). media also provides new opportunities for engaging This vision of the Internet held promise for the with “traditional” media, such as television, films, strengthening of democracy as it would allow a magazines, newspapers, and radio. Dual-screening, digital “town hall” to discuss and form ideas in a the practice of engaging with the Internet and the cauldron of opinions shared among the population, television simultaneously, has become prevalent, across ideological, class, racial, and even national particularly for live events (Caumont, 2013). Many boundaries. On the World Wide Web, anyone with popular live television programs, from news broad- an opinion on local, national, or world affairs would casts to reality talent competitions, now invite real- be able to create a blog and share their ideas with the time viewer interaction through various social media world. Musicians could upload their music and build platforms. The lucrative potential of hashtags, an audience from the grassroots. Movies could be retweets, likes, and shares is not lost on marketers, filmed and edited with inexpensive technology and who are investing heavily in blogging and social uploaded for public viewing and reaction. Thus, an media (Stelzner, 2014). engaged population creating cultural artifacts, Those who inquire to better understand these phe- sharing multiple interpretations, giving space nomena must become familiar with the existing for marginalized populations, and creating the narra- terms to help guide them through the literature. tives of society seemed possible, even likely, with Forums, blogs, archives, and messaging applications this new technology (Berman & Weitzner, 1997; have produced what Henry Jenkins and colleagues Buchanan, 1995). (2009) refer to as a participatory culture, which is Today, we have enough history with digital media characterized by “relatively low barriers to artistic to explore whether these early promises are coming expression and civic engagement, strong support for to fruition. Such an analysis requires critical inquiry, creating and sharing creations, and some type of which highlights those who are disenfranchised by informal mentorship whereby experienced partici- current media and questions the Internet’s demo- pants pass along knowledge to novices” (p. xi). Users cratic potential. All citizens do not have the skills can freely create and distribute personal updates, and resources to fully engage in the cultural prac- news articles, instant photo collages, customized tices of social networking. According to a recent videos, personalized cartoon strips, and much more. Pew Internet study, millions in the United States This highlights how current media encourage user- alone still lack Internet access (Zickuhr, 2013). generated content as opposed to content that serves Those with limited access tend to be older and less corporate and commercial interests. This mix of educated. According to the May 2013 survey, 49% media and users exemplified what Jenkins (2006) of those who do not use the Internet are aged 65 or termed convergence or “the flow of content across older, and while nearly all college graduates are multiple media platforms, the cooperation between online, 41% of adults without a high school diploma multiple media industries, and the migratory behav- are not online. Proficiency at social networking ior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere demands “extended access to those technologies, a in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences greater familiarity with the new kinds of social they want” (p. 2). In 2007 Aram Sinnreich coined the interactions they enable, a fuller mastery over the term configurable culture to emphasize how infor- conceptual skills that consumers have developed in mation is not only consumed by the audience but response to media convergence” (Jenkins, 2006, p. 23). 146–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

U.S. social networkers who are fully engaged in the as participants who interact with each other according new media technologies that Jenkins discusses are to a new set of rules that none of us fully understands. “disproportionately white, male, middle class, and Not all participants are created equal. Corporations— and even individuals within corporate media—still college educated” (p. 23). exert greater power than any individual consumer or Historical inquiries help establish reference points even the aggregate of consumers. (p. 3) for comparisons and changes over time. For example, shifts in social media participation can be observed in In 2008, Facebook surpassed Myspace as the the rise and fall of Myspace, which emerged as the world’s most popular social network. There are many top social networking site in 2006. Initially estab- factors that likely contributed to Facebook’s ultimate lished as a storage and sharing site for user-generated triumph, but there is no doubt that CEO Mark Zuck- data, it developed into an entertainment and music- erberg’s marketing strategy played a significant role. oriented network that allowed users to extensively In 2007, Zuckerberg announced a new advertising customize their own home pages with music, graph- plan that would allow marketers to target individual ics, and embedded YouTube videos. Myspace devel- Facebook users based on personal data gleaned from opers only realized after the 2003 launch of the site their profiles and activity on the site. This further that they had enabled users to insert html code to enhanced the site’s convergent potential, harnessing change background colors and images, and this acci- the flow of content across multiple media plat- dental feature became its trademark (Gillette, 2011). forms—brand profiles, video hosts, blogs, news The highly configurable profile space, which visually aggregators, retail sites, and more—into a central- surpassed the comment feed and messaging compo- ized network of millions, and later billions, of users. nents, reflected a rising emphasis on user-driven The shift from Myspace to Facebook illustrates how content and consumer control (Wilson, 2006). the storing, editing, using, and sharing of media con- In contrast, when Facebook was launched world- tent had shifted decidedly from the interests of users wide in 2006, it lacked the aesthetic of Myspace. to the interests of corporations. Initially developed as a means of connecting users Given this shift, it is crucial to inquire into the within a closed academic network, Facebook was underlying economics of social networking and its smaller than Myspace, but its more restrained tone political implications. Like the network system, the was viewed more favorably by advertisers. As networked system has become increasingly driven Rosenbush (2006) explains, Facebook’s controlled by advertising. For instance, in 2013, Google pulled social network, which allowed only minimal person- in more than $50 billion in revenue, and 95% of this alization and required users to confirm their identity came from advertising (Taylor, 2014). Given the with a verified email address, helped “limit the more hopeful anticipation that characterized the early egregious exercise of free expression, the sort that visions of the democratic potential of the Internet, can scare advertisers” (p. 9). The rise of Facebook many question whether these new media giants marked a shift from user-generated content and cre- interfere with the promises of increased political ative expression toward an externally regulated participation, more diverse voices, and an end to social network within which content was to be liked, network monopolies. McChesney (2013) believes linked, shared, and circulated. Within weeks of that “the tremendous promise of the digital revolu- Facebook’s debut as a publicly accessible social net- tion has been compromised by capitalist appropria- working site, executives were courting advertisers, tion and development of the Internet. In the great promoting sponsored messages that would appear in conflict between openness and a closed system of the news feed alongside status updates from other corporate profitability, the forces of capital have users (Morrissey, 2006). Unlike banner ads, which triumphed” (p. 97). were situated in the margins of Myspace and Face- Although there continues to be space for noncom- book, sponsored messages, and later “engagement mercial utilization of the World Wide Web, it exists ads” that allowed users to interact directly with primarily on the margins of all that is profit-driven. brands, converged the distinctions of “friends” and As a 2010 Wired article titled “The Web Is Dead” advertisers. As Jenkins (2006) observed, sponsored claims, it seems that we are no longer in an open messages were positioned Web environment, but more often in a semi-enclosed 18. Critical Media Literacy in the Digital Age –•–147

and profit-motivated app environment (Anderson & shows, politics, and consumer goods, Facebook is Wolff, 2010). We browse from Facebook to e-mail to creating the profile it will sell to corporations. While Pandora, each application having externally limited it may seem like a private platform to interact with functionality while being firmly connected to com- friends and family, these social interactions are mercial interests. While there are millions of surveilled and shaped into meaningful consumer websites, Internet giants such as Google, YouTube, profiles to be sold to the highest bidder. and Facebook dominate user traffic and advertising Why do we tolerate, even to some extent welcome, revenue. In 2010, the top 10 sites accounted for 75% corporate appropriation and its obvious invasion of of the page views on the Internet (Anderson & our privacy? In asking questions about user attitudes, Wolff, 2010). Google, in particular, owns approxi- phenomenological studies are possible avenues for mately 11.7% of the global advertising market and exploration: digital ethnographies, interviews, sur- is garnering half of all mobile Internet advertising veys, etc. However, a question like why do we act revenue (Taube, 2013). Hindman (2009) argues that against our own interests needs a more theoretical the “low barriers of entry” necessary for a competi- exploration of markets and behavior. Andrew Bard tive market have never been present in the web Schmookler (1993) explains how the market system environment, and in fact, the economies of scale operates according to a logic of its own to shape are similar to those of “natural monopolies,” like everything from the physical and social landscape to utilities. This means that the initial investment to human values, all to serve its own purposes. He produce a competitive search engine or social net- explains that we are driven to accept corporate con- working site is very high, but, once created, the trols because the market “is our servant, attending costs of distribution are relatively low, which consti- well to many of our needs. This helps to lull us into a tutes perfect conditions for monopolies to flourish. comfortable state in which we do not bother to see At the forefront of the booming online advertising how the system is also our master” (p. 5). We may market is immersive advertising, which includes appreciate the convenience of only seeing techniques such as sponsored news feed messages, advertisements that address our interests, the ease “promoted tweets,” “advergames,” and engagement with which we can buy the things we want, and the ads, all of which integrate advertising with online immediacy with which we can obtain the knowledge content so that users cannot easily distinguish we desire. We may enjoy the wide range of commodi- between the two (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012). ties we can purchase and value the functionality of the Central to the strategy of immersive advertising is sites, applications, and devices funded with advertis- the practice of data mining, the process that allows ing revenue. Yet, our interactions with this vast range advertisers to customize immersive elements to the of customized technologies reinforce the dominant specific interests of individual consumers. Google ideologies of the market system. In a digital consumer recently announced plans for a more powerful user culture, passivity and complacency is a threat to both tracking system that would work across desktop individual and collective agency. We cannot expect computers, tablets, and smartphones and enable the Internet to see its democratic potential in spite of advertisers to more accurately target users, a move our own complicity in the undermining of free expres- that would further expand the company’s global mar- sion and noncommercial interests. Rather, as ket share (Peterson, 2013). As Siva Vaidhyanathan Schmookler so poignantly concludes, “We will gain (2011) observed, the power really to choose our future only when we understand the ways in which what the market system We are not Google’s customers: we are its product. We— gives us is the illusion of choice” (p. 5). our fancies, fetishes, predilections, and preferences—are Our lives are immersed in media, which act as a what Google sells to advertisers. When we use Google to find things out on the Web, Google uses our Web contemporary curriculum both in and out of school. searches to find things out about us. (p. 3) We may not be cognizant of the ways it influences the relationships we form with each other and our under- The same is true of our interactions on social net- standings of the world. As Albert Einstein (1956/1995) working sites: When we socialize with friends and said, “What does a fish know about the water in family online, perhaps discussing movies, television which he swims all his life?” Multiple forms of 148–•–PART I. SUBJECT MATTER AS CURRICULUM

inquiry help us gain a critical distance necessary to pervasive multimodal texts as part of the market ask critical questions and make personal and public system that underlies the information superhighway. meaning. As Hoechsmann and Poyntz (2012), as well as many other critical pedagogues, media scholars, and lit- eracy proponents, asserted, media education should Toward a Critical Media Literacy create a space for dialogue that can help sustain Curriculum and Pedagogy democracy by ensuring access and participation for those who are marginalized. While scholarly read- Critical pedagogues such as Paulo Freire, Henry Gir- ings of popular culture and smart mainstream com- oux, and Peter McLaren have long called for educa- mentaries on technological trends are not without tors to take up “critique as a mode of analysis that value to the advancement of critical media literacy, interrogates texts, institutions, social relations, and they are not enough. We must also adopt critical ideologies as part of the script of official power” approaches that draw “attention to those voices and (Giroux, 2011, p. 4). Central to Giroux’s vision for bodies (including people who are homeless, refu- American students is the ability not only to “read the gees, migrant labor, sex trade workers, and others) world critically” but also to “change it when neces- that are regularly disappeared from view in the sary” (p. xxxiv). We may not be able to alter the mainstream press” (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012, immersive, intrusive corporate presence that per- p. 200). Closing the gap between access and partici- vades our digital media interactions, but by attempt- pation also requires allowing students to engage ing to understand the digital spaces we inhabit, we with different forms of digital association, commu- can reclaim our individual agency by changing the nity, and collective action in order to recognize and way we think about digital media. confront the structural injustices of a hypercommer- Kellner and Share’s (2005) model for critical cialized networked system. Only by acknowledging media literacy demands analysis of media codes and the necessity of these critical competencies and conventions, the ability to criticize dominant values bringing them fully into the public educational dis- and ideologies, and interpret multiple meanings and course can we shatter the illusion of choice and messages generated by media texts. As the wealth redefine the ways we think and act in a participatory gap continues to increase, we must interrogate the culture.

References and Further Readings Caumont, A. (2013). 12 trends shaping digital news. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/ Abowitz, K. (2000). A pragmatist revisioning of fact-tank/2013/10/16/12-trends-shaping-digital-news/ resistance theory. American Educational Research Drew, S. (2012). Open up the ceiling on the common Journal, 37(4), 877–907. core state standards: Preparing students for Anderson, C., & Wolff, M. (2010). The web is dead. Long 21st-century literacy—now. Journal of Adolescent & live the internet. Wired, 18(9), 118–135. Retrieved Adult Literacy, 56(4), 321–330. from http://www.wired.com/2010/08/ff_webrip Einstein, A. (1956/1995). Out of my later years. Benkler, Y. (2006). The wealth of networks: How social New York: Carol Publishing. production transforms markets and freedom. New Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected Haven, CT: Yale University Press. essays. New York, NY: Basic. Berman, J., & Weitzner, D. J. (1997). Technology and Gillette, F. (2011, June 22). The rise and inglorious fall of democracy. Social Research, 64(3), 1313–1319. Myspace. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved from Briggs, A., & Burke, P. (2009). Social history of the http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/ media: From Gutenberg to the internet. Malden, content/11_27/b4235053917570.htm MA: Polity. Giroux, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a Buchanan, L. (1995). Tapping the world’s knowledge: critical pedagogy of learning. Westport, CT: Usenet. Multimedia Schools, 2(4), 54–56. Bergin & Garvey. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning Giroux, H. (2011). On critical pedagogy. New York, NY: and contemporary culture. Malden, MA: Polity. Continuum. 18. Critical Media Literacy in the Digital Age –•–149

Healy, J. M. (1999). Endangered minds: Why children Morrissey, B. (2006). Facebook gives new face to online don’t think and what we can do about it. New York, ads. Brandweek, 47(36), 11. NY: Simon & Schuster. Peterson, T. (2013). What you need to know about Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing Google’s plan to replace cookies. Advertising Age, consent: The political economy of the mass media. 84(33), 8. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Pew Research Center. (2015, January). Social Media Hindman, M. (2009). The myth of digital democracy. Update 2014. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. .org/2015/01/09/social-media-update-2014/ Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the media. New York, NY: Rosenbush, S. (2006, November 1). Facebook’s changing Teachers College Press. fortunes. Businessweek Online. Retrieved from Hobbs, R. (2011). Digital and media literacy: Connecting http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2006-11-01/ culture and classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. facebooks-changing-fortunesbusinessweek-business- Hoechsmann, M., & Poyntz, S. (2012). Media literacies: news-stock-market-and-financial-advice A critical introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Sachs, J. (2012). The price of civilization: Reawakening Holahan, C. (2007, November 7). Facebook: Marketers American virtue and prosperity. New York, NY: are your ‘friends.’ Businessweek Online, p. 23. Random House. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and Schmookler, A. B. (1993). The illusion of choice: How new media collide. New York, NY: New York the market economy shapes our destiny. Albany, University Press. NY: State University of New York Press. Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Schwartz, E. I. (1994, January 1). Direct democracy: Are Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting the challenges of you ready for the democracy channel? Wired (2.01). a participatory culture: Media education for the 21st Retrieved from http://archive.wired.com/wired/ century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. archive/2.01/e.dem.html Johnston, C. (2000). Screened out: How the media controls us Stelzner, M. A. (2014). 2014 Social media marketing and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Routledge. industry report: How marketers are using social Kellner, D., & Share, J. (2005). Toward critical media media to grow their businesses. Retrieved from literacy: Core concepts, debates, organizations, and http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/ policy. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of SocialMediaMarketingIndustryReport2014.pdf Education, 26(3), 369–386. Taube, A. (2013). This one statistic explains why Google’s Kist, W. (2004). New literacies in action. New York, stock exploded through $1000 a share. Retrieved NY: Teachers College Press. from http://www.businessinsider.com/ Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. statistic-explains-why-googles-stock-exploded- New York, NY: Routledge. through-1000-a-share-2013-10 Kubey, R., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Television Taylor, A. (2014). The people’s platform: Taking back and passivity. Society, 28(1), 3. power and culture in the digital age. New York, Mandel, J. (1977). Four arguments for the elimination of NY: Metropolitan Books. television. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Vaidhyanathan, S. (2011). The Googlization of everything McChesney, R. W. (2013). Digital disconnect: How (And why we should worry). Berkeley, CA: capitalism is turning the internet against democracy. University of California Press. New York, NY: The New Press. Westen, T. (2000). E-democracy: Ready or not, here it McLuhan, M. (1962). The Gutenberg galaxy: The making comes. National Civic Review, 89(3), 217. of typographic man. Toronto, ON, Canada: Wilson, C. (2006). Consumer takes control. Telephony, University of Toronto Press. 247(18), 30–36. McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The Zickuhr, K. (2013, September 25). Who’s not online and extensions of man. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. why. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved McLuhan, M., & Fiore, Q. (1967). The medium is the from http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/ massage. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Non-internet-users.aspx

PART II

TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM 152–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

INTERLUDE

Introducing Part II: Teachers as Curriculum

The teacher is an important dimension or commonplace of curriculum; however, it cannot be comprehended in any full sense without perceiving its interrelationship with and dependence upon three other commonplaces (subject matter, learners or students, and milieu) along with the need to continuously rebalance the relationship among these four commonplaces in the deliberations of policy makers and educators. Thus, those involved in any educational situation must ask: How do teachers and the subject matter influence one another? How do the subject matters and the students affect one another? How does the milieu or environment have mutual influence with the subject matter? Moreover, how do teachers in any given setting influence each other? It is necessary, too, to realize that answers to these questions and others that flow from them are never final but always in the making. Further, it is important to ask, within the category of teachers, how subcategories of teachers influence each other. How, for instance, do teacher-activists or those engaged in pedagogy influence teacher deskilling or teacher bashing, or how does teacher bashing or deskilling curtail or fuel pedagogical orientations and activism? Similarly, how does the current emphasis on testing and evaluation influence teachers as cultural workers or as improvisational artists, and vice versa? How do all of the conceptions of teachers relate to teacher education? How do race, class, and gender influence teachers or how are race, class, and gender influenced by any of these conceptualizations of teachers? To what extent do you think teachers are, in fact, an embodiment of the curriculum? What other questions emerge for you as you read each of the chapters in Part II? 19

TEACHER AS CURRICULUM

CANDACE SCHLEIN University of Missouri–Kansas City

GRETCHEN SCHWARZ Baylor University

We teach who we are.

—Palmer, 2007, p. 1

o you remember a special teacher? When instruction in schools; why and by whom; and the asked this question, most people can look relationship among planned curricula, taught curri- Dback into their school days and answer “yes.” cula, and learned curricula. Dewey (1938) argued for What is remarkable in people’s descriptions of an the need to recognize the intertwining of experience important teacher is that they remember not the with education. If experience is indeed educational, teacher’s professional test scores; not the student’s then there is a need to deliberate over the experiences standardized test scores; not the benchmarks reached that teachers organize in classrooms for learning. in math or English; not the teacher’s impact on col- There is further a great need to uncover teachers’ own lege admission or getting a job. What is memorable is personal and professional experiences as a means of the person of the teacher in the classroom interacting uncovering the ways in which educators might with subject matter and students in varied contexts. impact student learning. In particular, narrative, in Plato, Comenius, and John Dewey, as well as great various modes, has evolved as a means for both religious figures like Christ and Buddha, all knew that inquiring about teachers and teaching curriculum and there is, in fact, no curriculum without the teacher. as a means of expression for teachers as curriculum. A perspective of the teacher as curriculum incor- porates an understanding of teachers’ crucial roles in shaping the curriculum that is lived out in schools Contemporary Concerns About among students, school administrators, parents and/ Teacher as Curriculum or caregivers, and other school community members. A focus on teacher as curriculum raises to the fore- Joseph Schwab (1962) declared the teacher to be front questions regarding what is planned for one of the four desiderata, or commonplaces, of the

153 154–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

curriculum, in terms of its making and its implemen- features of local curricular situations and interac- tation, alongside students, subject matter, and milieu. tions. They also bring their desires to contribute to In recent times, however, the teacher’s role has been communities. They might ask the following ques- under attack, especially in the United States. Teacher tions regarding improving teaching and learning in bashing, accountability, teacher testing, scripted cur- their classrooms and schools: How might lessons be riculum for teachers, and growing, exacting man- planned that include the needs and interests of their dates have dishonored, “deskilled” (Giroux, 2012, students? How might learning be maximized given p. 4), dismissed, and disheartened many teachers and the special emotional, behavioral, and academic limited students’ potential to “find a place in the needs of the increasingly diverse students in their educational sun” (Eisner, 2001, p. 372). Yet, a coun- classrooms? How might students’ own cultures and tertrend also exists—recognition that the teacher is a languages be respected and acknowledged in the cur- key part of not just how but what is taught, often riculum? How might parents and community mem- even indivisible from the school curriculum. bers participate in children’s learning in meaningful Who plans the curriculum? Who decides what ways? How might students maximize their learning students should learn? How do students learn new while juggling extracurricular, financial, and familial material? What relationship does schooling have responsibilities? with life? These questions point to the professional Teachers might also pose questions regarding the role of teachers with the curriculum. Nevertheless, overall success of the students in their charge. They recent trends in curriculum planning involve the might ask: What activities and materials are worth- resolution of curriculum decisions by education while for preparing students for future societal experts and others, often legislators, who are not participation? How can students best learn to be classroom practitioners. Moreover, increasing stan- independent and lifelong learners? What are possible dardization within the curriculum contributes to a connections between civic and moral education and narrowing vision of the work that educators do and schooling? Although teachers are focused on aiding the realms of possibilities for teachers’ selection of their students to achieve academic success, the ques- materials and activities. As a result, teachers are seen tions they ask reach across broader goals that point to more and more as workers who are engaged in the the personal, moral, and civic well-being of pupils. business of transmitting predefined knowledge Teachers can and must respond to students as whole through a set of approved means, merely delivery human beings. people. Understanding the teacher as curriculum requires Policy makers in recent years, in response to the making sense of and accounting for the perspectives perceived failures of the schools and the cry for edu- and questions of policy makers, teachers, students, cation as the national economic panacea, seem and family members and/or caregivers, among oth- primarily concerned with student achievement, espe- ers. The questions that are outlined in this section cially as evidenced on standardized tests. Moreover, shed light on some of the multiple layers of the cur- policy makers concerned with the curriculum see riculum in contemporary classrooms; much more is problems with teaching and learning as centered at stake than test scores. The task of the teacher as around teachers. Thus, the itemization of numerous curriculum is complex, interactive, multidimensional, and specific standards, increasing standardization in and personal. teaching, and testing through standardized tests are promoted as answers for enhancing student academic success. The primary question of these policy makers Context of Teacher as Curriculum seems to be: How can schools be held accountable for test scores? Controversy has long surrounded teachers and teach- Teachers, on the other hand, bring to classrooms a ing, but criticism has been ongoing and especially wealth of knowledge and experience that might intense since the A Nation at Risk report (National shape positive learning environments for students. Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), Teachers have knowledge of subject matter, of teach- through the enactment of the federal No Child Left ing, and of their own students and other contextual Behind Act, and now with the Obama administration’s 19. Teacher as Curriculum–•–155

Race to the Top grant program, which prompted some Theory of Teacher as Curriculum states to use test scores to evaluate teachers. Teachers have been portrayed as the major cause of curriculum Teachers and curriculum were not always thought of that lacks rigor and, in fact, the cause of decline of as two separate and distinct entities. The Institutio public education in the United States. Oratoria of Quintilian (1980), for example, grows Standardized test scores have become the ultimate from the personal knowledge and experiences of curricular goal; an effort to measure teacher success Quintilian, who in first-century Rome “met with by student test scores is referred to as “value-added.” great success as a teacher and was the first rhetori- The traditional value of the teacher as thinker and cian to set up a genuine public school and to receive creator of curriculum who constantly seeks to meet a salary from the state” (p. vii). Quintilian was both student needs has all but evaporated. Henry Giroux teacher and curriculum. The teacher was the wise, captured the situation by stating, “But this role of able person from whom one could learn philosophy, teachers, as both caretakers and engaged intellectu- one’s trade, and much else. The teacher was and als, has been severely restricted by the imposition of remains a model, the exemplar of the curriculum in a stripped–down curriculum that actually disdains action. Obviously, the teacher is a key part of the creative teacher work while relegating teachers to the hidden curriculum (Jackson, 1990), the sense of val- status of clerks” (2012, p. 3). Giroux argued that the ues and moral contract that exist in schools. What the current status of teachers is the result of a business teacher knows and does matters; it also matters who model of education advocated by politicians wishing the teacher is. to privatize public education. Moreover, a professional argument for the teacher The mass media can be charged with responsibil- as curriculum has been constructed over the years via ity as well. Somehow, much of the American public shifting views on the roles and duties of educators has simply come to accept the general devaluing of among educators and policy makers in the United teachers, teacher education, and even the notion of States. In The Curriculum (1918), generally seen as “authentic” teacher development. Teachers are not the first textbook on curriculum, Franklin Bobbitt seen as trusted professionals. At the same time, many argues for the need for teachers to take on the role of would speak well of the teachers they know at their curriculum discoverer. This responsibility of teach- own children’s schools. Nevertheless, results of the ers includes observations of real tasks in authentic devaluing of teachers nationwide have included contexts, the identification of learning objectives increased bureaucracy, insufficient school funding necessary for students to acquire to complete such (and in some states, such as Texas, reduced school tasks, and the creation of learning activities that are funding, when increased enrollment and inflation are aimed at correcting knowledge incorrectly learned taken into account), significant teacher layoffs, and informally. This early view of teachers acknowl- low morale. The problem of attrition among teachers edges the connection between student learning and remains great, as well, with 50% of teachers leaving teachers who were expected to select and facilitate the profession in just the first 5 years (Craig, 2014). the curriculum. Compounding the burden of ongoing attacks on Dewey (1938) positioned his view of curriculum teachers are the factors making education in the on students’ needs and interests, yet teachers were United States increasingly complex. The demograph- critical for ensuring that the curriculum captured and ics are changing as historically underrepresented expanded upon such student interest and perceived groups grow and more students enter school speak- needs. At the same time, Jane Addams (1908) high- ing a language other than English. School funding lighted the great significance for educators to include remains severely limited and vastly unequal. Tech- the cultures of students in the curriculum as a means nology changes daily. The economy is uncertain. of fostering especially immigrant students and to Yet, teachers, perhaps more than anyone, encounter build bridges between the school and the family. Her these issues constantly in the faces of their students. view on teachers focuses on teachers as leaders of the Teachers are vital to a meaningful curriculum when curriculum, with students and family or community they are allowed to act as professionals who plan, members as vital resources available for teachers in enact, assess, and revise curriculum. their work with curriculum. 156–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

In the 1960s, during the Sputnik era, curriculum the need for diversity within the curriculum. Christine again became a major public issue and the curricu- Sleeter and Jamy Stillman (2005) displayed how lum moved out of the purview of teachers. Instead, standardized curricula might further institutionalize so-called subject matter experts in mathematics and narrow conceptions of valid knowledge, exclude science were sought out for the purpose of creating a multicultural perspectives, and support a dualistic curriculum that would enable youths to excel in these view of society between members of the majority areas as a means of fighting against the perceived culture and all others. Furthermore, Elaine Chan Communist threat (Franklin & Johnson, 2008). This (2006) examined how teachers might create the perspective served to ignore teachers as central to curriculum in accordance with their experiences of curriculum. This discipline-centered view of curricu- culture with students, while Candace Schlein (2009) lum further overlooked students’ individual needs and Ming Fang He (2003) explored the effects of and the contexts of teaching and learning. intercultural knowledge and experience on teachers’ Schwab (1969) famously declared the state of the curriculum interactions. In the face of growing field of curriculum studies to be dying due to an diversity and cross-cultural movement in schools overreliance on theories about curriculum and the worldwide, teachers remain prime commonplaces of use of experts outside of classrooms to decide the the curriculum who are necessary for mediating and curriculum. He called for a need for a practical vision enhancing curricula that embrace all students. of curriculum that focused on real, rather than ideal- In contrast to the body of work underlining the ized, aspects of classroom life as a major source for teacher as curriculum, various national reports and curriculum planning. Moreover, he recognized the books over the years have called for overhauling edu- teacher as one of the main agents of the curriculum, cation; both state and federal mandates have resulted. and he argued for the need to include teachers in all Once again the planning and control of the curriculum curriculum deliberations. has shifted out of the hands of teachers in favor of Several students of Schwab have been responsible standards and standardization by nonpractitioners and for turning a practical lens on the curriculum, which politicians and business leaders. Nevertheless, many further served to cast a view of teacher as curriculum maintain that teachers are essential to curriculum. through the image of teachers as makers of the curriculum (Craig & Ross, 2008). For example, F. Michael Connelly and D. Jean Clandinin (1988) Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression created the metaphor of “teachers as curriculum planners” to counter curriculum that is pushed Forms of Inquiry About Teachers through teachers and schools via a conduit. Instead, as Curriculum the authors saw teachers as planning the curriculum There are numerous forms of inquiry that support in response to their personal practical knowledge of the view of the teacher as curriculum. Lawrence teaching, subject matter, students, and schools. This Stenhouse in the United Kingdom initiated action knowledge is brought about through the experience research as a form of investigation conducted by and of teaching and by formal study of teaching. In other for educators. Within the action research tradition of words, teachers greatly affect the curriculum, and inquiry, teachers undertake studies that are rooted in they work alongside students and others on curricu- their practices and areas of interest among students. lum landscapes to shape curricular situations and As such, action research enables teachers to claim interactions in context. This standpoint on teachers agency in their classrooms as knowers of the curricu- and the curriculum is critical, as it recognizes teach- lum and of pedagogy who develop the curriculum on ers as having practical and formal knowledge of an ongoing basis in relation to inquiry findings. teaching, of students, and of subject matter content Paulo Freire focused on the teacher in Pedagogy of (Fenstermacher, 1994). If teachers are seen as pos- Freedom (1998). He declared of himself as teacher: sessing knowledge, then they are the professionals responsible for professional decisions and actions. I teach because I search, because I question, and In addition, globalization and diversification of because I submit myself to questioning. I research both teacher and student populations has highlighted because I notice things, take cognizance of them. . . . 19. Teacher as Curriculum–•–157

I do research so as to know what I do not yet know and guiding beliefs, share approaches, relate consequences to communicate and proclaim what I discover. (p. 35) of their teaching, offer aspects of their philosophy of teaching and provide recommendation for educational Narratives highlighting teachers as researchers are policy makers. (p. 9) further important sources of inquiry about teachers as curriculum. For example, the works of Vivian Gussin Teacher lore comes with a variety of purposes and Paley (1995, 2000) outline her own efforts at under- in various media, from the personal journal of a new standing and improving teaching and learning in her teacher struggling through the first year to the por- early childhood education classroom. Other teacher trait of the heroic teacher in novels and Hollywood narratives undertake a social justice orientation, such movies. Teacher lore can be fiction or nonfiction; it as Brian Schultz’s (2008) Spectacular Things Happen can range from brief true accounts of teachers to Along the Way, where he examines his interactions whole fictions. Teacher lore can be memoir, autobi- with diverse and urban students within the frame of a ography, biography, case study, anecdote, or essay. civic education student-led project. Ming Fang He Its history is ancient, but only relatively recently has and JoAnn Phillion’s work (2008) on personal, pas- the value of teacher lore been argued in the academic sionate, and participatory inquiry is another important world. area of this body of work. The idea of teacher as curriculum is captured and The narrative inquiry tradition shaped by Clandinin encouraged in teacher lore that engenders ongoing and Connelly (2000) is a form of research that reflection. Furthermore, teacher lore aids teachers to acknowledges the interaction of teachers and stu- gain new understandings of and to ameliorate their dents’ experiences as the curriculum that is lived out practices (Schwarz & Alberts, 1998). After writing in schools. Significant areas of research under the about a failed classroom lesson, a teacher may umbrella of narrative inquiry include Phillion’s develop with his or her supervisor professional goals (2002a, 2002b) and Chan’s (2006) research on narra- and means of accomplishing those goals as part of a tive multiculturalism, and Betty Eng’s (2008), He’s narrative-based teacher evaluation program (Wood, (2002, 2005), and Schlein’s (2009, 2010, 2014) stud- 1992). Discussions of teacher films and books, such ies of cross-cultural teaching and learning. Narrative as Michie’s Holler If You Hear Me (1999), may serve inquiry further includes the incorporation of various as the initial content of collaborative professional modes of expression, such as poetry (Li, 1998), development, as described by Gretchen Schwarz and dream stories (Schlein, 2007), and metaphor Joye Alberts (1998, pp. 127–132). An educator may (Kitchen, 2011). write autobiography or read it in order to understand aspects of schooling. William Pinar (2004), who has enacted an autobiographical approach to curriculum, Modes of Expression About Teachers says, too: “The educational task is to take the cover as Curriculum stories we as Americans tell ourselves and look to the back pages. We must teach what the cover stories Parker Palmer, in his personal account of teaching— hide, exposing and problematizing the ‘hidden The Courage to Teach (2007)—asked, “How can the curriculum’ ” (p. 39). teacher’s selfhood become a legitimate topic in edu- Being validated as knowers is also important, cation and in our public dialogues on educational especially in a time when teachers are so easily dis- reform?” (p. 3). Palmer includes the notion of teacher missed. Teacher lore can also confirm a teacher’s as curriculum in the book, which examines the teach- own reasons for creating a constructivist curriculum, er’s selfhood in relation to the practice of teaching such as Ayers does in his memoir, To Teach: The based on teacher lore. William Schubert and William Journey of a Teacher (2010, 3rd ed.). A curriculum Ayers (1992) define teacher lore as follows: scholar may be inspired by the poetic, scholarly, many-layered study of self and curriculum in Hongyu Teacher lore includes stories about and by teachers. It Wang’s The Call From the Stranger on a Journey portrays and interprets ways in which teachers deliber- ate and reflect and it portrays teachers in action. Home: Curriculum in a Third Space (2004). Policy Teacher lore refers to knowledge, ideas, insights, feel- makers, too, can certainly learn much from the frank ings, and understandings of teachers as they reveal their teacher account of actor and temporary teacher Tony 158–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Danza (2012), which challenges many current school about the value of students’ own cultures and practices and mandated curriculum reforms. languages in school and in society. The teacher as curriculum asks these questions along with students or attends carefully to those questions that might be Conclusion: The Curriculum spoken or silenced in order to ensure that students are Is a Living Experience curricular beneficiaries. Curriculum, as dynamic and complex experience, should not be legislated by The curriculum is not a static entity. In fact, under- governments, prescribed by policy makers, insisted taking a perspective of the teacher as curriculum upon by corporate interests, or evaluated by stan- includes acknowledging that the curriculum is a liv- dardized tests. ing experience. The curriculum is what happens in The era of heightened curriculum standardization classrooms among teachers and students. It is shaped limits the enactment of the teacher as curriculum, by teachers with students in connection with their especially in terms of formally accounting for stu- experiences, interests, and interactions. Understand- dents’ cultural needs. The potential cultural homog- ing the teacher as curriculum is especially important enization of the curriculum might lead to questions for ensuring that schools are equitable and socially by students’ family members or caregivers. They just learning environments. might ask: How can their home cultures be supported Culture is a critical aspect of teaching and learn- in public schools? How might their customs, values, ing. When students do not recognize their own cul- and religious beliefs be promoted and not subordi- tures in the curriculum, they might ask questions nated through the curriculum? How can parents and/ about their own cultures in relation to the majority or caregivers include their voices about the curricu- culture. They might ask: Why are all the names in lum? Understanding the teacher as curriculum is textbooks and classroom materials English or important for including the voices of all curriculum European? Why are there so few children of color in stakeholders. Finally, in a time when teaching has textbooks? Why are halal foods not offered in become more difficult, the vital role of the teacher as, schools? Why is there school on the Lunar New in, and with the curriculum must become paramount. Year? Such questions might overlay hidden concerns Human relationships lie at the heart of learning.

References and Further Readings M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of curriculum and instruction (pp. 282–305). Addams, J. (1908). The public school and the immigrant Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. child. National Education Association Proceedings Danza, T. (2012). I’d like to apologize to every teacher and Addresses, 99–102. I ever had. New York, NY: Crown. Bobbitt, F. (1918). The curriculum. Cambridge, MA: Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, The Riverside Press. NY: Simon & Schuster. Chan, E. (2006). Teacher experiences of culture in the Eisner, E. (2001). What does it mean to say a school is curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 38(2), doing well? Phi Delta Kappan, 82(5), 367–372. 161–176. Eng, B. C. (2008). Narratives of experience: Crossing Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative cultures, crossing identities. In T. Huber-Warring inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative (Ed.), Growing a soul for social change: Building research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. the knowledge base for social justice (pp. 27–43). Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. curriculum planners: Narratives of experience. Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). The knower and the known: New York, NY: Teachers College Press. The nature of knowledge in research on teaching. In Craig, C. J. (2014). From stories of staying to stories of L. Darling-Hammond (Ed.), Review of research in leaving: A U.S. beginning teacher’s experience. education, Part I (pp. 3–56). Washington, DC: Journal of Curriculum Studies, 46(1), 81–115. American Educational Research Association. Craig, C. J., & Ross, V. (2008). Cultivating the image of Franklin, B. M., & Johnson, C. C. (2008). What the teachers as curriculum makers. In F. M. Connelly, schools teach: A social history of the American 19. Teacher as Curriculum–•–159

curriculum since 1950. In F. M. Connelly, Phillion, J. (2002b). Narrative multiculturalism. Journal M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of Curriculum Studies, 34(3), 265–279. of curriculum and instruction (pp. 460–477). Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? Mahwah, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom. Lanham, MD: Quintilian. (Ed.). (1980). The Institutio Oratoria of Rowman & Littlefield. Quintilian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Giroux, H. A. (2012). Education and the crisis of public Schlein, C. (2007). (Un)learning to teach: A narrative values. New York, NY: Peter Lang. inquiry into the experiences of Canadian teacher- He, M. F. (2002). A narrative inquiry of cross-cultural returnees from Northeast Asia (Unpublished doctoral lives: Lives in the North American academy. Journal dissertation). Ontario Institute for Studies in of Curriculum Studies, 34(5), 513–533. Education of the University of Toronto, ON, Canada. He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural Schlein, C. (2009). Exploring novice teachers’ lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. experiences with intercultural curriculum. Journal of Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Curriculum Theorizing, 25(33), 22–33. He, M. F. (2005). In-between China and North America. Schlein, C. (2010). Resonating effects of cross-cultural In T. R. Berry & N. D. Mizelle (Eds.), From teaching. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 12(2), oppression to grace: Women of color and their 153–175. dilemmas within the academy (pp. 68–76). Sterling, Schlein, C. (2014). The possibilities of intercultural VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC. teaching experiences for teaching for social justice. He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (Eds.). (2008). Personal- In S. Sharma, J. Rahatza, & J. Phillion (Eds.), passionate-participatory inquiry into social justice in Internationalizing teacher education for social education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. justice: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 119–136). Jackson, P. W. (1990). Life in classrooms. New York, Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. NY: Teachers College Press. Schubert, W. H., & Ayers, W. C. (Eds.). (1992). Teacher Kitchen, J. (2011). Imagining and re-imagining our lore: Learning from our own experience. New York, students and ourselves: Using metaphor to story the NY: Longman. experiences of teacher candidates and teacher Schultz, B. D. (2008). Spectacular things happen along educators. In J. Kitchen, D. C. Parker, & D. Pushor the way: Lessons from an urban classroom. (Eds.), Narrative inquiries into curriculum making in New York, NY: Teachers College Press. teacher education (pp. 109–128). Bingley, UK: Schwab, J. J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. Emerald. In J. J. Schwab & P. Brandwein (Eds.), The teaching Li, X. (1998). Becoming an intersubjective self: Teacher of science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University knowing through Chinese women immigrants’ Press. knotting of language, poetry, and culture Schwab, J. J. (1969). The practical: A language for (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Ontario Institute curriculum. School Review, 78, 1–23. for Studies in Education of the University of Schwarz, G., & Alberts, J. (Eds.). (1998). Teacher lore Toronto, ON, Canada. and professional development for school reform. Michie, G. (1999). Holler if you hear me: The education Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. of a teacher and his students. New York, NY: Sleeter, C., & Stillman, J. (2005). Standardizing Teachers College Press. knowledge in a multicultural society. Curriculum National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). Inquiry, 35(1), 27–46. A nation at risk: The imperative for educational U.S. Department of Education. (2009). Race to the Top reform. Retrieved from http://datacenter.spps.org/ assessment program. Retrieved from http://www2 uploads/SOTW_A_Nation_at_Risk_1983.pdf .ed.gov/programs/racetothetop-assessment/index.html Paley, V. G. (1995). Kwanzaa and me: A teacher’s story. U.S. Department of Education. (2010). A blueprint for Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. reform: The reauthorization of the Elementary and Paley, V. G. (2000). White teacher. Cambridge, MA: Secondary Education Act. Retrieved from http:// Harvard University Press. www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/ Palmer, P. (2007). The courage to teach. San Francisco, Wang, H. (2004). The call from the stranger on a journey CA: Jossey-Bass. home. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Phillion, J. (2002a). Narrative inquiry in a multicultural Wood, D. R. (1992). Teaching narratives: A source for landscape: Multicultural teaching and learning. faculty development and evaluation. Harvard Westport, CT: Ablex. Educational Review, 62(4), 535–550. 20

TEACHERS AS ACTIVISTS

CRYSTAL T. L AURA Chicago State University

AISHA EL-AMIN University of Illinois at Chicago

n intuitive approach to this chapter would be and forms of inquiry that grapple with what the phrase to pounce on commonly accepted, yet nar- might suggest. Arowly defined, definitions of teacher activist that conjure images of fist-pumping call-and- response marchers with picket signs and union cards. Contemporary Concerns and Contexts Being teachers in Chicago—a space many refer to as of Teachers as Activists the epicenter of educational reform and resistance— we, the authors, resonate with these vivid images. Historically, U.S. schools serve specific public goals Yet, for two related reasons, we have deliberately that teachers are instrumental in reaching. These chosen to explore a broader conception of teachers as goals can be broken down into three broad activists. The first reason is tactical, as this guide is categories—political, social, and economic (Spring, geared toward an audience of newcomers to the field 2013). For the political goal, teachers are asked to of curriculum, and we want to avoid giving off the indoctrinate patriotic citizens and prepare future wrong impression. The second reason is practical: leaders. The social goal of public education asks There is some dissension, even between us, about teachers to cultivate students into responsible what activism is, exactly. Does it happen inside or law-abiding citizens. The economic goal of public outside of classrooms, or both? Is it an individual or education in the United States commands teachers to a collective activity, or both? Is a teacher an activist prepare students for the labor force and the free mar- whenever resources and opportunities of the profes- ket (Spring, 2013). However, teacher activists, who sion are leveraged for social change? What if teacher most consider a different kind of teacher, go about activism is quietly kept? Do less recognizable forms addressing these goals in unique ways. of opposition count? Most scholars cannot agree on Teacher activists are teachers who work toward responses to these questions, and neither do we. socially just transformational change both inside and In this chapter, we offer some useful generaliza- outside of the classroom (Giroux, 1988; McLaren, tions about teachers as activists, including contempo- 2003; Picower, 2012). The politics of transformational rary concerns and contexts, theoretical frameworks, change require challenging dominant interests and

160 20. Teachers as Activists–•–161

the beliefs and practices that sustain power in every- teacher activists proselytize and are too radical, too day life (Cunningham, Findlay, Kadar, Lennon, & political. To that concern, teacher activists would say Silva, 1988). This change is not bound to, or defined something akin to what Patricia Hinchey (2008) by, the images of chaotic rabble-rousing demonstra- articulated: “There is no such thing as a politically tions that the word activist may invoke in some. neutral school; and, there is no such thing as a politi- Instead, teacher activists are charged with being cally neutral teacher. The question is not whether politically astute educators. Their work calls them to particular ideologies are being promoted, but which contribute to equity in outcomes for students, schools, ones are—and how well we like them” (p. 115). and the wider community in metamorphic ways. Therefore, an activist orientation forms when educa- tors understand their practice and themselves in rela- Theory of Teachers as Activists tionship to the society in which they live and work (Bottery, 1996). Given these sociopolitical contexts, it is reasonable Understandings of teacher activism are centered to wonder why teacher activists engage in this kind on issues of equity, access, oppression, and power. of work. Our answer borrows from sociologist However, teacher activism is not a body of literature C. Wright Mills (2000): “One’s life experiences feed in and of itself. Instead it draws on multiple fields, one’s intellectual work” (p. 200). Teacher activists such as critical and culturally relevant pedagogies do not see a neat split between their work and their and antioppressive, antiracist education while most lives. They take both too seriously to allow such closely relating to social justice education (Picower, separation, and they want to use each for the enrich 2012). These bodies of literature are the grounding ment of the other. for teacher activists to “examine matters of impor- Teacher activists draw on a wide range of frame- tance to them, to ask why things are the way they are, works such as multiculturalism; critical theories; to analyze who benefits most from the status quo, theories of care, spirituality, and love; multidimen- and to explore possibilities for changing conditions sional ethical theory; and theories of participatory they don’t like” (Hinchey, 2008, pp. 122–123). democracy and antioppressive education to make The idea of teachers as activists can come with a sense of and reconcile the duality of their lives and sense of discomfort for the one who proclaims the work. Michael E. Dantley and Linda C. Tillman title and for the one who stands witness to such a (2010) captured many of these theoretical lenses with proclamation. Teachers, and those who come to five specific characteristics that clarify the definition, know teachers in their simplest form, find comfort in application, and requirements of teachers as activists: teachers in their formally and informally assigned (1) a consciousness of the broader social, cultural, roles as a mentor, a parent, a guide on the side, a sage and political contexts of schools; (2) the critique of on the stage, a counselor. However, in the current era the marginalizing behaviors and predispositions of of standardization, accountability, and corporate- schools and their leadership; (3) a commitment to the style schooling, the word activist often triggers an more genuine enactment of democratic principles in accelerated heartbeat and audible sigh. Because of schools; (4) a moral obligation to articulate a coun- these reactions, teacher activists often find them- tervision or narrative of hope regarding education; selves on the defensive with colleagues or supervi- and (5) a determination to move from rhetoric to civil sors for paying too much attention to happenings rights activism. What teacher activists are after is outside the classroom, presumably at the expense of social justice. what is going on inside it. Nevertheless, teacher Teacher activists might be considered what some activists continue to forge ahead despite the grum- call transformative or public intellectuals. Public blings, relying on their understandings of the inextri- intellectuals recognize the demanding labor of cable nature of inside/outside class occurrences and pushing back on institutions that help to maintain the interplay of their richness to add real-world the social, political, and economic status quo. They context for teaching and authentic learning. Other are compelled to engage these issues anyway on the stakeholders in the teaching profession—politicians basis of a particular principle assumed to be universal: and policy makers, for example—may claim that “that all human beings are entitled to expect decent 162–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

standards of behavior concerning freedom and jus- and strategies. Kevin Kumashiro, Against Common tice from worldly powers or nations, and that deliber- Sense (2009); Ladson-Billings and Tate, Education ate or inadvertent violations of these standards need Research in the Public Interest (2006); and Marshall to be testified and fought against courageously” and Oliva, Leadership for Social Justice (2010) (Said, 1994, pp. 11–12). There are no hard-and-fast would help teacher activists to navigate the con- rules to follow in expressing this commitment—in straints and possibilities of justice work. William either overt or less recognizable ways. But as public Ayers, Teaching Toward Freedom (2004b) and intellectuals, teacher activists take on a responsibility Teaching the Personal and the Political (2004a); “to raise embarrassing questions, to confront ortho- Rick Ayers and William Ayers, Teaching the Taboo doxy and dogma (rather than to produce them), to be (2011); William Ayers, Jean Ann Hunt, and Therese someone who cannot easily be co-opted by govern- Quinn, Teaching for Social Justice (1998); William ments or corporations, and whose raison d’etre is to Ayers, Kevin Kumashiro, Erica Meiners, Therese represent all those people and issues that are rou- Quinn, and David Stovall, Teaching Toward tinely forgotten or swept under the rug” (p. 12). The Democracy (2010); and bell hooks, Teaching to core of activist teaching and inquiry “must be human Transgress (1994), Teaching Community (2003), and knowledge and human freedom, both enlightenment Teaching Critical Thinking (2010) would invite and emancipation” (Ayers, 2006, p. 87). At the bot- teacher activists to consider the core of inquiry to be tom of this is a recognition that education can and “human knowledge and human freedom, both should be for enlightenment and liberation. enlightenment and emancipation” (Ayers, 2006, However it is defined, in order for teachers to p. 87). Across these texts, the personal essay is a meaningfully ground their work in activism, certain privileged mode of expression, or what distinguished resources are necessary. Catherine Marshall and essayist Phillip Lopate (1995) appropriately called Maricela Oliva (2010) argue that teachers “need “a mode of thinking and being” (p. xlii). strategies, revolutionary ones in some contexts, for “At the core of the personal essay,” Lopate (1995) rethinking and taking leadership for social practices noted in The Art of the Personal Essay, “is the sup- to better meet diverse students’ needs. Also educa- position that there is a certain unity in human experi- tors need the language to translate intellectual con- ence” (p. xxiii). In contrast to the formal essay, the texts into practice and experiential understandings. personal essay is characterized by informality, an They need guidance, encouragement, examples, and intimate style, autobiographical content, and a con- support to practice leading discussions with commu- versational tone. The author of a personal essay nity groups and politicians” (p. 4). They also need “seems to be speaking directly into your ear, confid- scholarship, large bodies of interdisciplinary research ing everything from gossip to wisdom,” telling about to lean on for sustenance and perspective. himself and, to some degree, about all of us (p. xxiii). For example, Ayers (2001/2010) opened To Teach with this: Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression Why teach? And why teach now? Hasn’t anyone told A long tradition of inquiry for social justice has been you not to teach—and mentioned, by the way, that strengthened over the past 2 decades by a purposeful teaching is excruciatingly hard work and that you will never receive the pay or the community respect you focus on teachers and their activism. Much recent will so richly deserve? Why do you persist? (p. 1) writing has combined philosophical, historical, and narrative musings about teacher activists in practice. Ayers (2001/2010) broached an answer by ex - For instance, William Ayers, To Teach (2001/2010); plaining why he writes—confessing sheer egoism, Lisa Delpit, Other People’s Children (1995/2006); aesthetic enthusiasm, historical impulse, and political Herb Kohl, I Won’t Learn From You (1993); Gregory purpose—and drawing parallels between the urgency Michie, Holler If You Hear Me (1999/2009); Vivian of teaching and of writing in this particular moment, Paley, White Teacher (1979/2000); and Therese all before tacking back and forth from exploring the Quinn and Erica Meiners, Flaunt It! (2010) would contested space of schools to revisiting his own jour- assist teacher activists to know about the conditions ney in them. There is a disarming accessibility in the 20. Teachers as Activists–•–163

personal essay that is befitting of teacher activists and sharing—programs, policies, and strategies for and rare in academic papers. Quotations and other how to do and proliferate activist teaching. learning are used sparingly and strategically to lend Of course, there is also a wider audience for just enough scholarly authority to implicit arguments teacher lore (Schubert & Ayers, 1992). The audience building underneath without compromising original- includes students, parents, community members, ity or overshadowing the essayist’s voice. For Lopate educational technocrats, and policy makers with the (1995), the personal essay has “always distanced purse strings and institutional power to act upon what itself from the scholarly treatise” (p. xlii), requiring they have read: small local stories written to shed an unorthodox set of essential conditions: honesty, light on and shape something big. Such forms of fairness, vulnerability, pleasurable literary style, for- inquiry and modes of expression, and others that we mal shapeliness, and intellectual sustenance. In other have not explored (e.g., social media), deepen our words, a good personal essay tells a good story. knowledge of epistemologies, frameworks, and Easy reading notwithstanding, an emphasis on possibilities for activist teaching. stories in scholarship about teacher activists is a This brief chapter paints with broad brush strokes thoughtful political tactic. For example, Quinn and a picture of teachers as activists. We have presented Meiners (2010) cited three reasons for writing Flaunt an overview of scholarly discourse about the defin- It!: (1) to document their participatory research on ing characteristics of teacher activists, including the effects of privatized education on queers; (2) to contemporary concerns and relevant contexts, archive evidence of queer existence; and (3) to theories, and forms of inquiry. It is worth noting, in chronicle both their activism within the teaching pro- conclusion, that the term teacher activists is some- fession and also “the feelings that fuel and can guide times conflated with the expression “social justice it as research” (p. 12). Flaunt It! reveals snapshots of educators.” Much like the discord about the meaning teacher activists at work, exploring the contradictions of activism, a number of distinctions can arguably be of their perspectives with that of the mainstream and made between “teacher activists” and “social justice providing practical suggestions for ways to enact and educators,” specifically in terms of the extent and sustain personal commitments to social justice in nature of out-of-school activities for change. We education. Because the scholarship about teacher have not found utility in making such a demarcation, activists is typically written by teacher activists and nor did we intend to advance arguments on either oftentimes in support or recruitment of teacher side. Instead, we provide an introductory explanation activists, there is an emphasis on the spirit of coop- of who teacher activists are, what they do, how eration, learning from each other steps and missteps, and why.

References and Further Readings Ayers, R., & Ayers, W. (2011). Teaching the taboo: Courage and imagination in the classroom. Ayers, W. (2001/2010). To teach: The journey of a teacher New York, NY: Teachers College Press. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Ayers, W., Hunt, J. A., & Quinn, T. (Eds.). (1998). Ayers, W. (2004a). Teaching the personal and the Teaching for social justice: A democracy and political: Essays on hope and justice. New York, NY: education reader. New York, NY: The New Press. Teachers College Press. Ayers, W., Kumashiro, K., Meiners, E., Quinn, T., & Ayers, W. (2004b). Teaching toward freedom: Moral Stovall, D. (2010). Teaching toward democracy: commitment and ethical action in the classroom. Educators as agents of change. Boulder, CO: New York, NY: Beacon. Paradigm Publishers. Ayers, W. C. (2006). Trudge toward freedom: Educational Bottery, M. (1996). The challenge to professionals from research in the public interest. the new public management: Implications for the In G. Ladson-Billings & W. F. Tate (Eds.), Education teaching profession. Oxford Review of Education, research in the public interest: Social justice, action 22(2), 179–197. and policy (pp. 81–97). New York, NY: Teachers Cunningham, F., Findlay, S., Kadar, M., Lennon, A., & College Press. Silva, E. (1988). Social movements/social 164–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

change: The politics and practice of organizing. Lopate, P. (1995). The art of the personal essay: Toronto, ON, Canada: Between the Lines. An anthology from the classical era to the present. Dantley, M. E., & Tillman, L. C. (2010). Social justice New York, NY: Anchor Books. and moral transformative leadership. In C. Marshall Marshall, C., & Oliva, M. (2010). Leadership for social & M. Oliva (Eds.), Leadership for social justice: justice: Making revolutions in education. Upper Making revolutions in education (pp. 19–34). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. McLaren, P. (2003). Critical pedagogy: A look at the Delpit, L. (1995/2006). Other people’s children: Cultural major concepts. In A. Darder, M. Baltodano, & conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: New Press. R. Torres (Eds.), The critical pedagogy reader Giroux, H. A. (1988). Schooling and the struggle for (pp. 69–96). New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer. public life: Critical pedagogy in the modern age. Michie, G. (1999/2009). Holler if you hear me: Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. The education of a teacher and his students Hinchey, P. H. (2008). Becoming a critical educator: (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Defining a classroom identity, designing a critical Press. pedagogy. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Mills, C. W. (2000). The sociological imagination. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. the practice of freedom. New York, NY: Routledge. Paley, V. G. (1979/2000). White teacher. Cambridge, hooks, b. (2003). Teaching community: A pedagogy of MA: Harvard University Press. hope. New York, NY: Routledge. Picower, B. (2012). Practice what you teach: Social hooks, b. (2010). Teaching critical thinking: Practical justice education in the classroom and the streets wisdom. New York, NY: Routledge. (Vol. 13). New York, NY: Routledge. Kohl, H. (1993). I won’t learn from you: The role of Quinn, T., & Meiners, E. R. (2010). Flaunt it!: Queers assent in learning. Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed organizing for public education and justice. Editions. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Kumashiro, K. K. (2009). Against common sense: Said, E. W. (1994). Representations of the intellectual. Teaching and learning toward social justice. New York, NY: Vintage Books. New York, NY: Routledge. Schubert, W. H., & Ayers, W. (Eds.). (1992). Teacher Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (Eds.). (2006). lore: Learning from our own experience. New York, Education research in the public interest: Social NY: Longman. justice, action, and policy. New York, NY: Teachers Spring, J. (2013). American education. New York, NY: College Press. McGraw-Hill. 21

TEACHERS AND PEDAGOGY FOR COMMUNAL WELL-BEING

NATHALIA E. JARAMILLO Kennesaw State University

ince the onset of formal, primarily Western, Education has played a central role in the forma- systems of education, teaching has been tion of societies and evolving conceptions of nation- Sinformed by a set of social relations that are hood for millennia. It is firmly linked to the identity deeply imbedded in a colonial–capitalist history and of a nation and forms part of what Louis Althusser legacy. The first schools to emerge in the United (1971) called “ideological state apparatus” (p. 143). States, for example, overtly implemented differenti- The institution of schooling is integral to producing ated and exclusionary curricula and instructional the overarching belief systems, values, and social practices to reproduce a stratified social order. An and economic practices of a nation. Althusser, like elite pedagogy based on the “classics” was offered to the historical–materialist thinkers who preceded him, the sons of the upper classes, whereas young girls, argued that children learned basic techniques and indigenous people, immigrants, and the children of knowledge in schools to prepare them for work in slaves were either excluded from education alto- society. In addition, schools transmitted the rules of gether or forcibly assimilated into their predeter- good conduct, morality, respect, and civic and pro- mined roles as housewives, domestic servants, or fessional conscience (Althusser, 1971). In other laborers. Those early days of reproducing social words, education was about the reproduction of roles (in sociological terms, social reproduction) and skills, habits of mind, and forms of orderly conduct systems of classification established the foundation required by class domination in capitalist society. for a global education system that would carry the History teaches us that in capitalist society there seeds of control and indoctrination, but would also are those who accumulate wealth, those who live in develop into an emancipatory space replete with dire poverty, and another segment of the population possibilities. One of those possibilities is the devel- who fall somewhere in between. Within this social opment of pedagogy based upon the ideals of system education is (mis)conceived as one of the reciprocity; an ethic of care; a reconfiguration of the main mechanisms by which the distribution of oppor- relation between self, community, and society; and tunity (i.e., wealth) can take place. In general, politi- an openness to previously silenced knowledge forms. cians and ordinary citizens alike argue that education This type of pedagogy is anchored in the notion of can ameliorate society’s ills and bring more stability communal well-being. to an unequal social order. For this syllogism to gain

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meaning, two assumptions about the relationship in order for education to meet the needs of all learn- between education and capitalism need to be in place. ers, educators need to reconsider the aims and objec- First, there is the belief that the distribution of wealth tives of pedagogy within a deeper theoretical and can happen in spite of historically entrenched sys- philosophical scheme. New concepts and other tems of social stratification in capitalist society and, frames of reference need to enter into the conversa- second, that education can undo its own legacy of tion and inform instructional practices and relation- differential treatment for the poor, indigenous, Black, ships to make education a humanizing process that Brown, and colonized. builds upon learners’ potential. Through a historical At a (sub)conscious level, teachers transmit mes- and sociological analysis of education, a reconceptu- sages about the meritocratic and seemingly color- alization of pedagogy can take place. Specifically, blind structure of capitalist society to their students this chapter sets forward a discussion on what it through the curriculum, methods of instruction, and means for teachers and pedagogy to be in the service systems of reward and punishment that situate stu- of communal well-being. dents along a social continuum. While much has changed since Althusser first described the ideologi- cal nature of education, it is still the case that schools Pedagogy in the Age of Standardization, transmit values, skills, and knowledge(s) to support Fear, and Profit the dominant and overarching social and economic systems of society. Flash-forward to the 21st century Teachers are expected to meet the economic demands and the primary economic system is still capitalist, of nations by producing an effective and competitive yet with a twist. The capitalism of today is highly workforce while they also confront the needs of unfettered, leading to increased inequality between diverse populations. The concerns of communities the poor and the rich, and a rage for individualism are often eclipsed by the overwhelming power exer- that belies our collective responsibilities to one cised by a historical legacy of social differentiation another and the wider society. The underlying belief and relations of economic exploitation that wield system within capitalist schooling is that when stu- their influence over education. Social groups have dents work hard enough they can achieve academic become increasingly polarized over time. The impact success. Through testing and standardization, stu- of religious difference, poverty, wars, economic poli- dents are taught that their individual achievement is cies that cause migration, and continued ethnic and both their responsibility and the most important racial strife weighs heavily on communities and objective in learning. Textbooks that promote one- nation-states. The relationship among teaching, sided presiding views (and at other times, revisionist learning, identity, and nation building becomes interpretations) of history, primarily grounded in increasingly entangled in a broader web of social Western and Eurocentric philosophy, teach students relations and can yield an array of policies and initia- that rational and progressive actions depend upon the tives that potentially bring disorder to an already White elite. Instrumentalist and skills-based teaching convoluted scenario. Efforts to standardize teaching methods let students know that their creativity and and learning, for example, are encouraged on the unique talents do not have a place in the classroom. pretext that standardization will ensure equality for a Teachers are rarely given the time to consider the diverse population. Policy makers, who push stan- underlying intents of their pedagogical practice, and dardized curricula that require teachers to deliver the student experience is hardly interrogated. lessons literally by a script, pitch their efforts as a This chapter examines teachers and pedagogy way of securing teacher quality. The underside of within the overriding structure and relations of a such standardization is, however, that the needs of colonial–capitalist society. Pedagogy refers to the students and communities, who confront increasing theories and practices that inform teaching and learn- forms of social dissonance through poverty and ing approaches. Pedagogy also reflects the habits of racial segregation, remain unattended, and ultimately thought that accompany teacher’s perceptions and education continues on a path of relative disarray. ideas about the meaning and social context of learn- When local actors attempt to intervene in the poli- ing. The argument established in this chapter is that tics of teaching and learning and make education 21. Teachers and Pedagogy for Communal Well-Being –•–167

relevant and meaningful to the histories and contexts intended to jump-start a nation’s economy or meet the their communities face, pedagogy becomes a highly will of corporate entities that profit from the adoption politicized issue. The tension arises when the needs of commodified teaching materials and services. of a community and the vision that accompanies Recently, transnational financial institutions have education as a political act do not match the stated advocated criterion-based pedagogy, learner-centered goals of a nation and its political sector. In other pedagogy, outcome-based pedagogy, and objective- words, the dominant ideology—values and belief based pedagogy in developing nations (see Klees, systems—of education are disputed. At times, peda- Samoff, & Stromquist, 2012). For the lay observer gogy becomes so contested between dominant and and educator on the ground, the cacophony of pedago- subordinate social groups that it yields legal man- gies creates a highly fluxed and chaotic educational dates that prohibit certain teaching practices. For scenario. With each passing year, a new educational example, in 2011 the Arizona state legislature banned fad makes its way into the classroom and, just as Mexican American Studies (MAS) in public schools quickly, is replaced by something else. for its alleged un-American character. MAS had Within this social panorama, teachers and peda- been in place for over 4 decades and put into practice gogy are caught in the crosshairs of meeting a a philosophy based on indigenous values and ethics nation’s civic demands and a community’s utopian (Rodriguez, 2010). Teachers worked collaboratively visions for the betterment of their children and youth. with students; the curricula included literature and Pedagogy is a generalized term that covers the roles philosophy written from the standpoint of margi- of teachers and students, the academic objectives of nalized sectors of society; and students were encour- teaching and learning, and the rules that guide the aged to make learning relevant and meaningful to the actual practice(s) of teaching: simply, it is the “deliv- needs and contexts of their communities. In response, ery system” (see Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & the state legislature found the program potentially Taubman, 1995/2000). Pedagogy is also the vehicle treasonous (for allegedly advocating the overthrow for incorporating (or excluding) students from of the U.S. government) and definitively anticapital- education, the mechanism of either alleviating or ist as the logic of collective well-being superseded aggravating social ills, and is a reflection of the the individualist and profit-themed interests of philosophies and theories that underpin teaching and mainstream teaching and learning. learning. The interrelationship between the act of In other contexts with sundry degrees of social teaching and the ideas that inform it is further com- conflict, pedagogy can quickly turn into a question of plicated by the political, economic, historical, and life and death. Teachers in Colombia, for example, social context of education, which is perhaps the have in many instances been targeted and assassi- reason why teachers when asked about pedagogy nated for the leadership role they assumed in dis- often respond with a bewildered grimace. It is diffi- placed and war-torn communities, or for infusing cult to provide a concrete definition of pedagogy what were considered political pedagogies in the given the complexity and interplay of forces that classroom. The point here is that education globally shape education’s form and content. is multifaceted and assumes unique characteristics In an age of increased standardization of teaching, given the sociopolitical and historical contexts of a continued legacy of unequal educational outcomes communities. for historically dispossessed and marginalized groups, In addition to questions of identity and nation and new challenges in the wider social order—from building, pedagogy in the 21st century is most strongly ecological contamination to political, religious, and affected by capitalist economic interests and policies. ethnic clashes across the globe—rather than losing The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund significance, pedagogy gains in importance. Peda- have their grip on the education of the so-called devel- gogy captures the spirit of teaching and learning; it is oping world, promoting pedagogical agendas based the means through which teachers and students com- on economic servitude that force nations to become municate, demonstrate understanding, establish com- indebted to international financial organizations. As munity, and inquire, critique, and reflect on their local the relationship between pedagogy and capitalism and global surroundings (Ayers, 1988). The challenge becomes increasingly fortified, initiatives are begun is in making pedagogy accessible and relevant to 168–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

teacher education, policy, practice, and curriculum, as conditions for evolving systems of social differentia- well as encouraging teachers to sift through the ideo- tion. Christianization, patriarchy, Eurocentric ideas logical muck and think about the potential of educa- over knowledge and being (epistemology and ontol- tion to bring about a more humane and just social ogy, respectively), racial constructs, the elimination order. Pedagogy should be connected with a purpose of indigenous languages and ways of life, and the beyond the acquisition of skills and habits to perform systems of classification that established acts of successfully in the dominant social order. It so fol- inclusion and exclusion (i.e., the civilized versus the lows that the aim of this chapter is to examine savage) set into motion a universal structure of social teachers and pedagogy and their relationship to the difference. Peruvian decolonial sociologist Anibal ideals of a democratic, diverse, and socially just soci- Quijano (2000) referred to these processes as the ety to transcend the legacy of education of social “coloniality of power,” which suggests that the racial stratification through, and by, education. axis of the global social order has a colonial origin and character, but “it has proven to be more durable and stable than the colonialism in whose matrix it The Global Context of Pedagogy was established” (p. 533). Coloniality: The Enduring Logic Education within formerly conquered territories of Social Differentiation and in nations with “semi-colonials” (a term used by notable African American philosopher W. E. B. Du It is often the case that the conquest and colonization Bois [1988, p. 230] in reference to the segregation, of the Americas in the 15th century is considered poverty, violence, discrimination, and exploitation of historically irrelevant, and perhaps even a necessary African Americans in the United States) plays a role stage for industrial progress and development. What in reproducing the colonial legacy. Various educa- is often misunderstood, however, is that conquest tion theorists and researchers have documented the and colonization established the conditions for an ways that dominant views on race, ethnicity, culture, emerging world order that continues to infect our language, sexuality, and knowledge continue to everyday experiences and relationships with others. affect teaching, learning, and the experiences of mar- In the 1980s sociologists discussed the colonial leg- ginalized communities. Research has also shown acy of a global world order through world systems how teachers and administrators’ views of communi- theory. This theory proposes that nations are situated ties affect the school culture (Jaramillo, 2012). How either on the periphery or in the center of economic teachers perceive and value a community relates to and social power. The “core” nations, such as those the ideas that are continuously reproduced about, and in Western Europe, the United States, and Japan, had concomitantly by, the community. And these ideas control over a majority of the world’s wealth and have a material grounding in the coloniality of resources, while those on the periphery, such as power. Coloniality, understood as the enduring logic South America and Africa, experienced devastating of social differentiation, actively shapes the teaching poverty and a lack of proprietary rights over natural encounter as it functions to operationalize racial, resources that could provide economic stability for cultural, linguistic, and epistemological hierarchies. the majority of their people. Notable Latin American sociologists and philosophers have since extended Globalization world systems theory to include the stratification of a global world order based not only on economic The collapse of the Berlin Wall separating East relations but also on racial, ethnic, linguistic, cul- (communist) from West Germany (procapitalist and tural, sexual, gendered, and epistemic dimensions. democratic) functioned at the level of an allegory for This latter group is referred to as decolonial the onset of globalization. The ability to consume thinkers. goods and move freely across once-contested borders Decolonial philosophers, sociologists, and educa- turned into globalization’s raison d’être. The techno- tionalists draw our attention to the origins of social logical revolution, access to information via the stratification in the world system. They indicate that Internet, and an epistemological break from abstract the Spanish conquest of the Americas established the universalisms (i.e., communism) to concrete localisms 21. Teachers and Pedagogy for Communal Well-Being –•–169

(i.e., democratic, locally bound identities) renewed a one that has a strong philosophical grounding in global interest in sharing information, culture, and classic liberal theory (Harvey, 2005). Neoliberal products across national boundaries. For decolonial capitalism widely affects the organization of social thinkers, globalization is the culmination of a process life and has a profound impact on conceptions of that began with the constitution of the Americas and society, ways of life, values, and social relationships. “colonial/modern Eurocentered capitalism as a new The conceptual apparatus of neoliberalism, as noted global power” (Quijano, 2000, p. 533). Globalization by David Harvey (2005), appeals to our “intuitions strengthens capitalism through free trade agreements and instincts, to our values and our desires” (p. 5). In and the sustained influence of primarily Eurocentric general, people want the freedom to acquire more systems of thought and rationality on notions of social goods, live comfortably, and have flexibility of progress and development. movement. In theory, neoliberal capitalism makes In recent years, globalization has become a point such promises. In very simple terms, neoliberal capi- of increasing focus in education research as the inter- talism is about loosening the state’s grip on regulat- play among nation-states, societies, economies, and ing the economy, providing corporations with rights cultures has transformed the nexus of global interac- of ownership historically allocated to individuals, tions, structures, and power relations. Globalization and decreasing the role of the state in matters of has resulted in a seeming appreciation for worldwide public welfare. ethnic and cultural diversity, yet it has also estab- The idea is that markets can be fair and free and lished the pathways for exporting and importing that, when applied to public education, many of soci- education as a commodity. Treated as such, key ele- ety’s inequalities can be tempered by the mecha- ments of education such as pedagogy are standard- nisms in place to ensure choice, competition, and ized to ensure quality and are replicated in multiple accountability. The teaching encounter then becomes school settings, with nearly complete disregard for a high-stakes terrain that consequently narrows the context-specific conditions of communities most teachers’ pedagogical options and limits their flexi- vulnerable to foreign intervention. The commercial- bility to cultivate a robust learning environment. ization of education allows for private providers to Within the logic of neoliberalism, education becomes access educational services and commodify teaching a task-oriented enterprise where students are pressed and learning (Burbules & Torres, 2000). The effects to learn more in order to earn more, compete with of globalization on education and public services in one another, and gain the skills and aptitudes to meet general tend to support what is now referred to as a nation’s evolving labor demands. Pedagogy, in this neoliberal capitalism. sense, turns into a restricted exercise aimed toward developing competencies. Students and families Neoliberal Capitalism become clients, success is characterized by individual excellence, teachers turn into human resources, and Teachers in the 21st century confront a changing the aims of learning are determined by the knowl- political economy and social structure rife with lais- edge economy. In so-called developing nations, sez-fare economics and the ideals of classical politi- neoliberal policy promotes an economic-growth-first cal economy. This is understood as the neoliberal strategy, which ruptures the link between education turn; for education it translates into increased stan- and meeting the direct needs of communities dardization and accountability measures intended to ( McEwan, 2009). infuse teaching and learning with market principles. In most cases, pedagogy is guided by education Since the 1980s, neoliberal capitalist policies have policy. The decisions made at the level of suprana- been the mechanism through which globalization tional organizations (such as the World Bank), the operates. Neoliberal capitalism has steadily encroa- nation-state, or among local governments directly ched on most aspects of public life, redefining the influence the practice and substance of teaching. public–private realm and the role of the state in gov- Pedagogy is turning into a rote exercise of skill ernance matters and ushering in an era of increased acquisition to compete or serve economic needs. For privatization of public services. Neoliberal capital- these phenomena, coloniality of power and global- ism is considered an epoch of capitalist society and ization are partly responsible. Coloniality of power, 170–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

globalization, and neoliberal capitalism are mutually Culturally responsive pedagogy, for example, lauded informative processes, not necessarily contingent but the democratic ideal and articulated the cultural role rather co-constitutive. of student experience. This form of pedagogy engages students’ personal and cultural strengths, intellectual capabilities, and prior accomplishments Progressive, Critical, and (Gay, 2010); it aims to cultivate students’ under- Decolonial Pedagogies standings of power relations in wider society (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Similarly, equity (or multi- Many theoretical perspectives link the macrostruc- cultural) pedagogies (Banks, 2007) attempt to resolve tural elements of society with the concrete work of the relative absence of diversity in education by cre- teachers. Since the early days of progressive peda- ating room for the expression of race and ethnicity in gogy, theorists have been concerned with the wider the classroom. In either case, the idea is that, for purposes of education and ensuring that pedagogy student experience to link up with democratizing the reflects and contributes to democratic ideals and classroom, a group’s cultural history needs to be goals. Most notable is John Dewey, who advocated taken into account. Culturally responsive and multi- for pedagogy to be participatory, experimental, sci- cultural pedagogies operate on the premise that stu- entific, rational, and connected to students’ real- dents’ identities are closely linked with the history of world experiences. The progressive framework their formation as a cultural group. Pedagogy, there- established the importance of communication in the fore, must demonstrate an understanding of students’ teaching encounter, providing students the opportu- culture to provide access to learning. nity to relate and build upon their existing knowledge and experiences in the classroom. The centrality of Critical Pedagogy communication in the classroom aimed to uncover student experience as the basis for intelligent problem Critical pedagogies, conversely, dispute that solving. democracy is attainable in a capitalist society where Pedagogically, this translated into establishing wealth is concentrated in the hands of the few while community in the classroom, hands-on and experien- the majority live in poverty. In critical pedagogy, tial learning, and problem-solving techniques. The culture cannot be understood separately from eco- idea was that, if education was to support democracy, nomic relations. Through ideology critique, denatu- then the qualities and characteristics of democratic ralizing what is assumed to be unchangeable, and citizens needed to be fomented in the classroom. deobjectifying the commodity culture of contempo- Teachers were asked to abandon their authoritarian rary capitalism, critical pedagogy challenges educa- roles where they stood in front of a class telling stu- tors to create spaces where students can more fully dents what to learn and how to regurgitate course comprehend how new social relationships can be material. Within the progressive tradition, teachers wrought for transcending the alienating conditions of adopted the scientific method of observing, testing, late capitalism. As an emancipatory philosophy, criti- and evaluating their teaching practices and they har- cal pedagogy calls upon educators to (1) recognize nessed their energies toward making learning both the political nature of traditional schooling (Shor, participatory and relevant. In many ways, the class- 1992); (2) understand how educational reform must room replicated idealized democratic society, where engage communities’ experiences and belief systems collaboration, communication, and shared under- (Duncan-Andrade & Morrell, 2008; Valenzuela, standings could yield an active and informed 1999); (3) replace banking education and rote memo- citizenry. rization practices with classroom and teaching prac- Progressive pedagogy had a number of effects on tices that support critical thinking skills (Freire, education, but most notably, it paved the way for 1970); (4) challenge the teacher–student hierarchy by other forms of student-centered pedagogy. When employing a dialogic approach to pedagogy (Freire, democracy is upheld as the central construct for edu- 1970); (5) encourage student agency by providing cation, then various social groups interpret demo- students with the support and knowledge necessary to cratic schooling from their contextual specificity. understand the world and change it in positive ways 21. Teachers and Pedagogy for Communal Well-Being –•–171

(Freire, 1970; Freire & Macedo, 1987); and (6) sup- peaceful relationships with other nations to ensure port a dialectical perspective that embraces critical our collective well-being (see Carpenter & Jaramillo, praxis—uniting theory and practice—as a tool for 2014). envisioning and fomenting social change through Decolonial pedagogy reflects curricula, teacher– engaged inquiry, reflection, dialogue, and collective student and school–community relationships, and action (Freire, 1970; see Jaramillo, Ryoo, & McLaren, instructional practices that support the notion of 2012). In sum, critical pedagogy challenges norma- global, collective well-being. Prominent in decolo- tive notions of representative democracy and nial pedagogy is Catherine Walsh and her analysis of advances student and community participation in the interculturality. Walsh (2010) characterized intercul- teaching encounter. Teachers in this instance are turality as the production of knowledge(s) that encouraged to develop the skills and understanding include both marginal and dominant ways of know- necessary to foster engagement with subject material ing. For Walsh (2010), interculturality creates the and to connect knowledge with real-world issues. space to generate new thinking about the social, political, ethical, and epistemic considerations of Decolonial Pedagogy everyday life. In linking knowledge with the history, perspectives, worldview, and logic of the historically Decolonial pedagogy is a relatively recent devel- silenced and oppressed social subjects, dominant opment in educational theory and is closely linked to knowledge is transformed. Here, the point is that the Latin American decolonial school of thought. It teachers and policy makers, for example, need to stems from an awareness of the enduring logic of the enter into dialogue with suppressed knowledge(s) coloniality of power in schools. It applies not only to and voices to advance educational practice in support the subaltern groups struggling assiduously for the of diversity. The intent is to refashion national and right to learn but also to groups in all school settings global education policy and practice with a new that find themselves in the throes of cultivating future understanding of social difference. As opposed to generations of youth in a society increasingly marked pedagogies developed in service of the colonial– by intolerance, violence among and between groups, capitalist mode of social differentiation, decolonial hypernativism/nationalism, and a widening disparity pedagogy wields social difference in support of col- between the rich and the poor (Jaramillo, 2012). lective humanity. Rather than using education as a Decolonial pedagogy requires teachers, students, and mode of indoctrination into singular worldviews and communities to participate in a rigorous critique of epistemologies, it aims to transform social structures their social environment in order to identify the rela- and institutions that continue to inflict colonialist tions, practices, and belief systems that shape their models upon aggrieved populations. social understandings. Theoretically, decolonial ped- agogy stems from an acknowledgment that the world we inhabit carries the seeds of colonial–capitalism. Forms of Inquiry In decolonial thought, Western conceptions of democracy are challenged on the basis that they The challenges facing teachers and pedagogy have espouse individualistic and profit-based aims and been well documented, and this chapter specifically objectives. Decolonial thought is, therefore, anchored sheds light on the context of teaching encounter in other epistemological frameworks, value systems, within coloniality of power and advent of neoliberal and an ethical commitment to caring for others, the capitalism. Education policy needs a moratorium on environment, and other ways of knowing. For exam- the fanaticism of testing and standardization that ple, the concept of living well, which anchors educa- have commodified learning, supported instrumental- tion policy in Bolivia and Ecuador, captures the ist teaching practices, and transformed education into essence of decolonial pedagogy. Living well estab- a profit-generating enterprise. Schools are not busi- lishes, among other relations, social and economic nesses; they bear history, are places where people justice, participatory democracy, intergenerational gather, and have an enormous potential to serve the justice, and transnational justice, a principle that immediate needs of a community and the long-term highlights the importance of developing secure and goals of societies. 172–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

To speak of forms of inquiry in service of develop- Imaginative. Does pedagogy render new thinking ing education policy, practice, and relations in pursuit and learning about society to create generations that of communal well-being is relatively uncharted terri- can attend to future social issues? Does pedagogy tory outside the Latin American region. It requires a encourage students to think about concrete social movement within and beyond standard forms of issues and to propose alternatives to the problems inquiry that have previously been noted in curriculum they confront? theory (e.g., Edmund Short’s [1991] notable work in curriculum inquiry). In the points that follow, a select Reciprocal. Does pedagogy establish a set of prac- number of questions and methodologies are proposed tices in the classroom that requires students to think to guide educational inquiry in pursuit of other about all members of a community and all of its life- frames of reference, logics, and values that could forms? Does pedagogy encourage students to think better inform teachers and pedagogy. about past and future generations and the kind of society that is actively co-created? Decolonial. Examine the narratives and values of edu- cational practice. Is pedagogy disentangled from its These multiple forms of inquiry and representa- colonial–capitalist history? Does pedagogy reproduce tion should not be considered separate from other racial and epistemological hierarchies? aspects of the educational encounter. Attention to subject matter, content knowledge, and problem- Intercultural. Does pedagogy lead to greater posing education needs to accompany broader understanding about suppressed knowledge forms understandings of pedagogy. Pedagogy for communal and co-existence with the “other”? Does pedagogy well-being necessitates forms of inquiry that deepen support the development of new ideas that tran- teachers’ knowledge of the social, epistemic, scend epistemological hierarchies for collective political, and economic dimensions of their understanding? educational practice. Pedagogy for well-being opens the debate over democracy in schooling and lends Ecological. What is the relationship between peda- itself to innovative, engaging, and participatory gogy and society? Are students encouraged to think practices to ensure better life conditions in the present about the interdependence of learning with doing in and greater opportunities for future generations. society?

References and Further Readings teaching: Purpose, power and learning (pp. 65–72). Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning. Althusser, L. (1971). Lenin and philosophy and other Du Bois, W. E. B. (1988). Against racism: essays. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press. Unpublished essays, papers, addresses, 1887–1961 Ayers, W. (1988). Fact or fancy: The knowledge base (H. Aptheker, Ed.). Amherst, MA: University of quest in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Massachusetts Press. Education, 39(5), 24–29. Duncan-Andrade, J., & Morrell, E. (2008). The art of Banks, J. (2007). Educating citizens in a multicultural critical pedagogy: Possibilities for moving from society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College theory to practice in urban schools. New York, NY: Press. Peter Lang. Burbules, N., & Torres, C. (2000). Globalization and Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, education: An introduction. In N. Burbules & NY: Continuum. C. Torres (Eds.), Globalization and education: Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the Critical perspectives (pp. 1–26). New York, NY: word and the world. New York, NY: Routledge. Routledge. Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching (2nd ed.). Carpenter, V., & Jaramillo, N. (2014). Social justice New York, NY: Teachers College Press. in education. In S. Brown, A. St George, & Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. J. O’Neill (Eds.), Facing the big questions in New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 21. Teachers and Pedagogy for Communal Well-Being –•–173

Jaramillo, N. E. (2012). Immigration and the challenge of Quijano, A. (2000). Coloniality of power, ethnocentrism, education: A social drama analysis in South Central and Latin America. Nepantla, 1(3), 533–580. Los Angeles. New York, NY: Palgrave-MacMillan. Rodriguez, R. (2010, July 26). What state officials don’t Jaramillo, N. E., Ryoo, J., & McLaren, P. (2012). want Arizona school children to know. Retrieved Sociology of education for human rights. from http://www.commondreams.org/views/ In D. Brunsma, K. Smith, & B. Gran (Eds.), 2010/07/26/what-state-officials-dont-want-arizona- Handbook of sociology and human rights. Boulder, school-children-know CO: Paradigm Publishers. Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical Klees, S., Samoff, J., & Stromquist, N. P. (Eds.). (2012). teaching for social change. Portsmouth, NH: The World Bank and education: Critiques and Heinemann. alternatives. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense. Short, E. (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally Albany, NY: State University of New York relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Press. Journal, 47, 465–491. Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling. Albany, McEwan, C. (2009). Postcolonialism and development. NY: State University of New York Press. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Walsh, C. (2010). De-coloniality, decolonial thinking and Pinar, W., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. doing in the Andes: A conversation by Walther (1995/2000). Understanding curriculum. New York, Mignolo with Catherine Walsh. Reartikulacija, NY: Peter Lang. pp. 10–13. 22

TEACHER BASHING AND TEACHER DESKILLING

ISABEL NUÑEZ Concordia University Chicago

eacher bashing and teacher deskilling are specialized knowledge about what their students terms often used in radical critiques of con- need; therefore, they should only be allowed to T temporary school reform, which has led to determine strategies for giving all students what gov- teachers and schools being evaluated based on test ernment authorities say are the common (core) needs scores and conformity to externally imposed stan- of all. dards. If students do not achieve uniform measures To defend this position on deskilling, conserva- of accountability, teachers are bashed for alleged tive and even liberal proponents of current school incompetence or noncompliance. As early as the reform policies are frequently heard citing interna- A Nation at Risk report (National Commission on tional test score comparisons that indicate that the Excellence in Education, 1983), teachers and schools United States is falling behind other major industrial- were blamed for so harming the United States that an ized nations. Those who say teachers are unfairly attacking power could not do more damage. This bashed respond that the tests are not indicative of argument is largely based on the assumption that the what students know, do, or value. The tests, they say, purpose of education is to give a nation a competitive provide no information on students’ curiosity, imagi- edge in the global marketplace. nation, or creativity (Schubert, 2009). Moreover, Radical critics argue that recent reforms actually they are about immediate, not long-term, learning. deskill teachers. Teachers, they contend, have Meanwhile, those who want to bash teachers argue acquired skills, knowledge, and dispositions that that these qualities are not as important as science, enable them to continuously adjust their instruction technology, engineering, and mathematics—and lit- according to the needs of particular students in par- eracy. Further, they have no confidence that publicly ticular places. Large-scale policy, they assert, cannot run schools are capable of the needed changes, so do this. When teachers are forced to relinquish their they call for privatization of the schools. Those criti- capacity to understand their students’ needs and cal of teacher bashing and concomitant deskilling interests and design curricula that are appropriate for maintain that conservative moves to privatize are not them, then the teachers are deskilled (Apple, 1982a, in the interest of improving quality but rather in shift- 1989; Giroux, 1988; Illich, 1972). Teacher bashers ing greater amounts of funds from public schools to counter by saying that the teachers actually have no the private sector.

174 22. Teacher Bashing and Teacher Deskilling–•–175

Whether one sides with those who bash teachers the high-quality literature with which they had been or with those who contend that teachers’ skills are teaching from their classrooms (Cummins, 2007). destroyed by current policies, many recognize that With all of this imposition, the result according to teachers are under immense surveillance in the many was a resounding, and admitted, failure. The workplace. Proponents argue that external policing is U.S. Department of Education’s own report on the needed because teachers cannot be counted on to be program found that it had no statistically significant self-accountable. Opponents of teacher bashing cite effect on reading comprehension on the Stanford resignations of demoralized teachers, which Achievement Test Series (Institute of Educational have intensified over the past couple of decades. In Sciences, 2008). New York City, for example, there is concern about In fact, the program may have had a detrimental “experience drain” and “a marked jump in resigna- effect. Race- and class-based achievement gaps on tions among teachers who usually don’t leave—those the National Assessment of Educational Progress, in their sixth through 15th years” (McAdoo, 2014). which had been narrowing in the 1990s, showed no This trend is emerging just as teachers are being additional progress post-NCLB. This is likely deprofessionalized in a variety of emotionally devas- because of how scripted, intensive instruction on tating ways. Those critical of teacher bashing point discrete skills, to the exclusion of meaningful out that educators are vilified for their “failures” even encounters with captivating stories, affected reading as their judgment and work have been shackled engagement. Reading engagement, defined as (Apple, 1982b, 1989; Giroux, 1988; Schubert, 2009). diversity of reading, frequency of leisure reading, and attitude toward reading, is a better predictor of achievement in reading on the Programme for Contemporary Teacher Deskilling International Student Assessment than the strong, proven correlates of age and socioeconomic status Specific examples of how educators have lost control (Brozo, Shiel, & Topping, 2007). In other words, of what and how they teach are offered as illustra- children who love to read are better readers than tions: a federal reading program, a required pedagogic both wealthier and older children without a love of approach, and a widely adopted set of standards. reading. These examples are far from the only ways that Why then, many question, would the federal gov- teachers’ work has become more controlled; yet, ernment push on poor children curricula so clearly they illustrate the diversity of means through which unsuited to fostering a love of reading? Generously teaching has been constrained. assuming that this was not a deliberate effort to fur- ther disadvantage an already struggling population, Reading First Reading First demonstrated a startling lack of respect for teachers’ professional judgment and autonomy. The Reading First program was established under Those who would bash teachers and argue against the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 the value of their skills would say the program was (NCLB), ostensibly to guarantee effective instruction an attempt to protect children in poverty from the in reading for children in low-income communities. poor teaching of educators who have long failed to Costing almost $1 billion a year between 2002 and inspire achievement in this population of students. 2007, the program provided substantial funds to Despite the program’s failure, efforts to control schools willing to implement scientifically based teachers’ work have continued unabated. reading curricula, which was defined as intensive phonics, preferably in a scripted, whole-class, direct Response to Intervention instruction format (Cummins, 2007). The program prescribed one way of teaching reading to poor chil- Similar in its effect on teacher autonomy, if not dren, and countless teachers were forcibly kept from as obviously harmful to students, is Response to Int- using whole language—and even balanced literacy— ervention (RtI). Designed to identify students in need approaches that they felt would have served their of special services sooner than the prior discrepancy students better. Some educators were forced to remove model—and in fact to prevent students from ever 176–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

lagging so far behind their classmates, RtI is a peda- hindered their ability to do it. RtI, though well inten- gogic process required by the 2004 reauthorization ded, standardizes, commercializes, and mandates the of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. individualized pedagogic and curricular work that Its implementation involves teachers in screening all teachers have always done with their students. of their students according to established bench- marks, then dividing them up into tiers based on their Common Core State Standards degree of struggle. Tier 1 students are progressing typically; Tier 2 students are in need of mild to mod- According to many who criticize the pervasive- erate instructional interventions; and Tier 3 students ness of teacher bashing and deskilling, the most require intensive interventions. Students in Tier 3 recent threat to teacher’s creative control over the who are not responsive to these interventions are curricula comes from the Common Core State Stan- likely to qualify for special education (Fuchs & dards. As of late 2014, 43 states and the District of Fuchs, 2006). None of this sounds intrinsically Columbia had fully adopted the standards (Layton, objectionable. Indeed, it sounds like what excellent 2014). The standards, whose development was teachers have always done with their students, and funded by the Gates Foundation, have been pro- the approach was documented in the literature on moted as a means of increasing the rigor of primary students with disabilities before it became law and secondary education in the United States. Many (Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003). practicing teachers are enthusiastic about the Com- The problem, leading to teacher bashing and mon Core, perhaps because the standards they are deskilling, comes with the amount of top-down con- replacing in many states are inch-deep and mile-wide trol exerted over teachers’ pedagogic choices in the sets of competencies that leave teachers scrambling process. Interventions are required to be scientifi- just to “cover” all the material. Teachers have been cally proven, and progress is to be monitored on a so accustomed to having almost no curricular leeway biweekly schedule (Reschly, 2005). “Science” is no in their work that this less expansive intrusion more broadly considered here than in Reading First, on their professional decision making seems like a and approved interventions, like approved reading welcome change. programs, are most likely to come from large pub- A quick survey of the education landscape reveals lishers that can afford the studies that will render a plethora of Common Core–aligned goods and them “research-based.” The result has been such a services available from private vendors to districts, relentless focus on easily tested discrete skills that schools, teachers, and parents for purchase— critics have pointed out the urgent need to link these reflecting teacher deskilling as the assumption is that to “other, functional performance criteria” (Daly III, teachers are incapable of creating their own materi- Martens, Barnett, Witt, & Olson, 2007, p. 562). In als. These privately marketed educational products addition, RtI has involved micromanaging of are made especially attractive by high-stakes testing. teachers, who are required to document every step in Some who have experienced teacher bashing wonder the process. Hours are being taken up with paper- if teacher professionalism is under threat primarily work, which could have been spent preparing for because it stands in the way of corporate profit seek- instruction. ing. Of course, the corporate vendors and many In RtI there is a nugget of good pedagogy at the policy makers would argue that the standards and center that values constant assessing and addressing their related products are needed to ensure that all of individual students’ needs. This is part of what students are presented with the required content good teachers do naturally and fluidly, without call through competent instruction. for schedules, charts, and packaged materials. The Many teachers and education professors, how- fear on the part of many policy makers is that there are ever, are concerned that the Common Core takes the not enough good teachers out there to ensure that all creative intellectual work of curriculum design out of students will get the individualized attention they the vocation of teachers—a joy that some young need. Ironically, by deskilling rather than trusting teachers have never experienced. This is bad for teachers to do this work in the way that is best for teachers, for their fulfillment in the work. Worse, it them and their students, the federal government has is bad for students, who know the difference between 22. Teacher Bashing and Teacher Deskilling–•–177

a teacher who is sharing their loving, passionate rela- Teacher bashing took a great leap forward in 1957 tionship with a subject area and someone who is when the Soviet Union launched the satellite Sput- delivering someone else’s curriculum. College stu- nik, beating the United States in the space race. U.S. dents may confront an instructor who they suspect schools were blamed by creative politicians for not did not write the syllabus, but younger and more providing adequate K–12 math and science educa- intuitive students feel the lack of connection on a tion (Spring, 2011) and thus began the era of teacher deeper level, even if they cannot articulate what is as scapegoat—which has continued unto today. wrong. Few policy makers and fewer politicians, Teacher blaming got another big boost with the ear- however, believe that teachers should have creative lier mentioned A Nation at Risk report (National control of the curriculum. The widespread insistence Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), that all students in all communities should learn the which employed dubious logic in concluding the same things in school leads inevitably to teacher United States was lagging behind in the global deskilling. economy because of low-quality schools (Spring, But all students and all communities are not the 2011). Teachers have yet to lose their utility as easy same. As difficult as it is to construct a curriculum— targets of blame; a 2012 report of the Council on and if it’s done well it’s always difficult—it is a Foreign Relations (Klein & Rice, 2012), coauthored struggle that has value and is, in fact, necessary. As a by a former U.S. Secretary of State, asserted that teacher, this is the only way to arrive at a curriculum poor schools are endangering U.S. national security. that one can embody, ideally one that students and the This is a wide-ranging array of failures for one group teacher can embody together. John Dewey (1909/1975) to be responsible for, especially when considering in Moral Principles of Education wrote of the impos- the relative dearth of resources provided to educators sibility of preparing students for the world of work, in relation to the other segments of society that what with technology and the marketplace changing arguably have a hand in these outcomes. so rapidly—in 1909. How is a nationally standardized Unsurprisingly, the scapegoating of educators for curriculum expected to prepare students in the United what seems like every conceivable societal ill has States for success in today’s globalizing economy? resulted in drastically diminished respect for teach- Many contend that to constrain curriculum by national ers’ professional expertise. The preceding section standards is not only dehumanizing and disempower- has already examined how this has led to increas- ing to teachers and students; it does not even serve our ingly top-down and intensifying control of teachers’ stated aims in education. work, but the disparaging of professional educators has had effects well beyond the classroom. Classroom-based knowledge and experience has Teacher Bashing in Context been so devalued that superintendents—often referred to as district CEOs—are being hired without His head was small and flat at the top, with huge ears, having spent any time in the schools at all. Even large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that principals are coming from outside the field of edu- it looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck, to tell which way the wind blew. (Irving, cation, as with the leadership academies of the Broad 1820/1996, p. 117) Foundation “designed to recruit noneducator corpo- rate, military, and nonprofit leaders” (Saltman, 2010, This passage provides a physical description of one p. 79). In today’s climate, being a professional edu- of the best-known schoolmasters in American fiction, cator is an unrespected qualification for having a say Ichabod Crane, the somewhat materialistic teacher in the way schools are run. who loses the girl, and the inheritance, to a more Even teachers need to know little about teaching, masculine suitor. Clearly, teachers have long strug- curriculum, and education as a scholarly discipline, gled with a negative public image, and there has been considering the proliferation of alternative and fast- little historical progress in societal attitudes toward track certification programs—as well as “service”- those entrusted with educating our children. Today, style entities such as Teach for America (TFA)—all attacks on teachers are unprecedentedly frightening of which are replacing veteran teachers with superfi- and virulent. cially trained young people and career changers. In 178–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

urban centers such as Chicago, this process is being the current condition of class warfare that can be facilitated by massive school closures and “turn- viewed through a critical theoretical lens. The role of arounds.” Even before the unprecedented closings of the schools in social reproduction, which has always 2013, Chicago Public School actions had resulted in been largely successful (Apple, 1982b; Spring, a teaching force “likely to be whiter, younger, and 1989), is now stronger than ever, with teachers— less experienced, and . . . more likely to have provi- except for those of the most elite students—moved sional certification” (de la Torre et al., 2012). In New out of the petty bourgeoisie and into the ranks of the Orleans, thousands of experienced teachers were proletariat, alienated from their labor. Hence, it is fired en masse following the devastation of Hurricane argued through these theoretical lenses that the Katrina, only to be replaced by TFA-ers and by teach- deskilling of teachers is detrimental not just to teach- ers brought to Louisiana from the Philippines. The ers as a labor group but also to the nonelite classes veteran teachers won a judgment for $750 million in as a whole. Teachers who are not allowed to think back pay for wrongful termination (Vanacore, 2014), critically about their own work cannot model auton- and the Filipino teachers won $4.5 million by suing omous and self-directed labor for their students, and their exploitative recruiting agency (Jablon, 2012), the kinds of knowledge and skills that can be mea- but the teaching force was still successfully remade. sured on a multiple-choice exam do not lead to These events would be unthinkable in a society that questioning or reconstructing of societal structures. valued the knowledge and abilities of teachers. Scholars who examine education using a feminist theoretical framework often respond that teachers’ present-day experiences of deprofessionalization are Theorizing Teacher Bashing really nothing new. Historically, they might argue, and Deskilling there has always been a gendered division of labor in teaching, with much of the intellectual work at the Teacher bashing and deskilling are ideas framed by mostly male administrative level and all of the nur- critical theory perspectives in curriculum studies, the turing, emotional work done by the mostly female origins of which are varied and often trace back teaching force (Freedman, 1998). The difference is through the Frankfort School and the work of one of degree. Teachers, who are still mostly women, Herbert Marcuse (1969), Max Horkheimer (1982, are now doing even less creative thinking about cur- 1993), Theodor Adorno (1964, 1973), and others riculum and pedagogy, and their work is even more who built upon the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich intensively controlled by hierarchies, often headed Engels. Some curriculum scholars draw amply upon by men in cities where schools are under mayoral Antonio Gramsci (1971), Hannah Arenot (1958), control. With more bureaucratic tasks and bigger Paulo Freire (1970/1992, 1997, 1998), and others class sizes, teachers are doing less intellectual labor who also critique totalitarianism and oppressive and are being constrained from their empathetic and capitalistic systems. Prominent curriculum studies supportive work of the past. scholars who have focused on deskilling, such as Those who theorize educational reform from criti- Paul Willis (1977), Michael Apple (1982a, 1989), cal and feminist orientations hold that teachers who Henry Giroux (1988), and Jean Anyon (1997), have do not follow the directives of competitive standard- called attention to deskilling and teacher bashing ization, Common Core for the masses, and raising since the early 1970s. This work focuses on how test scores are punished by bashing, deskilling, and schools disseminate official knowledge in ways that banishment. Further, they assert that teachers who reproduce and perpetuate socioeconomic class struc- lived through the behavioral objectives movement of tures. These tendencies have only intensified, lead- the 1960s and 1970s, and the back-to-basics move- ing to the autocratic and highly competitive policy ments of the 1950s and 1980s, experienced similar and practice that dominate schooling today. criticism for not following rules conjured up by “the These shifts have been accompanied by attacks power elite” (Mills, 1956). on teachers’ unions and a much broader decline in Without discounting the interpretations of either labor organizing in the United States. The state of of the groups of theorists just discussed, a poststruc- teachers’ unions—and unions in general—reflects turalist theoretical approach offers an additional 22. Teacher Bashing and Teacher Deskilling–•–179

perspective, in particular a consideration of school- critiquing it: discursive essays using critical theory ing in the Foucauldian age of governmentality. This perspectives; arts-based renditions in which settings era in which we currently reside is characterized by a and situations are vividly portrayed by connoisseurs shift from earlier requirements of ruling. Govern- of the topic; critical ethnographies; narratives and ments of the past were concerned with controlling stories. Stories have been a form of expression and territory, but those of today must control populations. mode of inquiry for this topic even before it was cur- This is best achieved through governing mentalities rently named. Examples include autobiographical (hence the age of governmentality) by a variety of and first-person accounts of teaching by such teacher means (Foucault, 1991). The educational system has authors as John Holt (1964, 1967, 1989), Herbert always been a very effective “technique of the self ” Kohl (1998), George Dennison (1970), and Jonathan for teaching populations the processes of their own Kozol (1992), who began writing about injustices in governance. But today’s schools reach new heights schools in the 1960s and continued their critiques of efficacy for the purpose. Students know from third relative to contextual dilemmas of several subsequent grade at the latest exactly where their test scores fall decades. in national percentile rankings, and they are aware Researchers have also examined more eclectic from kindergarten that failure to go to college will approaches to qualitative research, such as interpreta- render them unworthy of a “good job.” How easy it tions through story, narrative, dialogue, and com- will be to govern a working class of people who has mentary. For example, Robert V. Bullough Jr. and known from early childhood that they do not deserve Stefinee Pinnegar (2001) published an essay that a living wage, because of their own inadequacy! uses the literary devices of the romantic, tragic, Even Foucault might be impressed by how well edu- ironic, and comedic hero as a metaphor for the vari- cation serves the project of governmentality in the ous ways that teachers can present themselves as current age of accountability. protagonists in the stories that are self-study research projects. While there are many approaches that can, should, and will be used to document the phenomena Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression of teacher bashing and deskilling, the most powerful ways to bring these home to the most people will be Those who promote teacher bashing and deskilling through the sharing of teachers’ stories. Each of these are convinced by, and try to convince others through, heroic modes has a different influence on public forms of inquiry that are not used much in the schol- views of teachers and what they are experiencing. arly community of curriculum studies. Elaborate The teacher as romantic hero, while a sympathetic schemes of reasoning are developed by groups such character, actually furthers the project of teacher as the National Center for Teacher Quality to support bashing and deskilling. Valiantly confronting the criteria for evaluating teachers, schools, and student challenges of teaching, the romantic hero is usually performance, but the research basis for their policy the sole effective teacher in his or her underresourced mandates is not fully clarified. There is great reliance school. The other members of the faculty are gener- on test results without explication of a theory of mea- ally part of the problem, and the hero must make surement or a philosophy of evaluation. Their modes tremendous personal sacrifice to ensure the success of expression are those of popular news magazines of his or her students. Typical of these stories is the such as U.S. News and World Report. Their reports, film Freedom Writers (LaGravenese, 2007), in which evaluations, and mandates are not informed by the the young Los Angeles teacher works multiple jobs kinds of qualitative and quantitative intellectual rea- and goes through a divorce in order to provide her soning that David Berliner, with Bruce Biddle (1995) students with what they need. Not only does the story and Gene Glass (2012), demonstrated in showing present the vast majority of teachers as uncaring that educational crises in the United States from the and incapable, but it also implies that the only way 1980s to the present have been manufactured to serve to be a good teacher is to show the same degree of the interests of the power elite. selfless commitment as the romantic hero. Alternatively, many forms of inquiry are used to Next described is the tragic hero, who is overwh- depict teacher bashing and deskilling as a basis for elmed by the challenges of teaching and ultimately 180–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

succumbs to despair, usually leaving the classroom. finds joy in teaching. These are the stories that are The spate of recent, and public, teacher resignations most likely to help slow the phenomena of teacher can be viewed through this framework, as can some bashing and deskilling. Teachers here are real people of the more troubling portrayals of teachers in films facing real challenges with more or less optimism. such as Half Nelson (Fleck, 2006). That movie’s hero Either way, they stay in the classroom, serving as is a heroin addict and arguably a welcome portrait of models of perseverance and commitment. a complex, whole, flawed human being as teacher— Teacher bashing and deskilling harken back for as opposed to the myriad sainted romantic heroes more than a century. In the 1890s, the progressively found on the multiplex screens. Sadly, stories of oriented Joseph Mayer Rice surveyed schools and tragic hero teachers are more likely to result in inten- ultimately concluded that there was only hope in sified teacher bashing. Similarly, the resignations tightly managing them, since excellent teachers were resonate powerfully with those who understand and so few and far between. Throughout the 20th century value the work of teachers, but will likely be viewed and into the 21st century, the saga has continued. as avoidance of accountability by those who support Historian Ellen Lagemann (2002) has described the the current “reforms.” debate as a struggle between Dewey’s faith in The ironic and comedic heroes travel the middle humanity and democracy—thus in teachers and road between the victorious and the vanquished. Both schooling—on one side, and Edward L. Thorndike’s are nuanced and complex characters, but the ironic dictum that education must be measured as a basis hero is likely to remain somewhat besieged at the end for policy decision making on the other side. Lage- of the tale, while the comedic hero emerges with mann’s conclusion was that in the realm of policy hope. The French film The Class (Cantet, 2008) pres- and practice Thorndike has won. Still, many scholars ents a beautiful example of the teacher as ironic hero. in the area of curriculum studies hold tightly to the In it, a whole faculty of caring, committed teachers Deweyan faith in a human process for determining struggle to do right by their high-need students. Some high-quality education in ever-changing environ- of his own mistakes, but mostly structural forces, ments in and out of schools. For them, the best hinder the ironic hero’s efforts, but he stays with his approach resides in the everyday decisions and students. Jack Black in School of Rock (Linklater, actions of teachers and learners. They hold that to 2003) is both comedian and comedic hero. Far from bash or deskill this ever-renewing process is to deny perfect, he blunders in his classroom, but ultimately our children democratic and meaningful lives.

References and Further Readings Arenot, H. (1958). The human condition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Adorno, T. W. (1964). The authoritarian personality. New Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. (1995). The manufactured York, NY: Wiley. crisis. New York, NY: Addison-Wesley. Adorno, T. W. (1973). Negative dialectics. New York, NY: Berliner, D. C., Glass, G. V., & Associates. (2012). Seabury. 50 myths and lies that threaten America’s public Anyon, J. (1997). Ghetto schooling: A political economy schools: The real crisis in education. New York, NY: of urban educational reform. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Teachers College Press. Brozo, W. G., Shiel, G., & Topping, K. (2007). Apple, M. W. (1982a). Education and power. Boston, Engagement in reading: Lessons learned from three MA: Routledge and Kegan Paul. PISA countries. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Apple, M. W. (1982b). Reproduction and contradiction in Literacy, 51(4), 304–315. education: An introduction. In M. W. Apple (Ed.), Bullough, R. V., Jr., & Pinnegar, S. (2001). Guidelines Cultural and economic reproduction in education: for quality in autobiographical forms of self-study Essays on class, ideology and the state (pp. 1–31). research. Educational Researcher, 30(3), London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 13–21. Apple, M. W. (1989). Teachers and texts: A political Business Wire. (2010, November 22). News corporation economy of class and gender in relation to to acquire education technology company wireless education. London, UK: Routledge. generation. Retrieved from http://www.businesswire 22. Teacher Bashing and Teacher Deskilling–•–181

.com/news/home/20101122006883/en/News- Holt, J. (1989). Learning all the time: How small children Corporation-Acquire-Education-Technology- begin to read, write, count, and investigate the Company-Wireless#.VJCff1J0xok world, without being taught. Reading, MA: Cantet, L. (Director). (2008). The class [Motion picture]. Addison-Wesley. France: Haut et Court. Horkheimer, M. (1982). Critical theory: Selected essays. Cummins, J. (2007). Pedagogies for the poor? Realigning New York, NY: Continuum. instruction for low-income students with Horkheimer, M. (1993). Between philosophy and social scientifically based reading research. Educational science: Selected early writings. Cambridge, MA: Researcher, 36(9), 564–572. MIT Press. Daly, E. J., III, Martens, B. K., Barnett, D., Witt, J. C., & Illich, I. (1972). De-schooling society. New York, NY: Olson, S. C. (2007). Varying intervention delivery in Harper and Row. response to intervention: Confronting and resolving Institute of Educational Sciences. (2008). Reading first challenges with measurement, instruction, and impact study: Final report. Washington, DC: U.S. intensity. School Psychology Review, 36(4), Department of Education. 562–581. Irving, W. (1820/1996). The legend of sleepy hollow. In Dennison, G. (1970). The lives of children. New York, W. Irving (Ed.), The sketch-book of Geoffrey NY: Vintage. Crayon, gent (Oxford World’s Classics, edited by & Dewey, J. (1909/1975). Moral principles in education. introduction by S. Manning) (p. 293). Oxford, UK: Carbondale, IL: Arcturus Books. Oxford University Press. Fleck, R. (Director). (2006). Half nelson [Motion Jablon, R. (2012, December 12). Filipino teachers in U.S. picture]. West Hollywood, CA: Hunting Lane Films. win $4.5 million. The New Orleans Advocate. Foucault, M. (1991). Governmentality. In G. Burchell, Retrieved from http://theadvocate.com/ C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault effect: home/4717281-125/filipino-teachers-in-us-win Studies in governmentality (pp. 87–104). Hemel Karp, S. (2013). The problems with the common core. Hempstead, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Rethinking Schools, 28(2). Retrieved from Freedman, S. E. (1998). Teaching, gender and http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/28_02/ curriculum. In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), 28_02_karp.shtml?utm_source=Winter+2013– The curriculum: Problems, politics and possibilities 2014+V28–2&utm_campaign=Winter+2013– (pp. 230–244). Albany, NY: State University of 14+V28–2&utm_medium=email New York Press. Klein, J. I., & Rice, C. (2012). U.S. education reform and Freire, P. (1970/1992). Pedagogy of the oppressed national security. New York, NY: Council on (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Continuum. Foreign Relations Press. Freire, P. (1997). Education for critical consciousness. Kohl, H. (1998). The discipline of hope: Learning from a New York, NY: Continuum. lifetime of teaching. New York, NY: Simon and Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers: Letters Schuster. to those who dare teach. Boulder, CO: Westview. Kozol, J. (1992). Savage inequalities: Children Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to in America’s schools. New York, NY: Response to Intervention: What, why, and how valid HarperCollins. is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. Lagemann, E. (2002). An elusive science: The troubling Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P., & Young, C. (2003). history of educational research. Chicago, IL: Responsiveness-to-intervention: Definitions, University of Chicago Press. evidence, and implications for the learning LaGravenese, R. (Director). (2007). Freedom writers disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities: [Motion picture]. Hollywood, CA: Paramount Research & Practice, 18(3), 157–168. Pictures. Giroux, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward Layton, L. (2014, September 10). Common core 2.0: a critical pedagogy of learning. South Hadley, MA: Common core by another name. The Washington Bergin & Garvey. Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks .com/local/education/common-core-20-common-core-by- (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith, Trans. & Eds.). another-name/2014/09/09/9d2ed458-3857-11e4-bdfb- New York, NY: International Publishers. de4104544a37_story.html Holt, J. (1964). How children fail. New York, NY: Delta. Linklater, R. (Director). (2003). School of rock [Motion Holt, J. (1967). How children learn. New York, NY: picture]. Hollywood, CA: Paramount Pictures. Delta. Marcuse, H. (1969). Negations. Boston, MA: Beacon. 182–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

McAdoo, M. (2014, March 6). UFT report shows exodus Spring, J. (1989). The sorting machine revisited: of experienced teachers. United Federation of Education policy since 1945. Boston, MA: Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.uft.org/ Longman. news-stories/uft-report-shows-exodus-experienced- Spring, J. (2011). The politics of American education. teachers New York, NY: Routledge. McLaren, P. (2002). Life in schools: An introduction to Torre, M. de la, Allensworth, E., Jagesic, S., Sebastian, J., critical pedagogy in the foundations of education Salmonowicz, M., Meyers, C., & Gerdeman, R. D. (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. (2012). Turning around low-performing schools in Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. Oxford, UK: Chicago. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Oxford University Press. Consortium on Chicago School Research and National Commission on Excellence in Education. American Institutes for Research. (1983). A nation at risk. Washington, DC: Vanacore, A. (2014, January 30). N.O. teachers laid off Government Printing Office. after Katrina notch victory, but payouts could take Reschly, D. (2005). Learning disabilities identification: years. The New Orleans Advocate. Retrieved from Primary intervention, secondary intervention, and http://www.theneworleansadvocate.com/ then what? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), news/8235503-171/no-teachers-laid-off-after 510–515. Watkins, W. H. (Ed.). (2011). The assault on public Saltman, K. J. (2010). The gift of education: Public education: Confronting the politics of corporate education and venture philanthropy. New York, NY: school reform. New York, NY: Teachers College Palgrave Macmillan. Press. Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: Willis, P. (1977). Learning to labor: How working class John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: kids get working class jobs. New York, NY: Information Age Publishing. New York University Press. 23

HIGH-STAKES TESTING AND THE EVALUATION OF TEACHERS

WAYNE AU University of Washington–Bothell

n many countries around the world, and espe- profession. Many U.S. states, for instance, require cially in the United States, high-stakes standard- subject matter–level tests (e.g., the Praxis or the West Iized testing has become the central tool used to series) for entrance to a teacher credentialing program, measure performance in publicly funded schools. and several also now require that candidates pass a The growth in the use of these tests comes as part of performance assessment, the edTPA, in order to earn an education reform movement to create systems of their credentials. In turn, policy makers are now also “accountability” based upon test score improvement. suggesting that teacher education programs be evalu- This is part of an education reform movement that ated based upon the value-added test score results also generally includes support for charter schools, generated by graduates of their own programs. alternative certification for teachers, the closing of underperforming schools, and the challenging of teachers’ unions and teacher tenure as part of a vision Contemporary Concerns for restructuring public education within a model of privatized, free-market competition. In the United It is important to recognize that, for many, the use of States in particular, standardized test scores are high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate the perfor- increasingly being used to make decisions about mance of teachers (and students and schools) is teacher tenure, student matriculation and graduation, based on an impulse to increase educational equality funding allotments, overall school evaluation, school and transparency. The idea behind this impulse is closures, and principal/administrator evaluation as that with the right measurement, standardized test well, thus making these tests “high-stakes.” scores in this case, the public can adequately judge More recently such “accountability” policies have the quality of the curriculum, school, and teaching. been structured around models of “value-added mea- Given the long history of educational inequality surement” and “student growth” in an attempt to sta- between the rich and the poor, as well as among tistically isolate the positive and negative effects of racial groups in the United States, ideally such test- any single teacher on the test scores of any single ing would not only provide the kind of transparency student. Tests are also increasingly being used to eval- necessary to see the inequality but also provide uate teachers in the process of entering the teaching a means for addressing the same inequality.

183 184–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Despite such equitable impulses, the use of high- connects to students’ lives, communities, and con- stakes standardized tests to evaluate the performance cerns. This creates the possibility for a curriculum of teachers has proved to be quite controversial for that is more alienating and less effective for the stu- multiple reasons. For instance, research has consis- dents such scripts are ostensibly supposed to help. tently shown that the use of high-stakes testing within Second, in the case of using high-stakes standardized systems of accountability has led to an increased tests to evaluate teachers, the implementation of focus in the curriculum on tested subjects to the scripted curriculum ultimately means that teachers increased neglect of nontested subjects. Thus the are being evaluated for teaching that is not “theirs.” commonly tested subjects of math and language arts/ Put differently, when such scripts are used relative to literacy are coming to dominate schools’ curricula to high-stakes tests, ultimately teachers are being evalu- the loss of other important, nontested subjects such as ated on curriculum they did not write and pedagogy social studies, science, art, music, and physical they did not create. They are being evaluated for their education. This has been particularly true in schools teaching, when in reality they do not have ownership with high concentrations of low-income students of of the teaching that is taking place in the classroom. color—who have historically performed more poorly The third contradiction created when systems of test- on these types of high-stakes standardized assess- based accountability are coupled with scripted ments. Thus, ironically, the very students such test- instruction is professional: Within these systems based accountability policies were supposedly teachers are not viewed as educated and trained pro- designed to help are oftentimes getting a much less fessionals. Many teachers hold advanced degrees in enriching curriculum and less engaging educational their fields, have years of professional experience, experiences than their more affluent counterparts in passed subject matter tests, met credentialing require- higher performing schools and districts. ments, and successfully graduated from teacher edu- Further, studies also demonstrate that teachers cation programs. Using a standardized test and a are shifting their instruction toward the tests. That scripted curriculum functionally suggests that teach- is, they are increasingly moving toward the kinds of ers are not capable of using professional judgment in decontextualized, rote thinking such tests often ask their practice. of students. In response to the pressures of high- One of the most pressing contemporary concerns stakes accountability, teachers in low-performing about using high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate schools, in particular, are being required to teach teachers revolves around questions raised regarding totally “scripted” curriculum that has often been the validity of using test scores to evaluate an indi- written by textbook or assessment companies that vidual teacher’s effect on an individual student’s test decree exactly what words teachers should be say- scores—referred to as value-added measurement ing to students on any given day. Principals then can (VAM). For instance, researchers have found many potentially discipline teachers for being “off script” statistical problems with VAM-based student growth if they are not following the language provided. models. One study found that there was a 35% error Advocates of test-driven, scripted curriculum argue rate when using a single year’s worth of data to evalu- that the quality of classroom instruction is so ate teaching, and a 25% error rate when using 3 years’ uneven that these scripts at least guarantee that all worth of data. In other words, even when using students are receiving the same level of instruction 3 years of test score data, there is still a one-in-four and thus students who have historically been under- chance of misidentifying a teacher as below standard served by their teachers and schools (low-income instead of at standard. Another study found that one- students of color specifically) can at least receive time, randomly occurring factors (i.e., a dog barking “fair” instruction in their classrooms. outside of a classroom window, or whether a student The increased use of scripted curriculum creates had breakfast or got into an argument on the way to multiple contradictions for teachers and teacher school) accounted for 50% to 80% of any test score evaluation, however. First, given that such scripts are gains or losses. Other studies find that high-stakes used more often with low-performing students, standardized tests seem to do a better job at measur- teachers working with children of the highest need ing the demographics of who is in the classroom, not have less flexibility in creating a curriculum that the teaching: In some cases the same teachers that 23. High-Stakes Testing and the Evaluation of Teachers–•–185

scored in the top 20% on value-added measures in producing an “intelligence quotient,” or IQ. Cogni- 1 year end up in the bottom 40% in the next. tive psychologists in the United States such as Henry Other critical issues have also been raised with Goddard, Lewis Terman, and Robert Yerkes adapted regard to using high-stakes standardized test scores Binet’s testing and measurement of IQ in very spe- to evaluate teachers. For instance, advocates of cific ways that fit the race-and-class politics of the VAM have been unable to clearly sort through “peer United States. Mainly they distorted the original use effect”—that is, they have not been able to isolate of the tests and injected their own underlying pre- how much test scores improve or decline purely sumptions about humans and human ability. After based on whether a student is surrounded by high- testing large pools of U.S. Army recruits, for instance, performing or low-performing peers. Another non- these psychologists claimed to have objectively statistical issue is that of cognitive transfer: We do determined that immigrants, the poor, and non- not have a way to tell if, for instance, a student’s Whites were all less intelligent than White, affluent, language arts/literacy test scores can only be attrib- and U.S.-born individuals. uted to the language arts teacher alone or if a social Through the work of these psychologists, and studies, art, music, or science teacher contributed to with the support of educational philanthropists of the the student’s performance in this area. Additionally time such as Andrew Carnegie, IQ in the United there appear to be high levels of subjectivity in the States became conceived of as hereditary and fixed. grading of some tests, particularly essay exams. IQ testing almost immediately worked its way into Essay tests are often scored by temporary workers public schools, an institution that was struggling with who are paid “piece rate” based on the number of a massive increase in school-going population of exams they can grade during a given time period. young people. Such assessments laid the groundwork When being paid 30 to 70 cents a paper, scorers are for the first mass standardized tests, the results of considered slow if they spend more than a minute which were used not only to justify admissions into grading a student’s essay exam. Reports from inside colleges but also to place students into ability groups the test-grading industry also relay stories of manag- and on differential educational tracks. ers telling scorers to start giving higher (or lower) The historical origins of high-stakes standardized grades on essay exams in order to make the overall testing within IQ testing also shaped conceptions of results consistent with the previous year’s grades— teacher work that carry through into contemporary thus creating what test makers refer to as “reliability” uses of such tests to evaluate teachers. In the early in measurement from year to year. 1900s several educational leaders applied Frederick Despite these concerns, politicians, policy mak- Taylor’s concept of scientific management in factory ers, and statisticians who advocate for VAM still production to systems of educational management hope to find better ways to use tests to more accu- and planning. For Taylor, efficient production relied rately measure the impact teachers have on student upon the factory managers’ ability to gather all the learning, at least as measured by such tests. information possible about the work they oversaw, systematically analyze it according to “scientific” methods, figure out the most efficient ways for work- Contexts ers to complete individual tasks, and then tell the worker exactly how to produce their products in an High-stakes standardized testing and its use to evalu- ordered manner—a process more popularly known ate teachers is best understood within its historical as “Taylorism.” Under the guidance of curriculum and political contexts. Fundamentally the use of leaders such as Franklin Bobbitt, David Snedden, standardized tests to measure large populations origi- and others, scientific management provided a par- nated with the IQ tests first developed by French ticular logic of efficiency in U.S. education: Objec- psychologist Alfred Binet. Binet developed his IQ tives for teaching and learning are determined by test in 1904 to assess if young children were mildly administrators or policy makers; the administrator developmentally disabled, producing the “Binet gathers all possible information about the educa- Scale” of intelligence. He divided mental age (as tional process and develops the best methods for measured by his test) by the chronological age, thus teachers to get students to meet the objectives, in 186–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

large part because teachers were not seen as being students and communities) are rendered less and less capable of determining the most effective instruc- acceptable relative to high-stakes standardized test- tional methods themselves. Further, in this early ing. Similarly the contemporary standardization of view of public education, principals and other admin- teaching through testing allows for increased mana- istrators should use tests to determine “weak” and gerial and administrative control over teachers “strong” teachers as well as rates of teacher pay or (labor) and students (products) in the process of access to other privileges. education. The rise of scripted curriculum in con- Thus, the metaphor of Taylorism is easily mapped junction with VAM combines to illustrate the dual on to public schools very neatly. Students are the process of control and surveillance that lies at the “raw materials” to be produced like commodities heart of contemporary definitions of accountability according to specified standards and objectives. within education policy. Teachers are the workers who employ the most effi- The current political context for using high-stakes cient methods to get students to meet the predeter- standardized testing to evaluate teachers is also mined standards and objectives. Administrators are indebted to the historical origins of testing and the the managers who determine and dictate to teachers factory production model of education. The current the most efficient methods in the production process. education reform movement is constructed around The school is the factory assembly line where this several policies: charter schools, school closings, process takes place. Moreover, school plants were alternative pathways to teacher certification, rejec- designed to resemble factories. tion of teacher tenure (and, by extension, teacher The contemporary use of high-stakes standard- unions), merit pay, VAM, and high-stakes standard- ized tests to evaluate teachers in the United States is ized testing. For the most part these contemporary directly indebted to this history. As noted earlier, education reforms are constructed on the slippery since the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and the foundation provided by high-stakes standardized test advent of mandated tests, teachers are increasingly scores. Charter proponents claim they can raise test changing curriculum and pedagogy under the high- scores in competition with regular public schools. stakes pressures created by standardized tests—most Merit pay, also known as performance pay, ties eco- often in ways that align with the structures of the nomic rewards for teachers to increased test scores. tests themselves. Some scholars have referred to this Proponents of alternative pathways to teacher certifi- as “multiple choice teaching.” Further, as discussed cation claim that their teachers can competitively earlier, low-performing school districts feeling the raise test scores better than those certificated in pressures created by high-stakes standardized tests colleges of education from universities. Finally, as are increasingly becoming more prescriptive about discussed earlier, proponents of VAM claim they can how teachers should teach. In these regards high- statistically isolate an individual teacher’s effect on stakes testing not only standardizes the content of an individual student’s test scores. Thus, similar to the curriculum as well as the forms such content the educational Taylorism of the early 1900s, the takes in the classroom, but it also works to standardize basis for the current swath of education reforms is teachers’ pedagogies as they work to deliver test- constructed around a business model of education driven curriculum in an efficient and often prescribed that assumes competitive production, and high-stakes manner. standardized test scores provide the metric upon The rise of scripted curriculum in this context which the entire model functions. represents a deskilling of teacher labor, where teach- ers have seen their curricular decision-making power severely diminished and are essentially being Theories instructed on what to teach and how to teach it— across all subject areas. In a manner highly reminis- There are numerous theoretical approaches to under- cent of Taylorism, such a vision conceives of standing the use and impact of high-stakes stand- teaching as a technical operation, one where many of ardized tests to evaluate teachers. The first, and the more complex skills associated with the profes- perhaps the most obvious, would be associated with sion (e.g., curriculum planning and knowledge of “ positivist” approaches to understanding education. 23. High-Stakes Testing and the Evaluation of Teachers–•–187

Positivism assumes that researchers are objective in evaluate teachers include Marxism and neo-Marxism. their inquiry and, as a general rule, it also values Both of these lenses look at teaching as part of a quantitative data over qualitative data for being the labor process where students are produced and teach- most objective data available. Positivist theoretical ers provide the labor within systems of education. understandings of the use of high-stakes standard- Further, both of these lenses also examine how larger ized tests to evaluate teachers assume that the tests socioeconomic structures and relationships shape themselves provide accurate and objective quantita- and influence policies and practices associated with tive measures of both teaching and learning. As such, teacher evaluation. positivist approaches to understanding the evaluation However, while a Marxist perspective might of teachers support the use of VAM for measuring focus more on the political economy of teaching, student growth and, by extension, evaluating testing, and evaluation, neo-Marxists also tend to teachers. look at the more cultural aspects of schooling and, at The social sciences have also provided some times, at how high-stakes standardized tests repro- effective theoretical lenses to analyze the use of high- duce socioeconomic inequality through the control stakes standardized testing to evaluate teachers. For of knowledge and the selective transfer of power instance, social scientist Donald T. Campbell (1976) through cultural control. In this area, for instance, coined an adage, now referred to as “Campbell’s educational researchers have made use of sociologist Law,” which states: “The more any quantitative social of education Basil Bernstein’s theories of how cul- indicator (or even some qualitative indicator) is used tural codes are transmitted through classroom lan- for social decision-making, the more subject it will guage, pedagogy, and curriculum knowledge. be to corruption pressures and the more apt it will be According to Bernstein, social relations are embed- to distort and corrupt the social processes it is ded in the very structure of language and knowledge, intended to monitor.” Educational researchers have such that those relations are then transmitted through used Campbell’s Law to explain the evidence that classroom discourse and pedagogy. A Bernsteinian arise from the use of high-stakes standardized test- analysis of the use of high-stakes standardized tests ing, particularly teaching to the test, curriculum to evaluate teachers could possibly look at how edu- shrinkage, and ensuing cheating scandals. They cation policies, as well as the tests themselves, are essentially argue that the quantitative nature of gen- structured to compel teachers to comply with the erating test scores, coupled with high-stakes conse- demands of testing in their classroom practices in quences, ultimately corrupts the process of education ways that reproduce socioeconomic inequality (Au, that tests are supposed to be measuring in the first 2008). A Bernsteinian analysis could also identify place. In this regard, Campbell’s Law would suggest ways in which teachers’ identities are defined by the that the accuracy of using tests to measure teacher policies associated with such testing. effectiveness is suspect, if not corrupt. Other theories centered around race and gender There are also a number of critical theoretical also inform how we might understand the use of approaches to understanding high-stakes standard- high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate teachers. ized testing and the evaluation of teachers. For Feminist theorists, for instance, have analyzed not instance, some educational researchers have drawn only the ways in which teaching developed into a on the work of Michel Foucault, who has argued that “feminized” profession historically but also the impli- exams exert disciplinary power over those being cations of having a predominantly female teacher evaluated by creating high levels of visibility for workforce being legislated and evaluated (through those with authority to identify and ultimately punish education policy) by the U.S. state and federal gov- those who do not fit easily into a given system. In the ernments, governing bodies that are supramajority case of teacher evaluation then, a Foucauldian analy- male. Using this lens, when looking at the use of sis would see the use of high-stakes standardized high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate teachers, testing to evaluate teachers purely as a means of education researchers drawing on feminist theory asserting power over teachers (and, by extension, have raised questions about the assertion of male students). Additional critical theoretical lenses for governmental power and authority over what has analyzing using high-stakes standardized tests to historically been construed as a female profession, 188–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

with the tests being the operational vehicle for this seeking to understand the use of high-stakes standard- power. Critical race theory (CRT) has also been used ized tests to evaluate teachers thus inquire into how to examine the racialized outcomes of high-stakes teachers might be feeling and making sense of the use standardized testing. CRT analyses of high-stakes of tests in their evaluations or documenting how such tests point out not only that historically in the United policies are changing their practices (and, by exten- States such tests have always exhibited racial inequal- sion, the curriculum and learning experiences of stu- ities in results but also that the negative effects of dents). Qualitative researchers also might analyze high-stakes testing are disproportionately concen- official policy documents, speeches, or interviews trated within communities of color. This in turn cre- with policy makers regarding the creation and logics ates a negative association for teachers who may not of such policies for teacher evaluation. Qualitative want to work with large populations of students of research into the impacts of high-stakes standardized color for fear (real or imagined) of a higher likelihood testing on teaching and learning has also been done of getting poor, test score–based evaluations. formally through ethnography, a mode of inquiry that relies on observations, interviews, and document analysis as forms of qualitative evidence relative to Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression teacher practices and student experiences. Given the quantitative nature of high-stakes stan- There are multiple forms of inquiry and modes of dardized tests, as well as the focus of this chapter, it expression associated with using high-stakes stan- is important to note that there are more qualitative dardized tests to evaluate teachers; these are related methods for evaluating teachers. These might include in many ways to the theories just discussed. As is the formal observations by administrators, peer observa- case with all educational research and policy, there tions, formal reflective portfolios of representative exists a tension between quantitative and qualitative teacher work, and other ways not associated with approaches to understanding every aspect of high- generating numbers, but based more on the ongoing stakes testing, including the evaluation of teachers. development and growth of teacher practices. Exam- Quantitative approaches place high value in the num- ples of these forms of assessment include “perfor- bers (quantities) generated by the tests, and this value mance assessments,” such as the assessment for is generally built upon the assumptive accuracy and National Board Certification and the edTPA, both of objectivity of the numbers produced by the tests. which require video of teaching, collections of stu- Quantitative analyses of using high-stakes standard- dent work, collections of teacher work, and signifi- ized tests to evaluate teachers—such as the earlier cant reflection on the practice of teaching itself. discussed models of VAM—are thus largely mathe- Other examples include “communities of practice” matical and statistical, with researchers and analysts where teachers develop study groups around areas of using algorithms and various forms of statistical improvement and work to implement changes with manipulation to look for correlations between sets of the support of their peers, as well as participatory quantitative data. Thus, the basis of VAM and other action research where teachers identify issues for quantitative approaches to teacher evaluation is the improvement, develop and implement a plan for extrapolation of the correlation between student test researching their own practice around that issue, scores and teacher performance. It is important to make adjustments to their practice, and research note that the majority of high-stakes standardized whether their adjustments addressed their originally tests produce single numbers (or sets of numbers) identified issue. These non-test-based possibilities and thus are themselves quantitative measures. for teacher evaluation point to a limit of using high- While quantitative approaches are only interested stakes standardized tests for teacher evaluations: in the numbers, qualitative approaches look more Standardized tests, as a quantitative measure, only toward human experience and meaning making. Thus, provide a snapshot of a moment of time—a small qualitative researchers attend to forms of evidence sample of student or teacher work when teaching and like interviews, observations, journals, recorded con- learning are processes that take place over time. versations, blogs, policy documents, meeting minutes, These qualitative measures of teaching and learning, and curriculum, among others. Qualitative researchers however, are seen by some as being more subjective 23. High-Stakes Testing and the Evaluation of Teachers–•–189

than quantitative measures, even though the levels performance. Another fundamentally “mixed” mode of subjectivity and objectivity of any measure of of inquiry is that of “qualitative metasynthesis,” teaching and learning are up for debate. which seeks to combine the data generated by mul- There are, however, more “mixed” approaches to tiple qualitative studies into more generalizable studying high-stakes testing and teacher evaluation quantitative findings. Because of the political and that combine aspects of both quantitative and quali- methodological tensions within the field of educa- tative approaches. Some researchers use test scores tion, many researchers rely on these mixed methods in combination with observations, interviews, and because they feel that doing so speaks to a broader survey results to inquire into this area, and many audience that is likely to include policy makers, labor contracts for teachers unions are being built researchers, teachers, and community members around a combination of using student test scores and across the spectrum of quantitative and qualitative observations by administrators to evaluate teacher understandings of high-stakes testing.

References and Further Readings Berliner, D. C. (2002). Educational research: The hardest science of all. Educational Researcher, 31(8), 18–20. Anderson, G. L., Herr, K., & Nihlen, A. S. (2007). Bernstein, B. B. (1977). Class codes and control, Volume 3: Studying your own school: An educator’s guide to Towards a theory of educational transmissions (2nd qualitative practitioner research. Thousand Oaks, ed., Vol. 3). London, UK: Routledge and Kegan Paul. CA: Corwin Press. Campbell, D. T. (1976, December). Assessing the impact Apple, M. W. (1986). Teachers and texts: A political of planned social change (Occasional Paper Series, economy of class and gender relations in education. Paper #8). Hanover, NH: The Public Affairs Center, New York, NY: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Dartmouth College. Au, W. (2008). Devising inequality: A Bernsteinian Darling-Hammond, L., & Hyler, M. E. (2013). The role analysis of high-stakes testing and social of performance assessment in developing teaching as reproduction in education. British Journal of a profession. Rethinking Schools, 27(4), 10–15. Sociology of Education, 29(6), 639–651. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of Au, W. (2009). Unequal by design: High-stakes testing the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.; 2nd ed.). New York, and the standardization of inequality. New York, NY: Vintage Books. NY: Routledge. Hanson, A. F. (2000). How tests create what they are Au, W. (2010–2011). Neither fair nor accurate: Research intended to measure. In A. Filer (Ed.), Assessment: based reasons why high-stakes tests should not be used Social practice and social product (pp. 67–81). to evaluate teachers. Rethinking Schools, 25(2), 34–38. New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer. Au, W. (2011). Teaching under the new Taylorism: Horn, J., & Wilburn, D. J. (2013). The mismeasure of High-stakes testing and the standardization of the education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. 21st century curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F., IV. (1995). Towards Studies, 43(1), 25–45. a critical race theory of education. Teachers College Au, W., & Gourd, K. (2013). Asinine assessment: Why Record, 97(1), 47–68. high-stakes testing is bad for everyone, including Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral English teachers. English Journal, 103(1), 14–19. damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America’s Baker, E. L., Barton, P. E., Darling-Hammond, L., schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Haertel, E., Ladd, H. F., Linn, R. L., . . . Selden, S. (1999). Inheriting shame: The story of Shepard, L. A. (2010). Problems with the use of eugenics and racism in America. New York, NY: student test scores to evaluate teachers. Economic Teachers College Press. Policy Institute, Briefing Paper #278. Retrieved Thorne, S. E., Jensen, L., Kearney, M. H., from http://www.epi.org/publication/bp278/ Noblit, G. W., & Sandelowski, M. (2004). Ball, S. J. (2003). The teacher’s soul and the terrors of Qualitative metasynthesis: Reflections on performativity. Journal of Education Policy, 18(3), methodological orientation and ideological agenda. 215–228. Qualitative Health Research, 14(10), 1342–1365. Benton, T., & Craib, I. (2001). Philosophy of social Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, science: The philosophical foundations of social meaning, and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge thought. New York, NY: Palgrave. University Press. 24

TEACHERS AS CULTURAL WORKERS

MATTHEW KNOESTER University of Evansville

MIN YU Missouri State University

hether education is understood as the that are often symbolic or not part of the explicit cur- reproduction of a culture for a new gen- riculum and that perpetuate marginalization of par- Weration or as the improvement or transfor- ticular groups of students and inequalities within mation of that culture (Gutierrez, 2000), education is schools as teachers develop their “courage to teach” a cultural intervention in which teachers play a sig- (Palmer, 1998). nificant role. In what ways can teaching be under- stood as “cultural” work? How might teachers see themselves as “cultural workers” (Freire, 2005)? Contemporary Concerns How should teachers go about doing that work? These questions foreground the ideas and arguments Historically, public education in the United States this chapter aims to address. We argue that the con- was thought to be for the purpose of self-governance cept of teachers as cultural workers involves two and a functioning democracy (Gutmann, 1999; core commitments. Teachers are deeply committed Meier, 2009). Why is this focus still important to empowering students to make substantial societal today? What are the central elements necessary to change. Teachers are committed to bringing about keep this focus in mind? Within this context, we social change as active citizens within and outside of recognize the central role teachers play to educate the schools. whole child. This perspective can be lost in an edu- The first task of cultural work of teachers includes cational and social culture that is focused narrowly interrupting social forces of inequality such as rac- on test scores and academic achievements (Apple, ism, classism, sexism, homophobia, nationalism, and 2006; Ayers, 2010). There has been a prevailing ableism, exposing these realities to students, and emphasis on preparing children for a competitive equipping them with analytical skills to understand workplace environment that often conflicts with edu- how these forces of inequality operate and can be cation as cultural work. When teachers consider interrupted. Teachers’ cultural work also involves these conflicting purposes of education, it is crucial recognizing the hidden curriculum (Apple, that they recognize their roles as cultural workers in 1982/1995) of schools and interrupting those choices relation to children, parents, colleagues, and others

190 24. Teachers as Cultural Workers–•–191

with whom they work. Paulo Freire (2005) suggested think outside of their comfort zones and cultural that teachers respect the importance of diverse iden- upbringings and to see their students as fully human tities and understand how their own identities can with funds of cultural heritage and knowledge as influence the ways in which they work: they help their students to build on their strengths and look beyond themselves as they grow. We have a strong tendency to affirm that what is differ- ent from us is inferior. We start from the belief that our way of being is not only good but better than that of Current Challenges others who are different from us. This is intolerance. It is the irresistible preference to reject differences. Today’s educational system is far from equal and (pp. 128–129) fails to provide adequate education for all. The origi- Freire pointed to a central problem that can inhibit nal purpose of education for the public is often lost teachers from carrying out their important cultural in political discourses about education (Meier, 2009). work. Teachers must recognize their roles and identi- To restore the original purpose of “public education ties in order to build empowering relationships with for the public good,” teachers must view themselves their students. and act as “models of thoughtfulness and care; exem- Another issue that is strongly linked to the pur- plars of problem solving and decision making; poses of education is the extent to which teachers people capable of asking deep questions, drawing perceive their roles. Most teachers perceive them- necessary connections, incorporating the surprising selves as either transmitters or transformers of the and the unexpected and the new as it occurs in prevailing culture. For teachers who consider them- classroom life” (Ayers, 2010, p. 6). To inspire all selves as cultural workers, instead of operating children, education must involve modeling thought- within and maintaining the status quo, they act as fulness and justice and exploring real-world prob- agents of change. In the United States, the majority lems without shying away from contradictions and of teachers and administrators are White and middle- dilemmas in an unfair and unjust world (Ayers, class, while the student populations are increasingly 2010). Teaching solely from textbooks and materials becoming ethnically and socioeconomically diverse. can have the effect of presenting history as immov- What message does that send? Apple (1982/1995) able and irrelevant to the current world. For Ayers, argued that the hidden curriculum of schools, the education for democratic citizenship requires stu- messages from various decisions that are not part of dents to perceive themselves as capable of playing a the explicit or published curriculum but are part of vital part in knowledge creation, decision making, students’ school experiences, can have devastating and building new history. effects on the lives and identity development of stu- Teachers should also recognize the forces of dents. Urban schools often are obsessed with control exclusion and inequality in schools and societies and and “security.” The knowledge and history that is provide all children with the high-quality education officially presented often lacks the knowledge of they deserve. In other words, teachers must be con- people of color. Students and their families are left to cerned with “educating all students for participation wonder: Is this school a place for people like me? in intellectual and academic complexity” (Ayers, Am I welcome here? 2010, p. 6). Teachers’ work is to break down the bar- For Freire and those who “dare to teach” as cul- riers to full participation of historically oppressed or tural workers, education is a political practice. excluded groups and to offer everyone an intellectu- Teachers know the complexity and diversity of the ally ambitious education. Teachers should not avoid world in which their students live. They understand difficulties but face issues of “injustice, racism, the cultures where their students’ languages, syntax, imperial ambition, and war” (p. 6). semantics, and accents are found in action and where Further, teachers must empower students and certain habits, likes, beliefs, fears, and desires are help them to develop “cultural competence” (Gay, formed that are not necessarily easily accepted in 2010). This means helping students understand teachers’ own worlds (Freire, 2005, p. 129). They are themselves within a cultural context and understand encouraged to continually challenge themselves to those who are different from themselves in terms of 192–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

cultural assumptions and habits so that they can education for the greater good. Prominent studies build upon their own cultural knowledge and new have provided sociological research addressing the skills necessary to work and live together to govern power of ordinary teachers coming together to create a shared democracy. Gay (2010) describes this as change in their communities to address social and culturally responsive teaching: educational problems (Anyon, 2005; Ayers, 2004; Ayers, Quinn, Stovall, & Scheiern, 2008; Ball, 2006; using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames Carini, 2001; Palmer, 2007). Historical accounts have of reference, and performance styles of ethnically described the challenges and rewards of everyday diverse students to make learning encounters more rel- evant and effective for them. It teaches to and through teaching in classrooms and/or mobilizing toward the strengths of these students. . . . Culturally responsive larger social actions (Freire, 2005; Horton, Kohl, & teaching is validating and affirming. (p. 31) Kohl, 1998; Meier, 2002; Meier, Engel, & Taylor, 2010; Payne & Strickland, 2008; Reese, 2002). Cul- Emphasizing the importance of cultural compe- tural and political analyses recognize the democratic tence, Ming Fang He (2003) noted that one of the values of teaching as intellectual work (Giroux, 1988) defining features of countries in the Western world, to collectively promote the public interest rather than such as the United States, is the large number of resi- private profits and benefits (Apple, 2000, 2006; dents who move from place to place around the Knoester, 2012a, 2012b; Kozol, 1981, 2008; Ladson- world. She reminded us that education for democracy Billings, 1995, 2009; Nieto, 2003, 2008; Saïd, 1994). must be mindful not only of national interests but also This work offers understandings of struggles taking of the global community that we share. She wrote: place in schools and educational settings. Immigrants/refugees’ struggle for identity and balance For Freire (2005), to become a teacher as a cultural in their new lives is paralleled with a quest for a global worker, one has to start with humility: community in the making (Dewey, 1916)—a commu- nity where people listen to and hear the voices of those I shall start with humility, which here by no means car- who live lives different from their own, a community ries the connotation of a lack of self-respect, of resigna- that creates the possibility for developing mutual respect, tion, or of cowardice. On the contrary, humility requires empathy and compassion, a community that thrives courage, self-confidence, self-respect, and respect for upon the passionate involvement and commitment of its others. Humility helps us to understand this obvious members for social change. (He, 2003, p. 146) truth: No one knows it all; no one is ignorant of every- thing. We all know something; we are all ignorant of He makes clear that teachers, no matter where something. Without humility, one can hardly listen with they are from, must be prepared to teach students respect to those one judges to be too far below one’s own level of competence. . . . Listening to all that come who have different experiences and cultural values to us, regardless of their intellectual level, is a human from themselves. As teachers struggle to reflect on duty and reveals an identification with democracy and their identities, they must also support students who not with elitism. (pp. 71–72) may be struggling to find their own identities within shifting historical, social, political, economic, geo- Teaching is a complex relationship, which must be graphical, cultural, and linguistic contextual forces. built on trust and love, rather than domination or fear. This cultural work requires a continuous process of Freire also pointed out that “authoritarians’ stance . . . self-reflection so that teachers can create inspira- is sectarian” (p. 73), which would lead to harmful or tional learning environments and develop trusting mis-educative results, including student apathy, fear relationships with students and families to meet the of resistance against injustice, fear of freedom, exces- needs of diverse students and families. sive obedience, and inability to effectively participate in a participatory democracy. The cultural work of teaching should be prosocial, encourage empathy with Research on Teachers as others, and help to build the knowledge, skills, and Cultural Workers dispositions to create and participate in an i nclusive and responsive democratic community. There has been a wide array of research literature There are those who enter teaching for the wrong that explores teachers as cultural workers through reasons, because they crave control of students or critical examination of the role of teachers and public strive to be the center of attention. This temptation 24. Teachers as Cultural Workers–•–193

must be fought against. Humility must be extended (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009), “research with a to the desire to understand what is going on inside of heart” (He & Ayers, 2009), critical inquiry (Denzin, a child’s mind. Assessment of students must be Lincoln, & Smith, 2008), and personal~passionate~ respectful of the knowledge and potential of all stu- participatory inquiry (He & Phillion, 2008). The dents without jumping to conclusions about a child’s modes of expression are perhaps more likely to abilities and potentials through high-stakes testing, reveal the values and ethics involved with the cul- rigid tracking, or savage segregation. Humility must tural work of teaching. The Latin phrase in loco be sought as teachers assess the learning of students parentis, meaning “in the place of the parent,” comes with justice and care. As educational theorist Patricia from English common law and is part of the legal Carini (2001) wrote: framework that allows schools and teachers to make decisions about the welfare of children in their care. I resist the oversystematization and depersonalization But this role is more than legal. Teachers need to of the school, which threaten to eclipse life on the view their students through a parental lens and work human and daily scale . . . the ever narrower definition to support the development of each child emotionally, of “normalcy” and the consequent classifying and pathologizing of children. (p. 1) intellectually, and physically. As John Dewey (1990/1900/1902) eloquently wrote, “What the best Carini’s words refer to the common practices of and wisest parent wants for his child, that must we seeing children through overly simplistic numbers want for all the children of the community” (p. 7). and designations including test scores. Although When children are viewed holistically, they are teachers must be aware that state and federal laws seen as more than a test score or a check mark on an require students to be tested using standardized tests attendance sheet. Rather, children need a full and on a regular basis, teachers do not have to be limited enriching curriculum, including art, music, physical to using only tests to inform their teaching. Teachers education, science, social studies, literature, and must also come to know their students well through math. They need warm and accepting classroom a wide range of assessments, both formal and infor- communities and opportunities to breathe fresh air mal. Informal assessments include observing stu- outside, to play and experiment, to make decisions dents as they work, looking at student work closely, about their own learning, and to create meaningful continually interacting with students, and asking work, which has the potential to strengthen their colleagues and parents for their input on how to best identities as committed students and world citizens meet the needs of students. More formal assessments (Nussbaum, 1997). One celebrated long-time teacher, include standardized assessments of reading, writing, Ron Berger (2003), described the rich learning and other abilities; teacher-designed tests and rubrics environment of his school in this way: for student work; interviews with students; exhibitions of student work; and portfolios of student work. The When I share beautiful student work from my classroom term authentic generally refers to assessing students with others, I’m often asked how the students came to as they complete work that is worth doing on its be this way, how they came to care so much about doing own—not only because it is a “test” for the teacher’s quality work. This is what I say: They entered a school purposes. Assessment is a crucial way to build the culture where high-quality projects are celebrated relationship of trust and respect. Teachers must get to everywhere in the building. They didn’t spend their know their students well in order to build this trust years reading textbooks in unison or filling in blanks on worksheets—since pre-school and Kindergarten they’ve and to support students as they learn and grow. been creating books, drafting maps, researching local history, and designing experiments. (p. 66)

Forms of Inquiry on Inspiring Teachers Berger’s teaching was hands-on and experiential, as this quote indicates, but education that is mindful Much of the educational research and theory discus- of the parental role of teachers looks out for how sed in the previous section drew from powerful forms students’ self-determination and identity develop- of inquiry such as ethnographic inquiry (Hymes, ment require much more than test-taking skills. 1996), multicultural and cross-cultural narrat ive Those hands-on and experiential activities in his inquiry (He, 2002; Phillion, 2008), inquiry as stance teaching, which were more likely to be remembered 194–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

by students, helped challenge students to think criti- Hoose profiles young children who have acted within cally about what they already know and positively their communities to make a difference for others. transformed students’ views of themselves. Berger Hoose writes about a boy who worked tirelessly to also challenged students to solve problems with and turn an abandoned lot in his neighborhood into a within their communities. By asking students to solve public park after a different child was struck by a car “authentic” problems, students were more likely to while playing in the street. Teachers must also see the relevance of their work and to be able to “step provide examples of this behavior for their students into the shoes” of those adults who were profession- and use their leadership abilities to foster a better ally working on these problems. In Berger’s sixth- community in which children and adults can live. grade classroom, for example, students conducted Sonia Nieto (2003, 2008) points out the connec- analyses of local groundwater for contamination, tions among public education, good teaching, and tested local residents’ basements for radon, and stud- democratic society. In What Keeps Teachers Going? ied the work of people in various professions, often (2003), Nieto describes various aspects of teaching: working closely with those in the field. teaching as evolution, teaching as autobiography, In Brian Schultz’s (2008) reflections on teach- teaching as love, teaching as hope and possibility, ing, he described how he involved his students in teaching as anger and desperation, teaching as intel- political struggles to improve the learning condi- lectual work, teaching as democratic practice, and tions at their school. While the students in Room teaching as shaping futures. For Nieto, the basis of 405 confronted the inequities they were facing good teaching lies in the possibility of seeing teach- every day in school and in the community, Schultz, ing as building relationships to empower students. as their teacher, encouraged them to challenge these She illustrates the importance of the teacher/student inequities. He advocated for his students to have the relationship in nurturing hope and care for students opportunities to challenge and confront inequities in and the cultural, linguistic, and social challenges of their lives by identifying problems and centering building such relationships. She argues that improv- the curriculum on these issues. He mobilized mul- ing teaching follows various pathways, and teachers’ tiple resources, from the community and beyond, to personal reflections are necessary as they perceive support and encourage them to draw on their themselves as agents for changes in schools and strengths to take actions to resolve the issues. He communities. Teachers’ hope for, belief in, and fostered a democratic learning environment that words and actions toward their students can often engaged students academically and socially in have lifelong impacts on students. issues within the school and the community. It was Jean Anyon (2005) reminds us that “failing public clear to the students how what they learned was rel- schools in cities are . . . a logical consequence of the evant to their lives as they were able to better under- U.S. macroeconomy—and the federal and regional stand how actions in the world can have significant policies and practices that support it. Teachers, consequences. principals, and urban students are not the culprits” These are powerful examples of how teachers can (p. 2). Although this chapter focuses on the impor- make their students’ academic work directly con- tance of teachers’ work, we also need to remember nected with and relevant to realities outside of the that schools and teachers exist within larger contexts. school’s walls. Others have noted the importance of Although they may not be able to achieve significant play and imagination (Meier et al., 2010) and the change alone, teachers, as cultural workers, can be significance of critically analyzing the hidden mes- involved in larger debates and movements that hope sages of television and advertising in order to allow to interrupt the forces of inequality and suppression students to better understand how authors of these in schools and societies. Teachers are citizens and messages view young people as consumers, which can model for their students how to be actively may detrimentally affect the positive identity involved with the communities within and outside of development of children (Molnar, 2005). the schools. Teachers need to practice democratic How can teachers guide the learning of their stu- decision making within their schools and participate dents if they do not model what they hope their stu- in their communities by, for instance, attending dents learn? In It’s Our World, Too! (2002), Phillip and participating in school board meetings, union 24. Teachers as Cultural Workers–•–195

meetings, and campaigns and elections. The stories; and to create spaces of radical hope, love, and justice personal essays; autobiography; visual art, music, (Schubert, 2009) in the midst of contested theories, theater; and science projects of teachers are impor- practices, and contexts. They must often develop cre- tant modes of expression that illuminate how teachers ative strategies to “transgress orthodoxies and enact carry out cultural work. educational and social change that fosters equity, As teachers reflect on their cultural practice, it is equality, freedom, and social justice” (He, Scott- important to continually inquire into their purposes Simmons, Haynes, & Tennial, 2009, p. 220) and to and means to best achieve their goals. There are promote a more balanced and equitable human condi- many purposes of education: to reproduce the knowl- tion through personal and political acts of teaching in edge of adults for a new generation, to prepare young an unjust world. people for a healthy and successful life, to prepare The cultural work of teachers is never finished young people for an occupation in the economy, and and is in continuous progress. Teachers can always to prepare a local community to compete in the find better ways to connect with their students, fami- global economy. Yet perhaps most importantly, the lies, colleagues, and communities to better align their aim of education is to cultivate thoughtful and capa- practice and thinking with the purposes of their ble cultural workers and world citizens for a more work. Knowledge about teaching and learning is equitable and just world. always partial. How can teachers both look inward In this chapter, we challenge readers to think about and learn from others about their experiences, reflec- how teachers, as cultural workers and as public intel- tions, analyses, and ways of knowing? Educational lectuals (Giroux, 1988) in often hard times, teach discourse is dominated by quick and easy evalua- against the grain (Simon, 1992; also Cochran-Smith, tions that reduce students’ knowledge to test scores. 1991, 2001), teach for social justice (Ayers, Hunt, & We encourage teachers to find ways far beyond tests, Quinn, 1998; Darling-Hammond, French, & Garcia- from the informal normative assessments that teach- Lopez, 2002), teach to transgress (hooks, 1994), ers conduct everyday within their own classrooms— teach community (hooks, 2003), teach critical think- looking at student work, evaluating student responses, ing (hooks, 2010), teach the taboo (Ayers & Ayers, noticing students’ interactions—to multiple forms of 2011), and teach toward freedom (Ayers, 2004). The educational research that is conducted by scholars radical democratic, cultural, and intellectual quality and other practitioners who critically reflect on their of teaching creates a space for cultural workers to practice. Other research that teachers might use to exile voluntarily to teach in between (He, 2010, 2013; improve their practice may not even mention chil- Saïd, 1994, 2003) to educate the next generation of dren and the classroom, but might delve into social citizens but not for profit (Nussbaum, 2010). forces that affect how individuals and groups are As cultural workers, teachers need to understand differentially impacted by various institutions and their roles as citizens, instructors, and as parents to relationships influenced by economic forces, race, their students. They must teach with humility and nationality, gender, and ability. Teachers as cultural sensitivity. They must teach with hearts and minds. workers are engaged citizens of the world who bring They must advocate for individuals, groups, families, the world to their teaching and their teaching to the tribes, communities, and societies that are often world. What must teachers know about cultures in underrepresented, misrepresented, or excluded in the schools and societies to interrupt the reproduction of official narrative (Ayers, 2004). They need to build inequalities to cultivate humanity (Nussbaum, 1997) solidarities with other educational and cultural work- through teaching? This question must be continually ers in schools, communities, neighborhoods, and asked and actively pursued by thoughtful educators tribes to build up courage (Freire, 2005; Palmer, 1998) as they teach to inspire.

References and Further Readings methodology (pp. 489–511). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Andrews, M. (2006). Exploring cross-cultural Anyon, J. (2005). Radical possibilities: Public policy, boundaries. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), urban education, and a new social movement. Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a New York, NY: Routledge. 196–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Apple, M. W. (1982/1995). Education and power. Dewey, J. (1990/1900/1902). The school and society; and, New York, NY: Routledge. the child and the curriculum. Chicago, IL: Apple, M. W. (2000). Official knowledge: Democratic University of Chicago Press. education in a conservative age. New York, NY: Freire, P. (1974). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Routledge. NY: Seabury. Apple, M. W. (2006). Educating the “right” way: Freire, P. (2005). Teachers as cultural workers: Letters Markets, standards, god, and inequality (2nd ed.). to those who dare teach. Boulder, CO: Westview New York, NY: Routledge. Press. Ayers, W. (2004). Teaching toward freedom: Moral Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, commitment and ethical action in the classroom. research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers Boston, MA: Beacon Press. College Press. Ayers, W. (2010). To teach: The journey of a teacher Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. essays. New York, NY: Basic Books. Ayers, R., & Ayers, W. (2011). Teaching the taboo: Giroux, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a Courage and imagination in the classroom. critical pedagogy of learning. South Hadley, MA: New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Bergin & Garvey. Ayers, W., Quinn, T., Stovall, D. O., & Scheiern, L. Gutiérrez, K. (2000). Teaching and learning in the 21st (2008). Teachers’ experience of curriculum: Policy, century. English Education, 32(4), 290–298. pedagogy, and situation. In F. M. Connelly, Gutmann, A. (1999). Democratic education. Princeton, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), The SAGE handbook NJ: Princeton University Press. of curriculum and instruction (pp. 306–326). Hall, S. (Ed.). (1997). Representation: Cultural Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. representations and signifying practices. London, Ayers, W. C., Hunt, J. A., & Quinn, T. (Eds.). (1998). UK: Sage. Teaching for social justice: A democracy and He, M. F. (2002). A narrative inquiry of cross-cultural education reader. New York, NY: Teachers College lives: Lives in Canada. Journal of Curriculum Press. Studies, 34(3), 323–342. Ball, A. F. (2006). Multicultural strategies for education He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural and social change: Carriers of the torch in the lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. United States and South Africa. New York, NY: Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Teachers College Press. He, M. F. (2010). Exile pedagogy: Teaching and living Berger, R. (2003). An ethic of excellence: Building a in-between. In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & culture of craftsmanship with students. Portsmouth, J. Burdick (Eds.), Handbook of public pedagogy: NH: Heinemann. Education and learning beyond schooling Carini, P. F. (2001). Starting strong: A different look at (pp. 469–482). New York, NY: Routledge. children, schools, and standards. New York, NY: He, M. F. (2015). Exile curriculum: Compelled to live Teachers College Press. in-between. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Cochran-Smith, M. (1991). Learning to teach against the Publishing. grain. Harvard Educational Review, 61(3), He, M. F., & Ayers, W. (2009). Research with a heart: 279–310. Activist practitioner inquiry on the landscape of Cochran-Smith, M. (2001). Learning to teach against the diversity. In H. R. Milner (Ed.), Diversity and (new) grain. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(1), education: Teachers, teaching, and teacher 3–4. education. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (2000). Trapped in-between: stance: Practitioner research for the next A narrative exploration of race, gender, and class. generation. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Race, Gender, and Class, 8(1), 47–56. Darling-Hammond, L., French, J., & Garcia-Lopez, S. P. He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (2008). Personal~passionate~ (2002). Learning to teach for social justice. New participatory inquiry into social justice in education. York, NY: Teachers College Press. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & Smith, L. T. (Eds.). He, M. F., Scott-Simmons, W., Haynes, A. M., & (2008). Handbook of critical and indigenous Tennial, D. M. (2009). Teaching creatively methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. in-between contested contradictions and Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York, complexities in the U.S. South. In C. J. Craig & NY: The Free Press. L. F. Deretchin (Eds.), Teacher education 24. Teachers as Cultural Workers–•–197

yearbook XVIII: Cultivating curious and creative Molnar, A. (2005). School commercialism: From minds: The role of teachers and teacher educators democratic ideal to market commodity. New York, (pp. 218–251). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Education/ NY: Routledge. Rowman & Littlefield. Nieto, S. (2003). What keeps teachers going? New York, hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as NY: Teachers College Press. the practice of freedom. New York, NY: Routledge. Nieto, S. (2008). Dear Paulo: Letters from those who hooks, b. (2003). Teaching community: A pedagogy of dare teach. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. hope. New York, NY: Routledge. Nussbaum, M. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical hooks, b. (2010). Teaching critical thinking: Practical defense of reform in liberal education. Cambridge, wisdom. New York, NY: Routledge. MA: Harvard University Press. Hoose, P. (2002). It’s our world, too!: Young people who Nussbaum, M. C. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy are making a difference: How they do it—How you needs the humanities (the public square series). can, too! New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Horton, M., Kohl, J., & Kohl, H. (1998). The long haul: Palmer, P. J. (1998). The courage to teach: Exploring the An autobiography. New York, NY: Teachers inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco, College Press. CA: Jossey-Bass. Hymes, D. H. (1996). Ethnography, linguistics, narrative Palmer, P. J. (2007). The courage to teach: Exploring the inequality: Toward an understanding of voice. inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco, New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. CA: Jossey-Bass. Knoester, M. (2012a). Democratic education in practice: Payne, C. M., & Strickland, C. S. (2008). Teach Inside the Mission Hill School. New York, NY: freedom: Education for liberation in the African- Teachers College Press. American tradition. New York, NY: Teachers Knoester, M. (Ed.). (2012b). International struggles for College Press. critical democratic education. New York, NY: Phillion, J. (2008). Multicultural and crosscultural Peter Lang. narrative inquiry into understanding immigrant Kozol, J. (1981). On being a teacher. Oxford, UK: students’ educational experience in Hong Kong. Oneworld Publications. Compare, 38(3), 281–293. Kozol, J. (2008). Letters to a young teacher. New York, Reese, W. J. (2002). Power and the promise of school NY: Random House. reform: Grass-roots movements during the Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally progressive era. New York, NY: Teachers College relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Press. Journal, 32(3), 465–491. Saïd, E. W. (1994). Representations of the intellectual. Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: New York, NY: Vintage Books. Successful teachers of African American children. Saïd, E. W. (2003). Reflections on exile and other San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Meier, D. W. (2002). The power of their ideas: Lessons Press. for America from a small school in Harlem. Boston, Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: MA: Beacon Press. John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: Meier, D. W. (2009). Democracy at risk: School’s most Information Age Publishing. pressing job is to teach the democratic life. Schultz, B. D. (2008). Spectacular things happen along Educational Leadership, 66(8), 45–49. the way: Lessons from an urban classroom. New Meier, D. W., Engel, B. S., & Taylor, B. (2010). Playing York, NY: Teachers College Press. for keeps: Life and learning on a public school Simon, R. I. (1992). Teaching against the grain: Texts playground. New York, NY: Teachers College for pedagogy of possibilities. New York, NY: Press. Bergin & Garvey. 25

TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM

JENNIFER L. MILAM Our Lady of the Elms School

uestions about the preparation of teachers debate over the values and purposes of teacher relate back to questions about the role of education: Qteachers, and indeed the role of schooling, in the society. Richard Hofstadter (1963) noted, “The To ask what the purposes of teacher education are is to presume such an education is necessary. However, figure of the school teacher may well be taken as a from the time that schools for children and youth central symbol in any modern society” (p. 309). This emerged on a wide scale in the 19th and 20th centuries, does not mean there has been agreement over the many critics have asserted that teachers do not require nature or purposes of teaching, nor over the educa- formal, professional preparation. (p. 10) tion and preparation for the profession. The roles and expectations of what it means to become a teacher We find ourselves now, in the 21st century, have changed as public demands and political agen- embroiled in similar and increasingly intense debates das have changed throughout history (Spring, 2011). about the structure, function, purpose, and curricu- lum of teacher education programs. Stakeholders far Many have explored, witnessed, and documented and wide are claiming ownership of various ideas this power and influence, and as Seymour B. Sara- and positions. Professional and academic educational son, Kenneth S. Davidson, and Burton Blatt (1986) associations such as the American Association for explained, the “events and conditions outside physi- Colleges of Teacher Education, the American Educa- cal boundaries of the school profoundly affect the tional Research Association, and the Association for processes, goals and quality of education,” most Supervision and Curriculum Development are tout- importantly, the education of its teachers (pp. 1–2). ing “academic rigor” and “best practice.” Private These conditions and events will continue to influ- corporations, educational lobbyists, and venture phi- ence and be influenced by multiple routes, pathways, lanthropists (e.g., Bill and Melinda Gates) are posi- and programs designed to prepare teachers— tioning themselves, ideologically and financially, at curricula of teacher education. the center of all education debates. Various organiza- The history of conversations about how best to tions such as Teach for America and The New prepare teachers includes an ever-lingering array of Teacher Project are leading the way in circles that questions about why teacher education is needed believe teachers are better prepared outside of col- at all. David T. Hansen (2008) acknowledged the leges and schools of education and claim to be able

198 25. Teacher Education Curriculum–•–199

to “fix classrooms” with their corps members. As education in the United States, it is possible to Jennifer L. Milam noted, a host of proposals, reports, identify significant concerns that continuously commentaries, and critiques, emerge from the way one addresses and frames one enduring question: What is the purpose of all set out to define, (re)articulate, and (re)form teacher schooling? education and schooling; however, few, if any studies have taken seriously the historical situation and evolu- While the purpose of schooling continues to be a tion of teacher education and its relationship to the heated debate topic among parents, politicians, and present, a critically important undertaking if one is to citizens alike, one thing on which most agree is the fully grasp and understand the complexities and diffi- need for a “good teacher” for all children. In fact, the cult natures of the educational issues that exist today intense focus on the importance of the teacher has (Fraser, 2007). (Milam, 2010, p. 5) been both the strength and the weakness of teacher This chapter is an attempt to capture the present education. The holding of the teacher as the “the moment in teacher education and to offer some com- most important factor” in the success of students, as ment on contemporary issues facing the field and noted by President Barack Obama in his 2009 how it is situated historically, socially, politically, remarks to the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce, is a culturally, and economically in today’s educational difficult position for the field of education. This realm; to explore the theoretical underpinnings of position, which has long bolstered college and uni- teacher education from a curriculum studies perspec- versity teacher education programs, ensures the tive; and, finally, to lend some insights into the forms sustenance and advocacy for the profession and of inquiry and modes of expression that support gen- reinforces the continued need for resource invest- erative and thoughtful investigations in teacher ment in educator preparation. It is also a position, education. Even for those who are not explicitly however, that has led to the blaming of teachers as teacher educators, this topic is important in that it the primary reason for educational failure, societal aims to highlight some of the nuances of teacher inequality, and even economic downturn. This is a preparation that resonate in/about/through/alongside paradoxical position further complicated by soci- other curriculum and pedagogical issues in education ety’s divergent positions on the purpose of school- and schooling. ing. For example, if one holds that the purpose of schooling is cultural assimilation and passing to the Contemporary Concerns young predetermined factual knowledge, prescribed skills, and support for the current structure and func- Teacher education, a relatively new enterprise, only tion of society, a good teacher is the one who deliv- became institutionalized and formalized in the mid- ers content well, manages students appropriately, 1900s when colleges and universities began to pre- and produces capable citizens to fulfill available pare a significant number of teachers. Prior to this, roles in society. Conversely, if one holds that the teachers were often prepared in normal schools for purpose of schooling is social transformation and 2 years, at most. The current complexities and con- change, the development of a critically thinking, temporary concerns in teacher education are reflec- socially engaged democratic citizenry, a good tive of the haphazard development of the profession teacher is the one who allows students choice and itself and a lack of consensus about who should voice in the curriculum with less concerns with teach, how they should be prepared, who is best management but with meaningful engagement. suited to prepare them, and how to evaluate the A good teacher nurtures young people to envision efficacy of teachers and their impact on student the world as it could be rather than as it is. Therefore, learning. There are myriad concerns about teacher one’s position on the purpose of schooling guides education. Depending on the person asking the one’s image of “good teachers” and, thus, it guides question and his or her position in relation to teach- how those “good teachers” are prepared. Derived, ing and teacher education, the specific issues and then, from the importance of teachers in society and their priority, urgency, and importance vary. When from the image of what constitutes good teachers, one examines the current landscape of teacher the remainder of this section focuses on four 200–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

dimensions: (1) relevancy, (2) professionalization, areas such as math, science, technology, and engi- (3) accountability, and (4) equity and diversity. neering. These statistics, coupled with political and economic concerns that our children are being out- Relevancy performed by children in other nations, are used to reinforce arguments for increased efforts toward Teacher education has long wrestled with the bal- recruitment and higher admission standards into ance of preparing teachers with just the right amount teacher preparation and they are also used to push of both academic content and pedagogical knowledge teacher education to focus more on content. Along and skill. Initially, most teachers had little more edu- with greater emphasis on content, some states cation than those who they taught. As it became more (e.g., Texas) have passed legislation requiring sec- formalized, teacher education provided content- or ondary teachers to have a degree in the content area discipline-specific preparation as well as support for they intend to teach, citing the need for teachers to be developing effective and productive pedagogy and “highly qualified” in a content area in order to practice for the classroom. Those outside of educa- improve student learning and achievement. Colleges tion (e.g., business and industry) demanded that of education are marginalized in the conversations content (what to teach) take front-and-center stage in about teacher preparation and are increasingly being the preparation to teach, while those in education, targeted for a lack of rigor and standards and inade- especially in teacher education, demanded greater quately preparing future teachers for the classrooms attention be paid to developmental pedagogical into which they are headed (e.g., Teacher Prep knowledge (how to teach). Complicating this issue is Review, 2013). The push to remain relevant is a chal- the view held by academics, politicians, and even the lenge for colleges and schools of teacher education— general citizenry that professional educators and and many find themselves at the center of institu- teacher educators alike are “mushy, wooly-minded, tional efforts to reorganize or reprioritize and they are misguided and misguiding intellectuals who have being asked to justify their position as essential to the made shambles of our schools” (Sarason et al., 1986, future of education. p. i). This often widely held perception of teachers and others who work in education has systematically Professionalization undermined the profession of teacher education and continues to fuel questions about the relevancy of Alongside the criticisms of lack of rigor and poor formal teacher preparation. Moreover, the profession practice that have pointed to colleges of teacher of teaching has come into greater focus and under education as the root of poor teaching and student greater scrutiny through critiques such as A Nation at failure, the contemporary conversations surrounding Risk (1983) that claimed education was at fault for standards and accreditation have all but swallowed U.S. failures to thrive in the competitive global mar- teacher education into the belly of standardized ketplace. According to Levine (2006), such publica- testing and hypergoverning accrediting bodies. tions over the years have been replete with rhetoric Taubman (2009) asked: that demands more content from academic disci- How did we allow the language of education, study, plines, more focused and technologically centered teaching, and intellectual and creative endeavor to education, and less traditional developmental educa- transform itself into the language and practices of stan- tion coursework. The U.S. Department of Education’s dards and accountability? How did it happen that we 2011 publication Our Future, Our Teachers cited the approved the use of pervasive testing that would shock statistics that “only 23% of all teachers, and only us into compliance? How did we become complicit in the erosion of our own power, and why did we embrace 14% of all teachers in high-poverty schools, come the advice of salesmen, financiers, corporate lawyers, from the top third of college graduates” (p. 6). This accountants and millionaires? (p. 128) statistic not only underlies the criticism that most teacher preparation programs do not have high In short, in an effort to be seen as professionals enough admission standards, but also implies that the worthwhile in the new education enterprise, to vast majority of teachers currently teaching are just remain relevant in a storm of ridicule and viable in a not academically prepared—especially in high-need sea of skeptics, teachers, administrators, and 25. Teacher Education Curriculum–•–201

educational leaders, as well as colleges and schools accountability known as the edTPA (formerly the of education and teacher education, have coalesced Teacher Performance Assessment), a measure aimed into a “professionalization” that has had serious at capturing future teachers’ ability to plan, teach, and unintended consequences. assess student learning. It is likely that the edTPA will Professionalization of education and teacher educa- become part of the progression of teacher evaluation tion has limited the focus of schools and colleges from linking teacher education programs to students’ per- a broader liberal arts study of education to a focus formance on standardized tests under the guidance of solely on school practice. Intense focus on understand- a specific teacher (Youngs, 2013). Moreover, while ing what students learn via standardized measures of legislatures and state boards of education iron out the achievement has become the norm, and these mea- full impact of this measure, teacher educators in col- surements also reflect perceptions on the efficacy of leges of education are feverishly working to (re)align teachers as determined by accrediting bodies such as curriculum, content, and programs for an assessment the National Council on the Accreditation of Teacher that likely will have long-lasting and significant Education and the new Council for the Accreditation consequences for programs. of Educator Preparation. The aforementioned focus on Initially begun with the enacting of the Elemen- content- and discipline-specific knowledge is what is tary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in 1965, required. Strict enforcement of dubious mandates by the modern testing movement was supposed to such oversight organizations puts immense pressure ensure equity and access for all to a quality educa- on teachers and teacher educators, because failure to tion. As large numbers of children were not being comply could result in the loss of accreditation or even well served educationally (especially students from dissolution of programs, schools, and/or colleges. The economically poor households or racial and ethnic unintended consequences of professionalization minorities), the push for testing was to measure and through standardization, the reductive curriculum, assess all children in an effort to raise standards. In increased surveillance from testing and accountability, other words, it was not acceptable that some children limited opportunity for creativity and exploration at all were receiving a quality education while others were levels of education from K–12 and beyond, including matriculating through 12 years of public school with- teacher education, are the price that has been paid in out basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills. exchange for an aspiration of teachers to be seen with As the ESEA was reauthorized by successive admin- respect as professionals in the field of education. It is istrations, the push for more testing grew—as did the this professionalization that now demands a strong growing demand for higher standards. With each response from those in education. new reauthorization came a new batch of tests and higher stakes. Presently, we are in the midst of an Accountability unprecedented squall of assessment and high-stakes accountability with the adoption by most states of the Accountability is the mantra in every nook and Common Core State Standards. This push for national cranny of every K–12 classroom, conference room, alignment and accountability has fostered an exten- parent–teacher conference, and faculty and staff meet- sion of standardized assessments and their influence. ing. It is today’s hallmark of American education, the By 2010 most states had adopted the Common Core, multibillion-dollar industry that aims to capture our and by 2015 many schools were using new standard- students’ knowledge, skills, development, and apti- ized tests developed by two different partnerships of tude on standardized measures of achievement and the states. The implementation and use of these assess- “primary engine of educational reform,” as noted by ments are increasingly being tied to funding (both Kris Sloan (2010) in Meeting the Challenge of High- federal and state) as well as performance rankings Stakes Testing. While there are divergent perspectives that impact property values and community growth. on standardized testing, and there is support for and Several states (e.g., Ohio, Indiana, New York) have critique of testing from all sides of the political implemented “no pass, no promotion” regulations and social arenas, accountability through high-stakes that keep children in certain “tested” grades until testing seems to have a foreseeable future. Teacher they receive a passing score. Teachers in some states education now has its own version of high-stakes are now being compensated based on their students’ 202–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

performance on these measures. Teacher education and teaching. It challenges teacher education to be has been on the margins of the accountability move- inclusive and equitable. Present since the infancy of ment, removed from the day-to-day realities of per- public education, the roots of inequality and racism vasive surveillance in classrooms. State boards of entwined and grew with teacher education. Many education assess not only student learning but also schools across the United States, including rural and teacher capability with these tests. In short, teachers’ urban areas, suffer from inadequate funding, lack of efficacy will be determined by students’ scores on resources, and underqualified teachers who are a standardized test, which will be used to measure the expected to teach the most vulnerable youth (Kozol, value of teacher preparation. To be clearer, if 2005). As also noted in the U.S. Department of Edu- Ms. Smith’s third-grade students perform poorly on cation’s Our Future, Our Teachers, “the teaching their state assessment, not only Ms. Smith’s perfor- workforce does not reflect the diversity of the mance but also that of the teacher education program nation’s students, with a student body that is increas- in which she was prepared will be in question. Just as ingly [B]lack or Hispanic being taught by a teaching schools and districts are being “graded” based on force that remains predominantly [W]hite” (p. 7). student performance, so too will teacher education Many new teachers entering classrooms report programs as they are now being held accountable for that they feel unprepared to meet the demands of an the teachers they prepare and those teachers’ impact increasingly diverse student population that includes (or failure to have an impact) on student learning. English language learners and students with disabili- The implications of the accountability movement ties. Achievement data demonstrate that children of on teacher education are significant. Not only is this a most racial and ethnic minorities, those for whom change from teacher educators’ previously privileged English is their second language, and those from distance from testing, but it also demands that teacher economically disadvantaged homes are consistently education pay much closer attention to who they outperformed on nearly all measures of standardized recruit and who they prepare to be teachers, how they achievement by White students as a group. Taken go about preparing them, and in what ways they ensure alongside increased calls for accountability and for that the teachers graduating from their program are tying student performance to funding, this is a recipe prepared to measurably impact student learning as for a two-tiered educational system wherein teachers indicated on the narrow range of learning measured of the second tier are unable to meet the needs of the by high-stakes testing. No longer can teacher educa- students. tion sit solely in a position of criticizing standardized Much research has been conducted in teacher testing. Educators must take a stance of responsibility education that focuses on diversity and equity in preparing future teachers for the rigors and intrica- (e.g., Banks, 1996; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Sleeter, cies of assessment and provide opportunities for 2005). However, in most teacher education pro- candidates to “dig meaningfully into the viscera of grams, future teachers’ opportunities to learn about educational testing” (Sloan, 2010, p. 192). While such matters are limited to one or two isolated policy makers expect teacher and teacher educator classes on “diversity” or “exceptionalities” and less- compliance, there is little evidence that accountability than-stellar experiences in schools that serve mandates are justifiable by educational scholarship. “diverse” populations as part of their clinical prepa- Moreover, even if the tests did measure outcomes ration or field experiences. While this has been the representing defensible purposes, a major question typical approach to preparing future teachers to work remains about whether educators or the society at in diverse contexts, research points clearly to the large should be responsible for low scores among inability of today’s teacher education to prepare impoverished and minority populations. Who should future educators for the classroom and to support the be accountable for such socioeconomic conditions? high achievement of all children (Nieto, 2000). Per- haps the silver lining in this hyperaccountability Equity and Diversity moment is that teacher education will continuously be challenged to prepare teachers for the classrooms. This accountability question leads to a fourth Teacher education practices and policies must con- issue in teacher education—equity and diversity— front, deconstruct, and reconstruct teacher prepara- which has endured since the inception of schooling tion to support sustained community engagement, 25. Teacher Education Curriculum–•–203

clinically based partnerships, and inter/transdisci- How will we meet the needs of a population we can- plinary curriculum and pedagogy embedded in not know now? For what future are we educating our dynamic schools that serve a diverse population of children? The nature of a dynamic society is that it is students. If teacher education fails to meet this multidisciplinary and complex, and teacher educa- challenge, the future will most certainly be grim. tion must work in concert—sustaining collabora- tions, working across disciplinary boundaries, and building strong partnerships with surrounding com- Theory to Practice and Practice to Theory munities that serve and benefit practicing teachers, current students, and concerned citizens. There are diverse calls for a dramatic and sweeping Teacher education programs must turn a critical restructuring (and even elimination) of teacher edu- eye on themselves with the understanding that cation, recruitment, and professional development, change is not to be delegated but embraced. William as well as the reforming of professional standards for Pinar (2004) stated: certification, accreditation, and assessment. This is certainly not new, nor will it end with the current Whether “fast” or “slow,” teacher education (if it remains at all) must be reconceived from a skills- rounds of reform, revolt, or revision. While the his- identified induction into the school bureaucracy to the tory of teacher education is long (Borrowman, 1965), interdisciplinary, theoretical, and autobiographical it is imperative that teacher education researchers study of education experience in which curriculum and and theorists respond differently (qualitatively and teaching are understood as complicated conversations quantitatively) than they have in the past if there is toward the construction of a democratic public sphere. (p. 229) hope to survive or flourish. There are many different branches of teacher edu- Curriculum theory offers promise to reconceptu- cation study and scholarship that aim to prepare the alize teacher education that takes at its center the best teachers possible to serve young people. How- teacher and her or his lived experience alongside ever, this general purpose is a moving target depen- with understanding the teacher as a person full of dent upon one’s political, professional, and personal complexities, complications, desires, and dreams. position in relation to education and what is meant by Teacher education programs that focus on the rela- good or best teachers. Thus, it would benefit teacher tionship between the personal and the professional education, as Madeleine Grumet (2010) explained, endure beyond those programs that are built upon the “responding to the apparatus and discourse of state whims of dominant education reform rhetoric and and accrediting agency oversight, responding to the politics. As William Ayers (2001/2010) stated: ways that knowledge and community are conceptual- ized in neoliberal economics and school governance” Teaching is highly personal—an intensely intimate encounter. The rhythm of teaching involves a complex to avoid having its work continue in such a way that journey, a journey of discovery and wonder, disappoint- supports a “system that obliterates school communi- ment and fulfillment. A first step is becoming the stu- ties, diminishes knowledge, and discourages demo- dent to your students: uncovering the fellow creatures cratic participation in the construction of schooling” who must be partners to the enterprise. Another is creat- (p. 68). In exchange for these responses, teacher ing an environment for learning, a nurturing and chal- lenging space in which to travel. And finally, the teacher education ought to more thoughtfully engage collab- must begin work on the intricate, many-tiered bridges orative preparation, make meaningful use of autobi- that will fill up the space, connecting all the dreams, ography, and value the classroom as a space not just hopes, skills, experiences, and knowledge students where teaching is practiced but where the practice is bring to class with deeper and wider ways of knowing. a reflection of theory and theory resonates with the Teaching requires a vast range of knowledge, ability, rhythms and cadence of practice. skill, judgment and understanding—and it requires a thoughtful, caring person at its center. (p. 135) Where there are great challenges, there are great opportunities. Institutional change requires not only Teaching is more than a set of disconnected stan- changes in ideology and habit but also the explora- dards, objectives, and measures. Being cared for and tion of new and innovative ideas, institutional restruc- taught by caring teachers means an intense engage- turing, and the pondering of a future that none of us ment in schools, schooling practice, and school cul- can predict. What will future classrooms look like? tures. In teaching and teacher education, theory can 204–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

no longer be pondered in isolation detached from this work are eclectic, thoughtful, and take many practice; practice can no longer be detached from forms from traditional to poetic and informative to theory. Connecting theory with practice enables imaginative. Similarly, movements and programs of teachers to inspire their students as they dwell in the the past are studied for their relevance to contempo- difficult space between curriculum-as-planned (or rary issues of curriculum of teacher education. regulated) and the curriculum-as-lived or enacted each day in the messiness of the classroom. This is Empirical Research in Teacher Education. Unmis- the space where teachers live and work amidst the takable is the surge of empirical (read: experimental) tensionality of the impossible and the possible (Aoki, research in teacher education. This work primarily 2005). To be more concrete, classroom management approaches teaching and teacher education through cannot be taught without understanding the intrica- measured, measurable, and quantifiable results. Most cies of children in the classroom—their needs, chal- recently, this has come to include value-added mea- lenges, gifts, and potentials. Managing a classroom sures and shines a glaring spotlight on test scores and cannot be broached with only a set of “skills” or assessment. This is a dominant form of research “practices”; instead, it demands a teacher’s reflective across the field of teacher education. and recursive engagement with theory and practice, the personal and the political, as is carefully articu- lated in Paulo Freire’s (1970) work on pedagogical Theoretical Work in Teaching. Curriculum theorists praxis and William Ayers’s (2004a, 2004b) work on have long pondered the purposes and outcomes of teaching the personal and the political and teaching education. Theoretical engagement with teaching toward freedom. and teacher education weaves together multiple dis- ciplines, perspectives, and epistemological view- points to propose, speculate, and critique teaching Teacher Education Inquiry and Modes and teacher education from innumerable points of of Expression and Representation view.

Inquiries in teacher education are as diverse as the Practical (Practitioner) Inquiry. Also known as numbers, structures, and compositions of the existing “teacher action research,” this branch of inquiry teacher education programs, and as myriad as the holds teacher position and person as central to under- conceptualizations of researchers who engage in standing the classroom, teaching interactions, and forms of inquiry and modes of expression and repre- student learning. For teachers, practitioner inquiry sentation. Teacher education inquiries are concerned that explores and improves practice is integral and with a multitude of questions and studies that necessary. There is a large body of literature on prac- include, though not limited to, the following: content tical action research and teacher lore. and curriculum of teacher education programs; recruitment and preparation of teachers; dispositions Narrative Inquiry. A branch of investigations con- of teachers, diversities of student learning, content- or cerned primarily with the meaning made by people discipline-specific matters; historical and philosoph- through and with their experiences in teaching and ical assumptions and implications; interventions in education. Using texts that may include stories, jour- learning and teaching; and in-service or professional nals, field notes, letters, conversations, and photo- development in teacher education. Presented here are graphs, narrative inquiry seeks to understand the a few of the most significant areas of inquiry in organization of human experience and the meaning teaching and teacher education. brought forth thereafter. Not concerned with general- izability, narrative captures the quality and complexity Philosophical/Historical Studies. Early philosophers of human experience. of education, from John Dewey and Alfred North Whitehead to George S. Counts and Carter G. Wood- Arts-Based Educational Research. Characterized by son, approach curriculum of teacher education con- both a purposeful effort to enhance perspectives templatively and consider what it means to teach, in related to a certain human experience as well as the what context, and in relation to the world. Studies of presence of aesthetic qualities (or design elements), 25. Teacher Education Curriculum–•–205

arts-based research is not intended to “predict” or include auto/ethnography (Ellis, 2004), narrative “determine,” rather to understand more fully the (Josselson, 2011), empirical data in charts and experience at hand. To “view” or “interpret” an graphs (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005), portrai- encounter from varied perspectives that include, but ture (Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis, 2002), poetry not limited to, poetry, painting, performance art, and spoken word (Baszile, 2008), and even film and dance, and/or music is the cornerstone of this mode documentary (e.g., “The New Public” or “The Rais- of inquiry. ing of America”) present a particular position of knowing about teaching and teacher education. To Aforementioned forms of inquiry in teaching and understand the complexity and beauty of teaching teacher education parallel a wide array of modes of and learning and teacher education, we need to expression and (re)presentation. Scholars, research- embrace the complexity and multiplicity of these ers, practitioners, theorists, teachers, and artists all forms of inquiry and modes of expression and rep- approach inquiry from a specific epistemological resentation as pieces of a much larger puzzle for position that informs, colors, distorts, and shapes which we do not yet have the full color image on the the outcomes of inquiry. Modes of expression that front of the box.

References and Further Readings panel on research and teacher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Aoki, T. (2005). Teaching as indwelling between two Ellis, C. (2004). The Ethnographic I: A methodological curriculum worlds. In W. Pinar & R. Irwin (Eds.), novel about autoethnography. Walnut Creek, CA: Curriculum in a new key: The collected works of Ted AltaMira Press. T. Aoki (pp. 159–165). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Fraser, J. W. (2007). Preparing America’s teachers: Erlbaum. A history. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Ayers, W. C. (2001/2010). To teach: The journey of a Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, teacher (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College NY: Continuum. Press. Gay, G. (Ed.). (2003). Becoming multicultural educators: Ayers, W. (2004a). Teaching the personal and the Personal journey toward professional agency. political: Essays on hope and justice. New York, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. NY: Teachers College Press. Greenberg, J., McKee, A., & Walsh, K. (2013). Teacher Ayers, W. (2004b). Teaching toward freedom: Moral prep review: A review of the nation’s teacher commitment and ethical action in the classroom. preparation programs. New York, NY: National Boston, MA: Beacon. Council on Teacher Quality. Banks, J. (1996). Multicultural education, transformative Grumet, M. (2010). The public expression of citizen knowledge and action: Historical and contemporary teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), perspectives. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. 66–76. Baszile, D. T. (2008). The oppressor within: Hansen, D. T. (2008). Values and purpose in teacher A counterstory of race, repression and teacher education. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, reflection. Urban Review, 40, 371–385. D. J. McIntyre, & K. E. Demers (Eds.), Handbook of Baszile, D. T. (2009). Deal with it we must: Education, research on teacher education: Enduring questions social justice, and the curriculum of hip hop culture. in changing contexts (3rd ed., pp. 10–26). Equity & Excellence in Education, 42(1), 6–19. New York, NY: Routledge. Borrowman, W. C. (Ed.). (1965). Teacher education in Hill-Jackson, V., & Lewis, C. W. (Eds.). (2010). America: A documentary history. New York, NY: Transforming teacher education: What went wrong Teachers College Press. with teacher training, and how we can fix it. Cochran-Smith, M., Feiman-Nemser, S., McIntyre, D. J., Sterling, VA: Stylus. & Demers, K. E. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of Hofstadter, R. (1963). Anti-intellectualism in America. research on teacher education: Enduring questions New York, NY: Knopf Publishers. in changing contexts. New York, NY: Routledge & Josselson, R. (2011). Narrative research: Constructing, The Association of Teacher Educators. deconstructing, and reconstructing story. Cochran-Smith, M., & Zeichner, K. (Eds.). (2005). In F. J. Wertz (Ed.), Five ways of doing qualitative Studying teacher education: A report of the AERA analysis: Phenomenological psychology, grounded 206–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

theory, discourse analysis, narrative research, and education (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Bookline intuitive inquiry (pp. 224–242). New York, NY: Books. Guilford Press. Shaklee, B. D., & Baily, S. (Eds.). (2012). Kozol, J. (2005). The shame of the nation: The Internationalizing teacher education in the United restoration of apartheid schooling in America. States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press. Sleeter, C. (2005). Un-standardizing curriculum: Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). Dreamkeepers: Successful Multicultural teaching in the standards-based teachers of African American children. San classroom. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Sloan, K. (2010). Meeting the challenge of high-stakes Lawrence-Lightfoot, J., & Davis, J. H. (2002). The art testing: Toward a culturally-relevant assessment and science of portraiture. San Francisco, CA: literacy. In V. Hill-Jackson & C. W. Lewis (Eds.), Jossey-Bass. Transforming teacher education: What went wrong Levine, A. (2006). Educating school teachers. with teacher training, and how we can fix it Washington, DC: The Education Schools (pp. 178–198). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Project. Spring, J. (2011). The politics of American education. Milam, J. L. (2010). (Re)envisioning teacher education: A New York, NY: Routledge. critical exploration of missed historical moments and Taubman, P. M. (2009). Teaching by numbers: promising possibilities. In V. Hill-Jackson & C. W. Deconstructing the discourse of standards and Lewis (Eds.), Transforming teacher education: What accountability in education. New York, NY: went wrong with teacher training, and how we can Routledge. fix it (pp. 3–36). Sterling, VA: Stylus. U.S. Department of Education. (2011). Our future, our National Commission on Excellence in Education. teachers: The Obama administration’s plan for (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for teacher education reform and improvement. educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from www.ed.gov/sites/default/files/ Nieto, S. (2000). Placing equity front and center: Some our-future-our-teachers.pdf thoughts on transforming teacher education for a Youngs, P. (2013). Using teacher evaluation reform and new century. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), professional development to support common core 180–187. assessments. Washington, DC: Center for American Paley, V. G. (1989). White teacher. Cambridge, MA: Progress. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/ Harvard University Press. fulltext/ED539747.pdf Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? New Zeichner, K. (2013). Two visions of teaching and teacher York, NY: Routledge. education for the 21st century (The 2012 DeGarmo Sarason, S. B., Davidson, K. S., & Blatt, B. (1986). The Lecture of the Society of Professors of Education). preparation of teachers: An unstudied problem in Professing Education, 9(1), 2–22. 26

CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY

KEFFRELYN D. BROWN RACHEAL ROTHROCK University of Texas at Austin University of Texas at Austin

ANTHONY L. BROWN University of Texas at Austin

n the midst of curricular experience of schooling, these two spaces is recognized as “good teaching” one often hears students say, “What does this have (Ladson-Billings, 1995a, p. 159) that enables stu- Ito do with my life? Why don’t teachers and dents to acquire academic success and to maintain textbooks speak to my needs, interests, and life in and strengthen cultural identities in the context of the general?” Meanwhile, parents, teachers, educational teaching and learning process while adopting a leaders, and news reporters frequently inquire, “Why sociopolitical awareness of the world in which they do subject matter content or teaching approaches live. While Gloria Ladson-Billings most notably often lack resonance with students of color or those theorized the term culturally relevant pedagogy in from nondominant cultures? Why does their response the 1990s, this approach to teaching and curriculum seem to say they see no relevance in school experi- has long historic roots. It is also connected to similar ence to their lived experience? What can be done to pedagogic approaches known by different monikers, more fully engage students from diverse cultural, including culturally congruent curriculum (Au & racial, and ethnic backgrounds in teaching–learning Jordan, 1981), culturally synchronous teaching processes? How could educators relate curriculum (Irvine, 1990), and culturally responsive teaching and teaching to student lives and concerns so that they (Gay, 2010, 2000; Irvine, 1992, 2003; Villegas, 1991, can understand themselves better and live better lives 2002). What each of these approaches shares is the as they grow up?” Such concerns of students, educa- recognition that teaching and curriculum are situated tors, and other concerned adults call for greater rele- in sociocultural contexts that operate inequitably and vance and transformation of knowledge in teaching differently value the knowledge, experiences, values, and curriculum. and identities possessed by students and the commu- Culturally relevant pedagogy, synonymously ref- nities and families in which they exist. erred to as culturally relevant teaching, is an approach We consider the theory of culturally relevant ped- to teaching that is concerned with the relationship agogy by first outlining the contours that shape its between what students learn in school and the knowl- theoretical foundation and then situating it in histori- edge, identities, and experiences students value and cal and contemporary contexts. This discussion illu- bring with them to school. Drawing from and linking minates the purposes, goals, and deep connections

207 208–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

culturally relevant pedagogy has to historic curricu- backgrounds (Au & Mason, 1983). It also recog- lum traditions, as well as the challenges it currently nized that schools traditionally have been institutions faces and the promise it holds for teaching and cur- that helped to sustain and reproduce inequalities. riculum practices. We conclude by considering some Thus, the teachers in her study recognized that stu- key modes of inquiry and presentation associated dent academic success should not come at the with the concept of culturally relevant pedagogy. expense of altering students’ cultural identities and without awareness of how schools and societies operate in inequitable ways. Theorizing Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Concomitant with Ladson-Billings’s research on culturally relevant pedagogy, other scholars were In 1994, Ladson-Billings considered the question: also advancing theories on cultural approaches to What are the characteristics that define excellent teaching that took into account both micro- and teachers of African American students? The chal- macro-level concerns with cultural mismatch and its lenges encountered by African Americans to gain location in social arrangements and patterns that access to equitable opportunities to learn in the exist outside of simply focusing on the classroom United States and the concomitant disparities in (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). These included the early achievement associated with them made this ques- theories of culturally congruent curriculum (Au & tion necessary and timely. As important as this ques- Jordan, 1981), cultural synchronization (Irvine, tion was, the fact that Ladson-Billings framed this 1990), and culturally responsive teaching (Gay, inquiry from the perspective of what works points to 2010/2000; Irvine, 1992, 2002; Villegas, 1991, an even more important facet of her theory. Effective 2002). Culturally congruent curriculum, cultural syn- teaching and curriculum for African American stu- chronization, and culturally responsive teaching rec- dents must approach these students in culturally ognized and drew from the cultural knowledge and affirmative ways. ways of being and acting that students brought to the Ladson-Billings’s inquiry into the teaching classroom. These approaches expanded on what approach of eight teachers identified by school staff counted as valid curriculum by challenging domi- and community members as effective pedagogues of nant, normative expectations of school knowledge African American students illustrated how these and by engaging and affirming students’ cultural teachers held a similar orientation and commitment selves while empowering and transforming students toward teaching. Culturally relevant pedagogy, she and the curriculum encountered in the classroom and found, played out in the perspectives teachers held beyond. It is not surprising that culturally relevant around three key areas of student learning and pedagogy, as well as the work of related theories on development, including academic achievement, cul- cultural synchronization and perhaps, more specifi- tural competence, and sociopolitical consciousness. cally, culturally responsive teaching, is often invoked The teachers in the study were both Black1 and White synonymously and interchangeably. While not and taught in vastly different ways. However, they seeking to collapse differences among these theoreti- each held a similar perspective toward teaching that cal ideas, we point this out to acknowledge the recognized that students needed to find academic connections between these important bodies of work. success in ways that affirmed their cultural identities Collectively, the theories on cultural synchroniza- while also developing an awareness of and willing- tion and responsiveness support and exist alongside ness to act toward the amelioration of societal culturally relevant pedagogy, with the latter offering inequities. a pedagogic framework that takes into account cul- Building from a growing body of literature on tural competence as it plays out in students’ cultural culture and teaching that focused on a micro-level of identities, experiences, and perspectives. Yet these classroom dynamics (Ladson-Billings, 1995b), cul- theories do so in ways that not only ensure the aca- turally relevant pedagogy acknowledged the prob- demic success of students but also seek to develop lems students of color often encountered in schools their sociopolitical consciousness by equipping them when their teachers come from dissimilar racial, to recognize, critique, and act to ameliorate societal cultural, linguistic, and sometimes socioeconomic inequity and injustice. 26. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy–•–209

Historical Movements That Engender By the early 1960s, culture became a key vehicle Culturally Relevant Pedagogy to explain the context of poverty and academic underachievement. The notion of “culture” went The underlying perspectives and principles that through a process of change in the 1960s where inform culturally relevant pedagogy have historic poverty and underachievement were not viewed as roots that go back to at least the beginning of the outcomes informed by a set of mitigating contexts 20th century. Understanding the historical trajectory but social circumstances that were inherent to Black of the concept of culture in education is important and Latino culture, or what Oscar Lewis (1966) because it helps to explicate the theoretical tensions called the culture of poverty. In essence, “culture” that predate and continue to inform the theory of was employed as a way to identify presumed defi- culturally relevant pedagogy itself. ciencies in historically underserved racial and ethnic During the early 20th century, theories about cul- groups. The use of culture to explain the absences ture began to emerge in the U.S. academic literature. and deficiencies in racial and ethnic groups was a As well, much of the discourse about achievement dominant discourse of education through most of and education largely focused on the so-called inher- the 1960s. ent capacities of immigrants, Native Americans, By the late 1960s, a new usage of culture emerged African Americans, and other historically under- that argued culture in the urban schools should not be served racial and ethnic groups. This school of seen as deficient but as “different.” This became thought argued that racial groups such as African known as the cultural difference theory, referring to Americans possessed an inferior biological composi- the difference from normative culture. Cultural dif- tion that predetermined their capacities to function in ference theory recognized that culture was informed society. Several well-known scholars including Franz by the convergence of temporal and spatial contexts Boaz, Alain Locke, Robert Park, and Ruth Benedict, that shaped how people adapted to their social reali- however, vehemently challenged these ideas. Much ties. The idea of difference was that rural and urban of this scholarship moved from the perspective that a contexts helped to produce ways of learning and person’s status and placement in society is not expression that are different but not deficient from defined by some innate set of racial categories but what were accepted as conventional ways of speech rather is subsumed within sociocultural contexts. The and interaction. The theory also acknowledged that if argument went that “race” had no biological basis teachers assume that only one way to culturally and that cultural and ecological forces informed all express oneself in class exists, issues of conflict and social milieus. misunderstanding ensue. In subsequent decades a A number of scholars and other writers drew from number of educational movements including the eth- this work, advocating for educational reforms that nic studies and multicultural educational movements recognized the connection between the social and drew from these notions of culture to develop cur- educational status of African Americans and their ricular materials and pedagogical practices that home and community contexts. The importance of focused on students’ culture as assets rather than as culture and understanding different cultures also deficits or as a liability to learning. At the forefront became vitally important with growing racial ten- of this theoretical turn was the work of multicultural sions that emerged in southern and northern cities, education, which called for a robust analysis of including St. Louis, Chicago, and New York. In what culture inside and outside of schools. was commonly called the Intercultural Education Such theories of culture would endure through the Movement, scholars sought to understand how cul- early 1990s when scholars explored the extent to which tural knowledge could be used through school cur- teachers, specifically Black female teachers, drew on riculum to foster unity and goodwill in a diverse culture as a way to create a classroom that was relevant society (Banks, 1992). This debate would endure to students’ lives. For example, scholars Jacqueline through mid-century with focus placed on the extent Jordan Irvine (2003) and Michele Foster (1997) to which culture could be used as an explanatory explored how Black teachers used culture to inform the thesis for making sense of social and educational educational experiences of African American students. mobility. The concept of culturally relevant pedagogy, then, 210–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

comes out of the multicultural education movement The first challenge focuses on the failure to under- and the work on Black teacher pedagogy. stand and enact culturally relevant teaching and cur- riculum as it was initially theorized (Brown, 2013; Morrison, Robbins, & Rose, 2008). The theory Contemporary Concerns: Origins, points to an orientation and concomitant approach to Reflections, and Innovations teaching and curriculum that is interested in student academic achievement, cultural competence, and The salience of culturally relevant pedagogy remains sociopolitical consciousness. However, it is not strong in contemporary education discourse, practice, uncommon to find a primary focus placed on “cul- and policy (Paris & Alim, 2014). Culturally relevant tures.” This can play out in the assumption that one is pedagogy is found in scholarly literature and practice offering a culturally relevant educational experience across a multidisciplinary field including K–12 solely because one includes books and other curri- teaching and teacher education, professional develop- cula material that reflect the groups of color repre- ment, curriculum, schooling, special education, lead- sented in the classroom. This perspective renders ership, and classroom teaching; in higher education; culturally relevant pedagogy as nothing more than a and in disciplines outside of education such as nurs- method for inclusion of representative curriculum. It ing, social work, and business. Scholars have picked also presumes that culturally relevant pedagogy is up and used culturally relevant pedagogy in the con- only needed for students of color. Indeed, while the text of classroom teaching, curriculum development, inclusion of multiple groups’ knowledge is abso- school leadership, classroom management, and stu- lutely necessary, it is not something that only stu- dent assessment. Not surprisingly, K–12 schools and dents of color need to experience in school. All teacher education programs both in the United States students need to have access to a range of diverse and around the globe recognize that teachers need to bodies of knowledge in order to recognize and affirm hold a commitment to and effectively enact culturally the contributions of peoples across the globe. A con- relevant teaching, even as they might struggle to sequence of the singular, myopic attention placed bring this goal to fruition (Young, 2010). This strug- solely on an assumed essentialized notion of culture gle is not new. It is related to the long-standing is the fact that little to no attention is sometime given difficulties of transforming dominant, normative to concerns with sociopolitical consciousness. In this discourses to better reflect the values, perspectives, way, the problems with (limited) representation para- and experiences of diverse groups in the United doxically help to perpetuate problems with represen- States (King, 2004). It is also reflective of the rapidly tation by reinscribing and framing who needs (and changing world in which we now live—a world full does not need) culturally responsive teaching in the of complexities related to diversity and culture. first place. In the contemporary context, culturally relevant While cultures are often noted as the key defining approaches to teaching continue to thrive. Teacher element of culturally relevant pedagogy, this empha- education programs work to prepare teacher candi- sis is interestingly linked to the idea of academic dates to teach in culturally relevant ways. School achievement. This reflects the belief that culturally districts recognize the necessity for teachers to draw relevant pedagogy can help to close the achievement from culturally relevant and responsive instructional gap, or what Ladson-Billings (2006) reconceptual- and curriculum approaches. Yet in spite of the prolif- ized as an opportunity gap due to the education debt eration and popularity of culturally relevant owed to historically underserved students of color in approaches to teaching and curriculum, challenges the United States. This reconceptualization astutely exist. These challenges concern two primary areas. recognized that disparities in achievement between The first is the failure to enact culturally relevant students of color and their White counterparts were teaching and curriculum in ways that align with the integrally tied to the accumulated impact of inequi- theory itself, while the second deals with the con- table distribution and allocation of resources and struct of “cultures,” including the limitations with opportunities to learn between these two groups. and implications of using the term in curriculum and Coupled with the reticence of mainstream teaching teaching practice. to embrace a critical equity orientation to teaching 26. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy–•–211

and curriculum, this preoccupation with achievement not recognized as a vehicle to adopt a more inclusive, and culture has likely helped to support a narrow relevant, and potentially transformative curricula interpretation and application of culturally relevant knowledge for all students. pedagogy in practice. The contemporary challenge for those drawing In the case of schools, Morrison et al.’s (2008) from a culturally relevant pedagogy framework, then, review of literature on culturally relevant pedagogy is to remain steadfast in defining and enacting a criti- showed that very few studies attended to high cal and holistic understanding and use of the theory. expectations, cultural competence, and critical In doing this, the cultural competence component consciousness—the three orientations held by will assume a less reified place and perhaps allow for teachers and explicated by Ladson-Billings (1995b) a less culturally essentialized understanding of the in her formative piece, Toward a Theory of Culturally pedagogy. Our recognition of the critical, complex Relevant Pedagogy. Morrison and colleagues (2008) nature of culturally relevant pedagogy, while found that generally one or two aspects of culturally acknowledging that such an approach is “just good relevant pedagogy were addressed, with most empha- teaching” (Ladson-Billings, 1995a), supports a pow- sis placed on cultural competence where general erful pedagogy that is useful and transformative for attention on culture was represented. Evelyn Young’s any school, teacher, classroom, or student. (2010) work with an urban school and its implemen- In recent years, scholars have critically reflected tation of culturally relevant pedagogy also supported on culturally relevant pedagogy, considering how the these findings of misinterpretation and overemphasis theory might evolve to account for contemporary on the construct of culture. concerns around culture, particularly how it gets These findings are not idiosyncratic. In a search used in essentializing and static ways. In 1999, conducted by the first and second authors of this Tamara Beauboeuf-LaFontant argued the need for a chapter on the extent literature from 1990 to 2010 politically relevant pedagogy that focused on the related to “culturally relevant/responsive teaching critical, political work that Black teachers enacted to and/or pedagogy,” 375 articles were reviewed. This counter the deficit-laden societal discourses that sur- inquiry found that most of the work across each of rounded the Black students they taught. Django Paris the 3 decades examined focused primarily on culture, and H. Samy Alim draw from the construct of “cul- with very little emphasis placed on sociopolitical turally sustaining pedagogy” (Paris, 2012; Paris & consciousness. This is not surprising and is likely Alim, 2014) to argue the need to make culturally related to the overall trepidation and resistance to relevant pedagogy a more expansive theory. Accord- curriculum knowledge recognized as controversial ing to Paris and Alim (2014), culturally sustaining (read: contrary to normative, dominant, and hege- pedagogy acknowledges the need for an enlarged monic ways of knowing and being). Similarly to the notion of culture that is fluid, nonessential, and cog- superficial conceptualization that multicultural edu- nizant of the similarities and differences that exist cation encountered often through a celebration of among people who are members of the same cultural food, heroes, and holidays (Sleeter & Grant, 2006), group. While recognizing that cultural groups have or the simplistic rendering of culture as a static never been static, Ladson-Billings (2014) has element of marginalized groups, culturally relevant acknowledged the utility in “remixing” culturally pedagogy has also, in many ways, become simplified relevant pedagogy (i.e., Culturally Relevant Pedagogy in some educational discourse and practice (Ladson- 2.0) to address the hybrid nature of culture—both in Billings, 2014). It is important to stress this last point and across cultural groups in contemporary times. because it both flattens the pedagogical theory and What these scholars recognize in their critical reflec- gets defined in particularly essentializing and racial- tion on culturally relevant pedagogy is the need to ized ways. In effect, culturally relevant pedagogy sustain cultural practices through teaching and cur- becomes understood as the pedagogic method for ricula practices that affirm and draw from, rather dealing with Black students and other student popu- than marginalize and denigrate, the cultural knowl- lations of color (only) that historically have experi- edge that students bring with them to school. enced low academic achievement (e.g., Latinos/as, However, such cultural knowledge transcends tradi- Native Americans). As a consequence, it is generally tional cultural boundaries, with children and youth 212–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

engaging in cultural practices that require rearticula- a culturally relevant teaching and curriculum in light tion in an academic and societal discourse that has of subject area knowledge and pedagogic domains. traditionally approached culture as static, fixed, and bounded. Forms of Expression Scholars have also pointed to the need to ground teaching practices in the lived experiences of chil- Culturally relevant pedagogy is primarily recog- dren and youth. In the contemporary global context, nized as an approach to teaching and curriculum that scholars and practitioners have called for this recog- is enacted in classroom practice and other learning nition in the context of hip hop pedagogy (Emdin, spaces. Yet it is an approach to teaching and curricu- 2010; Hill, 2009; Love, 2014; Petchauer, 2012), an lum that is not prescriptive concerning specific strat- approach to curriculum, teaching, learning, and egies and methods. Rather, it is more about how schooling that draws from the philosophical tradi- teachers understand and orient themselves to their tions of the hip hop art form. This work can move in work. In her study, Ladson-Billings (2009/1994) at least two ways: the first links students’ interests places this orientation to teaching and curriculum in and participation in the hip hop culture with the offi- the context of how teachers view self and others, cial school knowledge these students are expected to knowledge, and social relations. Here culturally rel- learn, while the second recognizes the value of evant teaching is concerned with the community that inserting hip hop–informed epistemologies in offi- is created in the classroom around learning. Ques- cial curriculum knowledge. In both instances, the tions related to how teachers view their own respon- cultural knowledges related to hip hop are recognized sibility as teachers and the relationships they hold as valuable and commensurate with the canonized, with their students, their students’ families, and the formal school curriculum often aligned with West- greater community are of particular importance. ern, European worldviews, experiences, and There is also concern about the relationships that are perspectives. fostered in the classroom between students and the extent to which these relationships encourage collec- tive learning and growth, rather than competition and Modes of Inquiry and Forms of Expression individual student academic success only. Addition- Modes of Inquiry ally, the constructs of culturally relevant teaching manifest in the assumptions held and decisions made As discussed earlier, culturally relevant pedagogy about knowledge. What counts as valid, worthwhile enjoys a popular place in the scholarly literature. The knowledge? How does this knowledge connect to extant scholarship on teaching, specifically in the and affirm the experiences and knowledge associ- context of culture and diversity, offers a wealth of ated with the identities of the students in the research on the topic that cuts across multiple disci- classroom? plines and areas. The vast majority of these draw The salient forms of expression of culturally rele- from traditional qualitative and action research tradi- vant pedagogy, along with the related construct of tions (Morrison et al., 2008). In the qualitative realm, culturally responsive teaching, as both curriculum where the majority of the research on culturally rel- and pedagogic discourse, manifests in research and evant teaching resides, the studies often look closely theoretical scholarship. The foundational work in this at events that take place in classroom, school, and tradition was presented in the context of classroom- teacher education spaces. The early work produced and school-based research and in empirical-based during the 1990s also focused on theorizing the theorizing around increasing culturally relevant/ defining qualities, practices, promises, and chal- responsive knowledge in classrooms and in teacher lenges associated with preparing educators to do education programs. This, of course, is found in the culturally relevant work. At the formal curriculum scholarship of Ladson-Billings (1995a, 1995b, level, research and theorizing around culturally rele- 2009/1994, 2014). Additionally, Irvine (1990, 1992, vant teaching is sometimes targeted to a specific core 2003) explored the need to consider how culture content area (e.g., literacy, science, math, social stud- should, but often does not, get factored into class- ies). This body of work considers the possibilities of room practices or teacher education in ways that 26. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy–•–213

enable teachers to support and affirm Black students. whose identities are marginalized in schools and Ana Marie Villegas (1991, 2002) conceptualized society. how to equip teachers to provide an inclusive and How, then, can schools offer these students an responsive set of instructional approaches for mar- educational experience that draws from, affirms, and ginalized students of color. Geneva Gay’s work humanizes the knowledge they, and their families (2010/2000) illuminated key concerns around cur- and communities, hold? How do we ensure that stu- riculum and its failure to provide and prepare teach- dents maintain a strong sense of self, community, ers to offer affirmative, inclusive, and critical content and understanding of issues of equity and justice? knowledge to students. Research studies also exam- A fully critically enacted culturally relevant peda- ined whether and how culturally relevant pedagogy gogy offers a clear vision for achieving these goals. existed in the classroom and, in the case of Tyrone The cornerstone of this concept is that if given the Howard’s (2001) work, how students responded. opportunity all students can achieve at high levels Studies in this tradition also explored how existing while developing a strong sociopolitical conscious- teachers understand and implement culturally rele- ness without giving up their cultural identities. His- vant teaching in the classroom. The strength of this torically grounded and responsive to the needs of an body of work is that it illuminates both what does ever-changing global society, culturally relevant and does not work when culturally relevant teaching pedagogy continues to serve as a necessary curricula and curriculum is utilized. Additionally different but intervention in a world punctuated by inequity, related orientations to teaching and curriculum that uneven power relations, and the existence of dehu- are concerned with transforming hegemonic knowl- manizing perspectives about students of color edge, such as the funds of knowledge approach (Brown, 2013). Brown recognizes this as key if we (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzalez, 1992), exist are to truly adopt what she calls a critical humanizing alongside culturally relevant/responsive pedagogies. sociocultural knowledge for teaching. In so doing, it Collectively this work offers a palliative to ineffec- maintains the promise of disrupting and ultimately tive practices that historically have maintained sub- transforming what gets taught and how it is taught in tractive experiences (Valenzuela, 1999) for students school for the betterment of all students.

Note research on multicultural education (2nd ed., pp. 3–29). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 1. The terms Black and African American are used Bartolome, L. I. (1994). Beyond the methods fetish: interchangeably in this chapter. Toward a humanizing pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 64(2), 173–194. Beauboeuf-LaFontant, T. (1999). A movement against References and Further Readings and beyond boundaries: Politically relevant teaching among African American teachers. Teachers College Au, K., & Jordan, K. (1981). Teaching reading to Record, 100(4), 702–723. Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate Brown, K. D. (2013). Trouble on my mind: Toward a solution. In H. Trueba, G. P. Guthrie, & K. Au framework of humanizing critical sociocultural (Eds.), Culture in the bilingual classroom: Studies in knowledge for teaching and teacher education. Race classroom ethnography (pp. 139–162). Rowley, MA: Ethnicity and Education, 16(3), 316–338. Newberry House. Emdin, C. (2010). Urban science education for the hip-hop Au, K. H., & Mason, J. M. (1983). Cultural congruence generation. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Publishers. in classroom participation structures: Achieving a Foster, M. (1997). Black teachers on teaching. New York, balance of rights. Discourse Processes, 6, 145–167. NY: The New Press. Banks, J. A. (1992). African American scholarship and Gay, G. (2010/2000). Culturally responsive teaching: the evolution of multicultural education. Journal of Theory, research and practice (2nd ed.). New York, Negro Education, 61(3), 273–286. NY: Teachers College Press. Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural education: Historical Hill, M. L. (2009). Beats, rhymes, and classroom life: development, dimensions, and practice. In Hip-hop pedagogy and the politics of identity. J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of New York, NY: Teachers College Press. 214–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Howard, T. (2001). Telling their side of the story: African- management: What educators should know and do to American students’ perceptions of culturally relevant enable student success (pp. 103–110). Lanham, MD: teaching. Urban Review, 33(2), 195–202. Rowman & Littlefield. Irvine, J. J. (1990). Black students and school failure. Moll, L. C., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative Irvine, J. J. (1992). Making teacher education culturally approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory responsive. In M. Dilworth (Ed.), Diversity in Into Practice, 31(2), 132–141. teacher education: New expectations (pp. 79–92). Morrison, K. A., Robbins, H. H., & Rose, D. G. (2008). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Operationalizing culturally relevant pedagogy: Irvine, J. J. (2003). Educating teachers for diversity: A synthesis of classroom-based research. Equity and Seeing with a cultural eye. New York, NY: Teachers Excellence, 41(4), 433–452. College Press. Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy: King, J. E. (2004). In culture-centered knowledge: A needed change in stance, terminology, and Black studies, curriculum transformation and social practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), action. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee (Eds.), 93–97. Handbook of research in multicultural education Paris, D., & Alim, H. S. (2014). What are we seeking to (2nd ed., pp. 349–380). San Francisco, CA: sustain in culturally sustaining pedagogy? A loving Jossey-Bass. critique forward. Harvard Educational Review, Ladson-Billings, G. (1995a). But that’s just good 84(1), 85–100. teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Petchauer, E. (2012). Sampling memories: Using hip-hop Theory Into Practice, 34(3), 159–165. aesthetics to learn from urban schooling experiences. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995b). Towards a theory of Educational Studies, 48(2), 137–155. culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Sleeter, C. E., & Grant, C. A. (2006). Making choices for Research Journal, 32(3), 159–165. multicultural education: Five approaches to race, Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to class and gender (5th ed.). New York, NY: John the education debt: Understanding achievement in Wiley & Sons. U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12. Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.- Ladson-Billings, G. (2009/1994). The dreamkeepers: Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Albany, Successful teachers of African American children. NY: State University of New York. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Villegas, A. M. (1991). Culturally relevant pedagogy for Ladson-Billings, G. (2014). Culturally relevant pedagogy the 1990s and beyond. Washington, DC: ERIC 2.0: a.k.a. the remix. Harvard Educational Review, Clearinghouse on Teacher Education & American 84(1), 74–84. Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Lewis, O. (1966). La vida: A Puerto Rican family in the Villegas, A. M. (2002). Educating culturally responsive culture of poverty—San Juan and New York. teachers. Albany, NY: State University of New York New York, NY: Random House. Press. Love, B. L. (2014). Culturally relevant cyphers: Young, E. (2010). Challenges to conceptualizing and Rethinking classroom management through hip hop- actualizing culturally relevant pedagogy: How viable based education. In A. Honigsfeld & A. Cohan is the theory in classroom practice. Journal of (Eds.), Breaking the mold of classroom Teacher Education, 61(3), 248–260. 27

BLACK TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM TEXTS IN URBAN SCHOOLS

H. RICHARD MILNER IV University of Pittsburgh

lliot Eisner (1994) defined curriculum as The focus of this chapter is on Black teachers as what students have the opportunity to learn in curriculum texts in urban environments. In this Ea particular context at a particular time. He sense, the curriculum is defined as who, not merely postulated several important forms of the curricu- what, students have the opportunity to learn because lum: (a) the explicit curriculum concerns student texts of people’s (students, parents, counselors, and learning opportunities that are overtly taught and teachers) identities are inundated with learning stated or printed in documents, policies, and guide- opportunities. The intersections of curriculum and lines, such as in course syllabi, state standards, or on teacher identity shape this chapter. Drawing from school websites; (b) the implicit curriculum is Eisner, students experience a null curriculum when intended or unintended but is not stated or written they are not exposed to Black teachers. Curriculum down but is actually inherent to what students have theorists such as Gail McCutcheon, William Reid, the opportunity to learn; (c) a third form of curricu- William Pinar, Annette Henry, and O. L. Davis have lum, the null curriculum, deals with what students all focused features of their work on the role and do not have the opportunity to learn. Thus, informa- salience of teachers and teacher identity in the learn- tion and knowledge that are not available for student ing opportunities available to students. Teachers play learning are also aspects of the curriculum because an enormous role in, and have great influence over, students are actually learning something based on what is taught, even in the midst of curriculum policy what is not emphasized, covered, or taught. What reform that in many schools has led to a narrowed students do not experience in the curriculum and scripted curriculum. In this sense, teacher iden- becomes messages for them. For example, if students tity in addition to their worldview can have a serious are not taught to question, critique, or critically bearing on what students are exposed to, for how examine power structures, the students are learning much time, and why (McCutcheon, 2002). Teachers’ something—possibly that it may not be essential for race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and gender, among them to critique the world in order to improve it. other identity markers, shape what they teach and From Eisner’s perspective, what is absent is essen- even how they enact a curriculum. Their very being, tially present in student learning opportunities their experiences, and the ways in which they interact through the curriculum. with their students and the curriculum are curricular

215 216–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

in nature. Students “read” teachers and engage in an expectations of their students and the broader school iterative process of knowing and coming to know culture. that is shaped by the social environment (Milner, bell hooks (1994) makes it explicit that Black 2010). Put simply, students read teachers themselves female teachers carry with them gendered experi- as teachers make the curriculum come to life: The ences and perspectives that have been (historically) kinds of personal examples teachers use to illustrate silenced and marginalized in the discourses about an historical moment, for instance, provide a teacher teaching and learning. Although teaching has often with the opportunity to illuminate particular forms of been viewed as “women’s work,” Black female the stated curriculum. teachers and their worldviews have at times been left While some groups of students experience curric- out of the discussions—even when race, equity, ulum opportunities that connect well with their multiculturalism, or social justice was the topic of developing interests, experiences, opportunities, and discussion. In her historical analyses of valuable assets, other students experience curriculum interac- African American teachers during segregation in tions that barely touch the surface of these intersect- North Carolina, Siddle-Walker (2000) explained ing areas (interests, assets, experiences, and so forth). that they were: Students of color (Black and Latino/a), those living in poverty, those whose first language is not English, Consistently remembered for their high expectations and those who attend urban schools tend to be under- for student success, for their dedication, and for their demanding teaching style, these [Black] teachers exposed to powerful curriculum experiences that can appear to have worked with the assumption that their make a meaningful difference in their learning and job was to be certain that children learned the material lives (Delpit, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009). These presented. (pp. 265–266) students do not necessarily see themselves reflected in the curriculum—either in terms of what is taught Much of the literature focuses on the potency and or in terms of who teaches the curriculum (Gay, potential of Black teachers teaching Black students, 2010) and how the curriculum is taught (Milner, both in rural and urban contexts. From a historical 2010). Accordingly, students need and deserve to perspective, researchers such as Annette Henry, interact with and be exposed to teachers from various Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, Michelle Foster, Linda racial and ethnic backgrounds in order to experience Tillman, Gloria Ladson-Billings, and Jerome Morris different worldviews. What happens when students in found that teachers prior to desegregation worked a particular environment, such as an urban environ- overtime to help their African American students ment, experience learning opportunities solely from learn; although these teachers were teaching their a White teacher? What learning opportunities are students during segregation, they were also prepar- omitted from their learning opportunities? Eisner ing their students for a world of desegregation would suggest that these students are experiencing a ( Siddle-Walker, 1996). Moreover, as Tillman (2004) explained, “these teachers saw potential in their curriculum indeed, albeit an absent form of the cur- Black students, considered them to be intelligent, riculum regarding other racial and ethnic groups of and were committed to their success” (p. 282). There teachers—they are experiencing a null curriculum. was something authentic about these Black teachers. Much has been written about Black teachers, their Indeed, they saw their jobs and roles to extend far experiences, curriculum work, and teaching in public beyond the hallways of the school or their classroom. school classrooms (Foster, 1990, 1997; Irvine & They had a mission to teach their students because Irvine, 1983; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Monroe & they realized the risks and consequences in store for Obidah, 2004), and this literature is not limited to their students if they did not teach them and if the public schools but also highlights Black teachers’ students did not learn—mainly due to structural and experiences in higher education, namely in teacher systemic forms of racism, discrimination, and hege- education programs (Baszile, 2003). Agee (2004) mony that could stifle student success. An underedu- explained that a Black teacher “brings a desire to cated and underprepared Black student, during a construct a unique identity as a teacher. . . . She [or time when society did not want or expect these stu- he] negotiates and renegotiates that identity” (p. 749) dents to succeed, could face dire consequences such to meet their objectives and to meet the needs and as drug abuse, prison, or even death. 27. Black Teachers as Curriculum Texts in Urban Schools–•–217

Contemporary Concerns their own lives through their experiences and interac- tions with their Black teachers? In what ways can Several contemporary concerns should be considered Black teachers serve as mentors and role models to in thinking about Black teachers as curriculum in their Black students? How do Black teachers help urban environments. In terms of race, the teaching Black students understand, negotiate, combat, and force remains largely White (Sleeter & Milner, disrupt racism and other forms of discrimination 2011), and the trend of the declining number of inside and outside of school? Black teachers was well documented as a warning in Indeed, while Black teachers often serve as men- a systematic review years ago (King, 1993). This tors and role models to their Black students, Pang means students across different milieus are exposed and Gibson (2001) maintained: “Black educators are to curriculum texts most often shaped by White far more than physical role models, and they bring teachers (with more than 80% of teachers being diverse family histories, value orientations, and White). If we believe that students actually learn experiences to students in the classroom, attributes something from the racial identity of teachers, then often not found in textbooks or viewpoints often there is a great need to diversify the teaching force omitted” (pp. 260–261) from the curriculum. Thus, and increase the number of effective African Black teachers are texts themselves, but these teach- American teachers teaching, especially in urban ers’ text pages are inundated with life experiences environments (a point that will be expanded later in and histories of racism, sexism, and oppression, this chapter). In this way, students learn (and should along with those of strength, perseverance, and suc- learn) more than a prepackaged set of materials tied cess. Consequently, these teachers’ texts are rich and to a subject matter domain such as mathematics, empowering—they have the potential to help stu- science, language arts, and social studies. dents understand, read, examine, and change the Although research has demonstrated the capacity world (Freire, 1998) in new and provocative ways. and success of teachers from different racial and eth- As a field, administrators report that they “strug- nic backgrounds for curricula and instructional suc- gle” to recruit African American teachers into their cess with any racial or ethnic group of students classroom although historically teaching was a viable (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Milner, 2010), there are and attractive field for African Americans (Foster, learning aspects ingrained in the racial identity of 1997; Siddle-Walker, 2000). So, a serious point of teachers and their students that cannot be accounted concern and unsettlement is around how energy for when the racial and ethnic background of teach- should be spent regarding teaching demography in ers and students is inconsistent. For instance, schools. As a field, should more attention be spent on Easton-Brooks’s (2014) research demonstrated posi- diversifying the teaching force (Sleeter & Milner, tive relationships between teacher racial identity and 2011), or should collective efforts be dedicated to student achievement. But whether serious gains on educating the mostly White teaching force to teach all Black student test scores are prevalent or not when students, including Black students? To what degree they are taught by Black teachers, focusing on test are these questions mutually exclusive? score gains is insufficient when examining the Black parents may be concerned about and even importance of Black teachers teaching Black stu- skeptical of White teachers’ motives, interests in, and dents. A central area of concentration needs to also ability to teach their Black children. Because of their concern sociological and psychological connections own experiences, interactions with White people Black teachers are able to garner with their Black outside of school, and experiences in school, they students. In other words, what is the potential may feel Black teachers’ abilities and skills make potency of students being educated by a Black them more efficacious in teaching their children. In teacher that goes beyond their results on a test? Do what ways do Black teachers support Black student Black students connect more directly with their learning and development that other teachers might Black teacher? Do Black teachers better understand learn from—especially when all teachers should be the nuances embedded in Black students’ experiences working to build partnerships with parents? both outside and inside the classroom? In what ways Another concern focuses on the limited number of do Black students see and mirror the possibilities of Black people preparing to become teachers and what 218–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

these prospective teachers’ experiences are in teacher An outsider listening and observing the Black education programs (both traditional and nontradi- teacher’s tone and expectations for Darius may tional). Teacher education programs tend not to focus frown upon the teacher’s approach. However, this much of their attention on the development of Black teacher’s approach is grounded in a history and a teachers enrolled. Programs tend to be largely tai- reality that is steeped in care for the student’s best lored to meet the needs of White teachers, and Black interest. As Irvine and Fraser described, the teacher teachers along with other teachers of color are left understood quite deeply the necessity to help Darius out of curriculum and other learning opportunities learn. She understood the necessity to “talk the talk.” necessary for development. Where curricular materi- Indeed, Black teachers often have a commitment to als were concerned in her study, Agee (2004) and a deep understanding of Black students and their explained that “the teacher education texts used in situations and needs because, both historically and presently, these teachers experience and understand the course made recommendations for using diverse the world in ways similar to their students. In addi- texts or teaching diverse students based on the tion, the teachers have a commitment to the students assumption that preservice teachers are White” because they have a stake in the African American (p. 749). Still, Black teachers often have distinctive community. Importantly, these teachers lived in the goals, missions, decision-making, and pedagogical Black community where students attended school. styles that should be more fully developed in teacher They shopped in the community, worshipped there, education preparation. and their own children attended the neighborhood Finally, another pressing concern centers around school (Foster, 1997). Pioneers in this research such undervaluation and disrespect that some Black teach- as Foster, Ladson-Billings, Delpit, Patricia Hill ers experience in public schools. African American Collins, and Henry have described the interactions teachers may feel irrelevant and voiceless in urban, and practices of Black teachers with Black students rural, and suburban contexts—even when the topic as other mothering (or parenting). However, in spite of conversation concerns Black students (Buendia, of their success with their students, Black teachers Gitlin, & Doumbia, 2003). Research has suggested can feel isolated and ostracized because they offer that pre- and post-desegregation, Black teachers have a counterstory or counternarrative to the pervasive been able to develop and implement optimal learning views, practices, and interactions of their mostly opportunities for students (Siddle-Walker, 2000)— White colleagues. yet in the larger school context, they may be ridi- culed for being too radical or for not being “team players.” Moreover, these teachers may be seen as Context: “Urban” Black Teachers “too mean” or punitive to their students (Delpit, as Curriculum 1995). Consistent with others’ research such as that of Michelle Foster and Lisa Delpit, Irvine and Fraser Although there is insight to be gained from a variety (1998) described an interaction between a student of sociopolitical contexts such as suburban and rural and a Black teacher by borrowing James Vasquez’s PreK–12 grades, higher education, and teacher edu- notion, “warm demanders,” a description of teachers cation, much of the focus on Black teachers and of color “who provide a tough-minded, no-nonsense, their influence has been in urban social contexts. structured, and disciplined classroom environment However, it is not quite clear in much of the knowl- for kids whom society has psychologically and edge base in this area how urban is defined. In an physically abandoned.” They depict what happens attempt to define and name the context of urban, when Irene Washington, an African American teacher consider the following conceptualization of an with 23 years of experience, tells a student: urban context (Milner, 2012) for Black teachers as curriculum. The first is urban intensive, which “That’s enough of your nonsense, Darius. Your story refers to large cities in which schools are located. does not make sense. I told you time and time again that The size and density of a particular community you must stick to the theme I gave you. Now sit down.” Darius, a first grader trying desperately to tell his story, makes these environments unique and particularly proceeds slowly to his seat with his head hanging low. intensive. Metropolitan cities such as Chicago, (Irvine & Frasier, 1998, p. 56) Atlanta, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and New York, 27. Black Teachers as Curriculum Texts in Urban Schools–•–219

with populations in excess of 1 million, provide In these urban environments, Black teachers can a layer of intensity in that at times limited resources have a meaningful impact on students’ academic and are expected to service an immense number of stu- social success because they often deeply understand dents in schools and the surrounding city. What sets Black students’ situations and their needs. Common these cities apart from other cities is their size— among this research and tenets of these Black teach- their sheer density. In sum, urban intensive speaks to ers were their development and maintenance of high the scope and concentration of people in a particular expectations for their students, their ability to empa- locale. The broader environments and outside-of- thize with the students, and their ability to bring the school factors such as housing, poverty, and trans- curriculum to life for their students. In essence, they portation are directly connected to the curriculum make the curriculum relevant, responsive, and real (what happens and is taught) inside of the school, for their students. and there are many assets in large cities such as transportation options and business infrastructure. A second type of urban is urban emergent, Theory: Black Teachers as Curriculum wherein schools and districts are in large cities but typically have populations smaller than or very close Theoretical and conceptual frameworks regarding to 1 million. Nonetheless, these cities are still faced Black teachers as curriculum texts have been shaped with many of the same characteristics as urban- by principles related to what Ladson-Billings intensive schools but not on the same scale. Exam- described as culturally relevant curriculum and peda- ples of such cities are Nashville, Tennessee; Austin, gogy. The construct culturally relevant pedagogy is Texas; Columbus, Ohio; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; often used to discuss or describe the theory of cultur- and Charlotte, North Carolina. A third type is urban ally relevant teaching, while culturally relevant characteristic where districts are not necessarily teaching is used to describe the practice of the theory. located in or even near large cities but may be Ladson-Billings (1992) maintained that it is an located in suburban or rural areas. Yet, these com- approach that empowers students to critically exam- munities are beginning to experience some of the ine the curriculum in order to make sense of and shifts and realities seen in much larger districts— improve the world. especially increasingly diverse populations, increases Central to this approach is the notion that teachers in the number of immigrant families and students, develop skills to understand the complexities of stu- and increases in the number of residents from lower dents’ cultural ways of experiencing the world. socioeconomic backgrounds. Moreover, the construct suggests that students The realities of large growing cities and districts is develop a critical consciousness and that they move that there is a need to think about the role of Black beyond spaces where they simply or solely consume teachers in “urban” environments. In many ways, all knowledge without critically examining it. So the teachers are seeing some if not many of the charac- idea is that teachers create learning environments teristics that are common in urban-intensive schools, and learning opportunities where students develop even in urban emergent and urban characteristic con- voice and perspective and are allowed to participate texts. In what ways do Black teachers complement (more fully) in the multiple discourses available in a our knowledge base in these contexts? Generally, in learning context. some combination, urban education and urban socio- Black teachers have been identified as those who cultural contexts can be conceptualized related to create culturally relevant curriculum because they (1) the size of the city in which schools are located: have the ability to recognize students’ cultures as an dense, large, metropolitan areas; (2) the students in asset, not a detriment to their success. These teachers the schools: a wide range of student diversity, includ- actually use student cultures in their curriculum ing racial, ethnic, linguistic, and socioeconomic; and planning and implementation, and they allow stu- (3) the resources: the amount and number of resources dents to develop the skills to question how power available in a school, such as technology and finan- structures are created and maintained in U.S. society. cial structures through federal programs as well as In this sense, the teacher is not the only, nor the main property taxes (Milner & Lomotey, 2014). arbiter of knowledge (McCutcheon, 2002). Students 220–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

are expected to develop intellectually and socially in they are likely to have a chance of improving socio- order to build skills to make meaningful and transfor- economic status and making informed decisions mative contributions to society. In addition, cultur- about the lives they wish to lead” (p. 36). Cultural ally relevant pedagogy is an approach that helps competence concerns the ability of teachers to foster students “see the contradictions and inequities that student learning about themselves, others, and how existed in their local community and the larger world” the world works in order to be able to function effec- (Ladson-Billings, 1992, p. 382). Through culturally tively in it and potentially change aspects that are relevant curriculum development and enactment, unjust. The idea is that in order to have a seat at the teachers prepare students with skills to question ineq- table of those in power, one must deeply understand uity and to fight against the many “isms” and phobias those in power in order to participate in and contrib- that they encounter while allowing students to trans- ute to the conversation ultimately to challenge, fer what they have learned through classroom instruc- change, and transform power structures. tional/learning opportunities to other experiences A third tenet of culturally relevant curriculum and both inside and outside of school. pedagogy according to Ladson-Billings is sociopo- Three interrelated tenets shape Ladson-Billings’s litical consciousness. Sociopolitical consciousness is conception of culturally relevant curriculum and about the curriculum opportunities on a micro- and pedagogy: academic achievement, cultural compe- macro-level that have a bearing on teachers and stu- tence, and sociopolitical consciousness. Ladson- dents’ lived experiences. For instance, the idea that Billings (2006) expressed her regret for using the the unemployment rate plays a meaningful role in term academic achievement when she first conceptu- national debates as well as in local realities for teach- alized the theory, partly because people immediately ers and students should be centralized and incorpo- equated academic achievement with student test rated into curricula and instructional opportunities to scores. What Ladson-Billings actually envisioned, cultivate teachers and students’ interests and con- however, was that culturally relevant pedagogy sciousness. Ladson-Billings (2006) stressed that this would allow for and facilitate student learning: tenet is not about teachers pushing their own political “what it is that students actually know and are able to and social agendas in the classroom. Rather, she do as a result of pedagogical interactions with skilled indicated that sociopolitical consciousness is about teachers” (p. 34). Thus, academic achievement has to helping “students use the various skills they learn to do with teachers being able to help students under- better understand and critique their social position stand why they are learning the things they are learn- and context” (p. 37). ing in spaces where students can develop knowledge and skills necessary for success. A second tenet, cultural competence, for Ladson- Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression Billings is not necessarily about helping teachers develop a set of static information about differing Studies regarding Black teachers as curriculum texts cultural groups in order for them to develop some have largely been qualitative in nature, and their sensitivity toward an “other culture.” Rather, cultural experiences have been represented in first person competence is about students’ acquisition of their and by other researchers through the use of story own cultural value and heritage. Such a position of and counterstory. The germinal work of Foster pro- cultural competence runs counter to the ways in vides a compelling frame and exemplar for how which other disciplines such as medicine, clergy, and much of the research regarding Black teachers has social work might think about cultural competence. been conducted—namely by interviewing and lis- Black teachers have been identified as particularly tening to the voices, perspectives, and experiences poised to help students in urban environments come of Black educators (novice, veteran, and retired to more deeply understand themselves as positive Black teachers). Other research has examined the contributors to the fabric of the United States and intersecting nature of voice scholarship and teacher beyond (Milner, 2010). What Ladson-Billings means practices. For instance, the germinal and exemplary by cultural competence is “helping students to recog- work of Ladson-Billings demonstrates both Black nize and honor their own cultural beliefs and practices teacher voices as well as examples from their actual while acquiring access to the wider culture, where teaching practices. 27. Black Teachers as Curriculum Texts in Urban Schools–•–221

Thus, this research follows both a narrative form Conclusion: Need for More Research as well as a counternarrative frame—in order to problematize, nuance, and complexify what we know There is much to be learned from the scholarship on and believe we know about Black teachers and their Black teachers as curriculum texts in urban environ- teaching. The inquiry also privileges the strengths of ments. This work has both empirical as well as these teachers as curriculum developers and provides practical implications. For instance, empirically, the compelling examples of teachers working with stu- literature stresses the role and importance of racial dents and their families who succeed (Milner, 2010), identity in curriculum work. Of course, other iden- a serious shift from dominant discourses that would tity factors are necessary in understanding and suggest that Black students, in particular, are inca- conceptualizing the identity and curriculum inter- pable of learning and success. Another important section; race remains a critical component in exam- aspect of the systematic research examining Black ining the curriculum even in the midst of postracial teachers as curriculum is a study and discussion of discourses that would suggest that the United States the environments (classroom) where the research is as a country has transcended race. To the contrary, conducted. In this sense, the research seems to reject more research is needed that addresses how Black the notion that teachers and teaching practices can be teachers’ practices shape learning opportunities in considered in isolation of the social environment (urban) schools and how policy makers can perhaps around them (Ladson-Billings, 2009). learn from the work of these teachers. Moreover, Examples prevalent in germinal books of the role there are practical implications embedded in the and salience of Black teachers as curriculum is literature that would suggest that Black teachers pre valent in the work focused on teachers’ history themselves (as forms of the curriculum) have trans- and the surrounding community such as Vanessa ferable insights and practices from which other Siddle-Walker’s (2000) Their Highest Potential and teachers might learn. This point is not to suggest voices of teachers themselves such as Foster’s (1997) that Black teachers are perfect—just that they do Black Teachers on Teaching and the intersecting offer insights that can improve educational practices nature of teachers’ voices and practices in Ladson- with students. But perhaps most importantly, how Billings’s (2009) Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers do Black teachers negotiate their own identities and of African American Students. I have attempted to teaching in the midst of policy mandates that contribute to this literature with my 2010 book, Start increasingly attempt to automatize curriculum and Where You Are but Don’t Stay There: Understanding learning opportunities in the classroom? In what Diversity, Opportunity Gaps, and Teaching in Today’s ways are student learning opportunities hindered by Classrooms. Compelling books, too, focused on first- scripts that fail to adequately address the social, person accounts in higher education can also be intellectual, political, cultural, and affective connec- found, such as hooks’s (1994) reflective scholarship of tions that Black teachers are able to cultivate with- being a Black woman professor in Teaching to Trans- out such structures? These questions and the gress. Journal articles, book chapters, and other aforementioned issues remain essential as we work scholarly works also provide some representative to better meet the needs of every student in every samples of research on Black teachers as curriculum. classroom, everyday.

References and Further Readings Buendia, E., Gitlin, A., & Doumbia, F. (2003). Working the pedagogical borderlands: An African critical Agee, J. (2004). Negotiating a teaching identity: pedagogue teaching within an ESL context. An African American teacher’s struggle to teach in Curriculum Inquiry, 33(3), 291–320. test-driven contexts. Teachers College Record, Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural 106(4), 747–774. conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: Baszile, D. T. (2003). Who does she think she is? The New Press. Growing up nationalist and ending up teaching race Delpit, L. (2012). Multiplication is for White people: in white space. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, Raising expectations for other people’s children. 19(3), 25–37. New York, NY: The New Press. 222–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Easton-Brooks, D. (2014). Ethnic-matching in urban Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: education. In H. R. Milner & K. Lomotey (Eds.), Successful teachers of African-American children. Handbook of urban education (pp. 97–113). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. New York, NY: Routledge. McCutcheon, G. (2002). Developing the curriculum: Eisner, E. W. (1994). The educational imagination: Solo and group deliberation. Troy, NY: Educators’ On the design and evaluation of school programs. Press International. New York, NY: Macmillan. Milner, H. R. (2010). Start where you are, but don’t stay Foster, M. (1990). The politics of race: Through the eyes there. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. of African-American teachers. Journal of Education, Milner, H. R. (2012). But what is urban education. Urban 172, 123–141. Education, 47(3), 556–561. Foster, M. (1997). Black teachers on teaching. New York, Milner, H. R., & Lomotey, K. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook NY: The New Press. of urban education. New York, NY: Routledge Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Press. NY: Continuum. Monroe, C. R., & Obidah, J. E. (2004). The influence of Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, cultural synchronization on a teacher’s perceptions research, & practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: of disruption: A case study of an African-American Teachers College Press. middle-school classroom. Journal of Teacher hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education Education, 55(3), 256–268. as the practice of freedom. New York, NY: Pang, V. O., & Gibson, R. (2001). Concepts of democracy Routledge. and citizenship: Views of African American teachers. Irvine, J. J., & Fraser, J. (1998, May 13). Warm The Social Studies, 92(6), 260–266. demanders. Education Week, 17(35), 56. Siddle-Walker, V. (1996). Their highest potential: Irvine, R. W., & Irvine, J. J. (1983). The impact of the An African American school community in the desegregation process on the education of Black segregated south. Chapel Hill, NC: University of students: Key variables. Journal of Negro Education, North Carolina Press. 52, 410–422. Siddle-Walker, V. (2000). Valued segregated schools for King, S. (1993). The limited presence of African- African American children in the South, 1935–1969: American teachers. Review of Educational Research, A review of common themes and characteristics. 63(2), 115–149. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 253–285. Ladson-Billings, G. (1992). Liberatory consequences of Sleeter, C. E., & Milner, H. R. (2011). Researching literacy: A case of culturally relevant instruction for successful efforts in teacher education to diversify African American students. Journal of Negro teachers. In A. F. Ball & C. Tyson (Eds.), Studying Education, 61(3), 378–391. diversity in teacher education (pp. 81–103). Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). Yes, but how do we do it? Washington, DC: American Educational Research Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. Association; Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. In J. Landsman & C. W. Lewis (Eds.), White Tillman, L. C. (2004). (Un)Intended consequences? The teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building impact of Brown v. Board of Education decision on inclusive schools, promoting high expectations the employment status of Black educators. Education and eliminating racism. Sterling, VA: Stylus. and Urban Society, 36(3), 280–303. 28

TEACHERS AS IMPROVISATIONAL ARTISTS

LASANA KAZEMBE University of Illinois at Chicago

AVI LESSING Oak Park and River Forest High School

A moment of grandeur comes to everyone when they act out of their humanness without need for acceptance, exhibitionism, or applause. An audience knows this and responds accordingly.

Creativity is not the clever rearranging of the known.

—Viola Spolin

eflecting on our multiple identities of poet, (2004, 2007), Naphtaly Shem-Tov (2011), and a few teacher, theater actor/director and the degree others. Shem-Tov (2011), for example, understood R and extent to which those identities have improvisation as a spontaneous act of discovery and shaped our teaching over many years is germane to regarded it as a mode of knowing that can improve this chapter. How we have developed and enacted teaching. Sawyer (2004, 2007) encouraged teachers improvisational techniques/approaches in the class- to utilize improvisational techniques as a means to room to start conversations, make connections, and improve their skill as discussion leaders as well as enhance (overall) the quality of classroom engage- their overall educational effectiveness. Additionally, ments is a strong feature of our message here. Elliot Eisner (2004) invoked and rallied critical Oftentimes for artists, the extemporaneousness of thought in many ways and particularly by posing the performance is a means of deepening our relation- question: “What can education learn from the arts ship to art. Seasoned artists are able to take advantage about the practice of education?” of unscripted and unpredictable moments and use For this chapter, we start with sharing thoughts them to enhance interaction with audience members about the concept of improvisation and exploring its (i.e., participants). nature, metaphorical characteristics, complexities, Much of our thinking on teachers as improvisa- and challenges. We then explore some ways in which tional artists is informed by theoretical considerations improvisation is made manifest and discuss particular posed by Bernard Downs (1978), R. Keith Sawyer skills that teachers (as improvisational artists) should

223 224–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

cultivate in order to heighten educational engage- challenge for improvisational teachers is to move ments. We offer specific ways in which teachers beyond the comfortable confines of language and improvise as well as complexities and challenges of craft and to expand the notion of what teachers can specific improvisational modes. We end with our be(come). In connecting theatrical modes to educa- discussions on potential outcomes and benefits of tion and classroom teaching, Shifra Schonmann effective improvisation in educational settings as (2005) describes improvisation as a pedagogical well as practical ways in which teachers can sustain device and elaborates on its usefulness as a tool for improvisationality. creation, conversation, and the cultivation of rich, reflective educational experiences. Thus, by its very definition, improvisation calls for one to be sponta- What Is Improvisation? neous, creative, and flexible. This means moving out of comfort zones of personal psychological security A typical expectation is that, before entering the and familiarity. Also, it means moving away from teaching space, the teacher has taken time to appro- proximal zones of established practices, rote expres- priately prepare. Educational stakeholders (students, sion, and scripted outcomes. In improvisation, one parents, teachers, administrators) naturally expect does not acquire or prepare materials; instead, one this to be the case. The formal lesson plan, after all, prepares body, mind, voice, and actions to respond to is a major concern of effective teachers and those what is happening in a space. This can happen in a seeking to be seen as effective. The word prepare jazz ensemble with other musicians, with other has subjective connotations and can take on many improv actors in an ensemble, or with one’s students definitive forms. For some, preparing might mean in a classroom. investing many years and thousands of dollars on For teachers, improvisation should not be seen as one’s education in the name of teacher preparation. something one does in lieu of knowing what to do. By one measure, effective teachers are classified as Conversely, improvisational teaching is an orienta- having spent hundreds (if not thousands) of hours tion that calls for one to be curious, experimental, reading articles and books, critically examining and sensitive, and imaginative. Well in advance, one has synthesizing ideas, engaging in numerous discus- to acquire an understanding of why such things even sions with others inside (and outside) the field from matter. In the realm of the artist (as well as that of the mild conversations to full-blown arguments, and teacher), this translates into an ideological and prac- spending considerable time observing and analyzing tice orientation that challenges and in some ways classroom activities. resists conformity, rejects authoritarianism, proac- Many teachers will (and do) invest a great deal of tively resists inhibitions, and prizes acting on impulse time in learning about the technical aspects of peda- from a place of instinct. The metaphorical character- gogy. Indeed, as education in Western society has istics of improvisation are framed by the artist’s abil- become more commodified, a blinding plethora of ity to be self-aware and self-critical. Shem-Tov books is published monthly on the subject of teach- (2011) wrote of improvisation as a “mode of knowing ing. As directed by education technocrats, this sys- and thinking and doing” (p. 103) and, therefore, tem has a tendency of rewarding those who toe the a technique of creation. However critical they are of line of conformity to prescribed “best practices” for established practices and traditions, practitioners teaching. They are rewarded for strict adherence to of improvisation are first knowledgeable of said standards, mandates, and other prescriptive teaching practices and traditions. practices. Increasingly, too, there are multiple routes One misunderstanding of improvisation is that it that one can take to prepare to teach. But what is the requires no craft or preparation. In fact, it’s the oppo- place of improvisation in the face of common images site: Improvisational artists take years to master the of preparation? rules, boundaries, and unspoken norms of their art With its rigid, restrictive, and conformist atmo- form, so that bending the rules or trying something sphere, the contemporary educational landscape new is always done in conversation with the form, poses serious challenges to teachers seeking to infuse rather than in ignorance of it. In music, before the creativity and imagination into their teaching. A key immersion into the avant-garde (Sun Ship, Stellar 28. Teachers as Improvisational Artists–•–225

Regions, Om), John Coltrane’s musicianship was cannot simply teach reading, writing, and arithmetic, developed via more conventional, less improvised but we must also develop connections in students’ expression (My Favorite Things, Giant Steps, Stan- brains to foster relationships, reflection, and resiliency. dard Coltrane). If improvisation can be summed up He calls this practice, which for him is as fundamental colloquially as a breaking of the rules, then before the as brushing one’s teeth, brain brushing. rules can be bent or broken, they must first be If there is alacrity of mind and body, a training learned. Thus, in a real sense, effective improvisation toward attention and presence, then teacher and stu- is not a forgetting of traditional or standard practices; dent are much more likely to embrace educational rather, it is an innovation on those practices that can experience based on collaboration and connections. contribute to the realization of new experiences, prac- This type of education stresses what each person can tices, and modes of knowing, thinking, and doing. In add to the ongoing play/concert/class that’s already short, these are the complexities, challenges, and in progress, that is, what Paulo Freire (1970/2000) potential promises for teachers seeking to employ called a problem-posing pedagogy, rather than a tra- improvisational approaches to their teaching. ditionalist education that he referred to as the bank- ing method. This is not so far from the way John Dewey (1938) thought about education, as an experi- Improvisation as Uninhibited Exploration ence that determines future experiences, as opposed to a list of skills to learn. Improvisational teaching, As Shem-Tov (2011) related, the unexpected and at its best, is not only a pedagogical stance toward unplanned already occurs in classrooms. The real the classroom but also an expression of how one question is: How might teachers take advantage of might encounter others, solve problems, exist within this? How might teachers hone their “reflective a group, listen, speak—in short, live. expertise” (p. 104) in order to broaden and deepen Like artists, teachers seeking to utilize improvisa- educational experiences? In the case of teaching, as in tional approaches must be courageous enough to sail that of performance, improvisation is not a reckless, past the horizon. However, before even doing that, anything-goes approach devoid of thought and regard. they must be expansive enough to imagine new reali- Instead, improvisational artists conceive of it as a dar- ties beyond the horizon. These imagined realities ing, anything-might-be-possible approach that is the may include new curricula, more effective methods, warp and woof of good teaching. In this sense, one of richer dialogues, and/or improved classroom encoun- the biggest mistakes teachers can make is to try to ters. This entails asking questions, posing challenges, plan improvisation. Dwayne Huebner (1999) phrased and (sometimes) ignoring obvious starting points. it like this: What may transpire? For teachers, func- This mode of thinking aligns with poet Baron Georg tioning as improvisational artists means using both Philipp Friedrich von Hardenberg’s (1798) idea of the right and left sides of the brain. Downs (1978) romanticizing the world by seeing the “familiar as emphasized the value to be realized by pursuing strange” and the “ordinary as extraordinary.” We complementary aspects of these two hemispheres. As can, in our explorations, educate the senses and teachers, the overall quality of our practice is height- engage in a form of productive anarchy against com- ened when we can understand and leverage the exist- fort and conformity. With such a pedagogical ing connection between scripted behavior and what approach, we can explore yet simultaneously avoid Downs (1978) referred to as the “sacredness of intui- being destructive and dismissive. Uninhibited explo- tive behavior” (p. 1). Improvisation not only makes ration requires vision, courage, and the belief in the teacher and the student more creative but also something greater and grander. demechanizes both classroom space and bodies within the space. Too often, schooling is only directed at one aspect of the brain—the prefrontal cortex, How Is Improvisation Manifested? which controls working memory. However, we now know that the brain undergoes major changes during We have already shared importance of saying “no” adolescence. Neurobiologist Daniel Siegel (2013) to pedagogical inhibitions and “yes” to impulse pointed out if we want to impact young people, we that engages curiosity, imagination, and creativity. 226–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

We now offer brief thoughts on how improvisation is ways. Effective teachers are those with the ability to manifested and identify particular skills that teachers see and understand the relationship between surface (as improvisational artists) should cultivate in order facts and underlying conceptual structures—always to heighten education through improvisation. reinventing and becoming new. Eisner (2004) suggests a pedagogical model wherein teachers are prepared in a similar way as Integrated Knowledge artists (i.e., dancers, poets, painters). Sawyer (2006/2012) wrote of the importance of improvisa- Effective teachers are aware (and act on the tion in teaching and teacher education. He also understanding) that all knowledge is related in an related how some teacher training programs incorpo- integrated framework. Again, this integration is not rate improvisational techniques and principles drawn mired in some codified formula but is always exist- from those undertaken by stage actors. What hap- ing between people and their connections to one pens, however, if one is unable to improvise or another, the text, and the environment. improvises poorly? What constitutes effective/ ineffective improvisation? Is it possible to improvise Adaptive Expertise on an improvisation or to pretend to improvise? How It refers to the ability to appropriately recall and do we, in fact, avoid betraying, mechanizing, or flexibly implement solutions, routines, and practices cheapening the natural aspects of improvisation? to address a variety of challenges and situations. Study in improvisation can contribute to effective Theatrical improvisational teachers will often teaching, and as with other pedagogical approaches, describe an improv scene this way: Two people dig a there are criteria for determining effective and inef- hole, jump into it, and try to figure a way out. The fective improvisation. Taking cues from perfor- way out is never prescriptive, and the skills people mance theory and the life of dramatists, teacher learn are the problem-solving skills to navigate their improvisational artists are encouraged to engage in way through an existing form (whether it be a scene, four fundamental practices: (1) say “yes” literally jazz piece, or classroom project). and metaphorically during turns in conversation; (2) add something new to what is being developed/ Collaborative Skills shaped/created; (3) take the initiative to interrogate one’s practices; and (4) practice and cultivate active The term collaborative skills refers to the ability of listening. Sawyer (2008) informs us of research in two or more experts to work jointly to accomplish a the learning sciences regarding the cognitive struc- task or set of tasks. Collaboration has now become a tures underlying expert performance. He mentions buzzword in educational circles, but it is much harder four categories of knowledge in which teachers to execute in spaces and in times where competition should attain skill prior to attempting to teach as is valued. True collaboration signifies that we are improvisational artists: deep conceptual understand- neither dependent nor independent, but rather that our ing, integrated knowledge, adaptive expertise, and fates are inextricably bound with one another. Inter- collaborative skills. dependency means that we succeed or fail together. There are specific improvisational techniques that Deep Conceptual Understanding teachers can develop and leverage in order to enhance the quality of educational engagements. According to Teachers must know facts and should always seek Shem-Tov (2011), to add to their storehouse of factual data. However, this basic surface knowledge is embedded in a The principles of improvisation technique can be sophisticated web of complex, interrelated phenom- implemented in the classroom by the teacher as a reflective mode in order to enhance the flexibility of the ena that all exist at the same time. For instance, teacher’s reactions to spontaneous occurrences in the Schwab’s (1970) four commonplaces, while on the classroom. (p. 104) surface being four discrete categories of teaching and learning (teacher, student, subject matter, and milieu), Active listening, letting go of inhibitions, and lis- are in effect always connecting in seen and unseen tening to/trusting one’s intuition are just a few of these 28. Teachers as Improvisational Artists–•–227

techniques. Others include listening to silences, valu- some training, but it also must allow people to make ing emotional integrity, and enhancing ideation (how mistakes, to analyze success and failures, and to we consider and form thoughts and concepts). Active make changes for future experiences. Thus, improvi- listening refers to listening to both what is being said sational teachers must not only improvise with stu- and what is not being said. Often, teachers are in such dents but also be transparent about the process of a rush to speak that their words overlap and crash into improvisation. This is a pedagogical as well as a those of others. Or, they are used to doing the majority curricular shift: Instead of being apart from the stu- of the talking, which has grafted an authoritarianism dents, the teacher participates; instead of the teacher or type of dominance onto their teaching. Such a situ- possessing the knowledge and offering it to the stu- ation disenchants learners and undermines the entire dents, teachers and students co-construct learning in process. The experience becomes less of an enterprise the present; and instead of the process being essen- of sharing and potentially transformative encounters tially beside the point, curriculum and the transaction and more of a verbal traffic jam. Effective teachers are are one whole process. What matters most in getting sensitive to this and will practice active listening as a from point A to point B is not that one gets there, but technique to enhance opportunities for students to be that the journey is rich and qualitative. not just heard but also listened to. In a truly improvi- For many, classroom silences can seem confound- sational space, everyone pays attention to who is talk- ing, scary, or wasteful because they are viewed as ing and who is not. Participation does not simply infringing on instructional time. Interestingly, we require one to speak, but to be involved in other ways: sometimes relate metaphorically to silence by citing listening, tracking, connecting, taking notes, gesturing, references to insects (crickets) or unfortunate ani- and tuning in. mals trapped in awkward situations (i.e., deer in Relatedly, listening to and trusting intuition is headlights or mice in church). When attempting to another effective tool in the improv artist’s toolkit. create authentic critical interaction with their stu- As with the other tools, this listening to/trusting intu- dents, many teachers have experienced the prolonged ition is a constantly evolving process that can be silence that frequently accompanies the “student sharpened over time. Performance artists can no stare back” or the “classroom rubbernecking.” In the doubt recount memories of times when they have realm of improvisation, creativity, opportunity, and solely relied on intuition to guide them through a possibility live in those spaces of silence. As opposed performance or recitation. Like a telegraph operator to putting pressure on the teaching moment, listening tapping out a message, that inner voice or “sixth to silence serves as a mechanism for pacing, refocus- sense” sends clear instant instructions such as what ing, and organizing the energy in classrooms. In poem to recite, which lines or words to emphasize, or addition, listening to silence is a handy method for how to modulate emotional projection. Seasoned promoting enhanced critical reflection and distinc- performance artists develop an ear for listening to tively authentic collective engagement. Natalie and then trusting the inner voice. For improvisational Goldberg, a Buddhist writing instructor in her 1993 teachers, intuitive voice also comes into play when memoir The Long Quiet Highway: Waking Up in we teach, and many have come to rely on it as an America, recalls visiting her old high school in New essential aspect of teaching practice and philosophy. Mexico 20 years after she graduated. She really only When such intuitive listening/trusting has resulted in remembers one teacher and, in particular, the one “effective classroom engagements,” our practice is time he called all of the students over to the window always edified and strengthened by those successes. while it was raining. When we are more present, our As an improvisational technique, letting go (or attention is heightened, and we remember more. sayin g “no”) to inhibitions has the potential of expos- What is the process for valuing emotional integ- ing participants to more of what is possible and of rity? Valuing emotional integrity speaks to valuing the who they really are. Fear lies at the core of inhibition. unification of thought-speech-will in ourselves and Acknowledging and then working through fears are those outside of ourselves. It means not doubting or initial steps in keeping inhibitions at bay. In order for second-guessing another’s abilities, potential, etc., but a classroom to become truly improvisational, not taking purposeful advantage of the alignment of the only must it be imbued with the right intentions and senses and purposes of teachers and students together. 228–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Ideally, when emotional integrity is valued, it creates to have a background as an improvisational artist. the conditions necessary for the contextual apprecia- Nor are we implying that the application of improvi- tion and elevation of creative abilities and other skills sational methods is the only approach to creating in the improvisational toolkit. Honesty is perhaps the more expansive educational experiences. As with highest and fullest expression of emotional integrity. other considerations concerning pedagogy, teacher For poets, stage actors, musicians, and other artists, effectiveness, and education (writ large), this one, the importance of honesty (not simply professing to too, is fraught with challenges and complexities. We possess it, but actively practicing it) cannot be over- shall discuss a few of these. stated. This integrity undergirds and influences Teachers seeking to draw from the thinking/ everything about how improvisational teachers methods of improvisational artists have to cultivate an approach artistry, including the quality of their con- appreciation for imagination, intuition, curiosity, and nectedness (i.e., rootedness) to the art and the audi- emotional integrity. Beyond that, they have to develop ence. This manifests in a similar way for teachers and and leverage a unique set of improvisational skills to students in classrooms. Students know instantly when reinforce their orientation. An authoritarian school teachers are not being honest as a dishonest stance culture would typically prove resistant to such an betrays a lack of empathy and respect. Like improv orientation and would, therefore, challenge a teacher artists, teachers have to not only know their craft but on this front. Utilizing improvisational techniques is also be honest about what they know (and don’t difficult in today’s classroom environments owing to know) about it. For teachers, the practice of emo- strictures on instructional time, mobility, and the tional integrity is a validation and a commitment restrictive nature of contemporary educational policy. to maintaining a holistic, compassionate educational Many teacher education programs promote a canned, environment. corporate-driven approach that emphasizes training, Referring to the act of forming ideas and con- efficiency, and bottom-lines. While this sounds chal- cepts, ideation is related metaphorically to the pro- lenging (because it is), the bigger challenge is to cess of imagining and activating the products of the locate ways to deal with school cultures that inhibit imagination. Colloquially, ideation is often referred conditions that support improvisational teaching. to as brainstorming. For improv artists and teachers Maintaining authenticity presents another challenge as improv artists, ideation is a key ingredient in the for teachers seeking to incorporate improvisational design process and is usually activated following an techniques to improve their effectiveness. How do “a-ha” or “light bulb moment.” As artists and teach- teachers cultivate improvisational principles in highly ers, we should understand that the “light bulb” competitive, test-driven environments controlled by represents the beginning (and not the end) of a trans- outside authorities? How do they maintain realness ductive process of creation. This creative process is with themselves and with the students they face each the starting place for our ideas—whether visual, day? For improvisational artists, believability is con- concrete, or abstract. Another important aspect of tingent upon the degree to which they have developed ideation is for teachers to understand how to posi- an honest relationship to their craft and an unqualified tively manipulate ideation in the improvisational belief in themselves as artists. Effectiveness, whether moment. This means resisting emotional and psycho- in art or teaching is (in part) a result of integrity, both logical inertia, utilizing silences, and trusting our in principle and in practice. In today’s educational intuition. culture, however, pressure from the top or the threat of job loss often forces teachers to maintain a loyalty to the status quo and to not stray from established Challenges and Complexities methods; much less question said methods. Essen- tially, for artists and educators alike, this challenge This chapter shares theoretical and practical insights evolves into a critical conversation over what we value drawn from the world of improvisational artists and and how we promote what we value. Paul Robeson attempts to translate skill and techniques from that (2002) conveys this beautifully: “Sing me your folk world to the world of teaching. We are not saying that songs and I’ll tell you about the character, customs, it is compulsory for a teacher (in order to be effective) and history of your people” (p. 211). 28. Teachers as Improvisational Artists–•–229

There are ways to know when we are being posi- field-tested in the educational moment—which is the tively affected and/or shaped by artistic experiences. very definition of improvisation. Obvious expressive ways include displays of emotion (i.e., smiling, laughing, crying, cheering). Less obvi- ous are the silences and internal dialogues that play Some Closing Thoughts out when individuals are edified or touched by a song, poem, painting, etc. Many performance artists In this chapter we point to numerous educational are familiar with the foot stomping, snaps, call-and- benefits that can be realized from educating teachers response, and general exclamations of excitement to understand and utilize improvisational techniques and affirmation issuing forth from audience mem- in their theoretical and practical approaches to teach- bers. On some level, in fact, the style of improv ing. Acknowledging inherent challenges and com- expression is geared toward evoking such responses. plexities within this methodology (as with any In plain speak, it ain’t hard to tell. Determining one’s other), we remain convinced that there is so much for effectiveness is one of the many complexities faced teachers to learn and build upon from the aesthetic by improvisational artists. world of improvisational artists. Teachers have to confront similar complexities in Shem-Tov (2011) refers to improvisation as a their use of improvisational techniques. In a class- mode of knowing. The skills (active listening, trust- room of 30 students, what happens when the majority ing intuition, resisting inhibitions, etc.) utilized by of those students are not expressive? What can be effective improvisational artists can be put to done in a situation where students’ internal silences immense use in the classroom. Improvisational (the teacher’s best efforts to the contrary) are over- teaching is an opportunity for both students and whelming a lesson? Moreover, it is highly unlikely teachers to contribute to a deeper and more meaning- that such complexities will manifest as singular ful educational experience. Improvisational teaching occurrences. It is more likely that teachers will find encourages educators to enliven their practice by themselves confronted with a torrent of classroom cultivating deep conceptual understanding, integrated “in-the-moment” complexities including student dis- knowledge, adaptive expertise, and collaborative interest, crossed boundaries, or instructional miscues. skills. The value of educational practice is deepened Looked at from a strengths perspective, this repre- via improvisational techniques that call for all par- sents an opportunity for teachers to develop a con- ticipants to appreciate and practice active listening, structivist stance (Bruner, 1996) and thereby orient emotional integrity, and to listen to and trust their themselves to a teaching philosophy and ideology intuition. At the same time, effective teachers/ rooted in a critical, constructivist tradition. In such improvisational artists understand the necessity of instances, improvisation does not mean the avoidance having vision, courage, and what Duke Ellington of complexities; it simply means that one’s improvi- referred to as “get-with-itness” (1990) in order to sational skills will be constantly and spontaneously transform and evolve their practices.

References and Further Readings Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Archibald, J.-A. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating Bateson, M. C. (1989). Composing a life. New York, the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Vancouver, NY: Penguin (Plume). BC, Canada: University of British Columbia Press. Bateson, M. C. (1994). Peripheral visions: Learning Barone, T. (2000). Aesthetics, politics, and educational along the way. New York, NY: HarperCollins. inquiry. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, Barone, T. (2001). Touching eternity: The enduring MA: Harvard University Press. outcomes of teaching. New York, NY: Teachers Coles, R. (1989). The call of stories: Teaching and the College Press. moral imagination. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Barone, T., & Eisner, E. W. (1997). Arts-based research. Harcourt. In R. M. Jaeger (Ed.), Complementary methods for Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, research in education (2nd ed., pp. 71–116). NY: Collier Books. 230–•–PART II. TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM

Downs, B. (1978, Fall/Winter). Directing the metaphoric Sarason, S. (1999). Teaching as a performing art. mind. Theater News, 6(1). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Ellington, D., & His Orchestra. (1990). Get-with-itness. Sawyer, R. K. (2004). Improvised lessons: Collaborative On The Ellington Suites: The Queen’s Suite/The discussion in the constructivist classroom. Teaching Goutelas Suite/The Uwis Suite. Berkeley, CA: Education, 15(2), 189–201. Fantasy, Inc. (April 4, 1959–October 5, 1972). Sawyer, R. K. (2006/2012). Explaining creativity: Eisner, E. W. (1979/2004). The educational imagination. The science of human innovation. New York, NY: New York, NY: Macmillan. Oxford University Press. Eisner, E. W. (2004). What can education learn from the Sawyer, R. K. (2007). Improvisation and teaching. arts about the practice of education? International Retrieved from http://www.criticalimprov.com/ Journal of Education & the Arts, 5(4), 1–13. article/view/380/626 Fischlin, D., Heble, A., & Lipsitz, G. (2013). The fierce Sawyer, R. K. (2008). Optimizing learning: Implications urgency of now: Improvisation, rights, and the ethics of learning sciences research. Paris, France: OECD/ of cocreation. Charlotte, NC: Duke University Press. CERI. Freire, P. (1970/2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Schonmann, S. (2005). Theatrical representations of New York, NY: Continuum. teaching as performance. In J. Brophy & S. Pinnegar Freire, P. (2007). Daring to dream: Toward a pedagogy (Eds.), Learning from research on teaching: of the unfinished (Organized and presented by Perspective, methodology, and representation A. M. Araujo Freire; A. K. Oliveira, Trans.). (pp. 283–311). Bradford, UK: Emerald Group Boulder, CO: Paradigm. Publishing. Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination. San Schubert, W. H., & Ayers, W. C. (Eds.). (1992). Teacher Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. lore: Learning from our own experience. White Greene, M. (2007). Imagination, oppression and culture/ Plains, NY: Longman. creating authentic openings. Retrieved from https:// Schwab, J. J. (1970). The practical: A language for maxinegreene.org/uploads/library/imagination_oc.pdf curriculum. Washington, DC: National Education Grumet, M. (1988). Bitter milk: Women and teaching. Association. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Shem-Tov, N. (2011). Improvisational teaching as a Hardenberg, G. P. F. F. von. (1798). Aphorisms. Retrieved mode of knowing. The Journal of Aesthetic from http://philosophyproject.org/wp-content/ Education, 45(3), 103–113. uploads/2013/05/Novalis-APHORISMS.pdf Shor, I. (1999). What is critical literacy? Journal of He, M. F. (2010). Exile pedagogy: Teaching in-between. Pedagogy, Pluralism, and Practice, 1(4). In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & J. Burdick (Eds.), Siegel, D. (2013). Brainstorm: The power and purpose of Handbook of public pedagogy: Education and the teenage brain. New York, NY: Tarcher learning beyond schooling (pp. 469–482). New Publishing. York, NY: Routledge. Spolin, V. (n.d.). What does it mean to improvise? Huebner, D. E. (1999). The lure of the transcendent: Retrieved from http://www.spolin.com/ Collected essays (W. Pinar & V. Hillis, Eds.). what-does-it-mean-to-improvise/ Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Thompson, S. (2008). The pedagogical imperative of Robeson, P. (2002). Paul Robeson speaks: Writings, musical improvisation. Critical Studies in speeches, and interviews, a centennial celebration. Improvisation, 3(2), 1–12. New York, NY: Citadel. Willis, G. H., & Schubert, W. H. (Eds.). (1991). Rubin, L. J. (1984). Artistry in teaching. New York, NY: Reflections from the heart of educational inquiry: Random House. Understanding curriculum and teaching through Samples, B. (1993). Metaphoric mind: A celebration of the arts. Albany, NY: State University of New York creative consciousness. Fawnskin, CA: Jalmar Press. Press. PART III

STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM 232–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

INTERLUDE

Introducing Part III: Students as Curriculum

The student or learner is an important dimension or commonplace of curriculum; however, it cannot be com- prehended in any full sense without perceiving its interrelationship with and dependence upon the three other commonplaces (subject matter, teachers, and milieu) along with the need to continuously rebalance the relation- ship among these four commonplaces in the deliberations of policy makers and educators. Thus, those involved in any educational situation must ask: How do students and the subject matter influence one another? How do teachers and the students affect one another? How does the milieu or environment have mutual influence with the students? Moreover, how do students in any given setting influence each other? It is necessary, too, to realize that answers to these questions and others that flow from them are never final but always in the making. In asking how students influence one another, we are by implication asking how they are a curriculum for one another. What should we think about the deeper meanings of this curricular commonplace? To what extent should students’ experiences be tapped and inscribed as curriculum? When might it be helpful or harmful to do so? How do and should our responses to these questions differ when we consider immigrant and minority stu- dents; students from culturally, racially, and linguistically diverse backgrounds; or students who have differing (dis)abilities? What happens when we consider students as humans as contrasted with commodities or objects to be manipulated? What happens if the focus is on students for joyful or worthwhile living as compared with serv- ing a national or corporate purpose? Again, what questions emerge for you about curriculum vis-à-vis students as you read and reflect on the chapters in Part III? 29

STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

WILLIAM H. SCHUBERT University of Illinois at Chicago

BRIAN D. SCHULTZ Northeastern Illinois University

ho knows what is worthwhile for the edu- If students are curriculum in the sense that they cational benefit of a student? The phrase shape it through their sources of meaning, should Wstudents as curriculum refers to a tradi- they be involved proactively in the process of cur- tion of perspectives on curriculum and teaching that riculum development? Does such involvement call have persisted in education for over a century for democratic construction of curriculum by stu- (Schultz, 2011), fostering an ongoing debate. What dents and teachers in concert with one another? How knowledge and content should be devised, developed, does this fit with the fact that policy makers outside and designed for and taught to students to enable of classrooms and schools often make curricula and them to become more fully functioning members of bestow them on schools? Moreover, is the student society? Should curriculum development be exclu- also the curriculum when the larger educational proj- sively the prerogative of credentialed adults, educa- ect is deemed to be a process of developing self- tional experts, and policy makers, or should it involve understanding and self-direction in the world? Who the public, parents, and students themselves? If cur- is best positioned to know if this is being accom- riculum as subject matter is designed by experts, is it plished: policy makers, educational leaders, teachers, received by all students in the same way? Or do stu- parents, or students themselves? From another angle, dents mediate what is presented by accepting, reject- when one considers that any classroom or learning ing, and refashioning it according to the lenses they environment usually contains many participants, do have developed through their unique experiential, they not also learn from and with the relationships cultural, and other contextual background? If so, they have with one another? In this sense students even if all students are presented with the same con- can easily be construed as curricula for each other. tent and engaged in the same learning activities, is Teachers, too, learn from, with, and alongside their the learning they derive the same or different? Thus, students, so should we not view students as curricula the interpretation of content and learning experiences for the continuing education of teachers? If that is so, may be a basis for concluding that the student, at should policy makers who create curricular mandates least in part, is the curriculum. learn from students, thus from perceiving students

233 234–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

as curricula for them as they presume to determine curriculum were organized differently? Does the curricula that are best for students? compartmentalization of school curriculum into sep- arate subjects enhance or obscure any subject’s con- nection to each other? Does emphasis on isolated Contemporary Concerns About knowledge and skills within each separate subject Students as Curriculum detract from their use to solve problems of life encountered by students? Are central ideas, big ques- Teachers ask: “Why aren’t students interested in the tions, forms of inquiry, and modes of expression material we present?” Is it possible that the students carried out in the disciplines of knowledge con- perceive no connections in curriculum that appear sciously made available to students as epistemological relevant to their lives? Should students be expected bases to help them conduct their lives with greater to be receptacles of learning that has no apparent facility? worth to them? Educators of adults often say that Policy makers ask: “How can we ensure teachers their students demand to see relevance, and we con- and students are held accountable for achievement sider younger students to be less mature than adults, aligned to the curriculum? Why do schools and so why should educators expect children and youths teachers achieve less with students than their coun- to become docile recipients of what someone else has terparts in other advanced countries of the world? determined to be of value or worth to them? How can we create a population of students who help Teachers lament: “Students are disruptive or else us compete in the international marketplace? Why just sit there without engaging in the curriculum. are our test scores so low?” Are policy makers Sometimes they try to derail the curriculum by focused on too narrow a set of goals for schools? becoming disruptive or by pushing for digression to Should preparation for the distant future continue to other topics.” Could it be that students have given be the prime rationale for students to remain in and up on finding worthwhile ideas, knowledge, experi- do well in school? Should curriculum help students ences, and skills in schools? Should they be expected see its value in understanding problems they perceive to deem the curriculum worthwhile, or should they as important now, in the present? When the need for accept it and the rationale that someday they will school improvement is emphasized primarily as a use it and realize its relevance? When they push for way to enhance national or corporate competitive- digressions, are they merely seeing if they can ness, what is left out? Should education also help transform boredom into entertainment, accepting students understand and transform themselves cogni- the idea that schooling will not be meaningful? In tively, affectively, socially, ethically, physically, and so pushing, can they become curriculum—the sub- spiritually? Should school curriculum edify, bring ject matter of what is learned from unintended cur- personal meaning, self-direction, and promote public riculum of schooling? When students are of a responsibility? Should it inspire students to strive for different social class, race, ethnicity, or culture from justice, seek higher moral ground, and encourage the teacher, might they assume that the curriculum cultivation of humanity? is an importation from such difference or an imposi- Policy makers demand: “Our lack of competitive- tion that implicitly says that their background is ness in the global marketplace is embarrassing, and inferior, in need of revision, or irrelevant to what is our students’ test scores show it. We need to be more worthwhile? rigorous! If teachers cannot do the job, they should Students wonder: “Why do I have to sit through be given scripts and simply forced to get higher this? I know it is at best a set of hurdles to jump over, scores from their students.” Do test scores portray but why? I can’t wait until the school day is over so student capabilities adequately? Why do students and I can get back to Facebook and Twitter, and listen to teachers increasingly join together in solidarity to the latest music on my smartphone. When I surf oppose testing? Could it be that they suspect that the the net I can follow my interests, and the music, vid- scores do not represent indications about whether eos, and conversations I find there help me build my they learned what is worthwhile? Why do the psy- life and think about what I want to be and do.” Would chometricians and test makers warn against using the students be more interested in school if their tests they designed for evaluating and rating teachers 29. Students as Curriculum–•–235

and students? Do the tests show anything about curi- connection with local schools, a state of affairs that osity, imagination, inventiveness, thoughtfulness, some argue provides curricula that are more auto- kindness, compassion, problem posing, problem cratic than democratic (see Apple & Beane, 2007). If solving, capacity to wonder, reflectivity, or creative students live under autocracy, can they still learn to responses to the problems of life? How would policy participate democratically? makers respond to requiring them to take, say, the Culture, ethnicity, and language are pervasive Graduate Record Examination or, for that matter, the dimensions of life that students bring with them into same tests that high school students are forced to the school and classroom. These powerful aspects of take, and having the results posted in newspapers as human functioning are thus an integral part of the an indicator of whether they were capable at their curriculum. Norma Gonzalez, Luis Moll, and Cathy jobs? If they received low scores, would the policy Amanti (2005) have called these funds of knowledge. makers not criticize the validity of the test to indicate This research shows that students bring, from their what is worthwhile for them? homes and cultures, abilities to mediate and interpret everything that happens in schools, including curricu- lum. Similarly, the health of students, environments Context of Students as Curriculum in which education occurs, treatment of students with respect to ability–disability, and the ecology that sur- Contexts such as economics, politics, culture, lan- rounds and infuses the educative setting all have great guage and ethnicity, health and ability, geography, impact on a student’s response to curriculum. and ecology deeply influence education and the Geography and ecology, for instance, can be related curricula offered by educational institutions. Eco- to forces of nature, or they can contribute to economic nomically and politically we live in a highly global affluence or to devastating poverty and all points environment that some see as “Spaceship Earth”—a between in any school locale. All of this has a massive world that communication, transformation, and infor- impact on how students reflect and somatically mation exchange have made a small community. respond to an imposed curriculum. Others see globalization as maneuvering by the Even those who do not accept the idea that stu- wealthy and powerful to control the world by homog- dents are mature enough to engage in deliberation enizing cultures, languages, and consumption priori- about the kind of curriculum that is best for them ties. Both of these perspectives have some validity. admit that students are the curriculum in the sense However, the ways in which education positions itself that they bring understandings and practices from on a continuum relative to these extreme positions their contexts to the classroom. Some classrooms in have immense implications for curriculum. Students’ urban areas have more than a dozen cultural and lin- in-school curriculum and out-of-school experiences guistic groups represented, and the students interact combine to form a larger curriculum that shapes their so they constitute a curriculum for one another outlooks on the world and their places within it. whether or not it is part of policy-making deliberation Should students be seen as products (noting the com- and official curriculum development. mon factory-oriented phrase “we turn out good stu- dents”) or as creators of who they are and the kind of world in which they want to live? Will nation-states, Theory of Students as Curriculum with their corporate ties, fund education that reflects the interests of the students, their families, and com- How can we understand the complexities in the lives munities, if these interests do not fit their economic of students as they meet the educational experiences and political goals? Educational mission statements schools provide? While the general public, policy are often offered as democratic; however, critics makers, and many educators have long viewed cur- argue that top-down policy mandates are autocratic riculum as the subject matter or content dispensed to and allow little discretionary decision making by students, there exists a legacy of curriculum discourse local educational leaders, teachers, and especially by about the place of students in what they are taught students. Therefore, curriculum is often promoted in and learn (Schultz, 2011) and the experience of living the interest of officials who have little or no direct the curriculum (as explicated in chapters on currere 236–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

in this volume). Controversy over the students’ role in curriculum scholars (including William Bagley, curriculum can be traced to one of the first books on George Counts, Charles Judd, Franklin Bobbitt, curriculum: John Dewey’s (1859–1952) The Child William Kilpatrick, W. W. Charters) led by Harold and the Curriculum (1902). The book is an orienta- Rugg conducted a series of meetings under the tion that Dewey and his wife, Alice Chipman Dewey auspices of the National Society for the Study of (with advice from social worker Jane Addams and Education (NSSE) to identify central concerns of the educational leader Ella Flagg Young), developed at burgeoning curriculum field to prevent it from the University of Chicago Laboratory School, begin- collapsing due to internal discord. In 1927 they pro- ning in 1896. By changing the conjunction and, duced a landmark statement in volume 2 of the NSSE which occurs frequently in the titles of Dewey’s yearbook, Foundations of Curriculum Making. Their books, to the verb is, we see more clearly his meaning major contribution was to make a short summary through rephrased titles such as “the child is the cur- statement about what the diverse curriculum scholars riculum” or the “curriculum is the child.” Dewey’s agreed to be central concerns and to pose questions work was influenced by Frederick Hegel’s (1770– that they all agreed to be necessary, which were 1831) philosophy of integrating opposites of thesis elaborated by Timothy Leonard and Peter Hilton (point of advocacy), antithesis (oppositional point), (2010). Several of the questions directly address the and synthesis (reconciliation between the two), which students’ place in curriculum: “Is the curriculum to becomes a new thesis, and the process continues be made in advance?” (p. 959). This question is again and again. Thus, the curriculum and the child asked primarily due to the progressive concern that if were not considered opposites by Dewey, but rather students and their actively evolving situational inter- can be seen as a synthesis of evolving growth through ests are not involved, it might not meet their needs at increasingly complex interdisciplinary experiences. all. “To what extent is the organization of the subject Dewey’s theory was similarly influenced by Johann matter a matter of pupil-thinking and construction of, Friedrich Herbart (1776–1861) and his American fol- or planning by, the professional curriculum maker as lowers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries a result of experimentation?” (p. 960). Deweyan pro- (Charles DeGarmo, Frank McMurry, and Charles gressives saw this as a dualism necessary to resolve McMurry), who emphasized the importance of an by integrating both student and educator expertise in apperceptive mass or repertoire of experience within the continuous reorganization and reconstruction of the learner that must be built upon if new curricula curriculum. “What, if any, use should be made of the are to be viewed as valuable and thus embodied by spontaneous interests of children?” Spontaneity of students. Recently, Dewey’s theory has been related to children is often seen as digression that should be the long- suppressed ideas of Lev Vygotsky (1896– terminated; however, many progressive educators 1934), including his zone of proximal development, saw the emergent interests of children as educative holding that a student must reach a point of almost about the natural process of education. In fact, understanding something or having a kind of connec- Dewey started the Laboratory School as a place tive tissue to enable the emersion of a new under- where educators, philosophers, psychologists, and standing. Building on Dewey’s work, progressive others could learn about education from observing educators have argued that students already affect and interacting with children who pursued their inter- curriculum through their experiential repertoire and, ests. Thus, the salience of the child IS the curriculum thus, should have a voice in curriculum making by is central here. This perspective may be found earlier actively and democratically helping educators decide in the commentary of Francis W. Parker (1837–1902), what they learn and how. who advocated curriculum and methods as existing During the 1920s many progressive educators, within the child instead of within a branch of often women, put variations of Dewey’s theory into knowledge. practice throughout the United States and in other Theories of many other scholars, often not rec- parts of the world. Great debate between progressives ognized as paramount among curriculum scholars, and traditionalists ensued with diverse camps in complemented progressive theoretical positions. For each. During the 1920s a virtual all-star team of instance, the Waldorf school movement derived from 29. Students as Curriculum–•–237

theories of Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) draws many International emphases on the student as curricu- parallels between experience in life and art— lum are prevalent and are noted here due to their emphasizing spirituality, community, and personal significant influence in the Unites States. In 1921, transformation with students at the center of the pro- A. S. Neill developed Summerhill School in England cess. Maria Montessori (1870–1952) developed on the premise that schooling should be fit to the theories and methods about the need to engage learn- child rather than manipulating the child to fit the cur- ers in meaningful experiences that addressed their riculum. Neill (1960) conveyed his work with stu- spontaneity and imagination. Women progressive dents as in Summerhill, a now classic book that educators who were too often neglected by male pro- delineated theory and practice of curriculum in ponents of progressive education often moved with which all experiences grew from the students’ inter- great facility to recognize, build upon, and learn ests, needs, and relationships. After mid-century in from the learner’s natural inclination, as epitomized Brazil, Paulo Freire (1970) developed a philosophi- in the title of a key book by Caroline Pratt (1948), cal, political, and practical position or praxis on the titled I Learn From Children. Theories of L. Thomas pedagogy of oppressed persons couched in critical Hopkins (1954), progressive educator of early and Marxist and post-Marxist theory and the radical psy- mid-20th century, were based on his own teaching, choanalysis of Erich Fromm, and especially from curriculum leadership, and guiding the Laboratory Freire’s own work on literacy with Brazilian peas- School at Teachers College, Columbia University, ants. Freire decried the dominant banking pedagogy and are significantly based on analogies from embry- of many educational institutions wherein knowledge ological theory—holding that learning, like growing is assumed to be a product deposited like currency in cells, moves from expansion to differentiation, to the heads of students, countering it with a problem- integration—and thus provided a rationale for inte- posing pedagogy that sought literacy by having stu- grated, democratic, emergent curriculum developed dents name and read their worlds. Freire often in relationship with the evolving lived experiences of constructed pedagogical relationships through the children. A great deal of the emphasis on the primacy use of artifacts from the lives of the peasants with of the child or student as curriculum traces back to whom he worked or from photographs of their con- the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712– texts. This evoked telling of stories about oppression, 1778) and his depictions of what can be learned from hardship, and loving relationships that they wanted to children in nature that is later distorted and destroyed relate to wider audiences; thus, students became lit- by impositions of adult society. erate in order to share their knowledge and experi- Building upon experiential understandings of stu- ence. In sharing, they were the curriculum. During dents, the civil rights movement of the 1950s and the highly popular counterculture of the 1960s in the 1960s developed curriculum theory for Freedom United States, books written by teachers about their Schools that grew out of the African American resis- experiences in the classroom, including those by tance to dire effects of slavery and Jim Crow laws George Dennison, John Holt, James Herndon, particularly in the American South. Directly relating Herb Kohl, and Jonathan Kozol, portrayed students to the plight of African Americans in the United as insightful participants in curriculum development States, Septima Clark, Charles Cobb, and many by telling stories about how classroom curricula others developed a Freedom School curriculum derived from the students’ own questions and imagi- based on questions (see SNCC, p. 224) from the nations. Adding complexity, Joseph Schwab (1970) lived experience of extreme racial prejudice, epito- saw curriculum as students and much more. Schwab mized in: “Why are the changes of gospel songs into argued that curriculum was an interplay among stu- Freedom Songs significant? What does ‘We Shall dents, teachers, subject matter, and milieu or contex- Overcome’ really mean in terms of what we are tual forces that had to be continuously monitored and doing, and what we can do? Why do we have no stu- rebalanced. dent government, or why does the administration not A wide array of theories, which deal with race, take student government seriously? Why are we not gender, class, sexual orientations, language, culture, taken seriously?” identity, and place such as multiculturalism, critical 238–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

race theory (Lynn & Dixson, 2013), critical geogra- about how policy makers relate to educational phy, and decolonization, focuses on social justice and research. culturally responsive curriculum for, by, and with students. For instance, Gonzalez et al. (2005) call for Modes of Expression About building curriculum on funds of knowledge that stu- Students as Curriculum dents bring to school from homes, neighborhoods, and cultures. This is an antidote to the subtractive Key modes of expression or representation of stu- schooling that Angela Valenzuela (1999) criticized, dents as curriculum are illustrated by the fifth namely, school practices that strip away the cultures volume of the Eight-Year Study, which consists of of students of color and homogenize them into White, stories from educators in the 30 participating schools. middle-class society. The society itself was seen Other stories by many progressive educators docu- as subtractive by Lesley Bartlett and Ofelia Garcia ment students as curriculum from the 1920s to the (2012), and building upon funds of knowledge can 1940s as illustrated by Pratt (1948). Aforementioned help school to be additive, thus providing culturally books by Neill on Summerhill and Freire on peda- relevant pedagogy (Ladson- Billings, 2009) and cul- gogical praxis are replete with stories of students as turally responsive teaching (Gay, 2010) by taking curriculum. Among the few books on education that seriously students’ lived experience, all of which have reached best-seller status are those by the coun- enables greater awareness of how to teach other terculture teachers in the 1960s; prime examples can people’s children (Delpit, 1995). be found in the works of Holt, Kohl, Kozol, and Dennison. The foregoing modes of representation influenced Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression narrative inquiry (e.g., Clandinin & Connelly, 2000), Forms of Inquiry About one of today’s most prominent forms of representa- Students as Curriculum tion used to portray teachers and students as partici- pants in curriculum. Related modes of expression are Multiple forms of inquiry have been used to found in teacher and student lore (Schubert & Ayers, study students as curriculum, many of which are 1992), phenomenological inquiry (van Manen, 1990) implicit in the theoretical positions noted above. and arts-based research (Barone & Eisner, 2012). Philosophical inquiry is represented in the work of Exemplary work that extends eclectic blends of such Rousseau, Herbart, Steiner, Dewey, Montessori, modes of expressing students as curriculum include Hopkins, Freire, and Schwab, while historical work the following: William Ayers’s Teaching Toward is present in the writings of Lawrence Cremin, who Freedom (Ayers, 2004); Michael Apple and James chronicled the pervasiveness of progressive educa- Beane’s (2007) portrayals of teachers who engage tion. The Eight-Year Study (1933–1941) was largely students democratically in the creation of curriculum; an empirical inquiry (both quantitative and qualita- Chris Carger’s (2009) novelistic longitudinal saga of tive) that heralded teacher and student collaborative the struggles of a Latino from childhood to adulthood experimentation; it was published in five volumes in search of education in urban America; and Ming and more recently elaborated on by Craig Kridel and Fang He’s (2003) transnational and counternational Robert Bullough (2007). A central part of the study portrayal of the curriculum of student experience in consisted of the longitudinal comparison of students between cultures and in exile (He, 2010). Examples schooled traditionally with a comparison group who of first-person teacher narratives include Greg were educated progressively. When the groups were Michie’s (2009) characterization of students as cur- compared on multiple indicators as they attended riculum for each other, including himself as teacher; traditional colleges and universities, it was revealed and Brian Schultz’s (2008) story as a teacher who that the progressive students achieved more favorably argued that part of his role was to challenge a group and fared much better than those who experienced of students attending a school serving a housing proj- traditional curriculum in most social, emotional, ect community with the responsibility to ask what is and cognitive indicators. That this study had little worthwhile for their lives. In these accounts, seeing impact on educational policy raises major questions students as curriculum in such ways invigorated the 29. Students as Curriculum–•–239

curriculum by integrating subject matters; using mul- prepare them for democratic living? Drawing upon tiple media in the classroom; inviting outsiders into Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address wherein he the classroom as participants, experts, and advisors; admonished the public to realize that democracy and engaging the local community and larger society requires government of, by, and for the people, the in the interest of education and social justice. educational corollary would be curriculum that can be authentically for students only if it is of and by them (Schubert & Lopez Schubert, 1981). Thus, Conclusion: Need for students as curriculum is a concept that makes Continuous Questioning curriculum a process of continuous growth of students with teachers, subject matter, and milieu, How can educational policy makers, curriculum rather than a commodity of knowledge or skills leaders, teachers, and others concerned with educa- merely to be received by students. As Dewey argued, tion encourage an ethos of listening to and learning it can lead to a society that is less acquisitive and from students (Schultz, 2011)? Can curriculum that more fully built upon humane relationships that does not recognize the insightfulness of students move toward greater justice (Schubert, 2009).

References and Further Readings Handbook of public pedagogy: Education and learning beyond schooling (pp. 469–482). New York, Apple, M. W., & Beane, J. A. (Eds.). (2007). Democratic NY: Routledge. schools (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hopkins, L. T. (1954). The emerging self in school and Ayers, W. (2004). Teaching toward freedom. Boston, MA: home. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Beacon. Kridel, C., & Bullough, R. V., Jr. (2007). Stories of the Barone, T. E., & Eisner, E. W. (2012). Arts based eight-year study: Reexamining secondary education research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. in America. Albany, NY: State University of New Bartlett, L., & Garcia, O. (2012). Additive schooling in York Press. subtractive times. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: University Press. Successful teachers of African American children. Carger, C. L. (2009). Dreams deferred: Dropping out and San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. struggling forward. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Leonard, T., & Hilton, P. M. (2010). Fundamental Publishing. curriculum questions. In C. Kridel (Ed.), Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative Encyclopedia of curriculum studies (pp. 953–970). inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lynn, M., & Dixson, A. D. (2013). Handbook of critical Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural race theory in education. New York, NY: Routledge. conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: The Michie, G. (2009). Holler if you hear me: The education New Press. of a teacher and his students (2nd ed.). New York, Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago, NY: Teachers College Press. IL: University of Chicago Press. Neill, A. S. (1960). Summerhill: A radical approach to Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, child rearing. New York, NY: Hart. NY: Continuum. Pratt, C. (1948). I learn from children. New York, NY: Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching. Harper & Row. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: Gonzalez, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: knowledge. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Information Age Publishing. He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross- Schubert, W. H., & Ayers, W. C. (Eds.). (1992). Teacher cultural lives and identities in the multicultural lore: Learning from our own experience. White landscape. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Plains, NY: Longman. Publishing. Schubert, W. H., & Lopez Schubert, A. L. (1981). Toward He, M. F. (2010). Exile pedagogy: Teaching in-between. curricula that are of, by, and therefore for students. In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & J. Burdick (Eds.), Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 3(1), 239–251. 240–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Schultz, B. D. (2008). Spectacular things happen along Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). the way: Lessons from an urban classroom. (1982). Student Nonviolent Coordinating New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Committee papers, 1959–1972. Sanford, NC: Schultz, B. D. (Ed.). (2011). Listening to and learning Microfilming Corporation of America. from students. Charlotte, NC: Information Age (Reel 68, File 364) Publishing. Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling. Albany, Schwab, J. J. (1970). The practical: A language for NY: State University of New York Press. curriculum. Washington, DC: National Educational van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience. Association. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 30

STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES AS CURRICULUM

KRISTIEN ZENKOV George Mason University

CHRISTINE DEGREGORY George Mason University

One thing that makes me unsuccessful is my mom. She is always mad with my brother and that makes me get mad, too. She thinks my brother is a gangster but he is not. She always tells him, “Luis, don’t talk to those guys. . . .” She always asks me if Luis is involved with gangsters. . . . I know my brother and he is good. . . . I always spend time worrying and looking out for him. When my mom asks me questions, I cannot concentrate on my homework. In class, I am thinking about my brother and who he talks to. One thing that makes me unsuccessful is my mom because she thinks my brother is a gangster.

—Fernando

ernando was an eighth grader in one of the lan- almost entirely unmotivated to participate in his daily guage arts classes where we recently imple- school activities. Fmented our visual sociology project, called the Only when Zenkov and this team of educators— Through Students’ Eyes (TSE). The project— veteran and pre-service teacher educators and co-founded by Kristien Zenkov, the lead author of teachers—treated Fernando as an authority on his this chapter, and Jim Harmon, a veteran classroom own schooling experiences, trusted him as a teacher—is a collaborative venture with university researcher with valid perspectives on these experi- scholars and classroom teachers. Over the past decade ences and the curricula he was encountering, and we have used visual sociology or “photovoice” meth- asked him to take photographs that depicted what in ods to ask hundreds of diverse middle and high school his life impacted his success in school did he show youth to share their perspectives on school via images any interest in engaging with these activities and and accompanying writings. Fernando had recently materials. Eventually he described and illustrated moved from El Salvador with his family to an exurban how the assumptions teachers and even his family community outside Washington, D.C., where he was members made about his academic abilities had a student in one of these teacher’s classes. Classi- resulted in what previous teachers had concluded fied as a “high- beginning” level-two English speaker was an impenetrable indifference to school. Just as of other languages (ESOL) student, he appeared to be Fernando’s image and reflection elucidate the

241 242–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

guiding “ask first” notion of curriculum this chapter scholars and curriculum reform events of the 20th examines, they also illuminate an orientation that century. Historically a primary purpose of public considers students’ experiences as curriculum. schooling in the United States has been to assimilate Two central questions that have historically guided diverse immigrants who entered the country during critical explorations of curriculum are “What or the Industrial Revolution into a new “American” cul- whose knowledge is most important?” and “Who ture. Of course, schools’ purposes were never this benefits from the curriculum that is ultimately propa- singular or free from debate. Throughout the gated and shared in schools?” The very idea of 20th century a series of cultural, social, and historical considering students’ experiences as curriculum events pulled the curriculum in many directions, necessitates not only that these core questions remain often pitting economic productivity objectives, cri- alive and operational but that they also become tiques of social predestination, and the development inquiries that orient the ongoing, everyday revision of social change agency against each other (Kliebard, to any curriculum. Recognizing students’ experiences 1998), with curriculum theorist Lester Frank Ward as curriculum means that all participants in the edu- famously asserting that an equitable distribution of cational process must appreciate, live, and work with knowledge could mitigate social class distinctions the belief that curriculum is and should be under (Iannelli, 2013; Kliebard, 1998). constant revision. John Dewey’s thought is foundational to notions It also compels a dramatic transfer of power in the of students’ experiences as curriculum. Dewey con- who, how, and where of curriculum development ceived of curriculum as inherently integrated and efforts. To appreciate students’ experiences as cur- child-centered. Early in the 20th century, he argued riculum, students and teachers become the primary that the school curriculum not only should encompass inventors of curricular experiences. Their lives and students’ experiences and identities outside of school perspectives—inside and outside of school—become but should also involve teachers and students in con- the key subject matter of these curricula. This notion necting and cultivating these experiences to curricu- is novel in curriculum studies because it assumes that lum inside school (Dewey, 1915/1956). Dewey students’ experiences are and should be the key con- highlighted the intimate theoretical and practical tent of any curriculum. Moreover, it holds that any relationship between curricula and pedagogy. He curriculum is simultaneously about how we explore saw curriculum as alive, as a means to engage stu- students’ experiences and about what young people dents in active learning, and he assumed that stu- detail and divulge regarding their experiences. dents and teachers would share responsibility and ownership for teaching and learning. Underlying these Deweyan ideas and ideals was a belief that the Theory and History of Students’ world of school and the domains outside of school Experiences as Curriculum were intimately connected and should reflect one another. The notion that students’ experiences should be core Curriculum historian Herbert Kliebard (1998) elements in any curriculum relies on the principles described three dominant frameworks that guided of critical pedagogy, which support institutional con- curriculum development at the beginning of the ditions and societal structures that facilitate student 20th century: scientific, developmental, and child- empowerment (Kincheloe, 2004). Considering stu- centered. The scientific emphasized social efficiency, dents’ experiences—in and out of school—as cur- was associated with Franklin Bobbitt, and viewed riculum is rooted in democratic principles. These curriculum as “geared directly to the activities one principles assume that a central purpose of schools is needed to perform in one’s adult life” and to be pre- to prepare an educated and politically engaged citi- pared for the workforce (p. 27). The developmental zenry, even as the democratic citizenship objective position, whose primary proponent was G. Stanley remains a key component in intense debates over Hall, was built on culture-epochs theory and held curriculum (Beyer, 1998). that the development of the human race paralleled It is important to contextualize the notion of stu- that of the individual and that these equivalencies dents’ experiences as curriculum in the work of key should be primary in the selection and application of 30. Students’ Experiences as Curriculum–•–243

any curricula. Countering both of these theories was experiences as curriculum is not new. Moreover, the the child-centered theory of William Kilpatrick, concept of CRP provides a modern foundation for which is especially relevant to the concept of students’ considering students’ experiences as curriculum. Yet, experiences as curriculum (Kliebard, 1998). numerous other trends and pressures push against The social reconstructionist movement provides this idea, such as standardization of curricular objec- another theory that supports students’ experiences as tives (as promoted by the Common Core State Stan- curriculum insofar as it advocated democratic means dards—CCSS) and the use of scripted curriculum and ends that focused on the social good (Kliebard, and high-stakes tests as primary measures of student 1998). Yet, following World War II and again after achievement (Jenken, 2011). In this oppressive cli- the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik, curricular mate, support for integrating students’ experiences attention shifted back toward social efficiency, into the curriculum can be found in grassroots emphasizing math and science curricula to offset efforts focused on developing the often-tenuous rela- perceptions that the United States had failed to main- tionships of diverse youth and families to schools. tain its economic and educational superiority Given these fragile connections it is more important (Kliebard, 1986). Contemporary tensions in public than ever that teachers, theorists, and policy makers and policy debates reveal even more dire conse- consider students’ experiences as curriculum if quences for children, youth, and teachers, with state schools are to be the core of participatory and corporate emphases on a globalized competitive democracy. ethos as the basis for education. The CCSS represents the most recent attempt to Perhaps the most significant and most recent provide uniformity to the highly varied and often curricular framework that advocates for a students’ unequal curricular expectations and content in U.S. experiences as curriculum orientation is culturally schools. With their focus on college and career readi- relevant pedagogy (CRP; Ladson-Billings, 1994). ness, such guidelines intend to prepare students for CRP recognizes culture as a core element of student educational and economic opportunities in a global experience, assumes that pedagogy cannot be politi- context. As of January 2015, 43 states, the District of cally or culturally neutral, and calls on educators to Columbia, four territories, and the Department of help students challenge the current social order. Defense Education Activity have adopted the stan- While CRP has been mindful of the cultural dimen- dards (National Governors Association Center for sions affecting student learning (Esposito & Swain, Best Practices & Council of Chief State School 2009), it also addresses cultural mismatches between Officers, n.d.). Yet those who mandate CCSS only various components of students’ lives and schools in tacitly acknowledge the inequitable expectations they an effort to facilitate students’ academic success place on diverse students and their teachers (Cole- while building teachers’ cultural competence through man & Goldenberg, 2012), because they continue to culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2010) and cul- demand that schools, teachers, and students perform turally relevant political education (Journell & Castro, in highly prescribed and uniform ways. Even a cur- 2011). CRP acknowledges that many students need sory examination of the CCSS content, development, assistance developing critical counternarratives about and implementation reveals that they disregard the their cultures, their academic abilities, and the rela- realities that a students’ experiences as curriculum tionships between these and their school experience orientation considers. (May & Sleeter, 2010). Such counternarratives illu- Numerous scholars have documented the prolif- minate how students’ cultural experiences can be part eration of scripted, basic skills programs in U.S. of the curriculum and its content. schools, particularly in reading and math, since the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Dudley-Marling, 2014). Such programs are Why “Students’ Experiences attractive to policy makers and the general public as Curriculum” Now? because they are presumed to be efficient and effec- tive, implemented without expensive teacher train- Despite the lack of emphasis on it today, curricular ing, and counted as “research-based” in large part history clearly reveals that the concept of students’ because they often rely on reductionist quantitative 244–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM measures of student achievement. However, this Forms of Inquiry and Modes approach to curriculum reform weakens the notion of Expression: Examples that teaching is a complex activity by reducing it to a scripted technical task. Curriculum as created by In an effort to understand diverse youths’ perspec- distant developers not only deprives children and tives on school, to engage them in meaningful school youth of the high-quality teaching support they need activities, and to consider their experiences as cur- but also makes curriculum less relevant to students’ riculum, Lois Easton and Daniel Condon (2009) cultures and experiences (Dudley-Marling, 2014). have explored students’ points of view on educational These trends toward the standardization of learn- institutions. These inquiries rely on the principle that ing objectives, curricula, and teachers’ pedagogies undergirds all work oriented around a students’ expe- conflict with the changing realities of student popu- riences as curriculum approach: that youths can be lations. The rapid demographic increases in ESOL participants in their own learning and distinguish populations already evident in many educational ways that can help them navigate their academic settings will affect virtually every U.S. teacher in experience. Many such inquiries are also grounded the future (Cruz & Thornton, 2013). School and its in youth participatory action research (YPAR) meth- foundational language simply do not mean to these ods. YPAR is a recognized form of experimental youth and their families what they do to many of research conducted within a participatory commu- their teachers, the vast majority of whom are nity with the goal of addressing an area of concern White, native English speakers (Sleeter, 2008). One and identifying actions that can improve the quality, piece of evidence of this shift in communities’ rela- quantity, and equity of outcomes (Kemmis & tionships to school is the fact that the 2009 high McTaggart, 2000). YPAR often focuses on “critical school dropout rate was 31% for Hispanic 16- youth engagement,” helping young people— through 24-year-olds born outside the United especially those from economically disadvantaged States, compared to the rate of 8% for 16- through and immigrant communities—to understand and 24-year-olds as a whole (Chapman, Laird, Ifill, & address conditions of structural injustice. YPAR also KewalRamani, 2011). (For at least some of these enables educators and students to understand that students, a better term would be the “pushout” rate curriculum developers have historically considered because of the school-related factors that cause youths’ experiences as valuable content (Biddulph, students to leave.) 2011; Zeller-Berkman, 2007). Ultimately, schools are attempting to serve stu- An important assumption behind current notions dents who have an extensive range of capacities or of students’ experiences as curriculum is the idea that literacies in their native languages, cultures, and curriculum is understood both as pedagogy and as relationships to school. Thus, while curriculum theo- content. When a curriculum is pedagogy, the very rists have long argued for child-centered, socially development of objectives and materials becomes the oriented, and culturally relevant curriculum, it is focus of learning; that is, curricular content is the clear that the concept of considering students’ experi- process of generating these goals, texts, information, ences as curriculum is more urgently needed now and resources, with students intimately involved in than ever before. Research consistently illustrates every step of their development. In this instance, how students who actively—rather than passively— students’ experiences in creating these materials experience the curriculum and who see themselves in become the curriculum itself. Strongly related to the the curriculum enter into important, committed rela- idea of students’ experiences as curriculum is the tionships to their own learning, to school, and to practice of considering students’ out-of-school cir- civic institutions. They value their own funds of cumstances, histories, and interests as key elements knowledge (Gonzales, Moll, & Amanti, 2005), appre- of the curriculum (Schubert, 2010). ciate connections between themselves and their peers Multiple examples of a “students’ experience as and the wider world, and develop an ownership of curriculum” orientation exist in literature on teaching their learning that carries over into other domains of and educational research. The three illustrations below their lives. highlight the notion that curriculum can be understood 30. Students’ Experiences as Curriculum–•–245

as both pedagogy and content. These examples inte- and skills they needed as they completed the activi- grate dimensions of diverse forms of inquiry ties they selected for their themes of inquiry. They (e.g., historical, philosophical, narrative, arts-based, also reported that students already knew about a wide critical ethnography, oral history, and phenomenol- range of topics and naturally bridged subjects or even ogy) and modes of representation (e.g., story, essay, dissolved traditional subject lines. critical interpretation, vignette, conversation, and It is evident that these experiences helped students student commentary). to become aware of, articulate, and even make their relationships with the world core elements of the cur- The Living in the Future Project riculum. As an illustration, the students created the Madison 2020 Project, which enabled them to Barbara Brodhagen, Gary Weilbacher, and James research different aspects of city planning and culmi- Beane (1998) provide an example of students’ expe- nated with inviting the local city planner to listen to riences as curriculum that is grounded in embracing the students’ recommendations about future urban students’ questions and concerns; it is founded upon plans. Other activities involved survey development their belief that if “curriculum is to support a genuine and analysis (integrating writing and math), taking search for self and social meaning, then it ought to be predictions from a 1900 magazine article and drawn from concerns young people have about researching the modern-day outcomes (integrating, themselves and their world” (p. 118). Their approach history, writing, reading, and public speaking), and to curriculum integration does much more than blur even considering what students might look like in the traditional subject matter lines. It calls on teachers to future, eventually ending in a futuristic sketch of make a mindful, deliberate pedagogical choice to each student (integrating the arts). allow students’ opinions and voices to lead all aspects of the curriculum. They admit that this The TSE Project process is neither quick nor easy, for it challenges the traditional ways in which teachers select and present The TSE project we have been involved with curriculum. Teachers become facilitators while similarly relies on the assumption that children and students generate topics of study through self- young people can inform the content of the curricu- questioning and group discussions; students also lum and even serve as experts on these objectives and select activities to explore skills and knowledge materials (Zenkov & Harmon, 2009). As an example necessary for study. of a pedagogy as curriculum approach that enacts This curriculum as pedagogy illustrates key prin- students’ experiences as curriculum, TSE activities ciples of students’ experiences as curriculum noted rely on nonstandard school media—including visual earlier. It is a process in which adult perceptions are and technology-focused tools and texts—as the not the lens of authenticity, nor are adult-expressed means through which youth document and share opinions allowed to become deterministic or a self- their experiences. These media have been particu- fulfilling prophecy for a student. In every sense it is larly effective bases for pedagogies that engage student-centered. Brodhagen and her colleagues diverse young people in literacy and school activities (1998) reported how this approach has allowed stu- and reveal their perspectives on school and its goals, dents to become active participants, learn how to structures, and content (Gold, 2004). Research has collaborate, experience validation, embrace owner- documented how image-based tools motivate stu- ship, and share in knowledge construction. This dents to develop an awareness of and to share per- teacher/researcher team has used Beane’s curriculum sonal insights related to their school experiences design theory, which assumes that curriculum should (Smyth, 2007; Zenkov & Harmon, 2009). be “organized around themes found at the intersec- TSE has been used with several hundred young, tion of self/personal concerns of young people and diverse, mostly urban, and frequently English lan- issues affecting the ‘common good’ in the larger guage learning people in a range of U.S. and interna- world” (Brodhagen et al., 1998, p. 118). These schol- tional settings. The project calls on youths to use ars reported that students developed the knowledge digital photographs and related reflections to consider, 246–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

illustrate, and describe the purposes of school, sup- such projects can be found in What Kids Can Do ports for their school achievement, and obstacles to (WKCD), a national nonprofit founded in 2001 by an their success. The majority of TSE students are chil- educator and a journalist who were committed to dren of high school dropouts or come from families supporting adolescent learning in and out of school. where school has not been a trusted institution. Gener- Like all examples of students’ experiences as cur- ally the project is conducted weekly or every other riculum, WKCD recognizes the power of what young week for 2 to 4 months in a language arts class, after people can achieve when given the opportunities school, or on Saturdays. Each participant takes an and supports they need to be engaged in creating average of 100 images in response to project questions curricula. Such approaches formally acknowledge via “photo walks” around his or her school and neigh- what youth can contribute to their own and others’ borhood. Following a writing elicitation process and education when teachers, administrators, policy conference, each young person typically writes about makers, and community adults take students’ voices a minimum of three images that provide insights into and ideas seriously. WKCD engages the youth in his or her relationship with school. We as the project most need of recognition—diverse young people co-directors and numerous other teachers involved in who are marginalized by schools and society—as the TSE analyzed the more than 3,000 image/writing collaborators and leaders in curriculum development combinations that participants have produced from efforts. WKCD is unique in that it operates its own the more than 20 versions of the project, tracking and publishing company, Next Generation Press, which coding prevalent visual and descriptive themes in develops and distributes materials with youth voices these adolescents’ visual and written data. at their core. Two books by WKCD co-founder While these themes provide insights into young Kathleen Cushman—Fires in the Bathroom: Advice adults’ answers to the project questions—which for Teachers From High School Students (2003) and might ultimately inform schools’ curricula and offer Fires in the Mind: What Kids Can Tell Us About content that honors students’ experience as curricu- Motivation and Mastery (2010)—are widely used in lum—this project primarily operates as a pedagogi- schools. WKCD also operates a virtual center for cal intervention and writing curriculum. Through the showcasing youth as researchers and activists—the years of implementing this project with hundreds of Center for Youth Voice in Policy and Practice. youth in the United States and four countries, the WKCD not only honors young people’s perspec- project curriculum—a pedagogy as curriculum—has tives and explicitly shares these via its materials but revealed how the very act of asking youth about their also often challenges less student-centered curricular school experiences via these multimodal methods is traditions. A primary example is the book SAT Bronx an example of students’ experiences as curriculum. (available online), in which the students of Bronx Pedagogical insights include the importance of High School share many of the specifics of their life including “get to know you” activities with diverse realities in the unique form of a standardized test. youth; intentionally building one-to-one relation- They challenge readers to appreciate the vocabulary, ships with students; introducing often risky but per- anecdotes, and statistics of their daily experiences— sonally meaningful activities in the early stages of simultaneously teaching audiences about their worlds any curriculum or course; and engaging in discussion and highlighting the cultural bias in most standardized and image-based composition processes—rather examinations. This example constructs curriculum than typing or hand-scribing—with students as from the cultures, languages, and behaviors of urban a foundational component of a writing curriculum. youth by co-opting the curricula and assessments of U.S. schools and transforming these into practices that The What Kids Can Do Project recognize students’ experiences as curriculum. Relative to the illustrations of students’ experi- ences as curriculum discussed above, it is clear that Conclusion the content of youth’s lives can be the focus of stu- dent learning, integrated as the materials and texts In the early years of the 21st century, there is ample encountered in the classroom. A third example of evidence that schools and their curricula are often 30. Students’ Experiences as Curriculum–•–247

perceived as—and frequently actually are—less and curriculum development as reflexive processes uti- less relevant to increasingly diverse student popula- lizing media with which children and young people tions. Numerous educators, scholars, community are already proficient. Multimodal, technology- members, and activists are engaged in educational focused, and non–language-based tools and methods reforms, pedagogical interventions, and curriculum incorporate untraditional explorations of youths’ development projects that are making students’ perspectives while resulting in habits of thinking, experiences central elements of school curricula. As reading, writing, and speaking that go beyond surface detailed in this chapter, these efforts can be classified meanings to understand sociological phenomena as those that recognize both pedagogies as curricu- (Bell, 2008; Fobes & Kaufman, 2008). These tools lum and content as curriculum, along with hybrid do not rely on understanding nuances of the English activities. The questions of “What or whose knowl- language or the school’s culture and can be used edge is most important?” and “Who benefits from the to develop media that may be more universally curriculum that is ultimately propagated and shared understood. in schools?” must continue to guide critical explora- The core of a students’ experiences as curriculum tions of curriculum if schools, their pedagogies, and orientation is the almost counterintuitive practice of their curricula are to serve all students and our asking students—rather than telling them—about nation’s democratic goals. the nature of school, curricula, and teaching prac- It is critically important for the increasingly tices. By assuming that they should consider these diverse students in U.S. schools to engage in school natures, educators make the very different and posi- and achieve at high levels. The primary impediment tive conjecture that they can do so. A students’ expe- to these youths’ school success may be the fact that riences as curriculum approach is also rooted in the school and its traditions and curricula are part of a principle that educators must never assume that a culture they do not yet understand. And too often student’s failure to engage with curriculum or to teachers and others in school do not appreciate the complete a school task is evidence that he or she is deeply rooted origin of young adults’ frustrations. not interested in or incapable of learning the material A central assumption behind students’ experiences as or of completing work. Young adults and children are curriculum lies in curricula and pedagogies con- calling on and challenging educators to be extraordi- structed upon listening to and learning from stu- narily resilient in the face of their rejections of dents’ ideas about school, their places in it, and the school and its curricula. Similarly, educators who subject matter they study (Schultz, 2011). adhere to the idea of students’ experiences as cur- Ultimately, appreciating students’ experiences as riculum need to be resilient as they engage students curriculum requires that educators, community in the work of making students’ experiences central members, and policy makers view curriculum and to the curriculum.

References and Further Readings Brodhagen, B., Weilbacher, G., & Beane, J. A. (1998). What we’ve learned from “living in the future.” Bell, S. E. (2008). Photovoice as a strategy for In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), The community organizing in the central Appalachian curriculum: Problems, politics, and possibilities coalfields. Journal of Appalachian Studies, 14(1–2), (pp. 117–133). Albany, NY: State University of 34–48. New York Press. Beyer, L. E. (1998). Schooling for democracy: What Chapman, C., Laird, J., Ifill, N., & KewalRamani, A. kind? In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), The (2011). Trends in high school dropout and curriculum: Problems, politics, and possibilities completion rates in the United States: 1972–2009 (pp. 245–263). Albany, NY: State University of (NCES 2012-006, U.S. Department of Education). New York Press. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Biddulph, M. (2011). Articulating student voice Statistics. and facilitating curriculum agency. Curriculum Coleman, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2012). The common Journal, 22(3), 381–399. doi:10.1080/09585176.201 core challenge for ELLs. Principal Leadership, 1.601669 12(5), 46–51. 248–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Cruz, B. C., & Thornton, S. J. (2013). Teaching social (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., studies to English language learners (2nd ed.). pp. 567–605). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. New York, NY: Routledge. Kincheloe, J. L. (2004). Critical pedagogy primer. Cushman, K. (2003). Fires in the bathroom: Advice for New York, NY: Peter Lang. teachers from high school students. New York, NY: Kliebard, H. (1986). The struggle for the American The New Press. curriculum. Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Cushman, K. (2010). Fires in the mind: What kids can Kliebard, H. (1998). The modern American curriculum. tell us about motivation and mastery. San Francisco, In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), The CA: Jossey-Bass. curriculum: Problems, politics, and possibilities Dewey, J. (1902 and 1915/1956). The child and the (pp. 21–33). Albany, NY: State University of curriculum and the school and society. Chicago, IL: New York Press. University of Chicago Press. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers. Dudley-Marling, C. (2014). Direct instruction: Effectively San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. teaching low-level skills. In P. C. Gorski & May, S., & Sleeter, C. E. (2010). Critical K. Zenkov (Eds.), The big lies of school reform: multiculturalism: Theory and praxis. New York, NY: Finding better solutions for the future of public Routledge. education (pp. 43–52). New York, NY: Routledge. National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). Easton, L., & Condon, D. (2009). A school-wide model The condition of education: 2009. Washington, DC: for student voice in curriculum development and National Center for Education Statistics/Institute of teacher preparation. In A. Cook-Sather (Ed.), Education Sciences. Learning from the student’s perspective: A secondary National Governors Association Center for Best methods sourcebook for effective teaching. Boulder, Practices, & Council of Chief State School Officers. CO: Paradigm Press. (n.d.). Standards in your state. Retrieved from http:// Esposito, J., & Swain, A. N. (2009). Pathways to social www.corestandards.org/in-the-states justice: Urban teachers’ use of culturally relevant Schubert, W. H. (2010). Outside curriculum and public pedagogy as a conduit for teaching social justice. pedagogy. In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & Perspectives on Urban Education, 6(1), 38–48. J. Burdick (Eds.), Handbook of public pedagogy: Fobes, C., & Kaufman, P. (2008). Critical pedagogy in Education and learning beyond schooling the sociology classroom: Challenges and concerns. (pp. 10–19). New York, NY: Routledge. Teaching Sociology, 36(1), 26–33. doi:10.1177/ Schultz, B. D. (Ed.). (2011). Listening to and learning 0092055X0803600104 from students. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, Publishing. research, and practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Sleeter, C. E. (2008). Preparing White teachers for Teachers College Press. diverse students. In M. Cochran-Smith, Gold, S. J. (2004). Using photography in studies of S. Feiman-Nemser, & D. J. McIntyre (Eds.), immigrant communities. American Behavioral Handbook of research on teacher education: Scientist, 47(12), 1551–1572. doi:10.1177/ Enduring questions in changing contexts (3rd ed., 0002764204266237 pp. 559–582). New York, NY: Routledge. Gonzales, N. E., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2005). Smyth, J. (2007). Toward the pedagogically engaged Funds of knowledge. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence school: Listening to student voice as a positive Erlbaum. response to disengagement and “dropping out”? Iannelli, C. (2013). The role of the school curriculum in In D. Thiessen & A. Cook-Sather (Eds.), social mobility. British Journal of Sociology of International handbook of student experience in Education, 34(5–6), 907–928. elementary and secondary school (pp. 635–658). Jenken, C. H. (2011). Common Core State Standards: An Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. example of data-less decision making. AASA Journal Zeller-Berkman, S. (2007). Peering in: A look into of Scholarship & Practice, 7(4), 3–18. reflective practices in youth participatory action Journell, W., & Castro, E. L. (2011). Culturally relevant research. Children, Youth and Environments, 17(2), political education: Using immigration as a catalyst 315–328. for civic understanding. Multicultural Education, Zenkov, K., & Harmon, J. (2009). Picturing a writing 18(4), 10–17. process: Using photovoice to learn how to teach Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2000). Participatory writing to urban youth. Journal of Adolescent and action research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln Adult Literacy, 52(7), 575–584. 31

IMMIGRANT STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCE AS CURRICULUM

ELAINE CHAN University of Nebraska–Lincoln

JOANN PHILLION Purdue University

MING FANG HE Georgia Southern University

urriculum is a dynamic interplay between Contexts experiences of students, teachers, parents, Cadministrators, policy makers, and other North American communities are becoming increas- stakeholders; content knowledge and pedagogical ingly diverse and complex. In the United States, the premises and practices; and cultural, linguistic, foreign-born population (nearly 40 million) repre- sociopolitical, and geographical contexts. In this sented 12.9% of the total population in 2010, with chapter, we examine immigrant students’ experience individuals born in Latin America and the Carib- of language, culture, identity, and power as curricu- bean representing 53.1% of this population, those lum, which engenders controversies and challenges born in Asia representing 28.2%, those born in in research, policy, theory, and practice. Given the Europe representing 12.1%, and those born in other diversity of experiences that immigrant students areas of the world representing 6.5% (U.S. Census bring to their North American school curriculum Bureau, 2010). The foreign-born population in situations, it is likely that their experiences of lan- Canada has also been increasing. Canada was home guages, cultures, and identities shape their perceptions to 6.8 million foreign-born individuals, representing of North American school communities differently 20.6% of the total population, in 2011 (Statistics than those of their mainstream peers. Canada, 2011).

249 250–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

The immigrant population is contributing to fur- needs of culturally, linguistically, ethnically, and reli- ther diversity within the overall population. The His- giously diverse student populations. Learning to panic population in the United States grew from 35.3 design, implement, and assess curriculum for immi- million in 2000 to 50.5 million in 2010 to make up grant and minority students has become critical for 16% of the total population, while the Black or Afri- educators and other stakeholders. Existing practices can American population represented 13% of the and policies in schools often fall short, and implica- total population for a total of 38.9 million people. tions of the mismatch between student needs and The Asian population grew by 43% to 14.7 million school policies and practices are enormous for policy people, or 5% of the total population; the rate of makers, administrators, educators, students, and growth in this group was faster than any other major parents. race groups between 2000 and 2010 in the United For example, although society is aware of the States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). increasing diversity within communities, the extent Between 2006 and 2011, 1.2 million foreign-born of complexity surrounding the integration of indi- people immigrated to Canada, to make up 17.2% of viduals who arrive from political, social, religious, the foreign-born population and 3.5% of the total linguistic, cultural, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic population of Canada. As with the United States, circumstances that differ from mainstream society is Asia (including the Middle East) was the largest becoming more apparent. Immigrant students’ strug- source of immigrants between 2006 and 2011, while gles to integrate into schools and neighborhood immigration from Africa, the Caribbean, and Central communities become more complicated socially, and South America also increased. In Canada, more politically, and educationally. Many immigrant stu- than 200 languages were reported as a home lan- dents are learning to speak, read, and write in new guage or mother tongue, and 6.6 million persons languages (Cummins, 2001), while their families (20% of the population) reported speaking a lan- struggle with economic insecurity or poverty, lan- guage other than English or French at home. For guage barriers, migration issues, and acculturation. roughly 6.4 million persons, the other language was Limited access to safety net programs further com- an immigrant language, spoken most often or on a plicates academic, physical, emotional, and social regular basis at home, alone or together with English development difficulties associated with economic or French (Statistics Canada, 2011). insecurity. These demographic changes in North American As immigrants struggle to survive and thrive eco- society are reflected in the increased diversity within nomically, to establish homes and careers, and to the student population. The number of immigrant support their children in academic and social children between the ages of 5 and 20 living in the pursuits, political contexts highlight and reinforce United States grew from 3.5 to 8.6 million from 1970 challenges they may encounter as they settle into to 1995, and increased to 9 million in 2010 to repre- new communities. Policies such as President sent 22% of the school-aged population (U.S. Census Obama’s “Dream Act” recognize some of these cha- Bureau, 2011). In Canada from 1991 to 2001, there llenges by granting younger immigrants “deferred were 310,000 school children between the ages of 5 action” status. While not conferring lawful status and 16 among the 1.8 million immigrants. For many upon undocumented immigrants, Deferred Action of these children, the first language learned and used for Childhood Arrivals allows eligible immigrants to at home is different from the language of instruction live free from the fear of deportation and to work in school (Minister of Industry, 2003). legally for a period of 2 years during which time they may apply for a Social Security card and obtain a driver’s license. Policies such as these were Contemporary Concerns intended to alleviate struggles associated with inte- grating into the U.S. society for immigrants whose This changing population reinforces a growing need circumstances enable them to benefit from them. for issues of educational quality to be defined accord- The development and implementation of these initia- ing to notions of multicultural education in order for tives, however, also raise questions about the place educators to develop innovative ways of meeting the of undocumented immigrants in society, the social 31. Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum –•–251

infrastructure available for their support, the equita- to alleviate tensions associated with settlement into ble distribution of limited financial and social new communities, policies may still be interpreted as resources for some segments of the population over not especially supportive of immigrant communities others, and the place of members of some ethnic and or may highlight anti-immigrant sentiments. Address- racial groups over others. ing the mismatch between immigrant student needs Similarly, while the No Child Left Behind Act of and existing practices and policies and the complex 2001 (NCLB) and associated practices were imple- intersections of racial, ethnic, cultural, social, politi- mented to enhance teacher accountability for aca- cal, academic, linguistic, and economic forces in demic performance of students through increased education is an important starting point for under- standardization and testing, these practices have been standing immigrant students’ experience of language, found to hinder the academic advancement of some culture, identity, and power as curriculum. students. Certain provisions of the NCLB, such as holding states accountable for providing services, curricula, qualified teachers, and assessments that Understanding Immigrant Students’ support English language learners (ELLs), are Experience as Curriculum Through intended to improve the education and opportunities Theory and Practice in Language, for success for ELL children. Other NCLB require- Culture, Identity, and Power ments, however, may be detrimental to ELLs. Students with special education needs or ELLs whose lan- To understand immigrant students’ experience as guage skills may hinder their performance on stan- curriculum, we consider a wide array of theory and dardized testing, for example, may then fail to meet practice in language, culture, identity, and power (He, graduation requirements, which in turn limits higher Phillion, Chan, & Xu, 2008). We draw upon John education opportunities. The emphasis on testing and Dewey’s theory of experience, culture, and accountability also penalizes low- performing schools curriculum; Joseph Schwab’s curriculum that often, by geographic segregation, have larger commonplaces (i.e., learner, teacher, subject matter, ELL populations who fall under NCLB-regulated and milieu); Michael Connelly and Jean Clandinin’s minority and low-income categories. Likewise, initia- narrative conception of curriculum; and William tives under the federal Race to the Top grant program, Schubert and William Ayers’s autobiographical while attempting to support the design and imple- reflections, student and teacher lore, and notions of mentation of rigorous curriculum standards and curriculum. To understand immigrant students’ assessments, ignore differences of immigrant stu- experience as curriculum through their experience of dents and the challenges they experience as their language, culture, identity, and power, we turn to families settle down in new countries. multicultural/critical multicultural perspectives Meeting the curricular needs of students with (Nieto & Bode, 2011); culturally responsive teaching diverse backgrounds is a persistent challenge facing (Gay, 2000/2010); culturally relevant pedagogy North American educators. Although educators, pol- (Ladson-Billings, 1994); culturally contested icy makers, and other stakeholders have been aware pedagogy (Li, 2005); critical pedagogy (Freire, for decades of the shifting and changing demo- 1970; Giroux, 1988; McLaren, 1989); funds of graphic composition of schools and societies, these knowledge (González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005); changes have become more critical as we learn more sociocritical literacy in the third space (Gutiérrez, about the complexity of designing, implementing, 2008); hip-hop culture, language, identity, and and assessing curriculum for diverse populations. politics of media literacy (Ibrahim, 2014); cross- Many immigrant students in North American schools cultural and multicultural narrative (Chan, 2007; He, continue to suffer from prejudice, exclusion, and 2003; Phillion, 2002; Phillion & He, 2007; Phillion, marginalization, and these challenges may, in part, He, & Connelly, 2005; Schlein & Chan, 2013); be reinforced by the mismatch between existing poli- personal~passionate~participatory inquiry into social cies and practices and the needs of immigrant stu- justice in education (He & Phillion, 2008); critical dents in school. While there is growing awareness of race theory ( Delgado & Stefancic, 2000; Ladson- challenges immigrants may encounter and the need Billings, 2003; Lynn & Dixson, 2013); globalization, 252–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

corporatism, and critical language education (Luke, values of familial interdependence and respect for Luke, & Graham, 2007); decolonizing methodolo- elders are deeply challenged by the North American gies (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999/2005); Native American cultural emphasis on independence and interrupted social and political thought (Grande, 2004); and by the shifts in power and authority that may occur indigenous storywork (Archibald, 2008). The inter- when immigrant youth serve as language and cultural connections among language, culture, identity, and interpreters for their parents. Due to these potential power illuminated in the perspectives listed are cru- cultural challenges, immigrant children tend to learn cial for understanding immigrant students’ experience English more quickly than their parents and surpass as curriculum. their parents’ educational levels as they continue in the North American school system, thus further hin- Languages dering communications and interrupting the balance of power and authority within families and genera- Key language issues center on English language tions (Cummins, 2000; Wong-Fillmore, 1991; learning and heritage language maintenance Wong-Fillmore & Meyer, 1992). The geographical (Cummins, 2000; Wong-Fillmore & Meyer, 1992); separation inherent in immigration may further com- English as a second language education and cultur- plicate communications among family members and ally congruent curriculum and teaching (Au & generations. Jordan, 1981); and the length of time necessary to Existing literature suggests that despite good attain academic English proficiency. Immigrant intentions to engage immigrant students in their students must master academic content while attain- school communities, their experience of language, ing English proficiency in reading, writing, and culture, identity, and power outside of schools com- speaking in order to function in their new English- plicates their school experience. Tensions are derived speaking world (Cummins, 2001). Keeping up with from underlying differences in perspectives that are their English-speaking peers in both academic con- influenced by immigrant students’ experience of cul- tent knowledge and English proficiency becomes ture, language, identity, and power in schools, fami- increasingly challenging as their school curriculum lies, and communities (Chan, 2010; Hamann & becomes more demanding. In addition, high-stakes Zuniga, 2011). Other tensions are derived from testing and academic assessments used to determine power differences between members of different immigrant students’ progression and graduation racial, ethnic, and cultural groups whereby immi- often disregard their English proficiency, which grant students’ experience of language, culture, and further hinders their academic achievement. identity are perceived as less valuable than those of mainstream peers (Crago, Annahatak, & Ningiuruvik, Cultures 1993; Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Valenzuela, 1999; Vasquez et al., 1994). Closely related to language issues are issues of cultural discontinuity among homes, schools, and Identities communities (Li, 2005; Soto, 1997, 2002; Valdés, 1996, 2001; Valenzuela, 1999; Vasquez, Pease- Language and culture are at the center of contro- Alvarez, & Shannon, 1994), cultural incongruity in versy over issues of identity. Immigrant students’ learning and teaching styles (Au & Jordan, 1981), identities are recognized as complex, fluid, and race, ethnicity, gender, and class (Cornell & Hartmann, changing over time and place (Chan, 2007, 2010; He, 1998; Grant & Sleeter, 1986; Isajiw, 1999; Lee & 2003, 2010). Their identities are developed in rela- Zhou, 2004; Lewis, 2003). Increasing familiarity with tionship with their peers, teachers, parents, grandpar- popular culture, such as hip-hop culture, media, and ents, and other members of their families and youth subcultures (Ibrahim, 2014), among immigrant communities, shaped by their participation in ethnic adolescents in the United States may alienate their groups, and impacted by sociopolitical, cultural, and parents from their experience, while parents’ adher- linguistic contexts (Lee, 1996; Lee & Zhou, 2004; ence to home languages and cultures may embarrass Li, 2002, 2005). The shock of entering new cultures their adolescent children. Immigrant parents’ cultural and making a place for oneself is a daunting task. 31. Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum –•–253

Acculturation for immigrant students often involves urban areas of deep poverty or in rural farming painful decisions about what to save or sacrifice and communities. As Jean Rhodes (2005) noted, what to adopt or reject. Tensions can erupt as immi- grant students reject family ways of conforming to These neighborhoods are often plagued with violence, mainstream ways of living while maintaining their gang activity, and drug trade, and their schools are often segregated, overcrowded, and poorly funded. cultural identities and yearning for popular culture Children raised in circumstances of socio-economic such as hip-hop culture, media and youth subcultures deprivation are vulnerable to a range of difficulties, (Ibrahim, 2014). These potentially detrimental cul- including anxiety, depression, and delinquency. (p. 2) tural gaps between home and school curriculum (Li, 2005; Valdés, 1996), sometimes referred to as The socioeconomic deprivation combined with “ conflicting stories to live by” (Chan, 2010) or exclusion, marginalization, segregation, discrimina- “ ruptures” (Hamann & Zuniga, 2011), may be f urther tion, and racism leads to inequitable access to quality emphasized when home and school cultures differ health care and education, which can lead to poor significantly (Li, 2005; Soto, 1997; Valdés, 1996; health, poor diet, destructive behaviors, school fail- Valenzuela, 1999; Vasquez et al., 1994). ure, and eventually racial/ethnic stratification (Shields & Behrman, 2004). Power Immigrant students may have endured war-torn countries, political asylum, refugee camps, and Power issues such as exclusion, marginalization, financial turmoil. The disruptions of schooling, segregation (Pain & Smith, 2008); discrimination trauma of war, political persecution, economic depri- and racism (Hartlep, 2013); poverty (Batalova, vation, unemployment, and separation from their 2005); educational inequalities (Oakes, 1985); and families following immigration or natural disasters, displacement (Fazel, Wheeler, & Danesh, 2005; such as hurricanes Rita and Katrina in 2005, perpetu- Hamman & Zúñiga, 2011) impact significantly upon ate multiple forms of displacement—physical, aca- immigrant students’ experience of language, culture, demic, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, ethnic, and and identity. For instance, anti-immigrant sentiments linguistic. Their experience of displacement results perpetuate exclusion, marginalization, segregation, in nightmares and violent memories that haunt immi- and disempowerment in job markets, housing, and grant students as they struggle to live their life in school choices, which may in turn increase the strange schools and societies. “numbers of recent immigrant families struggling in segregated communities with inadequate services, substandard schools, insufficient bilingual education Forms of Inquiry and Modes services, limited access to gainful employment, of Expression intolerance and alienation” (Rhodes, 2005, p. 4). Many immigrant students and their families expe- There are many forms of inquiry and modes of rience discrimination, racism, segregation, hate expression that may be used to examine and repre- crimes, hostile environments, and anti-immigrant sent immigrant students’ experience of language, sentiments that isolate them from their mainstream culture, identity, and power as curriculum such as peers and further marginalize them. Immigrant stu- auto/biographical research (He, 2003), cross-cultural dents are likely to have fewer resources and lower narrative inquiry (He, 2003; Schlein & Chan, 2013), expectations and to suffer from discrimination autoethnography (Anzuldua, 1987), ethnography against their cultures, languages, and identities. The (Lee, 1996; Li, 2002; Toohey, 2000; Valdés, 1996, discrimination, racism, and segregation can deprive 2001; Valenzuela, 1999), life history research immigrant students from reaching their full potential (Hones & Cha, 1999), memoir (Chiang, 2011; and hinder their academic and personal growth Hoffman, 1989; Rosay, 2007; Santiago, 1993), (Garcia & Szalacha, 2004; Hartlep, 2013; Lee & multicultural narrative inquiry (Phillion, 2002), oral Zhou, 2004; Valenzuela, 1999). history (Ling, 2007), narrative inquiry (Carger, 1996, Many immigrant students’ families come from 2009; Chan, 2007, 2010; Schlein & Chan, 2013), poverty situations. Many families settle in segregated narrative accounts (Igoa, 1995), stories, poems, and 254–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

vignettes (Cisneros, 1994), portraiture (Chamoiseau, power to advocate for equal educational opportuni- 1994), personal~passionate~participatory inquiry ties for their children. (He & Phillion, 2008), critical race methodology Guofang Li’s (2005) ethnographic study addresses (Parker, Deyhle, & Villenas, 1999), counterstorytell- challenges of negotiating curriculum in a community ing (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002), critical race narrative where immigrant Asian populations have surpassed inquiry (Gutiérrez-Jones, 2001), desire-based nonimmigrant populations in size. Despite hard- research (Tuck, 2009), critical literacy research earned socioeconomic success, the immigrants still (Luke et al., 2007), indigenous/decolonizing method- struggle to achieve a political voice in the commu- ologies (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999/2005), and indigenous nity. Tensions stemming from battles of literacy and storywork (Archibald, 2008). schooling between teachers and immigrant parents These forms of inquiry and modes of expression illustrate ways in which the intersections among lit- focus on an in-depth understanding of diverse expe- eracy, culture, race, and social class impact upon the riences of individuals, groups, families, and commu- curricular experiences of immigrant students. nities. Much of the work in these areas has been done Discordant cultural perceptions and beliefs create a by women, and many of them are ethnographers and “culturally contested pedagogy” where immigrant critical ethnographers while some are narrative students live in between two worlds. inquirers or counterstorytellers. Many are from The forms of inquiry and modes of expression the same ethnic backgrounds as their participants, listed in this section encourage the study of complex are fluent in their languages, and advocate for equal experience of marginalized and underrepresented opportunities for immigrant students on behalf of groups and individuals, such as immigrant students, their parents and communities. Many of these forms played out in contested cultural, linguistic, and of inquiry and modes of expression, such as ethnog- sociopolitical milieus. These inquiries highlight the raphy and multicultural and cross-cultural narrative importance of consideration for immigrant students’ inquiry, examine the complex intersections of lan- experience of language, culture, identity, and power guage, culture, identity, and power that influence and as a starting point for establishing practices and poli- are influenced by immigrant students’ experience of cies to inspire immigrant students to reach their full curriculum. For instance, Chris Liska Carger (1996, potential. These inquirers argue that although cultur- 2009), in her long-term narrative inquiry, docu- ally sensitive policies provide guidelines for school- mented tensions experienced when school practices based curriculum and practices with immigrant and policies did not meet the special education needs students of diverse backgrounds, it is essential for of a Mexican American student. Carger’s work high- educators, administrators, and other education stake- lighted interconnections among language, culture, holders to consider the specific details of immigrant identity, and power and reveals difficulties immi- students’ academic and home circumstances within grant parents may encounter as they navigate the larger ethnic, cultural, or linguistic communities. school curriculum without English language profi- Understanding the intersections of language, culture, ciency, literacy skills, or cultural knowledge of the identity, and power is the key to moving from theory education system to advocate for their children. This to pedagogical practice and policy making when work is an example of “life-based literary narrative” designing and implementing curriculum for immigrant (Phillion & He, 2004) that highlights immigrant stu- students. dents’ experience of language, culture, identity, and Immigrant students bring language, cultural, and power as curriculum. ethnic diversity to North American schools, but their Elaine Chan’s (Ross & Chan, 2008; Schlein & linguistic and cultural knowledge continues to be Chan, 2010) long-term program of studies focused overlooked or misrepresented in school. The absence on examining immigrant students’ experiences of the of their experiences and perspectives from school intersections of culture, language, identity, and power curriculum, policy making, and research literature is in their schools and neighborhoods. This work illus- in stark contrast to their presence in schools and soci- trates ways in which immigrant families’ limited eties. We have found that the ethnic and cultural English proficiency and cultural knowledge of diversity within immigrant groups is often obscured schooling in the mainstream society hindered their in mainstream scholarship. For example, the model 31. Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum –•–255

minority myth, which stereotypes Asian American members of diverse racial, ethnic, language, religious, and Asian Canadian students as high-achieving stu- cultural, and socioeconomic groups, there remains dents with the skills and knowledge needed to suc- much we do not know about how to better meet the ceed at all levels of education (Hartlep, 2013, 2014; academic and social needs of our increasingly diverse Lee, 1994), masks struggles and difficulties Asian school communities. immigrant students face. In this way, immigrant stu- We hope that scholars, educators, researchers, dents are double-marginalized; they live between two journalists, artists, and community activists will worlds, not “home cultural” enough to repatriate yet come together to bring issues of concern about not North American enough to integrate. They do not immigrant students to the forefront of educational fit in the mainstream discourse, nor do they fit in discussions in the public sphere. We urge them to marginalized minority discourse. Furthermore, anti- speak out about their concerns about the education immigrant initiatives perpetrate resentment and hos- of their children and that of other people’s children. tility from members of the majority as well as other We hope they will join forces with other ethnic, cul- minority groups. tural, and linguistic groups and immigrant and The complex nature of the experience that immi- minority activists with shared concerns, to develop grant students and their families bring to schools strategies to enact educational and social change that calls for further development of forms of inquiry and fosters equity, equality, freedom, and social justice. modes of expression that not only recognize diverse These joint efforts embody possibilities, create hopes perspectives but also draw upon differences as a and dreams, and invent spaces where immigrant chil- resource for interpreting their experience to inform dren and children of other disenfranchised individu- education policy and practice. While we have made als and groups might live more robustly, equitably, significant strides toward recognizing the complexity and peacefully together in an increasingly changing of issues underlying tensions between and among and diversifying world.

References and Further Readings Chan, E. (2007). Student experiences of a culturally- sensitive curriculum: Ethnic identity development Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands/La frontera: The new amid conflicting stories to live by. Journal of Mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Books. Curriculum Studies, 39(2), 177–194. Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating Chan, E. (2010). Living in the space between participant the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Vancouver, BC, and researcher: Examining ethnic identity of Canada: UBC Press. Chinese Canadian students as a narrative inquirer. Au, K., & Jordan, K. (1981). Teaching reading to The Journal of Educational Research, 102(2), Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate 113–122. solution. In H. Trueba, G. P. Guthrie, & K. Au Chan, E., & Schlein, C. (2010). Understanding social (Eds.), Culture in the bilingual classroom: justice and equity through students’ stories: Studies in classroom ethnography (pp. 139–162). Individual, familial, social, and cultural Rowley, MA: Newberry House. interpretations. Journal of the International Society Batalova, J. (2005). Spotlight on foreign born in areas for Teacher Education, 14(2), 35–42. affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Chiang, B. (2011). Immigrant: A memoir. Seattle, WA, Washington, DC: Migration Information Source. and Charleston, SC: CreateSpace. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation Cisneros, S. (1994). The house on Mango Street. New .org/usfocus/display.cfm?id=343 York, NY: A. A. Knopf, distributed by Random Carger, C. L. (1996). Of borders and dreams: House. A Mexican-American experience of urban education. Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D. (1998). Ethnicity and race: New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Making identities in a changing world. Thousand Carger, C. L. (2009). Dreams deferred: Dropping out and Oaks, CA: Sage. struggling forward. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Crago, M. B., Annahatak, B., & Ningiuruvik, L. (1993). Publishing. Changing patterns of language socialization in Inuit Chamoiseau, P. (1994). School days. Lincoln, NE: homes. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 24(3), University of Nebraska Press. 205–223. 256–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Hartlep, N. D. (Ed.). (2014). The model minority Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: stereotype reader: Critical and challenging Multilingual Matters. readings for the 21st century. San Diego, CA: Cummins, J. (2001). Negotiating identities: Education for Cognella. empowerment in a diverse society (2nd ed.). Los He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Angeles, CA: California Association for Bilingual Cross-cultural lives and identities in the Education. multicultural landscape. Greenwich, CT: Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2000). Critical race theory: Information Age Publishing. An introduction (2nd ed.). New York, NY: New York He, M. F. (2010). Exile pedagogy: Teaching in-between. University Press. In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & J. Burdick (Eds.), Fazel, M., Wheeler, J., & Danesh, J. (2005). Prevalence of Handbook of public pedagogy: Education and serious mental disorder in 7000 refugees resettled in learning beyond schooling (pp. 469–482). New York, western countries: A systematic review. Lancet, 365, NY: Routledge. 1309–1314. He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (Eds.). (2008). Personal~ Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Baltimore, passionate~participatory inquiry into social justice MD: Penguin Books. in education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Garcia Coll, C., & Szalacha, L. A. (2004). The multiple Publishing. contexts of middle childhood: The future of children. He, M. F., Phillion, J., Chan, E., & Xu, S. J. (2008). Children of Immigrant Families, 14(2), 81–97. Immigrant students’ experience of curriculum. Gay, G. (2000/2010). Culturally responsive teaching: In F. M. Connelly, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), Theory, research and practice. New York, NY: Handbook of curriculum and instruction Teachers College Press. (pp. 219–239). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Giroux, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward Hoffman, E. (1989). Lost in translation: A life in a new a critical pedagogy of learning. South Hadley, MA: language. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Bergin & Garvey. Hones, D. F., & Cha, C. S. (1999). Educating new González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds Americans: Immigrant lives and learning. Mahwah, of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum. communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Ibrahim, A. (2014). The rhizome of Blackness: A critical Lawrence Erlbaum. ethnography of hip-hop culture, language, identity Grande, S. (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American social and the politics of becoming. New York, NY: and political thought. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Peter Lang. Littlefield. Igoa, C. (1995). The inner world of the immigrant child. Grant, C. A., & Sleeter, C. E. (1986). Race, class, gender Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. in education research: An argument for integrative Isajiw, W. W. (1999). Understanding diversity: Ethnicity analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56(2), and race in the Canadian context. Toronto, ON, 195–211. Canada: Thomson Educational Publishing. Gutiérrez, K. D. (2008). Developing a sociocritical Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dream keepers: literacy in the third space. Reading Research Successful teachers of African American children. Quarterly, 43(2), 148–164. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gutiérrez-Jones, C. S. (2001). Critical race narratives: Ladson-Billings, G. (Ed.). (2003). Critical race theory A study of race, rhetoric, and injury. New York, NY: perspectives on the social studies: The profession, New York University Press. policies, and curriculum. Greenwich, CT: Hamman, E. T., & Zúñiga, V. (2011). Schooling and the Information Age Publishing. everyday ruptures transnational children encounter Lee, S. J. (1996). Unraveling the “model minority” in the United States and Mexico. In C. Coe, stereotype: Listening to Asian American youth. R. Reynolds, D. Boehm, J. M. Hess, & New York, NY: Teachers College Press. H. Rae-Espinoza (Eds.), Everyday ruptures: Lee, S. J., & Zhou, M. (Eds.). (2004). Asian American Children and migration in global perspective youth: Culture, identity and ethnicity. New York, NY: (pp. 141–160). Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt Routledge. University Press. Lewis, A. E. (2003). Race in the schoolyard: Hartlep, N. D. (2013). The model minority stereotype: Negotiating the color line in classrooms and Demystifying Asian American success. Charlotte, communities. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers NC: Information Age Publishing. University Press. 31. Immigrant Students’ Experience as Curriculum –•–257

Li, G. (2002). “East is East, West is West”? Home Rosay, R. (2007). Journey of hope: Memoirs of a literacy, culture, and schooling. In J. L. Kincheloe & Mexican girl. Los Angeles, CA: AR Publishing. J. A. Jipson (Series Eds.), Rethinking childhood Ross, V., & Chan, E. (2008). Multicultural education: (Vol. 28). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Raj’s story using a curricular conceptual lens of the Li, G. (2005). Culturally contested pedagogy: Battles of particular. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), literacy and schooling between mainstream teachers 1705–1716. and Asian immigrant parents. Albany, NY: State Santiago, E. (1993). When I was Puerto Rican. New York, University of New York Press. NY: Vintage Books. Ling, H. (2007). Voices of the heart: Asian American Schlein, C., & Chan, E. (2013). Examining students’ women on immigration, work, and family. Kirksville, experiences as a foundation for multicultural MO: Truman State University Press. curriculum development. Journal of Curriculum Luke, A., Luke, C., & Graham, P. (2007). Globalization, Theorizing, 28(2), 126–139. corporatism, and critical language education. Shields, M. K., & Behrman, R. E. (2004). Children of International Multilingual Research Journal, 1, 1–13. immigrant families: Analysis and recommendations. Lynn, M., & Dixson, A. D. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of The Future of Children: Children of Immigrant critical race theory in education. New York, NY: Families, 14(2), 4–15. Routledge. Solórzano, D., & Yosso, T. (2002). Critical race McLaren, P. (1989). Life in schools: An introduction to methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. framework for education research. Qualitative New York, NY: Longman. Inquiry, 8(23), 22–44. Minister of Industry. (2003). Canada’s ethnocultural Soto, L. D. (1997). Language, culture, and power: Bilingual portrait: The changing mosaic. 2001 Census: Analysis families and the struggle for quality education. Albany, series. Ottawa, ON, Canada: Statistics Canada. NY: State University of New York Press. Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2011). Affirming diversity: Soto, L. D. (Ed.). (2002). Making a difference in the lives The sociopolitical context of multicultural education of bilingual/bicultural children. New York, NY: Peter (6th ed.). New York, NY: Longman. Lang. Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How high schools Statistics Canada. (2011). Immigration and ethnocultural structure inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale diversity of Canada. Retrieved from http://www12 University Press. .statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010- Pain, R., & Smith, S. (2008). Fear: Critical geopolitics x2011001-eng.cfm and everyday life. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Toohey, K. (2000). Learning English at school: Identity, Parker, L., Deyhle, D., & Villenas, S. (Eds.). (1999). social relations and classroom practice. Clevedon, Race is—Race isn’t: Critical race theory and UK: Multilingual Matters. qualitative studies in education. Boulder, CO: Tuck, E. (2009). Suspending damage: A letter to com mu- Westview Press. nities. Harvard Educational Review, 79(3), 409–428. Phillion, J. (2002). Narrative inquiry in a multicultural Tuhiwai Smith, L. (1999/2005). Decolonizing landscape: Multicultural teaching and learning. methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. Westport, CT: Ablex. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago Press. Phillion, J., & He, M. F. (2004). Using life based literary U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). The foreign-born population narratives in multicultural teacher education. in the United States: 2010. American Community Multicultural Perspectives, 6(3), 3–9. Survey Reports. Retrieved from http://www.census Phillion, J., & He, M. F. (2007). Narrative inquiry in .gov/prod/2012pubs/acs-19.pdf English language teaching: Contributions and future U.S. Census Bureau. (2011). 2010 Census shows directions. In C. Davison & J. Cummins (Eds.), America’s diversity. Retrieved from http://www International handbook of English language .census.gov/2010census/news/releases/operations/ teaching (Vol. 2, pp. 919–932). Norwell, MA: cb11-cn125.html Springer. Valdés, G. (1996). Con respeto: Bridging the distances Phillion, J., He, M. F., & Connelly, F. M. (Eds.). (2005). between culturally diverse families and schools: Narrative and experience in multicultural education. An ethnographic portrait. New York, NY: Teachers Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. College Press. Rhodes, J. (2005). Research corner: Mentoring immigrant Valdés, G. (2001). Learning and not learning English: youth (pp. 1–6). Retrieved from http://www Latino students in American schools. New York, NY: .mentoring.org/downloads/mentoring_1318.pdf Teachers College Press. 258–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: in the United States. Bristol, UK: Multilingual U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Matters. New York, NY: State University of New York Wong-Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second Press. language means losing the first. Early Childhood Vasquez, O. A., Pease-Alvarez, L., Shannon, S. M., & Research Quarterly, 6, 323–346. Moll, L. (1994). Pushing boundaries: Language and Wong-Fillmore, L., & Meyer, L. M. (1992). The culture in a Mexicano community. New York, NY: curriculum and linguistic minorities. In P. W. Jackson The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum: A Press. project of American Educational Research Wiley, T. G., Lee, J. S., & Rumberger, R. W. (2009). Association (pp. 626–658). New York, NY: Simon & The education of language minority immigrants Schuster Macmillan. 32

LEARNING FROM AND WITH CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE STUDENTS

VALERIE KINLOCH Ohio State University

It’s who we are. It’s like telling me I gotta take off my culture and identity when I leave my hood and go to a place that don’t care about me. Like schools. How can I leave me and my Black English home? I’m nobody’s traitor.

—Phillip, youth participant; as quoted in Kinloch, 2010, p. 104

ar too many culturally and linguistically diverse diverse students learn and participate inside schools. K–12 students in schools, particularly in the And still, it is important that culturally and linguisti- FUnited States, are asked by teachers, administra- cally diverse students are not simply affirmed within tors, and other educational representatives to “take off the context of schools, but that they are centered and [their] culture and identity” before crossing the thresh- represented in the curricula in positive, critical, and old of the school building. This request is not an invita- insightful ways. tion into learning within the context of schools. What does it mean for culturally and linguistically Instead, it is a request for students to leave their cul- diverse students to be centered in schools and in cur- tural and linguistic identities—informed by familial, ricula? How do we do this centering in ways that geographical, social, political, and literacy-rich out-of- address the various historical and contemporary school experiences—on the other side of the school issues that have long relegated linguistically and cul- doors. Even now in this 21st century, countless students turally diverse students to the margins? Why are the who are culturally and linguistically diverse are being language rights and cultural experiences of diverse disadvantaged within educational contexts that purport students still being contested in educational theory to theorize difference and teach for social justice, on and practice? How can such students, as Phillip the one hand, and to affirm the sociocultural lives and describes above, be “who we are” in schools when linguistic identities of historically marginalized stu- they feel as if that’s “a place that don’t care about dents, on the other hand. Not being recognized for their [us]?” These questions are important to consider, cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1990), or their rich lan- particularly during this current climate of increased guage, literacy, cultural, and community experiences, assaults on diversity—as marked, for instance, by the can negatively impact how culturally and linguistically resurgence of English-only policies across the nation,

259 260–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

antibilingual education programs, resistance to imm- Administrators are faced with the important task igration reform, and bans on ethnic studies and mul- of creating and sustaining positive, welcoming ticultural curricula. In addition to these assaults are school environments that support the academic negative assumptions about the academic achieve- achievement of all students. According to a report ment and linguistic competencies of diverse students published in 2011 by the Alliance for Excellent Edu- in relation to monolingual, monocultural expecta- cation, more than 1.3 million students attending high tions operating within U.S. schools. Thus, it is impor- schools in the United States drop out each year, with tant for teachers, teacher educators, administrators, a disproportionate number of these students identify- educational researchers, and policy makers to better ing as culturally and linguistically diverse youths. account for the experiences—the languages, identi- Additionally, a 2011 report from the National Center ties, lived conditions, and subjectivities—of culturally for Education Statistics shows “that the median and linguistically diverse students. income of persons ages 18 through 67 who had not completed high school was roughly $25,000 in 2009” (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). These Contemporary Concerns reports highlight the reality that “a significant seg- ment of the population will remain entrenched in For the purposes of this chapter, culturally and lin- poverty while on a global scale the competitiveness guistically diverse students are students from hist- of the American labor force will continue to lag orically marginalized ethnic and racial minority behind” ( American Psychological Association, groups—including, but not limited to, African 2012). In light of these reports, administrators are American, Latino/a, Asian American, America faced with important challenges. Indian, and Pacific Islander American students— One pressing challenge is that administrators need when their primary language is not the “mainstream,” to increase their collaborations with teachers, educa- middle-class English that dominates the discourse of tion support professionals, parents, community orga- U.S. schooling. And because their languages and nizations, and district leaders to dismantle racist cultures do not dominate discourses of schooling, policies that undermine the cultural and linguistic many teachers and teacher educators contemplate a traditions of diverse students. In this work, adminis- variety of concerns regarding how to effectively trators are critiquing assumptions about who linguis- teach culturally and linguistically diverse students. tically and culturally diverse students are, who their From determining ways to expand their repertoire of parents and extended networks are, and what their teaching strategies, to utilizing culturally responsive accumulated out-of-school knowledge reveals about forms of instruction, to understanding students’ lin- their academic skills and critical literacies. In doing guistic, cognitive, social, and emotional develop- this work, more and more administrators are asking: ment, teachers and teacher educators are constantly How can schools better serve the needs of (and better working to locate ways to center culturally and center in the curricula) culturally and linguistically linguistically diverse students in schools and in the diverse students by collaborating with students, curricula (McCarty & Zepeda, 1995). While many teachers, parents, community groups, and district teachers and teacher educators understand that all leaders? students bring funds of knowledge (Moll, Amanti, Additionally, there are many educational research- Neff, & Gonzalez, 2001) with them to schools, some ers who investigate larger connections between theo- find it difficult to incorporate this knowledge into retical discussions and classroom praxis regarding both their classroom practices and pedagogic stances. the schooling experiences of culturally and linguisti- Therefore, it is not surprising that some teachers and cally diverse students. Some of these researchers are teacher educators ask: How does one critically, invested in understanding how critical pedagogy purposefully center culturally and linguistically div- (Shor, 1992), for example, which is an approach to erse students in the curricula? In so doing, what are education that utilizes democratic strategies in teach- specific instructional approaches and classroom acti- ing and learning to address oppressive structures, can vities that effectively build on students’ backgrounds help center the lived conditions of diverse students in order to do this work? not just within schools and curricula but also within 32. Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students–•–261

educational systems. Educational researchers are best: Too many culturally and linguistically diverse more than aware of national mandates including those students do not think schools are caring places, and required by the No Child Left Behind Act and too many culturally and linguistically diverse stu- movements to standardize the curricula through initia- dents are made to feel as if they cannot bring their tives such as the Common Core State Standards. In cultures, identities, and languages into schools. Stu- their awareness, they continue to ask questions about dents do not enter schools as empty vessels, for they equity, power, and social justice as they critique the bring a wealth of literacy, language, and community many ways dominant narratives about academic practices with them. Yet the dominant discourses, or achievement do not account for the cultural and lin- codes of power, that schools operate under tell a dif- guistic diversity of such students (Haddix & Kinloch, ferent story about culturally and linguistically diverse 2013). It should not come as a shock that many edu- students—it is a story of deficits, of underachieve- cational researchers wonder: In what ways can cultur- ment, and of disengagement. To center diverse ally and linguistically diverse students—and their students in schools and in curricula, and to move voices, perspectives, and identities—be centered in away from deficit-oriented framings to assets-based, conversations about theory and praxis in school and culturally sustaining perspectives, culturally and lin- community contexts? guistically diverse students must be invited to con- As teachers, teacher educators, administrators, template important questions: How do you feel about and educational researchers are asking questions your schooling experiences and how do feel when about centering culturally and linguistically diverse you are at school? Would you want schools to center students in schools and in curricula, policy makers aspects of your linguistic, cultural, and community must also heed the call. Policy makers are asking experiences in the curricula? If so, then how? If not, direct questions about preparing students to compete then why? What suggestions would you offer your in a global marketplace, about technological advance- teachers and administrators about how to teach (or ments, about having assessments aligned with inter- how not to teach) culturally and linguistically diverse national benchmark standards from high-performing students? What steps do you think teachers, teacher nations, and about how to create, maintain, and sus- educators, administrators, researchers, and commu- tain prosperous, innovative economies. Their concern nity partners should take to ensure that schools are with global competitiveness, however, requires that safe, welcoming, and inviting learning places for they not only focus on quantitative factors (e.g., test culturally and linguistically diverse students? scores, grades, student academic standing) but also Clearly, there are a lot of contemporary concerns focus on qualitative measures (e.g., who students are, regarding how and why to center culturally and lin- where students live, the cultural and linguistic identi- guistically diverse students in schools and in curricula. ties of students, and how students learn in a variety of Everyone has a role to take in this work as questions ways). Policy makers must question the meanings of are asked about how and what students are taught, diversity and difference, paying attention to how how and what students are learning, how students are students, especially culturally and linguistically collaborating with others, and how all students learn diverse students, are being academically and socially to enhance their critical capacities with regard to prepared inside schools. Many policy makers are difference and diversity. This is important work, given beginning to ask: If being globally competitive is the ever-increasing linguistic, cultural, and racial important, then how can linguistic and cultural diver- diversities of U.S. classrooms and communities. sities take center stage in the schooling experiences of all students? In schools and communities across the nation, Context of Culturally and Linguistically many culturally and linguistically diverse students Diverse Students find themselves in situations where their identities are called into question, where they are marginalized There are many historical, political, and educational because of how they sound and how they look, and events that have impacted how culturally and linguis- because of the stereotypes others attach to them. tically diverse students are viewed in society, schools, The passage by Phillip that opens this chapter says it and curricula. Historically, we live in a nation where 262–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

people have been marginalized and disenfranchised of New York (CUNY; see Shaughnessy, 1979). because of who they are (culturally, socioeconomi- Guaranteeing that CUNY would admit any student cally, in terms of sexual orientation), how they look who graduated from a high school in New York, this (racially and ethnically), and how they talk (linguisti- policy was implemented as a way to reduce discrimi- cally). While many people believe we live in a postra- natory admission practices and address social cial society where everyone has the right to certain inequality, particularly involving first-generation freedoms and liberties, our history tells us otherwise. culturally and linguistically diverse students. After One need only take a close look at particular histori- more than 30 years, university officials at CUNY cal events to understand how culturally and linguisti- ended its open admissions policy. They did away cally diverse people have been othered or how they with their explicit focus on remedial education and, have been negatively and unfairly treated in society instead, they turned to standardized test scores to and schools. determine who would be admitted into their under- For example, on December 1, 1955, in Montgom- graduate programs. What was initially a policy ery, Alabama, Rosa Parks, who at the time was a designed to support the matriculation of culturally, seamstress at a department store, refused to follow linguistically, and racially diverse students into the law of the land—to give up her bus seat to a 4-year colleges has now been replaced by selective White male passenger. Her refusal to move resulted admissions criteria. For many culturally and linguis- in her arrest, which incited an already growing social tically diverse students, this just creates additional revolution against racial segregation, one that educational roadblocks. involved a lot of young protestors seeking educa- Culturally and linguistically diverse students have tional, political, and social justice. Eight years later also been at the center of specific educational debates in 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama, nearly 2,000 and decisions such as the Bilingual Education Act of elementary, junior high, and high school students 1968 (which was repealed and replaced by the No participated in a civil rights protest sponsored by the Child Left Behind Act of 2001), the Students’ Right Southern Christian Leadership Conference. After to Their Own Language resolution (1974), the Ann walking out of school to protest segregation and dis- Arbor Black English Case (1979), the Oakland criminatory practices in the state, students were fire- Ebonics debate (1996), The Heritage Language Ini- hosed and arrested. Also in the 1960s, the Chicano tiative, and Proposition 227 in California, as well as movement—an extension of the 1940s Mexican other ongoing English-only movements across the American civil rights movement—gained momen- nation. Taken together, these national debates point tum in high schools and universities across the to a continued need to better support culturally and United States. The movement sought to debunk linguistically diverse students in maintaining their popular myths about Mexican Americans’ history, heritage and home languages and cultural practices culture, and language in favor of more accurate and accessing academic conventions and discourses. representations. Students participated in school Additionally, these national debates point to our walkouts, critiqued the poor quality of academic responsibility to provide academic and social oppor- instruction they were receiving, and protested the tunities to culturally and linguistically diverse stu- defunding of Chicano courses. These historical dents inside schools and throughout society. They events and many others—including the Brown v. also speak to the need for, and the significance of, Board of Education decision in 1954, the Voting equitable policies that will ensure that such opportu- Rights Act of 1965, the Poor People’s Campaign in nities for the academic and social success of these 1967, the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1964, and students are provided. the Lau v. Nichols civil rights case in 1974—all con- tributed to changing the U.S. political landscape by calling attention to the rights of racially, culturally, Theory of Culturally and Linguistically and linguistically diverse people. Diverse Students These historical events were also political by nature and paved the way for the emergence of many How can we understand the important role that stu- educational policies. Take, for instance, the open dents’ cultural and linguistic diversities play inside admissions policy in the 1970s at the City University schools and in society? And in what ways can we 32. Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students–•–263

equitably and justly frame such diversities in our cur- Theoretically, sociocultural perspectives involve ricula? Members of the general public, to include an intentional focus on how language and social teachers, teacher educators, administrators, research- interaction contribute to learning, development, and ers, policy makers, community leaders, and others, education. There is an explicit attention to how the have long debated ways to teach culturally and lin- acquisition and use of language connect to the devel- guistically diverse students in schools. There is a rich opment of thinking and how these connections are legacy of research (Haugen, 1953; Hornberger, 1998) influenced by dialogic, or social and communicative, that has theorized the significance of attending to the engagements. In other words, there are undeniable cultural, linguistic, and racial identities of diverse connections between language and meaning because, students in ways that rely on assets-based and not for sociocultural theorists, language is a social con- deficit-oriented perspectives. Additionally, there struct (Gumperz, 1982; Halliday, 1978) and its have been countless professional forums meanings are created in the reciprocal relationship (e.g., American Educational Research Association, between speaker and hearer, talker and listener, Modern Language Association, National Association author and reader. As a social construct, language is of Bilingual Education, National Association of Mul- then taken up in context—with other people, within ticultural Education, National Communication Asso- and across social environments, and in relation to ciation, National Council of Teachers of English) in power and power dynamics. It is safe to say that which issues of students’ language diversities and sociocultural perspectives place emphasis on how cultural identities have taken center stage. Even with literacy gets practiced within cultural and social con- the abundance of research and forums, issues with texts. As contexts shift, scholars who hold sociocul- how to best teach and center in the curricula cultur- tural perspectives rely on one or more of the following ally and linguistically diverse students remain widely theoretical approaches to understand language and debated. literacy: (a) literacy as a social practice (Street, Different theories have been used to understand 1984), where literacy is viewed ideologically and how culturally and linguistically diverse students contextually as a set of practices connected to larger learn and how teachers can best work with them. power and cultural structures; (b) critical literacies Sociocultural (Vygotsky, 1978) and ecological per- (Freire, 2001), where emphasis is on power, identity, spectives (Bronfenbrenner, 1986) of learning have consciousness, and agency as these all connect to stressed that how people learn is highly influenced by literacies of the word and of the world; and their interactions with other people and within a vari- (c) multiliteracies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000), which ety of environments. What this means is that attention places focus on the everyday, real-world settings needs to be placed on how students, especially cultur- where people practice literacy, the multiple forms of ally and linguistically diverse students, interact with communication people use, the increasing presence other people inside schools and inside their home of linguistic and cultural diversities, and the operating environments. Sociocultural perspectives are power relationships that influence literacy, learning, grounded in the idea that literacy events and practices and communication. Scholars who utilize sociocul- are not neutral; therefore, context and culture play tural perspectives in their work with culturally and major roles in how students acquire literacy. In rela- linguistically diverse students understand the value tion to language and literacy research, sociocultural of students’ various identities, languages, and perspectives also emphasize dialogue, given that how cultures, especially in their schooling experiences. people participate in events is shaped by historical, In addition to sociocultural perspectives, there are cultural, and social factors. On the other hand, eco- other theories that are equally important to consider. logical perspectives take into account the complex For example, studies that rely on an ecological ecosystems or networks and environments in which approach examine human actions, behaviors, and people learn, interact, collaborate, and communicate. interactions within the world, as these things are con- The ecology of language (Haugen, 1953), then, nected to the environment and its ecosystems. To add focuses on how language and context intersect or, to a focus on language and literacy into this approach is say it differently, how multilingualism, bilingualism, to claim that people should acquire skills and compe- and biliteracy overlap with the daily cultural, political, tencies by which they come to read the world, and economic environments of people. including the environment and environmental issues, 264–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM schools and communities, and other human and nat- Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression ural systems. This approach also means that people critically engage in both questioning and generating Forms of Inquiry About Culturally and knowledge by focusing on what people know and Linguistically Diverse Students need to know and by considering the variety of ways people come to learn. This perspective establishes a There are many different forms of inquiry that strong link between the environment and language. have been used in learning from and with culturally Thus, language ecology is understood as “the study and linguistically diverse students and that connect to of interactions between any given language and its the theoretical positions described above. Moll et al. environment” (Haugen, 1972, p. 325), particularly so (2001) argue for a “funds of knowledge” approach, because it contains sociological elements—the inter- which refers “to the historically accumulated and actions people have with and within society—as well culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills as psychological factors—the ways people use and essential for household or individual functioning and interact with a variety of languages and language well-being” (p. 133). In this approach, teachers and systems. teacher educators take on different roles—that of A close examination of ecological theories of lan- learner, observer, and/or ethnographer—as they learn guage, then, in direct relation to multilingual con- about their students’ lives, families, and communi- texts involving culturally and linguistically diverse ties. What teachers learn about their students in out- people, takes us to the scholarship of Hornberger of-school contexts should, in turn, enrich how they (1998). She utilizes an ecological approach to theo- incorporate specific aspects of their students’ cul- rize meanings of language evolution, language envi- tural, communal, linguistic, and cognitive resources ronment, and language endangerment as these pertain inside classrooms and in curricula. to multilingualism and to multilingual language poli- A “funds of knowledge” form of inquiry also cies within ecosystems that are cultural, sociopo- encourages teachers to utilize culturally responsive— litical, and economic environments. Hornberger’s or relevant—forms of instruction as they learn from (2003) use of an ecological approach connects to and with culturally and linguistically diverse stu- how and why she relies on biliteracy as a theoretical dents. This form of inquiry utilizes the cultural framework, which she defines as “any and all knowledge, frames of reference, and out-of-school instances in which communication occurs in two (or experiences of diverse students as a way to facilitate more) languages in or around writing” (p. 35). their academic learning and achievement. Students Scholarship in anthropology, policy, and sociolingui- see themselves in the curricula and they are encour- stics, as Hornberger shows, is important to use in aged to make larger connections between who they theorizing the role of language in the educational are and what they are being taught. This form of processes of culturally and linguistically diverse stu- inquiry relates to the practice of cultural modeling dents and adults across educational, political, social, (Lee, 2007), in which students’ cultural funds of and economic contexts. knowledge and engagement with familiar discourses Both ecological and sociocultural theories provide (e.g., African American language, Spanish, hip-hop a foundation on which to discuss culturally and lin- and popular culture) are purposefully linked to guistically diverse students in schools, in curricula, disciplinary constructs and academic content and in society. These theories also connect to other (e.g., concepts, topics, processes, procedures). When important critical perspectives such as subtractive cultural modeling and culturally responsive forms of schooling (Valenzuela, 1999), equity pedagogy instruction are used in learning with and from cultur- (Banks & Banks, 1995), and critical race theory and ally and linguistically diverse students, then students counternarratives (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). become active participants in their schooling experi- Collectively, these perspectives all examine issues of ences, they see themselves in what they are being power, context, identity, and patterns of achievement taught, and they come to question—alongside their with regard to culturally and linguistically diverse teachers and peers—the structures that support and students. do not support their academic success. These forms 32. Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students–•–265

of inquiry make available opportunities for teaching, in narrative work, through storytelling, in popular learning, and research with culturally and linguisti- cultural forms, through aesthetic experiences, cally diverse students that are critically conscious community engagements, multimodal and digital and culturally sustaining, on the one hand, and that productions, and through other forms of linguistic, center student knowledge, identity, and funds of communicative expressions. Additional examples of knowledge in the curricula, on the other hand. work that builds on these influences and modes are Zentella’s (1997) Growing Up Bilingual: Puerto Modes of Expression About Culturally Rican Children in New York, Valenzuela’s (1999) and Linguistically Diverse Students Subtractive Schooling: U.S.-Mexican Youth and the Politics of Caring, Alim and Baugh’s (2007) Talkin A variety of modes of expression about what it Black Talk: Language, Education, and Social means to learn from and with culturally and linguisti- Change, Bartlett and Garcia’s (2011) Additive cally diverse students are illustrated in published Schooling in Subtractive Times: Bilingual Education studies in language, literacy, and composition and Dominican Immigrant Youth in the Heights, and research. For example, Dillard (1973) examined the Paris’s (2011) Language Across Difference: Ethnicity, legitimacy of African American language as a lingua Communication, and Youth Identities in Changing franca that has a lot of influence on how culturally Urban Schools. In these accounts, seeing culturally and linguistically diverse students acquire academic and linguistically diverse students as agents of forms of English. Smitherman (1986) focused on the change, as contributors of community and school oral tradition of African American language and the knowledge, and as linguistic intellectual beings failed educational initiatives that were designed to reveals ways for teachers, teacher educators, admin- work with culturally and linguistically diverse stu- istrators, researchers, policy makers, and others to dents during the 1970s. Years after their individual learn from and work with such students in schools, in studies, Balester (1993) studied the writing and lan- the curricula, and in society. guage practices of eight African American college students who frequently utilized at least two voices throughout their college experiences—academic Conclusion English and African American language. García and Kleifgen (2010) discussed how current educational Returning to the passage by Phillip that opens this policies directed at linguistically diverse students fail chapter and connects it to the contexts, theories, to account for the language, literacy, and home prac- forms of inquiry, and modes of expression involving tices of emergent bilingual students, which is yet culturally and linguistically diverse students points another way of perpetuating inequities in the school- to important lessons. One lesson relates to how we ing experiences of linguistically and culturally must include culturally and linguistically diverse diverse students. There is also Orellana and Eksner’s students in schools in authentic ways that do not (2006) study, located within the cultural modeling simply affirm their existences, but that center their framework, of the language practices and social posi- lives, identities, and truths in pedagogical practices. tions of bilingual immigrant youths in the United This centering is not exclusive to how we reshape States and Germany. The latter study demonstrates pedagogical practices; it also includes refiguring the how language mediation and contestation contribute spaces of classrooms and the environments of to the ways diverse students express themselves schools. Another lesson relates to how curricula and leverage their language skills, linguistic codes, must reflect a variety of linguistic and cultural reali- and metacogntive awareness as they work toward ties and lived conditions in ways that are critical and increased academic literacy. that take an assets-based approach to teaching and These studies are heavily influenced by how lan- learning. Also, we must implement educational prac- guage is represented orally, in print, and during inter- tices and policies that affect all students, especially actions people have with other people. Equally culturally and linguistically diverse students. This important to note is that these influences are revealed might include inviting students, their families, and 266–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

members of their communities into conversations these ways, we can all learn from and with culturally about language, identity, culture, and achievement. In and linguistically diverse students.

References and Further Readings Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic. London, UK: Edward Arnold. Alim, H. S., & Baugh, J. (Eds.). (2007). Talkin Black Haugen, E. (1953). The Norwegian language in America: talk: Language, education, and social change. A study in bilingual behavior (Vols. 1–2). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press; Alliance for Excellent Education. (2011). The high cost Bloomington, IL: Indiana University Press. of high school dropouts: What the nation pays for Haugen, E. (1972). The ecology of language. Stanford, inadequate high schools. Retrieved from http://www CA: Stanford University Press. .all4ed.org/files/HighCost.pdf Hornberger, N. H. (1998). Language policy, language American Psychological Association. (2012). Facing the education, language rights: Indigenous, immigrant, school dropout dilemma. Washington, DC: American and international perspectives. Language in Society, Psychological Association. Retrieved from http:// 27, 439–458. www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/school-dropout- Hornberger, N. H. (Ed.). (2003). Continua of biliteracy: prevention.aspx An ecological framework for educational policy, Balester, V. (1993). Cultural divide: A study of African- research, and practice in multilingual settings. American college level writers. Portsmouth, NH: Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Heinemann. Kinloch, V. (2010). “To not be a traitor of Black English”: Banks, J., & Banks, C. (1995). Equity pedagogy: An Youth perceptions of language rights in an urban essential component of multicultural education. context. Teachers College Record, 112(1), Theory into Practice, 34(3), 152–158. 103–141. Bartlett, L., & Garcia, O. (2011). Additive schooling in Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a subtractive times: Bilingual education and critical race theory of education. Teachers College Dominican immigrant youth in the heights. Record, 97(1), 47–68. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Lee, C. D. (2007). Culture, literacy, and learning: Taking Bourdieu, P. (1990). The logic of practice (R. Nice, bloom in the midst of the whirlwind. New York, NY: Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Teachers College Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as McCarty, T. L., & Zepeda, O. (1995). Indigenous a context for human development: Research language education and literacy: Introduction to perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), the theme issue. Bilingual Research Journal, 19, 723–742. 1–4. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: Moll, L., Amanti, C., Neff, D., & Gonzalez, N. (2001). Literacy learning and the design of social futures. Funds of knowledge for teaching: Using a qualitative London, UK: Routledge. approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory Dillard, J. L. (1973). Black English. New York, NY: Into Practice, 2, 132–141. Vintage. Orellana, M. F., & Eksner, H. J. (2006). Power in cultural Freire, P. (2001). The Paulo Freire reader modeling: Building on the bilingual language (A. Freire & D. Macedo, Eds.). New York, NY: practices of immigrant youth in Germany and the Continuum. United States. National Reading Conference García, O., & Kleifgen, J. (2010). Educating emergent Yearbook, 55, 224–234. bilinguals: Policies, programs, and practices for Paris, D. (2011). Language across difference: Ethnicity, English language learners. New York, NY: Teachers communication, and youth identities in changing College Press. urban schools. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse strategies. New York, NY: University Press. Cambridge University Press. Shaughnessy, M. (1979). Errors and expectations: Haddix, M., & Kinloch, V. (2013). Introduction to: A guide for the teacher of basic writing. New York, Multiple publics, multiple voices: Exploring NY: Oxford University Press. perspectives on race and identity in urban schools Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical teaching and communities. Linguistics and Education, 24(3), for social change. Chicago, IL: University of 273–275. Chicago Press. 32. Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students–•–267

Smitherman, G. (1986). Talkin that talk: The language of Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: Black America. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University. U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Street, B. V. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. New Albany, NY: State University of New York York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Press. U.S. Department of Education. (2011, October). Trends in Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development high school dropout and completion rates in the of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, CA: United States: 1972–2009 (Compendium Report). Harvard University Press. Washington, DC: NCES, IES, U.S. Department of Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing up bilingual: Puerto Education. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Rican children in New York. Malden, MA: PDFS/ED524955.pdf Blackwell. 33

LEARNING FROM/WITH MULTICULTURAL CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

MARIA JOSÉ BOTELHO University of Massachusetts Amherst

etaphors of mirrors, windows, and doors to stereotypes and dominant worldviews. Although have a long association with multicultural multicultural children’s literature brings readers up Mchildren’s literature. Children’s books can close to experiences of cultural groups, often this serve as mirror reflections of readers’ identities and literature does not render the power relations experi- lived experiences. They also can function as windows enced among these groups. Readers have to attend to into other people’s cultural circumstances through not just what to read but also how to read because the characters’ eyes and experiences. Through the read- meaning in these texts is largely made by how read- ers’ imagination, the window can become “a sliding ers engage with them. Reclaiming the metaphors of glass door” that allows the reader to be part of the mirrors, windows, and doors beyond the text world created by the texts’ words and/or images, and reader recontextualizes this interaction within expanding the readers’ view of society (Bishop, a broader context. 1990). Literature can transform readers’ lives because Children’s books are cultural products shaped by of its potential to affirm and diversify their social the ideologies and publishing practices of the time in experience. which they were produced. Texts as mirrors magnify These metaphors call attention to who is repre- how society is organized. As windows, they offer a sented, underrepresented, misrepresented, and invis- panoramic view of how power is imbued in the words ible in multicultural children’s literature. Multicultural and images. The metaphor of children’s literature as children’s books, which can generally be defined as doors serves as an entry point to examine how power texts that feature underrepresented groups’ lived can be reconstructed. These reclaimed metaphors of experiences, offer counternarratives to the pervasive multicultural children’s literature can guide the read- White, middle-class, monolingual storylines. How- ing of the power relations of class, race, gender, and ever, one book cannot represent a cultural experience language and create a site for readers to become con- because there is diversity within and among cultural scious of how texts position them and construct their groups, and just because a book is deemed multicul- world. Many sociopolitical and historical factors have tural does not mean its words and images are immune shaped multicultural children’s literature.

268 33. Learning From/With Multicultural Children’s Literature–•–269

Historical and Sociopolitical Contexts representation and recognition of marginalized of Multicultural Children’s Literature cultural groups in children’s literature. In 1967, the Council on Interracial Books for Chil- Multicultural children’s books and texts that represent dren was founded by a culturally diverse group of African American, Native American, Latino/a Ameri- writers, librarians, teachers, and parents to advocate can, and Asian American experiences are rooted in U.S. for antiracist children’s literature and educational power relations, the civil rights movement, and the materials and to create a forum for the sociopolitical emergence of multicultural education. This literary analysis of children’s books. In the mid-1970s, the category was a response to racist sociopolitical and council expanded its mission to include the interroga- publishing practices that contributed to the underrepre- tion of sexism, homophobia, ableism, ageism, clas- sentation, misrepresentation, and invisibility of people sism, and linguicism. Toward the end of the 1970s, of color in the United States. People of color were nearly this organization published books on Native American invisible in children’s literature prior to the 1960s. When stereotypes, human and antihuman values in chil- they were represented in texts, they were backdrops for dren’s books, and guidelines for selecting bias-free storylines or props for White protagonists. textbooks and storybooks. The United Negro Improvement Association’s Many other national organizations formed during call for primary source materials in 1920s was the the 1970s and 1980s to promote awareness about first formal demand in the United States for cultur- underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in ally diverse literature to enrich school curricula and curriculum materials and children’s literature. The Japa- nurture racial pride in African American children. nese American Curriculum Project focused on Asian African American librarians Augusta Baker, Vir- American children’s books; the REFORMA group of ginia Lacy Jones, and Charlemae Rollins marshaled the American Library Association insisted on authentic attention to these conditions too. By 1940 a dia- literature by Latina/o authors; and the Cooperative logue among social justice activists, educators, and Children’s Book Center (CCBC) at the University of school administrators gained momentum about the Wisconsin–Madison documented the number of books importance of multicultural literature in education. published by and about African Americans. In 1994, the The Supreme Court desegregation ruling in Brown CCBC added Asian Pacific/Asian Pacific Americans, v. Board of Education in 1954 was one factor that American Indians, and Latinos/as to its list. It publishes compelled mainstream publishing houses to recon- an annual volume, CCBC Choices, which lists publish- sider their use of ethnic stereotypes in children’s lit- ing statistics and annotates noteworthy multicultural erature. African Americans were recruited to join the children’s books according to themes and genres. field of publishing as authors, illustrators, and edi- Oyate, a Native organization that focuses on the por- tors. Nancy Larrick’s (1965/1995) 3-year empirical trayal of Indigenous peoples in the present and the past, study summoned national attention to how publish- was launched in 1987. Its website offers text analyses of ers’ racist practices of underrepresentation and mis- selected books, a list of books to avoid, announcements representation were raising American children with of teacher workshops, and in-house publications that “gentle doses of racism.” Multicultural children’s analyze Native experiences in children’s literature literature as a literary and pedagogical category (Seale & Slapin, 2005; Slapin & Seale, 2006). developed out of these conditions. During this time, several new small publishers Along with the African American community, opened for business to produce culturally specific underserved groups such as Mexican Americans, books (see Botelho & Rudman, 2009, for a list of Puerto Ricans, Native Americans, and Asian small presses). As of 2013, Lee & Low Books Americans placed pressure on schools for represen- claimed to be the largest children’s book publisher in tation in the curriculum and school communities. It the United States specializing in multicultural litera- was during this time that a culturally rich collection ture, after acquiring Children’s Book Press and of books and curricula was produced. During the late several other multicultural imprints. The materials 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, several organizations, available from these new publishers diversified small presses, and awards were founded to promote storylines with protagonists of color. 270–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Several new annual awards emerged during the diverse cultural groups, and pedagogical consider- 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s to recognize authors and ations across grade levels. The term multicultural illustrators of color (see Botelho & Rudman, 2009, children’s literature came into widespread use in the for a list of culturally specific book awards). For late 1980s, after The Horn Book Guide began using it example, the Coretta Scott King Award pays tribute as a literary category, along with the categories of to authors and illustrators of African descent whose Afro-American and Black. Multicultural literature work promotes Martin Luther King Jr.’s commit- gained wider acceptance because of scholarly ments to peace and world brotherhood. The Pura (i.e., publishing of books and journal articles and Belpré Award, honoring the first Latina librarian in conference presentations), pedagogical (i.e., develop- the New York Public Library, commends Latino/a ments in multicultural education and whole- language writers and illustrators whose books affirm the practices), and publishing (i.e., editing, book review- Latino cultural experience. In the meantime, writers ing) activities. As Mingshui Cai (1998) maintained, and illustrators of color were acknowledged for central to the debate of what is multicultural chil- their work through mainstream awards such as the dren’s literature is “how many cultures are included.” Caldecott Honor award and the Newbery Medal. How teachers and researchers define culture shapes Despite the periodic publishing increases during how multicultural children’s literature is considered. the past 30 years, race still has a stronghold on chil- Culture as “a web of meaning” (Geertz, 1973) dren’s book publishing. Many cultural groups are encoded in its symbolic forms such as language and still underrepresented in children’s books. For exam- literature foregrounds how culture is the product of ple, although Latinos/as represent approximately social activity of its members as they try to make 17% of the U.S. population in 2013, the largest eth- sense of their world. Culture is sociopolitically and nic group in the United States, information compiled historically constructed, and not biologically by the CCBC indicates that out of 3,200 books it determined. Power relations exist at its center. Static received and reviewed in 2013, only 57 books had and bounded notions of culture essentialize cultural significant Latino themes and 48 books were by groups by reducing them to attributes associated Latino/a writers and/or illustrators. CCBC’s compi- with their identities. A complex definition of cul- lation of publishing statistics since 1994 (CCBC, ture offers tools to deconstruct how multicultural n.d.) shows that multicultural children’s literature, children’s literature has been defined. which it defines as literature by and/or about people Cai (1998) identified three principal definitions in of color, has never exceeded 10% of children’s the research of multicultural literature: (1) “people of books available for purchase. The publishing indus- color,” (2) “multiple + culture = multiculturalism,” try’s increasing concentration in the hands of eight and (3) “all literature is multicultural.” Cai’s litera- multinational corporations (Hade & Edmondson, ture review is an excellent resource to trouble these 2003; Taxel & Ward, 2000) further compounds this definitions and reconsider the binaries, discourses, trend (see Taxel, 2011, for a historical overview of and issues circulating among them. these publishing practices). While René Saldaña Jr. Many scholars of children’s literature (Bishop, (2014) argued that educators need to be “proactive” 1992; Cai & Bishop, 1994) have argued that educa- and “look and look and look” for multicultural chil- tors must focus on historically underrepresented dren’s books because they do exist, Walter Dean communities such as African Americans, Native Myers (2014) appealed to the field, “There is work Americans, Latino Americans, and Asian Americans. to be done.” Rudine Sims Bishop (1992) theorized three catego- ries of multicultural literature: culturally specific, generically American, and culturally neutral, all Multiple Theories, Definitions, and reflecting the social position of the main characters. Discourses of Multicultural In an effort to reconcile the tension between peda- Children’s Literature gogical and literary approaches to multicultural liter- ature, Cai and Bishop (1994) offered three additional The scholarship of multicultural children’s literature classifications—world literature, cross-cultural litera- primarily focuses on its definition, representation of ture, and parallel culture literature. World literature, 33. Learning From/With Multicultural Children’s Literature–•–271

which makes up a small percentage of multicultural (Darder & Torres, 1999; Guinier & Torres, 2002; children’s literature, focuses on folktales and fiction hooks, 2000) have advocated for the examination of produced by underrepresented groups outside the class alongside race as well as how power is enacted United States and other Western countries. Cross- in language use (discourses; Foucault, 1972). Class cultural literature, which Cai and Bishop have argued alongside race allows for the analysis of the nuanced is the most predominant type of multicultural chil- dimensions of race. dren’s literature, describes the interrelationships The other is defined as people who are different among cultures and/or is written from an author from linguistically, culturally, and/or racially from the a culture other than the one described. Cross-cultural dominant White American culture. The discourse of literature often foregrounds the gaps between the otherness implies that identity is fixed and unified, authors’ perspectives and the cultures they render. unfolding over time with a stable core. Stuart Hall’s Parallel literature is literature about a culture written (1996) definition of cultural identity challenges the by an author from that culture; authors from parallel “superficial or artificially imposed ‘selves,’ which a groups are considered most qualified to represent people with a shared history and ancestry hold in their cultures’ shared experiences. common” and recasts it as a “process of becoming Some scholars (Rochman, 1993; Schwartz, 1995; rather than being” (pp. 3–4). Implicit in otherness is Shannon, 1994) have cautioned against definitions that culture is bounded and coherent and independent that reduce multiculturalism to race. The public debate from other sociohistorical influences, not questioning between Patrick Shannon and Bishop is noteworthy. the root causes of race relations. According to Shannon (1994), such classifications The issues of cultural authenticity and insider/ disassociate White teachers and students from multi- outsider authors are intertwined in the discourse of cultural issues, as if they are not implicated. He argued otherness. Insider artists are assumed to bring read- that all books “demonstrate the complexity of multi- ers closer to the authentic, pure culture, which is an culturalism.” Bishop (1994) responded, “Multicultur- essentialist view of culture and veils the fact that alism has been equated with racial issues . . . because texts are products of histories, power relations, and . . . America is, and has been for centuries, a racialized discourses. However, the cultural membership of the society. . . . our cultures, have evolved out of the con- author cannot be discounted: Insider authors can ditions under which we have lived” (p. 7). African offer nuanced portrayals of the characters’ use of American presence in children’s literature is palpable. language and power in the text. They can also mis- Race and ethnicity are social constructions and cen- represent cultural experience. Cai (1995) maintained tral to any discussion about literature; however, they that the debate is not necessarily about the social are limited perspectives by themselves because power location of artists and their work, but it is more about relations based on race and ethnicity work with class, “the relationship between imagination and experi- gender, and language. In many ways multicultural lit- ence.” Story Matters: The Complexity of Cultural erature as literature about people of color other these Authenticity in Children’s Literature (Fox & Short, cultural groups and reduce power relations to a Black/ 2003) further considers this debate. White binary. The binary oppositions of Black/White Self-esteem is another discourse of multicultural distort power relations. Binary comparisons do not children’s literature. Just like otherness, the discourse show the complexities of power. For example, multi- of self-esteem assumes a fixed, unified, and stable cultural children’s literature discourages the problem- self. It implies there is an inherent link between atizing of gross lumping of cultural groups, including underrepresented cultural status and low self-esteem. African Americans, Asian Americans, Latino/a Amer- This discourse isolates readers from historical, social, icans, Native Americans, and European Americans. and discursive factors. Readers cannot distance These cultural groupings perpetuate fictive unities themselves from the subjectivities of the main char- and obfuscate intragroup and intergroup diversity. acters to analyze the subject positions (possibilities The binary oppositions of Black/White imply that for being in the world) offered by the texts (Nikolajeva, power is owned and monopolized from top to bot- 2010; Stephens, 1992). tom, simplifying power and obscuring individ- Several scholars (Corliss, 1998; Rochman, 1993; ual involvement in its circulation. Many scholars Yokota, 1993) have advocated for an expansive 272–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

definition of multicultural children’s literature that Alongside the scholarship of multicultural chil- focuses on the “multiple.” Some have added European dren’s literature, many scholars of children’s literature American literature to the list (Corliss, 1998) and have argued for reading children’s literature critically and called for a focus on “any distinct cultural group” multiculturally. The Council on Interracial Books for (Yokota, 1993). Yokota later rescinded her definition Children (1976) questioned the source of ideologies of and argued for a focus on “multiethnic literature” to race, class, gender, and age imbedded in children’s highlight the shared sociopolitical, economic, and cul- books and maintained that texts for children were not tural experiences of ethnic groups. Cai (1998) warned just produced by individuals but represented society as that these definitions might “dilute or deconstruct” the a whole. Several scholars of children’s literature have sociopolitical factors that gave rise to multicultural advocated for reading children’s literature against race, children’s literature. For Cai, multicultural children’s class, and gender ideologies, so readers can become literature delineates the social line between the aware of how these systems of power work in society dominant culture and underrepresented communities. (Botelho & Rudman, 2009; Ching, 2005; Hade, 1997; While these expanded definitions include more Harris, 1999; Harris & Willis, 2003; Nodelman & cultural groups and acknowledge that all groups Reimer, 2003; Schwartz, 1995; Yenika-Agbaw, 1997). originate from historical and sociopolitical associa- Critical literacies scholars (Vasquez, 2010) have tions and disassociations, they still fall victim to offered many analytical practices for engaging with dualisms of power, simplifying social relations children’s literature and argue for bringing multiple and dismissing individuals’ involvement in the histories, cultures, and power together. maintenance and circulation of power. Shannon (1994) maintained that all people have multiple social memberships, and perhaps these Practices of Inquiry identities can link people across social lines. Cai (1998) argued against this position because the Simply integrating multicultural children’s literature sociopolitical basis for the creation of multicultural into the curriculum does not in itself address power literature is undermined. Examining how all litera- and reconstruct school literacy practices. This ture is culturally coded and the multiple identities of restructuring requires rethinking which texts we use characters and readers, as well as embracing a com- and how we use them in the teaching of author, plex understanding of power relations, rejects that genre, and ethnic studies in the classroom. I offer the dominant culture is the single source of power. some caveats for reconsidering these teaching prac- All literature that is multicultural acknowledges the tices so they go beyond stretching readers’ cultural complexities of culture and power relations. imagination to reading that fosters historical and The study of children’s literature must question sociopolitical imagination. which cultures are represented and how are they Author study begins with sustained inquiry into depicted. As Hall (1996) argued, “Identities are . . . the authors and their texts and culminates with the constituted within not outside representation” (p. 4). young readers knowing and drawing on the authors’ It is only when cultural groups’ stories are repre- writing craft. The main goal is to restore the human- sented that these groups can then begin to negotiate ity of the author by making visible the writing pro- their identities. The production and pedagogy of mul- cess and creating opportunities for apprenticing with ticultural children’s literature has generated silences “real-life” writers. However, focusing solely on the and rendered some cultural experiences invisible. author is adhering to the notion that an individual is The unwritten can be just as important as what is the source of meaning in books. The author is tied to written (Derrida, 1980). The literary category of institutional discursive practices that shape text pro- multicultural children’s literature distracts readers duction (Foucault, 1984). Analyzing the authors’ from focusing on the silence of class (Dixon, 1977; language use helps to determine the discourses Krips, 1993; Wojcik-Andrews, 1993) and how it deployed in their texts. works with race. It is easier to focus on culture as Genre-based study is another way to study chil- bounded, fixed, and stable because it is something we dren’s literature. The interaction between textual fea- agree we all possess. tures and reading practices shapes and constrains the 33. Learning From/With Multicultural Children’s Literature–•–273

meaning-making process. Genres shape readers’ can help readers interpret dual-language texts or expectations of texts, so making them visible can help texts laced with other languages. Readers and readers engage with books critically. All children’s researchers alike need to ask how the composition, books are hybrid genres: There is no pure genre. perspective, animation, sound, and color shape how Author and genre studies can inform ethnic-based stories get told and cultures get rendered. Recent inquiries. Many scholars (e.g., Ada, 1990/2003; scholarship on multimodalities and children’s litera- Bishop, 2007; Ching & Pataray-Ching, 2003; Harris, ture (Peterson, Booth, & Jupiter, 2009; Serafini, 1992, 1997; Seale & Slapin, 2005) have explored text 2014) can offer some guidance. collections based on specific ethnic groups. These Digital technologies are contributing to the syner- multiethnic text collections could be clustered by gistic marketing of children’s literature with multiple author or genre and then read against secondary products like toys, clothes, films, television shows, sources that offer historical and sociopolitical stage performances, translations, websites, blogs, information to recontextualize the books. and video games, demanding literacy practices Critical multicultural analytical practices (Botelho & beyond reading words in print. Branding book char- Rudman, 2009; e.g., point of view, social processes acters blurs the line between reading and consumer- among the characters, story ending, genre(s), and ism (Sekeres, 2009). While these texts are pushing sociopolitical and historical contexts) offer tools to the boundaries of children’s literature, teachers and examine how the textuality of books constructs cul- students need to consider when these products con- ture and race-, class-, gender-, and language-based flate entertainment and advertisement (see CCBC, power relations in ethnic-, genre-, and author-based n.d., as a resource). inquires. Building on reader response practices that Multicultural children’s books can inspire child draw on readers’ prior knowledge of cultural themes readers to create their own texts. Multimodal text and genres creates spaces for critical engagement making in response to multicultural stories, poetry, with these texts (Cai, 2008) where readers decon- biographies, and the like will allow children to be struct and reconstruct their understandings and read text and cultural producers in creating local literature within, between, among, and beyond texts. that represents new aesthetics, media, genres, and cultural themes. Text production increases children’s awareness of how texts are constructed and what Modes of Representation modes communicate. These texts become re/ construction sites as child authors and artists negoti- Digital technologies offer multicultural children’s lit- ate their identities and experiences as well as expand erature some affordances and constraints. A variety of their repertoire of reading practices. digital texts (e.g., books, magazines, films, photo- The metaphors of mirrors, windows, and doors graphs, newspaper articles, video clips, music, visual shape how readers think about and engage with arts) related to the multicultural stories can contextual- multicultural children’s literature. Multicultural ize and reify the cultural experiences in these books. children’s literature as curriculum creates many These additional texts can offer more information purposeful and meaningful opportunities to explore about the author, culture, arts, history, and/or geogra- historical and sociopolitical contexts. Issues of race, phy associated with the children’s book. However, class, gender, and language are cultural themes in a teachers need to support students in the analysis of growing number of books. An alignment with a more these digital texts because they are socially constructed complex view of culture will challenge fixed too: Many decisions were made in their production. and bounded understandings of culture, identity, and Digital tools have made their way to children’s power and repositions readers as researchers and cre- book publishing. Some texts are available in video ators of language, literature, and culture. Readers can and audio formats. Audio books offer young readers reconsider how cultural experience and social access to stories and languages that might be beyond organization are represented in children’s literature their linguistic and reading experiences. Some and reimagine “local democracies” (Botelho, 2008) e-books insert video clips and sound, reshaping read- through text analyses, storyline revisions, and ers’ experiences with texts. Multilingual dictionaries innovations in form. 274–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

References and Further Readings Cooperative Children’s Book Center (CCBC). (n.d.). Children’s books by and about people of color Ada, A. F. (1990/2003). A magical encounter: Latino published in the United States. Retrieved from http:// children’s literature in the classroom (2nd ed.). ccbc.education.wisc.edu/books/pcstats.asp Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Corliss, J. C. (1998). Crossing borders with literature of Bishop, R. S. (1990). Mirrors, windows, and sliding glass diversity. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon doors. Perspectives: Choosing and Using Books for Publishers. the Classroom, 6(3), ix–xi. Council on Interracial Books for Children. (1976). Bishop, R. S. (1992). Multicultural literature for children: Human (and anti-human) values in children’s books. Making informed choices. In V. J. Harris (Ed.), New York, NY: Council on Interracial Books for Teaching multicultural literature in grades K-8 Children. (pp. 37–53). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Darder, A., & Torres, R. D. (1999). Shattering the Publishers. “race” lens: Toward a critical theory of racism. Bishop, R. S. (1994). A reply to Shannon the canon. In R. H. Tai & M. L. Kenyatta (Eds.), Critical Journal of Children’s Literature, 20(1), 6–8. ethnicity: Countering the waves of identity politics Bishop, R. S. (1997). Selecting literature for a (pp. 173–192). New York, NY: Rowman & multicultural curriculum. In V. J. Harris (Ed.), Using Littlefield. multiethnic literature in the K-8 classroom Derrida, J. (1980). Writing and difference. Chicago, IL: (pp. 1–19). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon University of Chicago Press. Publishers. Dixon, B. (1977). Class: Snakes and ladders. In B. Dixon Bishop, R. S. (2007). Free within ourselves: The (Ed.), Catching them young: Sex, race and class in development of African American children’s children’s fiction (pp. 42–93). Bristol, UK: Pluto literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Press. Botelho, M. J. (2008). Re-reading the text. Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge and In S. Nieto (Ed.), Dear Paulo: Letters from those the discourse on language. New York, NY: who dare teach (pp. 150–153). Boulder, CO: Pantheon. Paradigm. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected Botelho, M. J., & Rudman, M. K. (2009). Critical interviews and other writings, 1972–1977. multicultural analysis of children’s literature: New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Mirrors, windows, and doors. New York, NY: Foucault, M. (1984). What is an author? In P. Rabinow Routledge. (Ed.), The Foucault reader (pp. 101–120). New York, Cai, M. (1995). Can we fly across cultural gaps on the NY: Pantheon Books. wings of imagination? Ethnicity, experience, and Fox, D., & Short, K. G. (Eds.). (2003). Stories matter: cultural authenticity. The New Advocate, 8(1), The complexity of cultural authenticity in children’s 1–16. literature. Urbana, IL: NCTE. Cai, M. (1998). Multiple definitions of multicultural Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an literature: Is the debate really just “ivory tower” interpretive theory of culture. In C. Geertz (Ed.), bickering? The New Advocate, 11(4), 311–324. The interpretation of cultures (pp. 3–30). New York, Cai, M. (2008). Transactional theory and the study of NY: Random House. multicultural literature. Language Arts, 85(3), Guinier, L., & Torres, G. (2002). The miner’s canary: 212–220. Enlisting race, resisting power, transforming Cai, M., & Bishop, R. S. (1994). Multicultural literature democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University for children: Towards a clarification of the concept. Press. In A. H. Dyson & C. Genishi (Eds.), The need for Hade, D. D. (1997). Reading multiculturally. story: Cultural diversity in classroom and community In V. J. Harris (Ed.), Using multicultural children’s (pp. 57–71). Urbana, IL: NCTE. literature in the K-8 classroom (pp. 233–256). Ching, S. H. D. (2005). Multicultural children’s literature Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. as an instrument of power. Language Arts, 83(2), Hade, D., & Edmondson, J. (2003). Children’s book 128–137. publishing in neoliberal times. Language Arts, 81(2), Ching, S. H. D., & Pataray-Ching, J. (2003). Toward a 135–143. socio-political framework for Asian American Hall, S. (1996). Who needs ‘identity’? In S. Hall & P. du children’s literature. The New Advocate, 16(2), Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural identity (pp. 1–17). 123–128. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 33. Learning From/With Multicultural Children’s Literature–•–275

Harris, V. J. (Ed.). (1992). Teaching multicultural writer-of-color-and-im-right-here-in-front-of-you-im- literature in grades K-8. Norwood, MA: the-one-sitting-alone-at-the-table/ Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Schwartz, E. G. (1995). Crossing borders/shifting Harris, V. J. (Ed.). (1997). Using multiethnic literature in paradigms: Multiculturalism and children’s literature. the K-8 classroom. Norwood, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 65(4), 634–650. Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Seale, D., & Slapin, B. (Eds.). (2005). A broken flute: Harris, V. J. (1999). Applying critical theories to children’s The native experience for books for children. literature. Theory Into Practice, 38(3), 147–154. New York, NY: AltaMira Press; Berkeley, CA: Harris, V. J., & Willis, A. I. (2003). Multiculturalism, Oyate. literature, and curriculum issues. In J. Flood, D. Sekeres, D. C. (2009). The market child and branded Lapp, J. R. Squire, & J. M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook fiction: A synergism of children’s literature, of research on teaching the English language arts consumer culture, and new literacies. Reading (2nd ed., pp. 825–834). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Research Quarterly, 44(4), 399–414. Erlbaum. Serafini, F. (2014). Reading the visual: An introduction to hooks, b. (2000). Where we stand: Class matters. teaching multimodal literacy. New York, NY: New York, NY: Routledge. Teachers College Press. Krips, V. (1993). A notable irrelevance: Class and Shannon, P. (1994). I am the canon: Finding ourselves in children’s fiction. The Lion and the Unicorn, 17(2), multiculturalism. Journal of Children’s Literature, 195–209. 20(1), 1–5. Larrick, N. (1965/1995). The all-White world of Sims, R. (1982). Shadow and substance: Afro-American children’s books. In O. Osa (Ed.), The all White experience in contemporary children’s fiction. world of children’s books and African American Urbana, IL: NCTE. children’s literature (pp. 1–12). Trenton, NJ: Africa Slapin, B., & Seale, D. (Eds.). (2006). Through Indian World Press. eyes: The native experience in books for children Myers, W. D. (2014, March 16). Where are the people of (5th ed.). Berkeley, CA: Oyate. color in children’s books? The New York Times. Stephens, J. (1992). Language and ideology in children’s Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/16/ fiction. New York, NY: Longman. opinion/sunday/where-are-the-people-of-color-in- Taxel, J. (2011). The economics of children’s book childrens-books.html?_r=0 publishing in the 21st century. In S. A. Wolf, K. Nikolajeva, M. (Ed.). (2010). Power, voice and Coats, P. Enciso, & C. A. Jenkins (Eds.), Handbook subjectivity in literature for young readers of research on children’s and young adult literature (pp. 185–202). New York, NY: Routledge. (pp. 479–494). New York, NY: Routledge. Nodelman, P., & Reimer, M. (2003). The pleasures of Taxel, J., & Ward, H. M. (2000). Publishing children’s children’s literature (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & literature at the dawn of the 21st century. Bacon. The New Advocate, 13(1), 51–59. Peterson, S. S., Booth, D., & Jupiter, C. (Eds.). (2009). Vasquez, V. (2010). Getting beyond “I like the book”: Books, media & the internet: Children’s literature for Creating space for critical literacy in K-6 classrooms today’s classrooms. Winnipeg, MB, Canada: (2nd ed.). Newark, DE: International Reading Portage & Main Press. Association. Rochman, H. (1993). Against borders: Promoting books Wojcik-Andrews, I. (1993). Toward a theory of class in for a multicultural world. Chicago, IL: American children’s literature. The Lion and the Unicorn, Library Association. 17(2), 113–123. Saldaña, R. (2014, September 8). Forgive me my Yenika-Agbaw, V. (1997). Taking children’s literature bluntness: I’m a writer of color and I’m right here in seriously: Reading for pleasure and social change. front of you: I’m the one sitting alone at the table. Language Arts, 74(6), 446–453. Latin@s in Kid Lit. http://latinosinkidlit.com/ Yokota, J. (1993). Issues in selecting multicultural 2014/09/08/forgive-me-my-bluntness-im-a- children’s literature. Language Arts, 70, 156– 167.

Website

Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood: http://www .commercialfreechildhood.org/ 34

STUDENTS AND (DIS)ABILITY

MARA SAPON-SHEVIN Syracuse University

elineating this topic—the education of stu- This is problematic for many reasons and has dents who are identified as being “disabled” been challenged by the disability community as well Dor having a “disability”—is challenging even as those who advocate for more person-centered as we attempt to define the issue. How we think approaches to education. If we view disability as an about and talk about disability affects not only our identity, which is similar to race, class, gender, eth- understanding of the labeled individual but also our nicity, or sexual orientation, then it has clear implica- responses and interactions with that person. tions for acknowledging that people identified as Traditional ways of talking about students with “disabled” also have other identities. We must con- disabilities often equate the person with the sider intersectionality and how various identities disability. “He is deaf.” “She is mentally retarded.” lead both to different histories and experiences and The medical model views disability as a disease, a to different levels of discrimination and power. condition, or an affliction, and thus responses center A White, wealthy, Christian, heterosexual male stu- around “treatments” and “cures.” If we view disabil- dent with a disability will likely not share the same ity as something “within” the person, something life experiences as a poor, Latina, lesbian young problematic that causes difficulty, then our woman with a disability, even though, at some level, orientation will be toward “fixing” or “remediating” they are both read as “disabled.” the difference. This orientation is often referred to More radically, a disability studies perspective as “the medical model.” This orientation renders the would urge us to embrace the position that “disabil- person with a disability as a “patient” who requires ity” is, in fact, a social construction, a product of the the ministrations of a professional who is skilled in interaction between a particular human body with addressing that particular condition. Relationships a specific set of characteristics and a host of social, between the “professional” and the “patient” are political, geographic, and economic contexts. This likely to be hierarchical and unidirectional and will further problematizes the idea that there are, in fact, likely pay little attention to the hopes, desires, “disabled people” and illuminates the need for an opinions, and agency of the person who is seen as analysis that is more structural, political, and requiring remediation. nuanced.

Author’s Note: Portions of this chapter are adapted from “Inclusive Education,” by M. Sapon-Shevin, in Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education, edited by J. A. Banks, 2012, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

276 34. Students and (Dis)Ability–•–277

Looking at the interactions between individuals “student with a hearing loss” rather than the “CP kid” labeled as “disabled” and the environment in which or the “deaf girl.” The goal of people-first language they live will direct us to examine what about the is to acknowledge the multiple-identities people have environment is “disabling” to an individual and, (e.g., the boy with cerebral palsy is also an African therefore, might be addressed. If, for example, a American, Baptist, from Alabama, and a stamp col- person with a hearing impairment is only able to lector) and cannot be summed up by a single label, communicate through sign language, then an envi- particularly one that makes the disability the “master ronment in which almost no one else uses sign lan- identity.” guage will result in the isolation of that person and Some disability activists, however, reject people- the limitation of their interactions. If, however, all first language because they feel it denies the salience students are taught sign language, then signing of the disability in their lives. Jim Sinclair, a disabil- becomes one of the possible forms of communica- ity activist, said, “I am not a person with autism. I am tion and the person with a hearing impairment may an autistic person.” He said that his autism is an still have a physical condition that affects their hear- essential feature of himself as a person and central to ing, but they will not be “disabled,” that is, unable to how he sees himself (1993). do things within his or her environment. The educa- Beyond language, however, an important princi- tional solutions for a student who relies on a wheel- ple is that all people who are labeled “disabled” are chair to move around can either be viewed as not members of a cohesive, homogeneous group. “getting him to walk” or as a need for more physical Believing that we know everything about someone accessibility and massive attitudinal changes about because we know something about them (they use a what it means (and does not mean) to be a person wheelchair, they have difficulty speaking, they are who has limited mobility. unable to see) leads to stereotyping, prejudice, erro- How disabilities are viewed has powerful ethical neous assumptions, and limitations; these problems ramifications as well. The eugenics movement of the are all a function of those who view, discuss, plan late 19th and early 20th centuries was an attempt to for, or attempt to communicate about or for the per- improve the human gene pool by systematically son who has the “disability” rather than honoring eliminating people with disabilities through steril- that person’s voice—even if that person is unable to ization, neglect, and even outright murder. As prena- speak in typical ways. A slogan within the disability tal testing increases in frequency and popularity, rights community is “If you’ve met one person with many children with disabilities are aborted before autism. . . . You’ve met one person with autism.” they are born, and, thus, there are fewer children Another says, “Nothing about us without us.” with certain disabilities (Down syndrome, for exam- Similarly, some communities have claimed or ple) in schools. Attitudes toward those children have reclaimed labels that were previously viewed as pejo- also changed and there are those who are less (rather rative and now use them as empowering identifiers, than more) accepting because they perceive that par- for example, talking about “crip power” and “Deaf ents made a choice to have this child and, therefore, culture.” Another change has been the insistence that that it is not incumbent on professionals to make people once labeled “normal” and thus not needing accommodations. to be named also specifically identify themselves as having specific characteristics; for example, the word neurotypical is now promoted as a way of illus- Contemporary Concerns trating that people who are neurologically “ atypical” are different—but not deviant. Language and Labeling

One of the most powerful shifts within the disabil- Overrepresentation ity area has been the advocacy for what is called “people-first language.” In order to make it clear that It is well established that students of color are we are discussing full, complete people rather than significantly overrepresented among those labeled as reducing individuals to their disability label, the call “disabled” and that White, hegemonic understand- is to talk about “the boy with cerebral palsy” or the ings of “normality” lead to lower expectations and 278–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

inferior education for those with less power and what was “least restrictive.” This meant that a student privilege. While White students of privilege who are with disabilities was returned to a traditional class- underperforming are more likely to be labeled “learn- room when he or she was judged able to learn and ing disabled,” Black students with lower performance make progress there, putting the responsibility to are more likely to be labeled “mentally retarded”; change and adapt on the student. Little attention was the education provided to those with such disparate placed on creating classrooms and schools that were labels is not equitable (Blanchett, 2010; Erevelles, structured inclusively. Kanga, & Middleton, 2006; Ferri & Connor, 2005; The term mainstreaming was largely replaced by Sleeter, 2010). the term inclusive education or the goal of full inclu- Shelley D. Zion and Wanda Blanchett (2011) sion. A model of inclusion implies that classroom argued that the inclusive education movement has organization, curriculum, and instruction of the gen- not resulted in the anticipated outcomes of inclusion eral education classroom should be designed in order of African American students in or with general to meet the needs of a wide range of students. No one education students or classes because it failed to should have to “earn” their “right” to be educated in look at intersections of ability/disability with race, an inclusive environment; rather, the belief is that all class, culture, and language and it also did not ade- students have the right to be educated with their quately address issues of racism, White privilege, chronological peers in their neighborhood school or White dominance, and social class dominance. They the school they would typically attend if they did not also cite Shafik Asante (n.d.) who troubled even the have a label. Inclusion must also, however, be con- language of “inclusion” because trasted with “dumping,” in which students are placed in typical classrooms with no preparation or training “inclusion” means inviting those who have been histori- for their teachers and without a system of ongoing cally locked out to “come in.” This well-intentioned support and resources. The term partial inclusion is meaning must be strengthened. A weakness of this defi- nition is evident. Who has the authority or right to also problematic ideologically and logistically; to be “invite” others in? And how did the “inviters” get in? a full member of a community implies that you are Finally, who is doing the excluding? . . . The act of really “there” the majority of the time and that your inclusion means fighting against exclusion and all of learning needs are met within the context of the the social diseases exclusion gives birth to. (n.p.) classroom community. Inclusive education refers to a way of structuring Educational Issues educational services so that all students (regardless of labels or putative disabilities) are educated together in Debates continue about what constitutes the best a shared community. Inclusive education is not only or appropriate education of persons with “disabili- an administrative arrangement but also an ideologi- ties.” Historically, people with disabilities were com- cal and philosophical commitment to a vision of pletely unserved, often warehoused in institutions. schools and societies that are diverse and nonexclu- Then came the development of special education sionary; as such, inclusive education can be viewed as services, often delivered in segregated facilities such a civil rights issue, akin to ending racial segregation, as schools for the blind/deaf and those labeled as gender segregation, or discrimination, for example, “mentally retarded.” Beginning with the passage of against people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of or transgendered. Initially, the term inclusive educa- 1975 (Public Law 94–142), there was increased tion described the inclusion of student with disabili- attention given to providing education for students ties in general education classrooms, but this term can with disabilities in more integrated settings. The orig- also now address providing education in ways that inal term mainstreaming was used to refer to the recognize, honor, and respond to differences in race, provision of education within what was called the class, gender, ethnicity, religion, language, sexual “least restrictive environment.” This term, however, orientation, and family configuration. All students was problematic as it rested on someone else’s judg- have multiple identities (Joshua may have cerebral ment (rarely the person with the disability) about palsy, but he is also from a Spanish-speaking, single- what constituted reasonable accommodations and parent family), and all those identities intersect and 34. Students and (Dis)Ability–•–279

interact; an inclusive classroom must be responsive to Classroom Organization and Climate all student characteristics. In order for inclusive education to be successful, Inclusive education can also be contrasted with extensive consideration must be given to the ways in seeking to provide a range of placement options which the classroom and school climate are welcom- known as a “continuum of services,” which can ing of all students and their families. Issues of voice include anything from “full inclusion” to “full and representation become paramount if the school is exclusion” from the typical classroom. Offering a truly to be a community in which all members par- continuum of services often leads to the continuing ticipate and see themselves recognized and valued. exclusion of many students with disabilities. Because How we talk about differences, using people-first there are “choices” about where a student will be language, for example (“Cathy has cerebral palsy” placed, there is little impetus for systemic, structural rather than “Cathy suffers from cerebral palsy” or change, and decisions about placement are often “Cathy is our CP student”), are critical to creating a based on limited, prejudicial assumptions about what learning environment in which differences are students are capable of. In addition, administrators acknowledged and addressed. Just as the concept of are likely to fill all available placement options, “color blindness” has been rejected as a goal or a interfering with the development of a unified, com- possibility in multicultural education, the idea that prehensive structure. Much like the phrase “If you good inclusion is invisible (i.e., you cannot tell who build it, they will come,” one might posit that in the kids with disabilities are) must be replaced with terms of special education, “If you have a program, the goal of meeting students’ needs without either you will fill it.” minimizing or stigmatizing the characteristics that One of the key concepts of inclusion is that stu- occasion adaptations and modifications. Careful dents with disabilities should be represented in any attention must also be paid to issues of bullying, classroom in “natural proportions.” That is, if chil- harassment, and discrimination. Active programs to dren with disabilities represent 10% of the overall combat racism, homophobia, religious oppression, student population, no classroom or school should and disability oppression are essential to creating have more than 10% of their students to be children welcoming environments for all students and fami- with such challenges. Inclusion policies in particular lies. Simply being in the classroom is no guarantee schools, however, often preclude this configuration. that a student with a disability is accepted, included, Because administrators look for schools, classrooms, or has meaningful relationships with others or an and teachers who will be welcoming and whose cur- education that is appropriate. ricular and pedagogical practices support diversity and inclusion, students with disabilities are often Curriculum overrepresented in particular classrooms or schools. Unfortunately, in many schools, only certain class- An inclusive curriculum is one that names and rooms are labeled as “inclusive”—that is, “This is values diversity of many kinds. What is taught in an our inclusive third grade.” Although the range of dif- inclusive classroom must be broad and closely con- ferences present in any particular classroom will nected to the goal of having all students become certainly vary, all classrooms are inevitably heteroge- “global citizens” who are knowledgeable about all neous; the difference is between classrooms that aspects of diversity and also committed to defending explicitly name and address student differences and a positive approach to diversity against those who those that attempt to make the differences invisible would narrow or distort the stories and perspectives and ask professionals to teach in some standard way that are presented. In the same way that comprehen- while pretending to be responsive. sive multicultural education seeks to be transforma- Inclusive education has implications for each of tive rather than additive (Banks, 2003), inclusive the following: (1) classroom organization and cli- education demands that students be knowledgeable mate, (2) curriculum, (3) pedagogy, (4) staffing and about differences related to race, class, gender, eth- service provision, and (5) teacher education. All nicity, religion, language, sexual orientation, and so of these are part of the broad notion of curriculum on, and also possess skills to interrupt and challenge studies and curriculum work. oppressive behavior and practices. 280–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Pedagogy who serve students with labels and others identified as “regular education teachers” who serve students with- Within an inclusive classroom, the ways in which out labels. The vast proliferation of students without children are taught should include extensive differen- formal labels who are still “high-needs” due to eco- tiated instruction (not tracking), recognition of multi- nomic, language, and emotional challenges makes it ple intelligences (Armstrong, 2009; Gardner, 2011), imperative that teachers have a skill set that crosses and commitment to exploring multiple modes of pre- traditional boundaries. The term role release applies senting, exploring, and assessing student knowledge to the need for particular teaching and therapy skills to and performance. It is widely recognized that rigid, be available to and practiced by a broader range of lockstep curriculum is incompatible with thinking educators and staff members. Models of co-teaching, inclusively and flexibly about a wide variety of learn- in which teachers with different backgrounds, certifi- ers. Many structures and ways of framing instruction cations, and expertise share responsibility for a het- have been developed and refined that make schooling erogeneous group of learners, are important to the more accessible to a broader range of learners. The success of inclusive education. Paraprofessionals also concept of universal design, for example, asks that play an important role in inclusive classrooms, instruction be designed from the onset to be available although it is critical that these aides or assistants not to all, rather than retrofitting the curriculum and limit their interactions and support to students with pedagogy after the fact. Cooperative learning, when designated disabilities, as this tends to perpetuate designed to actively include all learners, can be used student segregation. The phenomenon of the “Velcro in order to allow for all students to participate (per- aide” who sticks tightly to a particular student is haps in different ways) while still working toward a problematic and must be replaced with shared shared goal. Peer teaching and peer support are also responsibility by all professionals for all students. key components of inclusive education, recognizing that peers can offer one another essential teaching and emotional support while also strengthening the Teacher Education classroom community (Janney & Smell, 2006). Preparing teachers for inclusive education entails Another important concept is that of “presuming disrupting typical patterns of preparing teachers for competence” for students with disabilities. Rather either special education or regular education and than assuming that students cannot or will not learn moving beyond even dual programs or double majors or that they cannot benefit from exposure to rich, to programs that are specifically designed to prepare diverse learning experiences, it is important—when teachers for inclusive settings. Syracuse University we are not sure what a student is learning or is capa- developed the first teacher education program to pre- ble of—to err on the side of assuming that the student pare teachers for inclusive classrooms in the early is competent and is learning. Presuming competence 1990s; now such programs are far more common posits that it is far better to make the error of expos- throughout the country. Teachers who are prepared for ing a student to rich, intensive education when we are inclusive teaching must have skills in designing inclu- not sure exactly what they are learning than to fail to sive curriculum, implementing differentiated instruc- teach such a student when the student could, in fact, tion, promoting inclusive classroom communities, have benefited immensely from excellent teaching teaching about differences, working with parents, and wide exposure. For example, we allow all stu- collaborating with other educational professionals, dents to participate in extracurricular activities rather and being active advocates for inclusive educational than choosing a “select choir,” and we assume that all practices. Most importantly, those prepared as inclu- students would learn something from a field trip even sive teachers both expect and welcome the heteroge- if their level of participation is different. neity of their classrooms and have the skills to create Staffing and Service Provision and teach within inclusive environments. They do not assume that diversity will be a “problem” to be elimi- Inclusive education demands an end to segregated nated but embrace differences as enriching the class- staffing patterns as well, that is, certain teachers excl- room environment and providing opportunities to usively designated as “special education teachers” teach about equity, voice, fairness, and social justice. 34. Students and (Dis)Ability–•–281

Challenges to Inclusive Education Unfortunately, the enactment of the No Child Left for Students With Disabilities Behind Act of 2001 and the increase of high-stakes testing and regimentation have seriously and nega- Challenges to inclusive education include ideologi- tively impacted the implementation of inclusive edu- cal, political, and structural ones. There are still those cation. Models that reward teachers based on the who are not comfortable with creating classrooms performance of their students (often in competitive that include all children within a common frame- ways) dissuade teachers and schools from including work. They worry that the needs of children with students who may require additional time, skills, and disabilities cannot be met within the context of gen- resources in order to be successful. The current eral education; they believe that the education of emphasis on high-stakes testing and the development “typical” children will be negatively influenced by of scripted, rigid curricula certainly makes it more the presence and inclusion of children with disabili- difficult for teachers to be creative and innovative in ties, and they believe that the current models of seg- meeting the needs of students. In addition, the dev- regated special education are acceptable and/or elopment and proliferation of private and charter optimal. Those who defend special education argue schools that are able to exclude children with that special education instruction is individualized disabilities by establishing rigid entrance criteria and that this cannot happen in the regular classroom. and/or by discouraging parents of children with dis- Opponents of inclusion refer to it as a “one size fits abilities from enrolling their children make inclusive all” model and believe that both typical students and education very difficult. students with disabilities are denied an appropriate Ethical issues related to power and privilege also education under this model. arise “when individuals who are members of margin- Other opponents of inclusive education argue that alized or oppressed groups are systematically tar- students with disabilities will not be safe in the regu- geted for behavior management plans; typically lar school environment and will be victims of harass- members of dominant groups make decisions about ment, bullying, and exclusion. Other objections what constitutes ‘deviant’ or ‘unacceptable’ behavior include the fact that most teachers have not been and set about to change the behavior” (Sapon-Shevin, prepared to teach to a wide range of differences in 2015). Often students with disabilities have been the classroom and will not be accepting of inclusive subjected to abusive behavior management strategies education. that are implemented with little understanding of the All these objections to inclusive education stem nature of the child’s disability and his or her ability to from an inability to imagine, actualize, or advocate control various behaviors. for classrooms and schools that are organized and APRAIS (The Alliance to Prevent Restraint, supported differently. It is certainly true that many Aversive Interventions and Seclusion) details the schools are structured rigidly, with a narrow curricu- use of these strategies, including electric shock, lum, limited pedagogy, and unimaginative and over- force-feeding, and odor therapy using ammonia or burdened teachers who are poorly supported. These, other noxious fumes, in schools, treatment pro- however, are problems that go beyond inclusive grams, and residential facilities. The disability advo- education and are simply highlighted more dramati- cacy organization TASH issued a forceful statement cally when the range of student learners is purpose- against the use of aversive techniques to control the fully and explicitly more heterogeneous. Making behavior of people with disabilities, calling it abuse schools better for students whose needs are more that would not be condoned if it was imposed on the obviously divergent can occasion improvements for elderly, “nondisabled” children, prisoners, or even all students. Research supports that good inclusive animals. settings that include adequate and ongoing support for teachers, a broad curriculum, creative and differentiated teaching strategies, parental involve- Theory ment, and careful attention to school climate and community are optimal learning environments for all As stated earlier, a disability studies lens pushes students. against conventional understandings of “normality” 282–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

and schooling and challenges us to critique the ways or to be labeled “disabled” are those who have had in which such rigidities maintain various powers and that experience themselves. We need to honor the privileges in place. Susan Baglieri and colleagues voices of those who have experienced prejudice, dis- (2011) challenged the discourse of “inclusion” as crimination, ill-treatment, and limited expectations. well, because of the failure to include a wide range of The articulation of their own experiences and their diversities in the analysis and the lack of analysis of insistence on their rights to be full participants in the broader issues of social justice and cultural transfor- world provide us with important insight into how to mation. Inclusive education cannot be viewed as a end disability oppression at personal and societal different form of “special education” or as an alter- levels (Ferri, 2011). native “delivery system” because that leaves in place Simi Linton is the author of Claiming Disability: traditional notions of who is “normal” and who is Knowledge and Identity (1998) and of a memoir “deviant.” titled My Body Politic (2007). Linton, who uses a The field of disability studies has also been cri- wheelchair, has consistently challenged images of tiqued for its shift toward identity politics, which people with disabilities as powerless victims, articulates issues of oppression as personal experi- asexual beings, and observers rather than active par- ences rather than societal structures. And, even label- ticipants in their own lives and in the arts. Lynn ing the approach “disability studies” limits its reach Manning, the author of a one-man show titled and impact since it often fails to examine the ways in “Weights,” explores the complexities of life as an which other oppressions are played out in society and African American man who is blind. Not only does the need for shared analysis and advocacy (Sapon- he move us away from “hero narratives” about peo- Shevin, 2014). Marleen C. Pugach, Linda P. Blanton, ple with disabilities, but he also exposes our assump- and Lani Florian (2012) asked: “How can we work tions and prejudices about people perceived as together to advance a more complete vision of diver- “other” (Ferri, 2008). Jonathan Mooney (2008) in sity, one that does not merely attach ‘disability’ to his book The Short Bus: A Journey Beyond Normal a long list of social markers of identity?” (p. 235). reenacted his experiences as a student labeled “dys- lexic and profoundly learning disabled” to illustrate the ways in which students in special education Forms of Inquiry and Modes experience prejudice and discrimination. And a stun- of Expression ning video by Amanda Baggs titled “In My Language” shares her personal narrative of autism— Because a medical model of disability prevailed for the first part in her “native language” of humming so long, typical forms of inquiry involved research and movement and then a translation into “standard paradigms in which “normal” or “able-bodied” peo- English” that she types and has it read by another ple studied and/or experimented on people who were person. Stereotypes about what it means to have “other.” There are numerous studies that purport to autism crumble in the face of her brilliance and her explain or describe people with disabilities and/or challenges to viewers to enhance their listening skills contrast their behavior, needs, and issues with those rather than change her “voice.” of “normal people.” The disability movement, and the Only when students with disabilities are viewed as increasing numbers of people who define themselves full human beings, respected for their own desires as disability activists, has resulted in new modes of and enabled to access their voices and power, will we understanding disability and disability issues. These be able to create schools as sites of inclusion and include autobiography, films, participant observation, equity. This struggle must be connected to other and other forms of naturalistic inquiry. efforts to engage in cultural transformation rooted in There is increasing recognition that the people social justice and an embracing response to best able to describe what it is like to be “disabled” difference. 34. Students and (Dis)Ability–•–283

References and Further Readings inclusive education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the Linton, S. (1998). Claiming disability: Knowledge and classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. identity. New York, NY: New York University Asante, S. (n.d.). What is inclusion? The Inclusion Press. Network. Retrieved from http://www.inclusion.com/ Linton, S. (2007). My body politic: A memoir. Ann Arbor, inclusion.html MI: University of Michigan Press. Baglieri, S., Bejoian, L. M., Broderick, A. A., Mooney, J. (2008). The short bus: A journey beyond Connor, D. J., & Valle, J. (2011). [Re]claiming normal. New York, NY: Holt Paperbacks. “inclusive education” toward cohesion in educational Pugach, M. C., Blanton, L. P., & Florian, L. (2012). reform: Disability studies unravels the myth of the Unsettling conversations: Diversity and disability in normal child. Teachers College Record, 113(10), teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 2122–2154. 63(4), 235–236. Banks, J. (2003). Introduction: Democratic citizenship Sapon-Shevin, M. (2010). Widening the circle: education in multicultural societies. The power of inclusive classrooms. Boston, MA: In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Diversity and citizenship Beacon. education: Global perspectives (pp. 3–16). Sapon-Shevin, M. (2012). Inclusive education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Encyclopedia of diversity in Blanchett, W. J. (2010). Telling it like it is: The role of education (pp. 1148–1152). Thousand Oaks, CA: race, class, and culture in the perpetuation of Sage. learning disability as a privileged category for the Sapon-Shevin, M. (2014). Same struggle, different White middle class. Disability Studies Quarterly, difference: Linking liberation movements. 30(2). Retrieved from http://dsq-sds.org/issue/ In D. Lawrence-Brown & M. Sapon-Shevin (Eds.), view/46 Condition critical: Key principles for equitable and Erevelles, N., Kanga, A., & Middleton, R. (2006). How inclusive education (pp. 86–100). New York, NY: does it feel to be a problem? Race, disability, and Teachers College Press. exclusion in educational policy. In E. Brantlinger Sapon-Shevin, M. (2015). Ethics, power, and classroom (Ed.), Who benefits from special education? management. In W. G. Scarlett (Ed.), The SAGE Remediating [fixing] other people’s children encyclopedia of classroom management. Thousand (pp. 77–99). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Oaks, CA: Sage. Ferri, B. (2008). Changing the script: Race and disability Sinclair, J. (1993). Don’t mourn for us. Our Voice in Lynn Manning’s “Weights.” International Journal (A publication of the Autism Network International of Inclusive Education, 12, 497–509. Newsletter), 1(3). Retrieved from http://www Ferri, B. (2011). Disability life writing and the politics of .autreat.com/dont_mourn.html knowing. Teachers College Record, 113(10), Sleeter, C. E. (2010). Why is there learning disabilities? 2267–2282. A critical analysis of the birth of the field in its Ferri, B., & Connor, D. (2005). Tools of exclusion: Race, social context. Disability Studies Quarterly, 30(2). disability, and (re)segregated education. Teachers (Reprinted from T. S. Popkewitz (Ed.), The formation College Record, 107, 453–474. of school subjects: The struggle for creating an Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of American institution (pp. 210–237). London, UK: multiple intelligences. Philadelphia, PA: Basic Books. Palmer Press). Janney, R., & Smell, M. E. (2006). Social relationships Zion, S. D., & Blanchett, W. (2011). [Re]conceptualizing and peer support (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: inclusion: Can critical race theory and interest Brookes. convergence be utilized to achieve inclusion and Lawrence-Brown, D., & Sapon-Shevin, M. (2014). equity for African-American students? Teachers Condition critical: Key principles for equitable and College Record, 113(10), 2186–2205. 35

STUDENTS AS CRITICAL CITIZENS/ EDUCATED SUBJECTS BUT NOT AS COMMODITIES/TESTED OBJECTS

KENNETH J. SALTMAN University of Massachusetts Dartmouth

ALEXANDER J. MEANS State University of New York at Buffalo

n the past 30 years, educational policy has been Curriculum as a Humanizing dramatically transformed in the United States and Dehumanizing Force Ithrough the language and culture of business and the military. Terms such as accountability, standards, In 1968, Brazilian philosopher and educator Paulo performance, efficient delivery, and alignment have Freire described the curricular approaches that are been invoked to justify a particular view of teaching dominant today as “banking education” where and learning. In this now dominant view, knowledge knowledge is treated as cash to be deposited in the is treated as a consumable good produced by bank (the student). Freire observed that banking edu- “experts” housed within educational corporations, cation dehumanizes educational experience and delivered by teachers, and consumed by students. oppresses students by treating them as passive objects The principal concern within this perspective is the to be acted upon. In contrast, Freire argued that edu- practical question of the delivery and enforcement of cation should create the conditions for humanization, curriculum as a quantifiable set of “skills” and which involves treating students as creative subjects “facts.” This has given birth to a new corporate capable of making and remaking the social world managerial and audit culture where big data collec- with others. For Freire, curriculum must be contextu- tion, performance metrics, and high-stakes standard- ally rooted and begin with students’ experiences of ized testing become the measures of educational being oppressed—that is, their experience of being efficacy as well as the basis of mega-profits. At stake treated as objects rather than as subjects. Problem- here are crucial questions concerning the economic posing pedagogy, or what Freire referred to as praxis, interests and ideological assumptions undergirding involves theorizing the oppressive forces that dehu- the new official curriculum and how it constructs the manize one’s understanding of experience. Such value and agency of students. problem posing ideally becomes the basis for critical

284 35. Students as Critical Citizens/Educated Subjects–•–285

consciousness and collective action to transform the students? It is to these critical questions about the objective social conditions that produce the subjective politics of curriculum that we now turn. experience of oppression. Freire’s view emphasized the dialogue-based nature of teaching, learning, and curriculum. Bank- Cultural Politics of Curriculum ing education, Freire said, tends to deny dialogue in favor of monologue or one-way narrative. We are, A leading figure in cultural studies, Stuart Hall, has Freire told us, suffering from narration sickness. In examined the ways knowledge, culture, and hence Freire’s view, the purpose of education is to enable curriculum are always subject to social and political people to become more fully human, more fully able struggles over meanings, or cultural politics. Hall to act to change their world with others. This (1997) explained that knowledge is something that includes being free of oppression and exploitation, emerges through cultural exchange, albeit in unequal which also means being free from dehumanizing and ways. For Hall, meanings are never just a result of objectifying others, acting as an oppressor. Current individual interpretation and never strictly determined policy trends view the purpose of education as by authorial intent. Rather, meanings are constructed allowing students opportunities to compete against through interpretive practices in communities of others for increasingly scarce educational and eco- meaning making. Knowledge is meaningful as a result nomic resources within the existing set of economic, of cultural convention, yet meanings can be resigni- social, and political arrangements. The dominant fied. Signs and symbols, representations, narratives, ideology of the day, neoliberalism, regularly reminds and curricula have preferred meanings, but the pre- everyone that there is no alternative to the market ferred meaning does not guarantee the meaning for and so the purpose of education is to prepare stu- each individual. There are broader public discourses, dents to serve that system. From Freire’s view, the or sets of meanings, that partially determine the way a current economic system is based on a small number cultural work is interpreted. The way that claims to of people dehumanizing and objectifying the rest in truth are provisionally established is through rational order to amass wealth and maintain social and argumentation with evidence. Knowledge, culture, political power. and curriculum in this view are dynamic and in play The dominant approach to curriculum today, with rather than static. Hall’s view is largely shared in edu- its emphasis on measurement, efficiency, competi- cation by Henry Giroux, who has developed critical tion, accountability, standardization, big data, and pedagogy through a similar way of thinking about high-stakes testing, is designed to delink knowledge knowledge, language, and culture. Giroux’s work from broader social, political, and economic realities (2011) has emphasized that a central goal of educa- and to delink knowledge from the lived experiences tional practice ought to be to help students develop as of students. There is a politics to cleaving curricu- critical citizens capable of theorizing and acting to lum from the social conditions of its making and meaningfully engage and change the world. Within from disagreements over its meaning. Official the constructivist view, the role of the teacher as a knowledge within this schema is positioned as cultural producer matters greatly and carries signifi- universally valuable and politically neutral. Yet, cant responsibility. The teacher has the ethical and concealed in this process is how individuals with political choice of what to teach and how to teach. This particular cultural values and class positions select means that teachers need the theoretical and practical official knowledge. Thus critical questions about the tools for interpreting knowledge, and the values politics of curriculum are denied. These questions assumptions and ideologies underpinning it, and for include: What are the values, assumptions, and ide- theorizing their own pedagogical practices. It is pre- ologies embedded within the curriculum and those cisely this control, autonomy, and theoretical tools that that select and determine official knowledge in the dominant educational reforms seek to limit and schools? How does the curriculum and official restrict, as discussed in the remainder of this section. knowledge represent or relate to economic and Giroux and Hall’s constructivist position is counter political interests? How does the official curriculum to that of cultural conservatives who fought the cul- imagine the intellectual and creative capacities of ture wars in the 1980s. In the United States, cultural 286–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

conservatives such as E. D. Hirsch and William achievement gap, depend on this denial of the Bennett claimed that there is a body or canon of the cultural politics of the curriculum. In the case of the best and brightest knowledge (which happens to achievement gap, racial and ethnic difference and largely reflect the values and views and ruling groups) inequality are identified, but only as a means to that students need to master. For these cultural conser- demand that all groups be subject to the same vatives, the mastery of allegedly the best knowledge curriculum enforced through standardized testing. is more important than the critical investigation of Since the early 2000s, policies such as those how knowledge relates to social interests or relations included in President George W. Bush’s No Child of power. Hirsch has succeeded in getting his Core Left Behind Act (NCLB) and President Obama’s Knowledge project integrated into the for-profit com- Race to the Top program have largely affirmed and pany K12 Inc., which runs cyber-charter schools and entrenched the liberal, conservative, transmission- sells homeschooling curriculum to parents opting out based view of curriculum in the United States by of the public system. As of 2014, K12 Inc. was the emphasizing student testing. Under NCLB, schools single largest company managing public schools for that failed to increase their standardized test scores profit measured by number of students. The cultural could be threatened with the consequence of unproven conservative view sees knowledge and curriculum as market-based reforms such as charter school conver- elite and rarified and sees students as needing to dis- sion or turnaround. Since standardized test scores regard their own experiences as well as ignore the largely correspond to family income and class status, question of how this rarified knowledge has some this punishes poor students and schools and rewards relationship to the world they live in. Consequently, rich ones under guise of objectivity and neutrality. It this view treats students as empty vessels to be filled. is crucial to mention here that the reasons standard- The knowledge they receive is supposed to function ized tests reflect class status is not because wealthy as a kind of currency allowing, first, academic pro- and powerful people are smarter or better at learning. motion and, then, access to jobs and money. Cultural It is because they are in a position to determine what conservatives comprehend education for citizenship knowledge and whose knowledge matters as univer- through the register of submission to political and sal value. They are in control of the processes that cultural authority—an assumption that learning the make the tests and that determine what points of canon allows for inclusion into existing institutions. view can count as official and valid. The tests thus This is not a view of education for collective reward what Pierre Bourdieu called cultural capital— self-governance. socially valued knowledge, tastes, and dispositions Hall’s view is also counter to that of most liberals. that are generated through complex class processes. Despite valuing critical thinking as problem-solving Cultural capital begins in the home and is reinforced skills and largely embracing multiculturalism’s affir- in school. Bourdieu’s larger point about cultural mation of inclusion of historically marginalized cul- capital was to show that the way class structures tural groups, liberals have refused to treat culture and remain intact and are reproduced is not only by the knowledge and curriculum as reflective of differential transmission of financial capital but also through the relations of class and cultural power and authority. transmission of culture, which generates and distrib- Prominent liberals such as Linda Darling- Hammond utes social rewards, privileges, disadvantages, and (2010) and Diane Ravitch (2010) declared the end to advantages. Bourdieu’s formulation specifically the culture wars and curriculum wars of the 1980s and sought to counter the human capital model that sees 1990s and called for this vague and undefined thing education as economic investment and presumes called a “strong curriculum” that is supposed to be a level meritocratic playing field among actors. beyond politics. Because liberals largely reject seeing knowledge, culture, and curriculum as subject to struggle among different class interests and cultural Curriculum and the Culture of Positivism groups with unique histories, they embrace a trans- mission-based view of curriculum that subscribes to Contemporary educational reform trends in the United the idea that efficacy of delivery is a primary aim of States share the liberal and conservative accomoda- educational reform. Some of the most prominent tionist and transmission-based perspectives. Whether framing expressions of educational reform, such as it is the CCSS (Common Core State Standards), the 35. Students as Critical Citizens/Educated Subjects–•–287

Council for the Accreditation of Educator Prepara- Despite the rhetoric of critical thinking within the tion, edTPA (student teaching assessment system), or new CCSS, the overarching emphasis on standard- InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support ized testing as the ultimate measure of educational Consortium), the newest standards-based and out- value represents an instrumental positivist approach come-based reforms share a number of overlapping to teaching and learning in which tested knowledge values and assumptions that continue a legacy of is decontextualized from the experiences of students positivist ideology and scientific management and teachers and delinked from the broader social approaches to schooling. Positivist ideology positions import and context of knowledge. Positivist ideol- knowledge as a collection of facts, deemphasizing ogy treats knowledge as a collection of facts that are the theoretical assumptions and social significance disconnected from matters of interpretation as well behind the selection and framing of facts. Scientific as from the interests, social positions, and values of management seeks to maximize social efficiency by those who promote particular interpretations and breaking down human behavior into quantifiable claims to truth. The testing trend focuses educa- units of action and representation that can then be tional practice on so-called outcomes rather than on standardized and measured. Today this legacy educational process. It embraces a transmission- includes the denigration of educational theory and based model of pedagogy and curriculum in which a related inflated emphasis on practicalism—a static knowledge is likened to units of commodity to be conception of subject-based “content knowledge” delivered, consumed, and regurgitated back on the and an active denial of the political and ethical test. Such an assumption shuts down debate, dia- dimensions of teaching and learning. logue, curiosity, and creativity while making effi- Some of the dominant reforms suggest a potential cacy of delivery the primary focus of teaching and break with more direct instrumental models of cur- learning. The trends of NCLB and Race to the Top, riculum. For example, the CCSS emphasize critical with their outputs-based view of knowledge thinking skills and analysis of text. The InTASC and tendency to shut down interpretation, debate, standards even emphasize the importance of context and creativity, position and construct students as and cultural background for teachers in order to tested objects rather than as educated humans or reach and understand their students. The CCSS critical citizens. seemingly expands teacher autonomy but demands Beyond the individual student experience of an that teachers meet “outcomes” measured by stan- intellectually deadening and psychologically anxi- dardized tests. However, while some standards ety-producing culture of competition and testing, emphasize critical thinking in the form of problem there are also larger ethical and political implications solving, they deny critical thinking as understood inherent within this approach to knowledge. There is through critical theory—that is, comprehending a thinly veiled politics to the positivism of high- knowledge in relation to power, politics, ethics, and stakes testing. The tests obscure the interests and history. While the InTASC standards emphasize the power of those pushing standardized knowledge value of context and student culture, they are rooted while promoting a false neutrality and objectivity in an ideology of efficient delivery and measurement that is consecrated through the seeming objective of knowledge, not in the interest of reconstructing scientific reality of numbers. The denial of how knowledge or comprehending how knowledge might knowledge relates to social and individual values, form the basis for students to have social and interests, and experiences renders knowledge mean- political agency. To put it more simply, the most ingful only for its abstract institutional capacity to be fundamental task of learning is to ask “why?” The like economic currency or points in a game. Knowl- standards are oriented toward framing out of edge in this approach to teaching and learning is consideration key “why?” questions such as: Why alienated from the social world and yet repurposed to do some people and not others claim that this knowl- become meaningful only for what it can gain the edge matters? Why are certain assumptions and learner in a system of extrinsic rewards (such as ideas considered unacceptable to breach? Why does grades or points) and eventually jobs and cash and the knowledge on the tests offer no way to theorize consumer goods. Put differently, what grounds the and intervene in broader social issues and public universalism of knowledge is neither its meaning to problems? students’ lives nor its meaning in the social world. 288–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

The alleged universal value of knowledge on stan- the decline of Keynesian rationalities under Ronald dardized tests is grounded by its abstract exchange Reagan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher value as currency, first in educational settings and in the United Kingdom. Simply put, neoliberalism then in economic markets. Indeed as Theodor Adorno can be defined as an economic, ideological, and (2000) pointed out, the allure of positivism is its political project that takes the market and the com- promise of certainty and its propensity to value only modity form as the essence of democracy and seeks that which can be numerically quantified. In a social to expand the power of corporate and financial elites world that appears increasingly abstract and where while diminishing the social aims of the state everything is for sale, the value of knowledge ( Harvey, 2005). Neoliberalism thus rejects Keynes- appears only in terms of its exchangeability for ian orientations dominant in the post–World War II personal economic advantage. period that sought to use the power of the state to Standardized testing, standardization of curricu- regulate capitalism and promote economic growth lum, and so-called performance-based teaching and social welfare through public investment and decontextualize and recontextualize knowledge as a robust social provision. In contrast, in neoliberal kind of currency, voided of its social import other discourse, the state is to be internally regulated by the than as something with potential economic value. market and instrumental cost–benefit calculations. Evacuated from learning are noncommodified and This entails subordinating all aspects of governance noninstrumental values and meanings as well as the to economic imperatives and corporate management. role of knowledge in producing possibilities for the In turn, public spheres such as health care, public imagination and agency of students. The value of education, student loans, transportation, and impris- knowledge is thus made into an abstraction, into onment are privatized and converted into sites of exchange value. Standardized testing and curricu- profit making. Neoliberalism has simultaneously lum, thus, foster ways of thinking that devalue prefigured the development of a vast managerial and crucial questions concerning school knowledge and audit culture rooted in market-based and corporate curriculum. What values and assumptions undergird technical rationalities that seek to optimize institu- claims to truth? What are the social positions tional efficiency and profit opportunities through and class and cultural interests represented by offi- measurement-based performance metrics, evalua- cial knowledge? What kinds of questions are possible tions, numerical targets, and competitive account- to ask? It has become increasingly common for ability schemas. The neoliberal state is thus a market scholars to situate and make sense of these questions bureaucracy that functions to create the optimal in relation to the dominant ideological framework of conditions for capitalism through deregulation, cuts neoliberalism. We now move to situate the resur- to social services, corporate management, and the gence of positivism and scientific management in construction of markets where they previously did curriculum within neoliberalism. Specifically, we not exist via privatization and speculative financial want to highlight the intersections of privatization, arrangements (Saltman, 2012). Within this milieu, commodification, and curriculum in relation to citizens are charged to minimize their own individual escalating forms of inequality and social control. risk by maximizing their own private economic interests within competitive market relations and consumer lifestyle and identity distinctions. Thus, as Neoliberalism and the Broader Wendy Brown (2005) has argued, the ideal neoliberal Context of Curriculum citizen is a passive and hierarchically oriented sub- ject “who strategizes . . . among various social, A wide range of scholars in the social sciences and political, and economic options, not one who strives the humanities have used the concept of neoliberal- with others to alter or organize these options” (p. 43). ism to describe a number of economic, social, and political transformations over the last 30 years, Privatization and Market Management including educational transformations. The origins of neoliberalism are often located in the early 1980s Under neoliberalism, public schools are imagined with the resurgence of neoclassical economics and as enterprises that need to be managed as businesses 35. Students as Critical Citizens/Educated Subjects–•–289

that compete against one another for students and authority and bureaucracy but vastly extend its scope resources. In this schema, public schools are trans- through new systems of surveillance, audit, measure- ferred over to corporate management, while school ment, and accountability that reduce curriculum to a systems are converted into a marketplace where par- set of anti-intellectual and individualized procedural ents are charged with “shopping” around for seats. skills that tend to sap the imaginative horizons and The strategic devaluing of the public sector presents the cooperative power of learning. business opportunities to institute reforms that enable the transfer of public resources such as schools The Business of the New Education Reforms from the public trust to private interests. For instance, in the wake of hurricane Katrina, corporate reform- Beyond treating knowledge and students as com- ers presented the storm as a “golden opportunity” to modities in a symbolic sense, knowledge, curriculum, privatize the historically neglected New Orleans and students are being transformed into commodi- Public Schools (Saltman, 2007). As of 2014, 90% of ties in an increasingly privatized and profit-driven New Orleans youth attended charter schools run system of public education. The leaders of the largely by corporate educational management com- neoliberal reform movement include venture philan- panies. There are numerous projects across North thropists, Wall Street financiers, hedge fund manag- American cities such as New York, Chicago, ers, opportunistic politicians, and corporate CEOs. Philadelphia, Houston, and many others that have This alliance has used the altruistic language of seized on decades of neglect in order to privatize seg- educational reform and equity to garner widespread ments of public education alongside various other support for the cause of educational privatization. public entities representing a stark imbalance between They have also used bare-knuckle politics and cor- public and private wealth and power. porate lobbying to push states to enact legislation Privatization has dovetailed with the development based on think-tank advocacy with nonexistent or of systems of market management that have sought to dubious research that has worked to erode commit- redefine the curriculum. The new corporate manage- ments to traditional public schools while funneling ment culture is sometimes referred to as the “new billions of public dollars into the hands of software managerialism” or, even in slightly more Orwellian and online learning companies, educational manage- terms, as total quality management. It works to legiti- ment organizations and charter school operators, matize itself largely through appeals to efficiency consulting and curriculum businesses, and for-profit and through promises of less regulation, greater testing, tutoring, and test preparation service corpo- accountability and flexibility, and an end to the rations. Thus, while educational budgets are being bureaucratic inefficiencies of the Keynesian welfare slashed in the name of austerity, public money that state. Within the context of school organization and would be going directly to schools is instead being curriculum, the new managerialism has led to the redirected to corporate vendors mainly for expand- proliferation of measurement and outcomes-based ing privatized commercial management, for-profit practices such as standardized curriculum, scripted commercial curriculum contracts, for-profit com- lessons, high-stakes testing, and value-added assess- mercial online charter school ventures, and for- ments. These efforts to “teacher proof ” the curriculum profit commercial standardized testing services. through scripted programs designed by corporations Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch have each jumped and contracted to districts, and through value-added into for-profit education alongside major hedge strategies that hold teachers accountable directly for funds and wealth management groups, all clamoring student test scores, are held up as objective and sup- for a piece of the $600 billion spent each year on posedly progressive responses to longstanding K–12 public schools. In the K–12 online learning educational failures. Additionally, holding teachers market alone, revenues were projected to increase by responsible for outcomes such as meeting test score 43% between 2010 and 2015 as states are being benchmarks would appear on the surface to pro- coerced into lifting the cap on cyber charter schools, mote professional conduct, raise expectations, and allowing public money that would be going to public ensure accountability. However, neoliberal manage- schools to instead go to deregulated corporate online rial cultures in education do not lessen regulatory learning mills (Fang, 2011). 290–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

Enclosing and Punishing Educational Subjects disparities and social disadvantages that have been proven to shape educational outcomes in struggling Importantly, contemporary educational reforms schools through social investment and cooperation and curricula need to be understood as attempting to with communities and educators, neoliberal reforms call into being an idealized human subject of educa- favor “get tough” disciplinary systems of control tion. This is a subject who largely identifies as a designed to hold schools, teachers, and students consuming economic actor in a competitive and frag- “accountable” for test scores while becoming increas- mented environment. It is also a subject that is made ingly unaccountable to the public interest and open- morally culpable for his or her own well-being and ing up the system for privatization. Such disciplinary security regardless of the social and economic cir- measures mirror the excessive investments in the cumstances. The ideal subject of neoliberal educa- military–security–industrial complex in the United tion is one who makes rationally calculated choices States as well as a turn to mass incarceration as a key in an educational market in order to acquire scarce state strategy for managing dispossessed and crimi- educational resources and outhustle his or her rivals nalized populations made redundant in a context of for credentials in an increasingly transient and pre- global labor surpluses and the dismantling of the carious employment structure. The ideal subject of social welfare state (Wacquant, 2009). This expan- neoliberal education is one who successfully manages sion of security measures finds a corollary shift in his or her own individual risk by viewing curriculum, school organization, particularly in those schools knowledge, and education as economic instrumen- that serve disadvantaged and marginalized commu- talities rather than a social force for democratic nities in the United States, from a rehabilitative pos- possibility. ture to a zero-tolerance culture of warehousing and The United States has one of the highest rates of control of surplus youth marked by a proliferation of child poverty of any advanced nation. Slipping into surveillance cameras, lockdown procedures, police poverty even for a brief period of time has been in schools, and the reliance on prescriptive forms of shown to impede the educational, health, and social punishment contributing to a “school-to-prison” development of young people. Furthermore, the pipeline (Means, 2013). United States maintains the worst record of advanced We have argued here that dominant trends in nations in providing health and human services to educational policy and curriculum have mirrored a communities, women with children, and early neoliberal ethos of markets, competition, and stan- childhood education while maintaining shameful dardization. One of the consequences of these trends inequalities in educational investment with a 10-to-1 is that students themselves are increasingly con- funding ratio between poor and rich districts in some ceived and treated as commodities. Here students are parts of the country (Darling-Hammond, 2010). This positioned largely as receptacles for knowledge inequity in school funding reinforces a highly under the resurgent forms of positivist banking edu- unequal and racially segregated system. Thus rather cation. They are taught that knowledge should be than work to improve the overall quality of public valued as a monetary currency as opposed to a social education within universal norms and a sense of value with emancipatory potential for critical under- social and collective responsibility, neoliberal standing and democratization of human experience. systems privatize social problems and responsibility We have suggested that current trends in educational for educational development. They do so by encour- policy expand the ideologies of neoliberalism, posi- aging school choice arrangements and educational tivism, and scientific management and hence the markets that position families as consumers and financial pillaging of the public schools while erod- schools as commercial entities that are required to ing public schools as sites for teachers and students compete over students and scarce resources. Child to develop critical pedagogical practices and public poverty, homelessness, home and neighborhood projects. instability, and racism are viewed as private prob- However, as we argue in our book Toward a New lems, while low educational performance is blamed Common School Movement, the time is ripe for on supposedly incompetent teachers and their unions. imagining a reinvigorated and truly public form of Instead of attempting to address the structural class schooling (De Lissovoy, Means, & Saltman, 2014). 35. Students as Critical Citizens/Educated Subjects–•–291

Such a public school renewal begins with the works against the enclosure and privatization of assumption that schooling fosters the conditions for freely shared knowledge and social labor. It affirms human freedom and equality. It approaches curricu- that there are aspects of the commons that can never lum and knowledge by presuming that they are be enclosed and privatized, such as care and imagi- contested and that disputes over the meaning and nation, while working to make the common labor in interpretations of knowledge are interwoven with all institutions serve common benefit rather than historically infused material struggles. The aim of individualized gain. Such fidelity to the commons schooling in this view is that knowledge and curricu- orients our educational and pedagogical commit- lum ought to be rooted in specific social contexts ments within what Freire (2001) described as the and histories and yet draw on multiple intellectual “universal human ethic” where “the critical word, the traditions in order to create the conditions for stu- humanist philosophy, the commitment to solidarity, dents to develop critical consciousness aimed at the prophetic denunciation of the negation of men transformative projects to expand the commons or and women, and the proclamation of a world worthy the society’s shared knowledge and information, of human habitation become the instruments of space, and labor. A new common school movement change and transformation” (p. 115).

References and Further Readings Giroux, H. (2011). On critical pedagogy. New York, NY: Continuum. Adorno, T. W. (2000). Introduction to sociology. Stanford, Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations CA: Stanford University Press. and signifying practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Brown, W. (2005). Edgework: Critical essays on Sage. knowledge and politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. University Press. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and Means, A. J. (2013). Schooling in the age of austerity: education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Urban education and the struggle for democratic De Lissovoy, N., Means, A. J., & Saltman, K. J. (2014). life. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Toward a new common school movement. New York, Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and life of the great NY: Paradigm. American school system. New York, NY: Basic Fang, L. (2011, December 5). How online learning Books. companies bought America’s schools. The Nation. Saltman, K. J. (2007). Capitalizing on disaster: Taking Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/ and breaking public schools. New York, NY: article/164651/how-online-learning- Paradigm. companies-bought-americas-schools# Saltman, K. J. (2012). The failure of corporate school Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, reform. Boulder, CO: Paradigm. NY: Continuum. Wacquant, L. (2009). Punishing the poor: The neoliberal Freire, P. (2001). Pedagogy of freedom. New York, NY: government of social insecurity. Durham, NC: Duke Rowman & Littlefield. University Press. 36

LEARNING FOR CREATIVE, ASSOCIATED, JOYFUL, AND WORTHWHILE LIVING

JASON GOULAH DePaul University

MING FANG HE Georgia Southern University

he chapter focuses on what Confucius (551– Learning for creative, associated, joyful, and 479 BCE) referred to as “the great learning,” worthwhile living originated in the works of Confu- Tor learning for creative, associated, joyful, cius, particularly The Great Learning (Daxue; and worthwhile living, expressed across time in the Ames & Rosemont, 1998), one of the key Chinese East, the West, and in between. As a topic of curricu- classics called the Four Books. It has continued in the lum studies, learning for creative, associated, joyful, East in the philosophy and practice of such thinkers and “worthwhile” (Schubert, 2009b) living is educa- as Tu Weiming (1940– ) and Tao Xingzhi (1891– tion in its true etymological sense. It is the process 1946) in China; Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) of drawing out the inherent capacities of being and Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) in India; Ki human—wisdom, compassion, courage, creativity, Hajar Dewantara (1889–1959) in Indonesia; and and joy—as the goal of education itself. Philoso- Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871–1944), Josei Toda phers and practitioners of the great learning assert (1900–1958), and, most currently, Daisaku Ikeda these capacities emerge fully when human beings, as (1928– ) in Japan. It is also present in the West in the individuals, are engaged in dialogic interaction with philosophy and practice of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi others in humanity, nature, and cosmos, what John (1746–1827) in Switzerland; Johann Friedrich Dewey viewed as associated learning. This idea of Herbart (1776–1841) and Friedrich Fröebel (1782– learning for creative, associated, joyful, and worth- 1852) in Germany; N. F. S. Grundtvig (1783–1872) while living applies both in and outside the context in Denmark; Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) in of schooling and counters the dominant practice of France; Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), Mikhail Bakhtin schooling as the transmission of dehumanized, (1895–1975), and Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) in decontextualized, and standardized information Russia; Francis W. Parker (1837–1902), John Dewey measured with oppressive, degrading, and militant (1859–1952), and Jane Addams (1860–1935) in the high-stakes testing, competition, commodification, United States; Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and accountability. in England and the United States; Maria Montessori

292 36. The Great Learning–•–293

(1870–1952) and Loris Malaguzzi (1920–1994) in and the community as a means of inspiring fully Italy; and Paulo Freire (1921–1997) in Brazil, among human learning. Parker and Dewey’s ideas emerged others. The educational ideas of these thinkers co- as the American progressive education movement specify one another and cohere into what Jason that continues to be researched and practiced around Goulah has called an “East–West ecology of ideas” the world. For Parker and Dewey, as for Confucius, (2010b, p. 270), an “East–West confluence of such human–nature interaction extended beyond the thought” (2010c, p. 82), and an “East–West ecology natural environment to include the social community. of education” (2010a, p. 42) as the font for fully Dewey asserted that the school should be “a genuine human living. Daisaku Ikeda, whose lifetime educa- form of active community life” (1902/1990, p. 14) tional philosophy and practice both embody and and “a miniature community, an embryonic society” explore this chronotopic dialogue of ideas, called it (p. 18) where “free individuals” with shared interests a “symphony of thought” (Ikeda & Gu, 2012, p. 311). and a common faith work together to realize their Ming Fang He (2013) considered these great utmost potentialities toward the common good and to thinkers’ shared perspectives of the great learning as “contribute to the liberation of enrichment of [their] an “East~West epistemological convergence of lives” (Dewey in Archambault, 1964, p. 12) and the humanism” (p. 61) that is “the common heritage of lives of others. By connecting school to daily living, humanity” (UNESCO, 2009). She asserted this Dewey emphasized the importance of educating indi- conver gence must, therefore, “become the epistemo- viduals to improve their social capacities and lead a logical foundation that influences 21st century edu- more fully democratic life. cational policy, practice, and research” (He, 2013, In the Japanese context, as another example, p. 61). She recognized that these shared perspectives Makiguchi’s Jinsei chirigaku (The Geography of of the great learning are illuminated in five main Human Life, 1903; see Makiguchi, 1981–1988, themes in the works of Confucius, Dewey, and vols. 1 and 2) posited a two-way vector of influence Makiguchi: human–nature interconnection, self- between humans and their environment, arguing cultivation, value creation , associated living, and joy that human beings give meaning to the physical of learning/happiness of living (p. 61). These five environment and, in turn, develop through that themes are essential to all advocates of learning for meaning making. Makiguchi’s ideas in human creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile living. geography not only aligned with those of Confucius, For Confucius, such learning meant “to engage one- Parker, and Dewey but also drew on Herbart and self in a ceaseless, unending process of creative self- Pestalozzi’s educational philosophies and antici- transformation, both as a communal act and as a pated the current scholarship on spatial theories of dialogical response to Heaven . . . [which] involves education ( Gulson & Symes, 2007). The Geography four inseparable dimensions—self, community, of Human Life outlined two important contributions nature, and the transcendent” (Tu, 2010, p. 122). from Makiguchi. First, it introduced Makiguchi’s Therefore, humans are in the midst of nature, while notion of jindoteki kyoso, or “humanitarian compe- nature embeds human flourishing within “a series of tition,” as a necessary alternative to harmful concentric circles: self, family, community, society, political, economic, and militaristic competition. nation, world, and cosmos . . . for the full meaning of Humanitarian competition is rooted in an ethic of humanity is anthropocosmic rather than anthropo- associated interaction and seeks mutual benefit for centric” (Tu, 1998, p. 17). The major of purpose of the self and other. Second, it introduced Makiguchi’s learning is to achieve the unity of heaven and human- notion of a three-tiered identity operating equally, ity (tianren heyi). It is in this anthropocosmic spirit simultaneously, and interdependently at local, that we obtain the mutual responsiveness “between national, and international levels (even though self and community, human species and nature, and students may never physically leave their local humanity and Heaven” (p. 17) “where peace prevails, communities). order abounds, harmony sustains, and the individual Makiguchi expanded these ideas in his most thrives in communions” (He, 2013, p. 62). characteristic work, Soka kyoikugaku taikei (The Sys- Francis W. Parker (1889/1908) and John Dewey tem of Value-Creating Pedagogy, 1930–1934; see (1902/1990) similarly advocated for engaging nature Makiguchi, 1981–1988, vols. 5 and 6), a four- volume 294–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

work that asserted that the goal of life, and therefore for global citizenship as the great learning resonates of education, is students’ happiness. This is similar to with cosmopolitanism as education illuminated in Nel Noddings’s (2004) consideration in Happiness key works from Immanuel Kant (2006) to Martha and Education. Makiguchi was an elementary school Nussbaum (1997) and David Hansen (2011). Their teacher and principal who developed value-creating works also relate to ideas of Confucius, Parker, and pedagogy based on his own classroom experiences Dewey on global citizenship practiced dialogically in and curriculum theorizing. He believed students local communities. become authentically happy and contributive citizens Transcending time, space, language, culture, and by leading value-creative lives and that the purpose of context, this East–West learning for creative, associ- education is to foster their ability to create values of ated, joyful, and worthwhile living, however, is aesthetic beauty, individual gain, and social good. The quickly being eroded in the wake of contemporary aesthetic and the social as means of human becoming educational mandates. Borne from corporate and and just citizenship echo themes present in Dewey’s political greed, such mandates not only purportedly Art as Experience (1934) and Maxine Greene’s respond to but also exacerbate contemporary con- (1995) Releasing the Imagination. Makiguchi advo- cerns. Hopefully, these concerns create public spaces cated his pedagogy in reaction to Japan’s wartime for reimaginings (Greene, 1995; Lake, 2013) of the policies of extreme militaristic education and was great learning, particularly in the West. consequently arrested and imprisoned as a thought criminal in 1943. He died in prison in 1944. Daisaku Ikeda’s Soka Education (2010) provides a Contemporary Concerns and Contexts contemporary explication and application of Makiguchi’s ideas of education for happiness through The world is more interdependent and globalized value creation, as well as Ikeda’s own contributions than ever before. The sweeping forces of neoliberal to learning for creative, associated, joyful, and worth- globalization—competition, acquisitiveness, and while living. Ikeda founded a network of 14 Soka commodification—perpetuate a moral poverty in the schools, including kindergartens, elementary and wake of what Tu (2000) called values of “contract, secondary schools, a women’s college, and two uni- market, choice, competition, efficiency, flexibility, versities across Asia and the Americas based on productivity, and accountability” (p. 215). While Makiguchi’s ideas. Ikeda has added a primary impor- creative advances in digital technology that compress tance on dialogue as a means of value-creative time and space interconnect us across language, cul- becoming, as well as a central focus on education for ture, and social class, they detrimentally divide us global citizenship, which builds on Makiguchi’s into solitary and solipsistic spaces of selfies, online notion of a three-tiered identity (Goulah, 2013). For gaming, and cyberbullying (Rosen, 2012). In educa- Ikeda (2010), global citizenship is defined by the tion, online degree programs have proliferated, following: encouraging students to earn degrees without ever engaging others in person; this reimagines the very 1) The wisdom to perceive the interconnectedness of all nature of education (McCluskey & Winter, 2012). life and living; 2) The courage not to fear or deny dif- ference, but to respect and strive to understand people Today’s youth spend less time outdoors, are increas- of different cultures and to grow from encounters with ingly obese, and possess underdeveloped interper- them; 3) The compassion to maintain an imaginative sonal communication skills (Bindley, 2011; Rosen, empathy that reaches beyond one’s immediate sur- 2012). They suffer increased diagnoses of mental roundings and extends to those suffering in distant illness, including depression, and learning difficul- places. (pp. 112–113) ties that are increasingly treated with prescribed and Ikeda’s focus on dialogic becoming as a means of recreational drugs rather than through engagement in learning for creative, associated, joyful, and worth- the great learning, as evidenced in the tension while living resonates with that of Paulo Freire between Elizabeth Wurtzel’s Prozac Nation (1994) (2002) in Pedagogy of the Oppressed, among his and Lou Marinoff’s Plato, Not Prozac (1999). In the other works, and of Mikhail Bakhtin in his corpus United States, there is an increased culture of educa- (Holquist, 2002). Ikeda’s perspective of education tion as enforcement (Saltman & Gabbard, 2011), 36. The Great Learning–•–295

which contributes to and results from violence and schools, closing more neighborhood public schools, mass shootings in schools and communities by and systematizing intra- and inter-school tracking minors and young adults. All of these concerns illus- (Ravitch, 2013). Education policy makers—who trate a lack of creativity for authentically associated often lack teaching experience or professional prepa- and joyful living and call on educational policy and ration in education—have increasingly cut the arts, practice to cultivate love’s knowledge (Nussbaum, physical education, and foreign language to make 1995), love, justice, and education (Schubert, 2009a), room for aggressively tested courses (Darling- and an ethic of care (Noddings, 2005). Hammond, 2010). At the university level, colleges of Contemporary concerns continue to manifest in education grounded in learning for creative, associ- racial discrimination, disparity, disenfranchisement, ated, joyful, and worthwhile living are cast as and discord, causing William Watkins (2005) and retrograde by governments that sanction private orga- others to advocate for a learning for creative, associ- nizations to train and license teachers with little real ated, joyful, and worthwhile living rooted squarely in preparation (Cochran-Smith, Feiman-Nemser, Black protest thought. The contemporary globalized McIntyre, & Demers, 2008; Weiner & Compton, world has also resulted in increased transborder 2008). Fully online degree programs in all areas of flows of migrants (documented and undocumented) education have also expanded into teacher creden- who reshape demographics racially, ethnically, socio- tialing. In the United States, greater weight is placed culturally, and linguistically. In the U.S. context, for on high-stakes standardized tests that value cutthroat example, this has resulted in Latinos becoming the competition and equate sameness with fairness largest minority population and Spanish becoming a (Hursh, 2008). This system of aggressive testing and dominant, if marginalized, language. The Asian cutthroat competition has become increasingly population has likewise dramatically increased, fur- exported globally in a heightened “race” to the top ther altering the U.S. linguistic and cultural land- that purportedly, if oxymoronically, leaves no child scape. Numerous scholars have thus reinvigorated behind. In reality, it has stifled creativity and limits Addams’s (1897) work with non–English-speaking authentic association and joyful living envisioned in immigrant students, as well as her advocacy for the great learning. schools to respect, value, and use students’ languages and cultures to educate them toward social justice and self-actualization (e.g., Nieto, 2013). Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression The current moment is also marked by extreme climate change and environmental dislocation, which Learning for creative, associated, joyful, and worth- are heightened by unbridled consumption, increased while living has been examined through philosophi- (trans)national flows, and a concomitant relocation cal inquiry and comparative analysis. It is expressed to urban centers from rural and suburban areas dialogically, bilingually, and biculturally. Philosoph- ( Agyeman, Bullard, & Evans, 2003). Rebecca ical inquiry is one of the most prominent forms of Martusewicz, Jeff Edmundson, and John Lupinacci inquiry in this area of curriculum studies. Advanced (2014) thus called for an ecojustice perspective to by scholars from a variety of disciplines such as recapture learning for ecologically creative, philosophical foundations of education and curricu- associated, joyful, and worthwhile living. Edmund lum studies, philosophical inquiry is theoretical and O’Sullivan (1999) engaged this global concern as the conceptual in nature. It critically explicates thinkers’ source of fundamental educational reform toward a texts historically and in terms of cultural relevance sustainable “Ecozoic era” that is driven by East– and political and policy implications. Examples West, North–South perspectives of a new cosmology, include Weiming’s Tu (1979) Humanity and Self- quality of life, ecological selfhood, and spirituality. Cultivation; William Schubert’s (2009a) Love, Jus- To address these contemporary concerns, local, tice, and Education; Jim Garrison’s (1997) Dewey state, and national governments in the United States and Eros; Daniel Tröhler’s (2013) Pestalozzi and the (and elsewhere) have legislated neoliberal market Educationalization of the World; and Barbara ideology for education, increasingly privatizing and Thayer-Bacon’s (2013) Democracies Always in the standardizing education by opening more charter Making, which explores the relevance of learning for 296–•–PART III. STUDENTS AS CURRICULUM

creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile living A Friendly Conversation—Denmark and Japan that is illuminated in the work of Montessori, Jacques (Henningsen & Ikeda, 2009); and his dialogue with Rancière, and others. Confucius scholar Tu Weiming in Civilization of Comparative analysis, such as the aforementioned Dialogue: On the Hope-Filled Philosophy of Peace work by Goulah (2010b, 2010c) and He (2013), con- (Ikeda & Tu, 2007). siders learning for creative, associated, joyful, and Paulo Freire’s dialogues such as A Pedagogy for worthwhile living by discursively analyzing and com- Liberation: Dialogues on Transforming Education paring texts from progenitors in the East, West, and (Shor & Freire, 1987) and We Make the Road by in between. Examples of other scholarship in this Walking: Conversations on Education and Social area include Goulah’s (2009) and Hatano’s (2009) Change (Horton & Freire, 1990) are other examples comparative analyses of Makiguchi and Bakhtin; of this form of inquiry and expression, as is Zygmunt Sharma’s (19/2002) comparison of Makiguchi and Bauman and Keith Tester’s (2001) Conversations Gandhi’s relevance in the 21st century; Betz’s (1992) With Zygmunt Bauman. As a method of inquiry and and Fleury’s (2011) respective examinations of expression, dialogic comparative analysis, of course, Dewey and Freire; Rule’s (2011) treatment of Bakhtin draws on Plato’s dialogic convention to explore and and Freire; and Grange’s (2004) John Dewey, Confu- express the great learning for fully human living. It cius, and Global Philosophy . David Hansen’s (2007) has also inspired imagined dialogues to examine Ethical Visions of Education is another instance of and address contemporary concerns and contexts such inquiry, which provides portraits of Dewey, relative to learning for creative, associated, joyful, Tagore, Freire, Makiguchi, Addams, Rudolf Steiner, and worthwhile living. Lake’s (2013) A Curriculum W. E. B. DuBois, Tao Xingzhi, and Albert Schweitzer, of Imagination in an Era of Standardization: An who fostered learning for creative, associated, joyful, Imaginative Dialogue with Maxine Greene and and worthwhile living in their respective times and Paulo Freire is an example of this. contexts. Read collectively, these portraits illuminate Bilingual–bicultural analysis and expression is the universality of the great learning. This work also particularly relevant to this area of curriculum also contextualizes such learning in the modern studies. Such analysis explicates culturally and geo- context, attempting to solve problems that teachers graphically specific approaches outside the West, for face, namely, how to help children grow and learn as the West. It centers on ideas and practices often inac- world citizens in an increasingly diversified and cessible to the Anglophone community, making complex cosmos. these available (and relevant) for consideration and There is also what might be called dialogic com- contextualization in Western contexts. Examples parative analysis, or the act of engaging in and pub- include Cross-Cultural Studies in Curriculum lishing dialogues on the great learning, as a form of (Eppert & Wang, 2007) and the Handbook of Asian both inquiry and expression. Ikeda’s over 70 pub- Education (Zhao et al., 2011). This work also lished dialogues with philosophers in education, explores learning for creative, associated, joyful, and culture, politics, religion, and peacebuilding are a worthwhile living negotiated across geographic bor- prime example. For Ikeda, this dialogic comparative ders, as well as across borders of language, politics, inquiry is rooted in his extensive dialogue with social culture, and identity. It often uses the author’s British historian Arnold Toynbee published in own voice and experiences as a vehicle to explicate English as Choose Life (Toynbee & Ikeda, 1976). similar experiences by students in the global(ized) Ikeda’s recent dialogues on learning for creative, context. Ming Fang He’s A River Forever Flowing: associated, joyful, and worthwhile living include his Cross-Cultural Lives and Identities in the Multicul- dialogue with Dewey scholars Jim Garrison and tural Landscape (2003) and Exile Pedagogy: Larry Hickman on the relevance of Makiguchi and Teaching and Living In-Between (2010) are two Dewey in the 21st century (Ikeda, Garrison, & examples of this bilingual–bicultural expression. Hickman, 2014); his dialogue with Danish educator Kumaravadivelu’s Cultural Globalization and Lan- Hans Henningsen of the Askov Højskole, or Askov guage Education (2007) is another example. High- Schools, inspired by the work of N. F. S. Grundtvig, lighting the author’s multiple identities in between Shaping the Future: The Sacred Task of Education, India and the United States, it traces learning for 36. The Great Learning–•–297

associated and worthwhile living in a globalized, there are others who have pioneered expressions of cross-linguistic context as a process of “cultural real- this learning whose ideas have not yet been translated ism.” Yet another example is Awad Ibrahim’s The for Western, Anglophone audiences. Indeed, the lists Rhizome of Blackness: A Critical Ethnography of in both categories are too long to enumerate here. Hip-Hop Culture, Language, Identity, and the Poli- The imperative of bilingual–bicultural analysis and tics of Becoming (2014), which explores the author’s expression, however, belies the lack of coursework in chosen and externally prescribed identities of Black- schools of education in this area, particularly as it ness, as well as those of Francophone continental relates to Eastern cultures and languages. African youth in Canada. As the current educational confusion (Dewey, Bilingual–bicultural analysis of learning for cre- 1931), led by the neoliberal turn manifested in the ative, associated, and worthwhile living, of course, globalized “values of contract, market, choice, com- also highlights its often necessarily bilingual expres- petition, efficiency, flexibility, productivity, and sion. In Why Translation Matters (2010), Edith accountability” (Tu, 2000, p. 215), is manifest in Grossman asserted that writers have to be translated schools in the form of cutthroat competition versus into English to be considered for the Nobel Prize. associated living, commodification and consumption This sentiment is not lost in education. What non- versus value creation, standardization versus imagi- Western, non-English ideas get translated, that is, nation, and separation from versus connection with valorized, and how they become understood, applied, nature and cosmos (He, 2013, p. 62; also Goulah, and, often, reshaped—“transculturated,” as Cuban 2009, 2010b, 2010c; Schubert, 2009a), there is a anthropologist Fernando Ortiz (1947/1995) called demand for us to cultivate a landscape of the great it—in the process of cross-border practice is the learning (Confucius) that commits to shared interests focus of this inquiry and expression. Many thinkers’ of diverse individuals and groups and a high level of iterations of learning for creative, associated, joyful, human potential for creative, harmonious, associated, and worthwhile living would not be known or prac- joyful, and worthwhile living as learning ( Garrison, ticed outside their native languages and cultures Hickman, & Ikeda, 2014) for all in an increasingly without bilingual–bicultural translation; and indeed diversified, complicated, and contested world.

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Tsunesaburo] (10 Vols.). Tokyo, Japan: Daisan Schubert, W. H. (2009b). What is worthwhile: From Bunmei. knowing and needing to being and sharing? Journal Marinoff, L. (1999). Plato, not Prozac: Applying eternal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, 6(1), 22–40. wisdom to everyday problems. New York, NY: Sharma, N. (1998/2002). Value creators in education: Harper Collins. Japanese educator Makiguchi and Mahatma Gandhi Martusewicz, R. A., Edmundson, J., & Lupinacci, J. and their relevance for the Indian education. (2014). EcoJustice education: Toward diverse, New Delhi, India: Regency. democratic, and sustainable communities (2nd ed.). Shor, I., & Freire, P. (1987). A pedagogy for liberation: New York, NY: Routledge. Dialogues on transforming education. South Hadley, McCluskey, F. B., & Winter, M. L. (2012). The idea of MA: Bergin & Garvey. the digital university: Ancient traditions, disruptive Toynbee, A. J., & Ikeda, D. (1975). Nijyuisseiki e no technologies and the battle for the soul of higher taiwa [Dialogue toward the 21st century] (2 Vols.). education. Washington, DC: Policy Studies Tokyo, Japan: Bungei Shunjyu. Organization. Toynbee, A. J., & Ikeda, D. (1976). Choose life: Nieto, S. (2013). Finding joy in teaching students of A dialogue. Oxford, UK: Oxford University diverse backgrounds: Culturally responsive and Press. socially just practices in U.S. classrooms. Tröhler, D. (2013). Pestalozzi and the educationalization Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. of the world. New York, NY: Palgrave. Noddings, N. (2004). Happiness and education. Tu, W. (1979). Humanity and self-cultivation. Berkeley, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University CA: Asian Humanities Press. [Boston: Cheng & Tsui Press. Company, 1998; Chinese translation, 1988 (China) & Noddings, N. (2005). The challenge to care in schools: 1992 (Taiwan)] An alternative approach in education (2nd ed.). Tu, W. (Ed.). (1998). Beyond the enlightenment mentality. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. In M. E. Tucker & J. Berthrong (Eds.), Confucianism Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Love’s knowledge: Essays on and ecology: The interrelation of heaven, earth, philosophy and literature. Oxford, UK: Oxford and humans (pp. 3–22). Cambridge, MA: Center University Press. for the Study of World Religions/Harvard Nussbaum, M. C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: University Press. A classical defense of reform in liberal education. Tu, W. (2000). Implications of the rise of “Confucian” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. East Asia. Journal of the Academy of Arts and Ortiz, F. (1949/1995). Cuban counterpoint: Tobacco and Sciences, 129(1), 195–218. sugar. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Tu, W. (2010). The global significance of concrete O’Sullivan, E. (1999). Transformative learning: humanity: Essays on the Confucian discourse in Educational vision for the 21st century. New York, cultural China. New Delhi, India: Center for Studies NY: Zed Books. in Civilizations. Parker, F. W. (1889/1908). How to study geography. New Tu, W., & Ikeda, D. (2011). New horizons in eastern York, NY: Kellogg. humanism: Buddhism, Confucianism and the quest Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of error: The hoax of the for global peace. New York, NY: I. B. Tauris. privatization movement and the danger to America’s UNESCO. (2009). UNESCO world report 2: Investing in public schools. New York, NY: Knopf. cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue Rosen, L. D. (2012). iDisorder: Understanding our (Executive Summary). Paris, France: United Nations obsession with technology and overcoming its hold Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization. on us. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Watkins, W. H. (Ed.). (2005). Black protest thought and Rule, P. (2011). Bakhtin and Freire: Dialogue, dialectic education. New York, NY: Peter Lang. and boundary learning. Educational Philosophy and Weiner, L., & Compton, M. (Eds.). (2008). The global Theory, 43(9), 924–942. assault on teaching, teachers and their unions: Saltman, K. J., & Gabbard, D. A. (Eds.). (2011). Stories for resistance. New York, NY: Palgrave. Education as enforcement: The militarization and Wurtzel, E. (1994). Prozac nation. New York, NY: corporatization of schools (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. Routledge Falmer. Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Li, G., He, M. F., Okano, K., Megahad, Schubert, W. H. (2009a). Love, justice, and education: N., & Ramanathan, H. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: Asian education: A cultural perspective. New York, Information Age Publishing. NY: Routledge.

PART IV

MILIEU AS CURRICULUM 302–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

INTERLUDE

Introducing Part IV: Milieu as Curriculum

Milieu or environment, broadly speaking as illustrated in the next paragraph, is an important dimension or com- monplace of curriculum; however, it cannot be comprehended in any full sense without perceiving its interrela- tionship with and dependence upon the three other commonplaces (subject matter, learners or students, and teachers) along with the need to continuously rebalance the relationship among these four commonplaces in the deliberations of policy makers and educators. Thus, those involved in any educational situation must ask: How do any aspect of milieu and any dimension of subject matter influence one another? How do milieu and teachers influence one another? How does the milieu have mutual influence with the students? Moreover, how does any aspect of milieu in any given situation influence other aspects of milieu in that setting? It is necessary, too, to realize that answers to these questions and others that flow from them are never final but always in the making. The term milieu is multidimensional and deserves clarification. Schwab (1973) characterized it as exceed- ingly broad, deep, and plural:

Milieus include the school and classroom in which learning and teaching are supposed to occur. What are likely to be children’s relations to one another? Will the classroom group overlap the play or neighborhood group or any other group in which the children function? . . . What structure of authority . . . will characterize the relations of teachers to one another. . . ? In what ways are these relations of adults in the school likely to affect the relations of teachers to students or to what and how the teachers are likely to teach? Relevant milieus will also include the family, the community, the particular groupings of religious, class, or ethnic genus. What aspirations, styles of life, attitudes toward education, and ethical standards characterize these parents and . . . affect the children. . . ? These milieus suggest others. What are the relations of this community to other communities? . . . What are the conditions, dominant preoccupations, and cultural climate of the whole polity and its social classes, insofar as these may affect the careers, the probable fate, and ego identity of the children whom we want to teach? (Westbury & Wilkof, 1978, pp. 366–367)

With this as precursor, it makes sense to strive to understand a host of milieus; therefore, chapters that follow provide background on milieus in many diverse realms of human life: historical, biographical or documentary, policy, parental and familial, technological, moral and spiritual, gendered and sexual, womanist/feminist, socio- economic, corporate-military-governmental, youth cultural, deschooling or unschooling, alternative schooling, geographical, browning, ecological, international-transnational-counternational-global, and multicultural- multiracial-multilingual. We urge you to look at the interactive consequences of each of these milieus on one another.

Reference

Westbury, I., & Wilkof, N. J. (Eds.). (1978). Science, curriculum, and liberal education: Selected essays. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 37

THE NEGLECTED HISTORICAL MILIEU

WILLIAM H. WATKINS University of Illinois at Chicago

onstructing any essay on the “historical In the milieu of power, education for control con- milieu” of curriculum is a daunting task. fronts education for liberation. CWhere do we start? Where do we end? What Beyond the dialectic of contestation, I note the gets included? Who gets included? What viewpoint(s) role of traditions. Social phenomena draw from our or theoretical model(s) get embraced? How do com- collective inheritance and selected traditions. Here plex and layered issues get woven, integrated, and I offer examples that illustrate this notion. Through articulated? Can causal claims, assertions, and gener- interpretation of selected scholarship from earlier alizations be made? How can critically understand- periods, I show that Black education has a milieu in ing historical milieu provide enhanced perspective the larger world of education and curriculum as for dealing with the flow of issues regarding teachers, a story of colonization and resistance. It is a neces- students, and subject matter (Schwab, 1969)? How sary and neglected part of the ongoing saga of do we include perspectives and contributions that contestation in education. have been previously excluded? The focus of this chapter is to introduce and explore salient issues shaping the historical milieu of Before the Greeks: A Glimpse of curriculum with a particular emphasis on neglected Education and Curriculum in Kemet perspectives on African American or Black educa- tion and curriculum. While my focus is the American Historian and educational psychologist Asa Hilliard national context from 1619 onward, it should be devoted much of his life to the study of Kemetic noted that much of the world, notably Africa, Asia, (Egyptian) civilization. Kemet was an early, perhaps the Caribbean, Latin America, and parts of Europe, original, source of civil society, high culture, com- have experienced imperial, colonial, and unequal merce, advanced education, and piety. Going beyond education. The Black American model has been the physical evidence found in fossils, carvings, connected to other subaltern people over time. paintings, and pottery, Hilliard delved into ancient Education and curriculum are contested spaces. literature and sacred texts and noted research, The ever-present battles of ideas, politics, econom- indicating that Kemet was ascendant 10,000 years ics, ethnicity, and culture shape schooling. In a world before Christ. of hegemonic and unequal power, education, as Hilliard (1995) provided “a chronological summary a function of the state, is inevitably tied to privilege. of the great dynasties that succeeded one another in

303 304–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Kemetic history. Seeking out the origins of high cul- artists, scientists, astronomers, and architects. It is ture and advanced education, he draws from ancient through the scribes that we learn of the great black texts, the Mdw Ntr (or hieroglyphics)” (Watkins, civilization of antiquity. (1999, p. 257) 2008). He writes of the great Temple of Luxor in Carruthers described the process of education in Egypt’s Nile Valley as a “most select of places.” It ancient Egypt as a “family model.” The father was was here that priest-professors educated large num- obligated to pass on moral guidance to the children. bers of students. Citing the research of Isaac Myer The objective of successful teaching was good (1900), Hilliard surveyed earlier dynasties, discover- speech. Many pharaohs of the Kemetic dynasties ing that these civilizations engaged teaching the “mys- were concerned about education as it helped refine teries.” Faculty taught about “heaven” (astronomy and human balance. Good speech recurs as a theme of the astrology), “land” (geography), “depth” (geology), pharaohs in pedagogy and curriculum, the accom- “secret words” (philosophy and theology), and “phar- plishment and possession of the truly educated per- oah” (law and communication). The Mdw Ntr docu- son, the “manifestation of Man’s unique nature” ments the existence of knowledge transmission. (Carruthers, 1999, p. 258). Good speech provides Hilliard posited that Kemetic education was important balance because the heart and mind give direction to as it integrated the spiritual with the material as a the tongue. The tongue directs the action of the body. paradigm for pedagogy and curriculum. Hilliard’s Our words are our deeds. Carruthers called our atten- lectures and writings repeatedly returned to this notion tion to Instruction of Ptahhotep, “the oldest textbook as he finds it useful in rebuilding the culture and on pedagogy” (p. 276). knowledge base of Africans, especially in the United States. He described the Greek and Roman invasions Good Speech consisted not merely of proper pronun- ciation, enunciation, grammar, syntax, and so forth. It and defeat of Kemetic civilization: included these, but more significantly good speech was wise speech, ethical speech, profound speech. (p. 276) It took years of calculated struggle for the Romans to destroy Kemetic education. These struggles were initi- Carruthers’s repudiation of today’s educational ated by rulers with such edicts as those issued by Theo- dosius, 380 A.D. and Justinian, 527 A.D. They had to system is thorough. The European intellectual assault burn down African temples or universities, and destroy has diminished Africa to irrelevance. He asserted or tame the priest-professors to annihilate the leader- that the current curriculum is driving Black people ship of KMT [Kemet]. Kemetic religion and education “mad.” Only by Africanizing the curriculum can were led by a priesthood that was not Roman. Emperors we begin to stand knowledge on its feet and begin the from Constantine onward did not want foreign leaders process of making Black people whole again. as competition, especially for the minds of the people. Christianity became a state religion with a native Roman leadership. (1995, p. 125) Foundations of Western Classical Kemetic scholar Jacob Carruthers (1995, 1999) Education: The Greeks and the Romans suggested that we search beyond the great Koranic universities to those of ancient Egypt. Here we will The Greeks and the Romans helped set the stage for find different kinds of education. One component Black education. Building on Kemetic traditions, the was clearly directed to vocation and practical skills, Greeks thought extensively about ideas and the role such as brick masonry, carpentry, mining, and shoe- of education in social organization. Early Greek soci- making. Beyond skills education, Kemet provided the ety, before Christ, is heralded in Western civilization phonetic alphabet, a numbering, counting, and math- as the originator and standard bearer of organized ematical system, written drama, novels and stories, and intentioned education. The Romans provided spirituality, medicine, architecture, history, science, lessons in conquest and the intellectual-legal subju- and art. Kemet, argued Carruthers (1999), provided gation of slaves. Both empires institutionalized and the foundation of all learning. He highlighted their refined concepts of inequality and privilege in formal education featuring reading and writing: learning, contributing to the foundation of today’s This type of education may be called scribal education. Western curriculum. It was through scribal education that the civilization Greece moved from an oral to a written tradition produced its priests, civil administrators, physicians, hundreds of years before Christ. Homer’s Iliad and 37. The Neglected Historical Milieu–•–305

The Odyssey reveal much about the evolving Greek body of valued traditions—or mos maioru, the ways of culture. Homer wrote of valiant ancestors reclaiming the ancestors—that was the cultural core of Roman life. territory via warfare and cunning. Mythology became (p. 58) the accepted religion, glorifying superhumans. Para- Cicero, Plutarch, and Quintilian became Rome’s digmatic values came to be discerned over time: The best-known educators. Much like Kemetic scholars, “good society” was joined with concepts of harmony Cicero advocated oratory as central to the curriculum. and balance; democracy and loyalty to the state pro- The orator embraced the liberal arts and humanities vided early versions of patriotism; evolving cultural rooted in human experience, exhibited rationality, and features of itinerant pedagogues provided anteced- was committed to the public good that could be pur- ents of nonschool education—a building block for sued through poetry, history, and language. The orator Black accommodationist education. Gerald L. Gutek should have knowledge of ethics, psychology, mili- (1995) connected characteristics of Athenian and tary science, medicine, natural science, geography, Spartan education to societal values of the emergent and astronomy. History, philosophy, and law remained school curriculum. at the core. The orator was seen as a teacher-leader who should embrace a practical, not a speculative or Spartan boys were taught to endure pain and depriva- abstract, philosophy. He must be persuasive, artful, tion without complaint. Intellectual content was mini- and witty. Cicero’s concept of oratory is best described mized and only the rudiments of reading and writing were taught. (p. 26) as humanitas, or all that is worthy in a person. Quintilian’s oratorical tradition was committed to The Athenians viewed humans as rational inhabit- traditional Roman values of family, duty, and nation. ants of an orderly universe. Democracy emerged as He embraced a stage theory in human development an important social pillar. Gutek (1995) argued that that assumed young children are governed by impul- the Sophists, paid teachers, helped develop the eco- sive satisfaction and older children should learn by nomic order. They hailed individualism as they experience, which should include reading, writing, helped move traditional morality away from courage. and—in the teenage years—exploration of liberal The great Greek philosophers expanded the social arts, music, geometry, astronomy, and gymnastics. philosophy, which evolved as a kind of curriculum. Quintilian’s model supported skilled speaking rooted Socrates explored universal principles of truth, in personal excellence. Slaves were not to be edu- beauty, and justice. He opined that our reason for cated in Roman society; rather, they were considered being was moral excellence. noncitizens. The denial of education to slaves Governance in Rome evolved from the isolated occurred many times throughout history, especially city-state of the Greeks into a centralized state and both in the American colonies and the United States. eve ntually empire. Class divisions were pronoun- The contrasts between the Kemetic and the Greco- ced between the patrician elite and the low-status Roman models of learning are at the heart of the plebian classes. Law, language, and ritual, which polemics involving Afrocentric versus Eurocentric built upon some aspects of earlier cultures, were models of education. Both models contributed to important societal organizers. Existing models of concepts of social organization and both contributed philosophy, literature, and rhetoric became Latinized to the dynamics of intentioned knowledge transmis- (Schubert, 1986), offering a building block to Roman sion via organized schooling. As the Western world education: moved through medievalism and the Renaissance, these early exemplars provided the building blocks Public support of arts and sciences brought public schools, which led to government control of teaching. for application of knowledge to social organization. Eventually, (300–500 A.D.) the curriculum became effectually separated from life. Only technical education remained connected to real-world activities. (p. 58) Black Education: Early Days to “Freedom” Gutek also supported that general description:

It was the function of education to transmit these tradi- James D. Anderson (1988) described how legal tions to the young. Through participation in the rituals Black education unfolded in the South from 1860 to of society, the young Roman learned to respect the 1935. According to Anderson, the conflict between 306–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

free labor and the repressive labor system of the and brutal whip of the Ku Klux Klan offered a new post–Civil War South shaped decades of Black edu- “democracy.” Brutality and chaos became the norm. cation and curriculum debates. Before their legal As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, lynching freedom, Blacks founded underground schools. As became the sport and picnic of far too many people. the slaveocracy fell apart, abolitionists, missionary Historian Rayford Logan articulated the term nadir societies, and benevolent Whites lent support to pointing to the depth of the issue. The historical efforts to educate Blacks. The Freedmen’s Bureau dialectics of the time found that the most intense determined that by the mid-1860s, the formative repression begat a new opposition wrought by an period for ex-slaves’ education, there were 500 emergent Black intelligentsia. Blacks were seeking Black schools. There was soon disagreement over upward mobility and breaking through, and the new the curriculum: Southern Black leaders saw the need Black intelligentsia would leave a permanent imprint for a classical and liberal curriculum that would on the United States of the 20th century. They promote literacy, uplift, and socialization, but stabil- represent the striving of a people, sometimes enslaved, ity in the new South was the goal for Northern to be free in every way, especially mentally. The Black philanthropists and social engineers. educational giants are a product of their times. Perhaps Anderson (1988) explained the early development their most prominent exemplar was W. E. B. Du Bois, of Black education and curriculum, including the who was simultaneously dubbed sociologist, historian, development of the Hampton model of industrial edu- educator, and political scientist and is the first of three cation. Hampton Institute founder and leader, Samuel exemplary Black giants whose influence on curricu- Armstrong, brought to the task of developing this lum in education is described in this chapter. model his background as the son of missionaries, mili- tary experience with Black soldiers, and understand- W. E. B. Du Bois ing of the political economy of the new South. The Hampton curriculum (Anderson, 1988; Watkins, 2001) Du Bois (1868–1963) was among the most influ- included vocational training along with Bible study, ential public intellectuals of the 20th century. A pio- lessons in practical morals, citizenship training, and neer of the civil rights movement, Du Bois dedicated character building. Students were taught respect for his life to the battles to end colonialism, exploitation, property and contracts, table manners, cleanliness, and and racism worldwide, and as an advocate for work habits. In the Hampton social studies curriculum, advanced education. Experiencing many changes in the plight of Blacks was described as natural and their the nation’s political history, he was a voice for gen- advancement was deemed to be best accomplished by erations of African Americans seeking social justice. social responsibility. As Watkins (2010) noted, Owing to his achievements, voluminous writings, and worldly recognition, many have chronicled These concepts were packaged as the uplift and devel- Du Bois’s life and work: Manning Marable (1986), opment of the race. Accommodationism meant Blacks must fit in to the social order, not try to disrupt it. The Eugene Provenzo (2002), Herbert Apthecker (1971), Hampton idea evolved as a merger of pedagogy and and Derrick Alridge (2008). accommodationist social philosophy. The curriculum The Educational Thought of W.E.B. Du Bois: An was, in effect, ideology. Intellectual History is highly recommended. After receiving a PhD from Harvard University and spend- Armstrong, Hampton, and the accommodationist ing 2 years as a professor of Greek and Latin at philosophy are at the center of the story of Black Wilberforce University (1894–1896), Du Bois moved education. The unequal and colonial model estab- to University of Pennsylvania to conduct a research lished by the Greeks and Romans was now incarnate project in Philadelphia, which resulted in The in the modern world. Philadelphia Negro (1899), the first major study of American empirical sociology. The study represented The Black Giants: Irony of the Nadir his relentless quest to expose the race problem as one of ignorance. Personally interviewing several thou- The defeat of Reconstruction dashed the hopes of sand residents, Du Bois documented the struggles of many for resolving the thorny issues of equality, poor Black people with deteriorated housing, ina- democracy, civility, and education for Blacks. The bitter dequate health care, disease, and violence. Crime and 37. The Neglected Historical Milieu–•–307

poverty, Du Bois argued in this work, were manifesta- 1858 in North Carolina to a slave mother and tions of institutional and structural racism. In what White master. At a young age, Cooper attended many consider Du Bois’s greatest work, The Souls of St. Augustine’s Normal School, founded to train Black Folk (1903), he wrote, “The problem of the twen- teachers and ministers for service among ex-slaves, tieth century is the problem of the color-line” (p. 54). where she married George Cooper, a Bahamas-born This book provided a philosophical framework by Greek instructor. In 1881 Cooper entered Oberlin which Du Bois addressed the problem of race and the College, graduating in 1884. After teaching briefly distressing realities of Black life in America. Within its at Wilberforce, Cooper returned to St. Augustine’s pages, he challenged the prominent Black leader, in 1885. In 1887, she received a master’s degree Booker T. Washington. Du Bois firmly opposed Wash- in mathematics from Oberlin, then moved ington’s policies of accommodation, calling instead for to Washington, D.C., and became principal of more social agitation to break the bonds of racial Washington Colored High School in 1902. Over oppression. Du Bois’s focus was on not how much time, she taught mathematics, Greek, Latin, litera- education was adequate but rather what kind. Intelli- ture, and language in high school and college. As an gence must be “spread.” He lamented that while Blacks intellectual, early feminist/womanist, critic, master were moving forward in institutions of higher learning, teacher, philosopher, and devout Christian, Cooper they were not receiving the liberal education he hoped was known for her outstanding intellect, exactness, for, that is, the training for social participation and and persuasive oratorical ability. Her experiences power. The notion of training recurs in Du Bois’s writ- with racism and sexism most likely stimulated her to ings. While every person possessed native intelligence, challenge prevailing patriarchal exclusionary prac- Du Bois believed that intellect had to be harnessed and tices. She referred to herself as “Black” at a time structured. Learning must be intentional. People must when the coinage for African Americans was be introduced to concepts of history, government, eco- “Negro.” She always noted that the domination and nomics, and culture. The brutal treatment of African oppression of women was exercised by both Black Americans required that intense education take place to and White men and encouraged women to expose connect the dots between Africa, slavery, Reconstruc- and attack injustice wherever it existed. Cooper pub- tion, and the unfolding of the future (Provenzo, 2002). lished A Voice From the South (1892), a collection of Beyond academic training, Du Bois was con- essays focusing on Black women’s issues at that time. cerned that slavery and discrimination had thrust Voice posited that the uplift of the race rests with the Blacks into pariah or outcast status. Far too many Black woman. She uttered the now-famous passage, Blacks were involved in crime and hustling. Thus “Only the BLACK WOMAN can say ‘when and education in civility, morals, and character was pro- where I enter, in the quiet, undisputed dignity of my vided. This was not a deficit argument, but rather a womanhood, without violence and without suing or function of the powerlessness and oppression. special patronage, then and there the whole Negro Du Bois was furious at suggestions that Blacks were race enters with me.’” (p. 63). She opined that Black not ready for education. He denounced the scientific women were a moral center uniquely situated to pro- racists and eugenicists for their hereditarian stance. vide leadership and action. Black women’s intellect Blacks, he argued, were ready to take their place in and leadership capabilities must be developed the new social order. Du Bois critiqued unequal through formal education. In 1914, at the age of 56, funding, the lack of input from Blacks in policy mak- Cooper began doctoral study at Columbia University, ing, and the appeal to Southern convention (Provenzo, later transferring to the Sorbonne. In her 1924 dis- 2002). This period found Du Bois refining his views sertation, she explored attitudes of the French on on Pan-Africanism and Marxian socialism (see 1935, slavery and politics. At the age of 65, Cooper became 1939, 1940, and 1945). In 1940 he created Phylon, the fourth Black woman in American history to a journal of social science. earn a doctorate of philosophy and the first African American woman born a slave to do a doctoral defense Anna Julia Cooper at the Sorbonne. Always connecting praxis to her scholarship, she Another of the Black giants who influenced cur- helped organize the Colored Woman’s League (1892); riculum in education was Anna Julia Cooper, born founded the Colored Women’s Young Women’s 308–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Christian Association—Phyllis Wheatley YWCA Eager to see the world, Woodson secured a posi- (1904) and its chapter of Camp Fire Girls (1912); and tion as general superintendent of education in Manila was one of the founders of the social services organi- working for the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs, zation the Colored Settlement House (1905). She was where he taught English, health, and agriculture, and women’s editor of The Southland magazine (1890), then traveled to Asia, North Africa, and Europe, among the first African American magazines in the spending a semester at the Sorbonne studying French. United States devoted to keeping readers informed of Graduate studies officials at University of Chicago issues and racial progress. Impressively, Cooper was would not recognize his Berea degree, forcing the lone female invited to membership in the elite Woodson to earn a bachelor’s degree at University of American Negro Academy, an African American Chicago, which he received in 1907. With two intellectual organization founded by Rev. Alexander degrees from University of Chicago, he enrolled in Crummell in 1897. Leaders of that organization the doctoral program at Harvard and was the first included Du Bois, Rev. Francis J. Grimké, Carter G. African American of slave ancestry and only the Woodson, and bibliophile Arthur A. Schomburg, second African American, after Du Bois, to receive whose collection of Africana documents would later a PhD from Harvard. become the New York Public Library’s Schomburg In 1915 Woodson and associates established the Center for Research in Black Culture. In her later Association for the Study of Negro Life and History years, the respected Cooper taught, wrote, and lec- (ASNLH), later changed to the Association for the tured. Receiving many accolades, she was also some- Study of Afro American Life and History. They times touched by the squabbling, backbiting, and wanted the organization, founded as an historical scandal that frequently affect academia. Settling in society to exclusively research Black America, to Washington, D.C., in 1930, she accepted the presi- be ideologically and politically independent. In 1916 dency of Frelinghuysen University, a school founded the association established the Journal of Negro in 1917 to serve Black residents of Washington, D.C. History. (especially working people) who might otherwise Philosophically, Woodson wanted to free Black have little access to higher education. At one point, in history from White intellectual bias, by presenting an attempt to save the school, Cooper moved its Blacks as active participants in history. He wanted operations into her home. On February 27, 1964, both Black and White people to be exposed to the Cooper died in Washington, D.C., at the age of 105. hidden contributions of Blacks and advocated for Negro history in school curriculum. He valued the Carter G. Woodson thinking of historian James Harvey Robinson on a “new history” that serves social change. A third Black giant who influenced educational Financing ASNLH proved difficult and Woodson curriculum was Carter Godwin Woodson. He served raised funds from White corporate philanthropists. in many roles: a teacher, scholar, author, publisher, Accusations of “radicalism” forced him to declare organization administrator, and public intellectual. loyalty to American capitalism. As he struggled to Contemporary scholars view Woodson’s ideas as support ASNLH and himself, Woodson became prin- antecedents to Black studies and even to multicul- cipal of the Armstrong Manual Training School in tural education; however, he is best known as the Washington, D.C., in 1918, then dean of the School “father of Black history.” of Liberal Arts at Howard University, and finally Woodson was born to impoverished former dean at West Virginia Collegiate Institute. In 1922 he slaves in Virginia. He labored on his father’s farm began to devote himself full time to ASNLH, research, and in the coal mines of West Virginia. Attending and writing. His prominence grew as he wrote news- elementary school only a few months per year, he paper editorials and made regular contributions to the was mostly self-taught. At 19 he enrolled in the Marcus Garvey organization’s Negro World. His Frederick Douglass High School in Huntington, books on Negro churches, orators, history, and per- West Virginia, where he excelled and graduated in spectives derived from crisis were given book-length less than 2 years. He completed a bachelor’s degree treatments, which constituted an alternative curricu- in literature at Berea College in 1903. lum for the education of many African Americans. 37. The Neglected Historical Milieu–•–309

In 1926 Woodson and his association announced for analyzing today’s myriad social issues that stem Negro History Week, a special commemoration from globalization and privatization of the public. of the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Public education, a function of the state, is Washington, and Abraham Lincoln, as well as a increasingly influenced by hegemonic forces. Ideo- celebration of the achievements of Blacks throughout logical contestation for state power is fierce. The history. Fifty years later, the celebration was expanded global economy stands on a fragile foundation, as to become Black History Month. political struggle for control and domination spreads In 1933 Woodson published his most celebrated instability. The escalating challenges of education work, The Mis-Education of the Negro, which cri- join war, human displacement, and destruction, tiqued the established school curriculum as grounded impacting all peoples of the world. Over 150 years of in racism and Eurocentric thought and leading to the corporate wealth accumulation has created an colonial subordination of African people in the United extreme pyramid. Knowledge management is the States. Woodson described his view of the damaging objective of the gatekeepers, while knowledge attain- effect of existing schooling on the Black psyche in the ment and distribution is demanded by the excluded. passage, “When you control a man’s thinking, you do Politics is the concentrated expression of economics. not have to worry about his actions. . . . He will find Shifts in the power structure and political framework his proper place and will stay in it” (p. xiii). This type have accompanied the economic changes and neolib- of education would not allow Black people to achieve eralism, or the belief in free markets and minimal unity and racial advancement. governmental intervention has become the dominant Woodson founded the Negro History Bulletin in theory of governance. The political parties become 1937 to reach beyond the audience of the Journal of indistinguishable in the neoliberal state, in which the Negro History. The Bulletin, directed at schools and government limits its provision of social services and young people, was low-priced and used accessible protects the new pyramided economic structure, language. Each issue was sold for $1 though it cost champions private property, and disrupts opposition. $2 to produce it. Woodson’s commitment to make The politics of exclusion have replaced the protection Black history accessible to elementary and second- of the public and the individual. ary school students led him to write books for school There is a major assault on public education children accompanied by study guides, chapter ques- (Watkins, 2012) cloaked by discourses on choice, tions, and recommended projects (Woodson, 1928a, crisis, school failure, the achievement gap, racist 1928b, 1935, 1939). Throughout the 1940s, the practices, funding inequities, teacher preparation, widely respected Woodson worked tirelessly to pop- leadership, and organizational issues. Public educa- ularize Black history, maintain the ASNHL, and tion is being downsized and disinvested. New initia- continue publication efforts. He was honored with tives make funding for public education contingent the prestigious Spingarn Medal from the NAACP on states holding teachers and schools accountable along with several honorary degrees. He died in for achievement. Privatizers of education need a 1950, and in 1984 the U.S. Postal Service honored quantitative measure suitable to public scrutiny in him with a memorial stamp. standardized tests that connect school achievement to profitability. The public can easily understand shut- tering unprofitable enterprises. Declarations of fail- First-Time Tragedy, Second-Time Farce ing, poor-performing, and underachieving schools and ill-suited teachers are now a part of our daily Exploring the past is an empty exercise if we do discourse. Universal public education is under threat. not learn lessons applicable to the future. Historical Plutocrats want a new educational system to help analysis must be connected to social analysis. As them dominate the globalized world economy. educational and curriculum theorists and practitio- Beneath the rhetoric of educational reform is a ners, we must ask questions and make arguments lest gross transfer of wealth to the private sector. There’s we stumble blindly into the future. The neglected no question that public education fails tens of millions legacy of Black (Kemetic and African American) of disadvantaged students—especially Black and educational history can provide valuable perspective Brown students in urban areas and millions of 310–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

students in rural areas. However, the fact is that unless routinization, militarization, and privatization of pub- and until there is a qualitative improvement in lic education are now fact. Haunted by ghosts of gen- the desperate social conditions surrounding low- erations of “savage inequalities” (Kozol, 1992), the achieving schools, there will continue to be huge defense of public education is inextricably connected gaps in achievement. The decimation, standardization, to democracy, justice, humanity, and civilization.

References and Further Readings Gutek, G. L. (1995). A history of the western educational experience. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Alridge, D. P. (2008). The education thought of W.E.B. Du Hilliard, A. G. (1995). The maroon within us: Selected Bois: An intellectual history. New York, NY: essays on African American community Teachers College Press. socialization. Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press. Anderson, J. D. (1988). The education of Blacks in the Kozol, J. (1992). Savage inequalities: Children in south 1860–1935. Chapel Hill, NC: The University America’s schools. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. of North Carolina Press. Marable, M. (1986). W.E.B. Du Bois: Black radical Aptheker, H. (Ed.). (1973). The education of Black democrat. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall & Co. people: Ten critiques 1906–1960. Amherst, MA: Myer, I. (Trans.). (1900). Oldest books of the world. New University of Massachusetts Press. York, NY: W. W. Dayton. Carruthers, J. H. (1995). MDW NTR divine speech: Provenzo, E. F. (2002). Du Bois on education. Walnut A historiographical reflection of African deep Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. thought from the time of the pharaohs to the present. Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, London, UK: Karnak House. paradigm and possibility. New York, NY: Macmillan. Carruthers, J. H. (1999). Intellectual warfare. Chicago, Schwab, J. J. (1969). The practical: A language for IL: Third World Press. curriculum. School Review, 78, 1–23. Cooper, A. J. (1892/1998). A voice from the South. Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black In C. C. Lemert & E. Bhan (Eds.), The voice of education: Power and ideology in America 1865– Anna Julia Cooper: Including A voice from the 1954. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. South and other important essays, papers, and Watkins, W. H. (2008). Asa Grant Hilliard III: Scholar letters. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. supreme. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899). The Philadelphia Negro: 994–1009. A social study. Boston, MA: Ginn and Watkins, W. H. (2010). Education of Blacks in the South. Company. In C. Kridel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of curriculum Du Bois, W. E. B. (1919, May). Negro education. studies (pp. 321–322). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The Crisis, p. 9. Watkins, W. H. (Ed.). (2012). The assault on public Du Bois, W. E. B. (1920). Dark water: Voices from education: Confronting the politics of corporate school within the veil. New York, NY: AMS Press. reform. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. (Reprint from 1920 edition). Woodson, C. G. (1915). The education of the Negro prior Du Bois, W. E. B. (1935). Black reconstruction in to 1861. New York, NY: G. Putnam’s Sons. America: An essay toward a history of the part Woodson, C. G. (1928a). African myths. Washington, DC: which Black folk played in the attempt to reconstruct Associated Publishers. democracy in America, 1860–1880. Philadelphia, Woodson, C. G. (1928b). Negro makers of history. PA: A Saifer. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1939). Black folk then and now: An Woodson, C. G. (1933). The miseducation of the Negro. essay in the history and sociology of the Negro race. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. New York, NY: Henry Holt. Woodson, C. G. (1935). The story of the Negro retold. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1940). Dusk of dawn: An essay Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. toward an autobiography of a race concept. Woodson, C. G. (1936/1971). The African background New York, NY: Harcourt Brace. outlined. New York, NY: Negro Universities Press. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903/1995). The souls of Black folk. Woodson, C. G. (1939). African heroes and heroines. New York, NY: Signet Classic. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. 38

THE BIOGRAPHICAL AND DOCUMENTARY MILIEU

CRAIG KRIDEL University of South Carolina

he biographical and documentary milieu rep- and life narrative are among the other research meth- resents a significant yet still-emerging genre odologies that are often associated with the term Tof inquiry in the field of curriculum studies. biography (Eakin, 2004; Josselson & Lieblich, 1993; While students, teachers, and professors in curricu- Roberts, 2002). These forms of inquiry, while also lum studies devote much attention to conceptualizing focusing upon the nature of the individual, are some- curriculum theory and researching educational pol- what different in their research orientation and are icy and its influence upon educational studies and often situated primarily within social science research practices, the biographical and documentary milieu traditions. Biographical research, in contrast, is typi- offers educators an opportunity to better understand cally aligned more with the humanities—the fields of the process by which theory and policy develop, situ- English, cultural studies, and history—where the ating a fluidity of ideas within their historical and researcher focuses on the process of writing as much conceptual context. By ascertaining context—the as on the written. lives of educators and the transformative evolution of ideas as depicted in documents—these forms of inquiry offer insights for better understanding the Theoretical Perspectives fundamental concepts, beliefs, and practices that of Biographical Research provide the foundations and commonplaces for the field of curriculum studies. Five basic modes of biographical research exist in curriculum studies: the scholarly chronicle, intel- lectual biography, life history writing, memoir biog- Context of Biographical Inquiry raphy, and narrative biography. Works based on and Modes of Expression these orientations may appear as articles, vignettes, chapters, monographs, or full-length books. While In curriculum studies, biographical research typically each orientation has its advantages in presenting a focuses on the life of an individual who is involved biographical subject, a biographer may move from in the field of education and more specifically in the one genre to another during the research process as field of curriculum (Garraty, 1957; Oates, 1986). Life the biography’s intent and purpose become more history writing, oral history, memoir, autobiography, clearly defined. As lives of their subjects are being

311 312–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

researched, biographers also are examining their subject’s life, life history writers deal with issues of own interpretive voices. generalizability, social interaction–social structure, and reliability and validity, resulting in case study The scholarly chronicle depicts an individual life and paradigms. In the field of education and curriculum represents the most fundamental and prevalent type of studies, life history studies have been particularly biographical research in curriculum studies. In this important in the area of teacher education with stud- approach, the subject’s story is typically told in chron- ies of teachers’ lives and the experience of first-year ological order, detailing the subject’s significant acts teachers (Bullough, 2008; Goodson, 2008). and giving precedence to the quest plot, or stages in the subject’s life pattern. While this research orienta- Memoir biography is a relatively new genre in the tion is often considered synonymous with biography, field of curriculum studies and is distinct from auto- the scholarly chronicle is quite different from other biography and memoir. In this genre, the narrative types of biographical inquiry. While appreciated by brings forward the biographer’s motives for portray- the general reader for its clear, categorical, Dragnet ing the biographical subject along with the reflec- approach (a “just the facts” style of writing), at times tions and insights on the life of the subject. The this approach is criticized in scholarly circles for what writer’s interpretative narrative is presented along can become a pedantic and seemingly faux-objective with the depiction of the biographical subject. The style of narration that places too much emphasis upon story of the subject’s life is told in relation to that of fact and perceived truth rather than interpretation. the biographer, and the telling of the story influences Yet, scholarly chronicles may display the finest inter- how the reader relates to the subject. Philip Jackson’s pretive characteristics of biographical research, John Dewey and the Philosopher’s Task (2002), in including if not requiring an engaging writing style as what the author describes as a concatenation of a way to fend off a clear yet plodding account. Jay Dewey’s thoughts, represents one example of this Martin’s The Education of John Dewey (2002) repre- approach. At times memoir biography has also been sents the strength of this research style, offering great described as “artobiography” as a way to feature the insights into Dewey’s beliefs and motives as influ- aesthetic dimensions of the research query. enced by life experiences, presented to the reader in a fluid, chronological, and engaging literary style. Narrative biography conveys the story of an indi- vidual’s life primarily as defined by the subject in Intellectual biography dismisses the importance of a relation to the reader. While the biographer selects chronological structure and instead focuses on ideas, facts and recognizes that certain interpretations are basing the narrative on a conceptual analysis of the more significant than others, this genre neither gives subject’s motives and beliefs. Those who write intel- a comprehensive account of the subject’s entire life lectual biography do not avoid interpretation but rather nor attempts to present the ultimate interpretation of recognize and accept the need for analysis. They have the biographical figure. Although narrative biogra- overcome the qualitative research “angst of interpreta- phers are aware of their emotions and reactions to the tion” and avoid what Carl Rollyson (2005) has subject, the significance of the biography is con- referred to as “biographical apologia,” works based on structed in relation to the anticipated needs and inter- interviews and filled with description but with no ests of the reader. Alan Ryan’s John Dewey and the interpretation of motives and feelings. Intellectual High Tide of American Liberalism (1995) represents biographers overcome the intrusive nature of inquiry this type of biographical research. through care, self-reflection, and insight. John Dewey and American Democracy by Robert Westbrook Listing a complete set of biographical types is (1991) represents this type of biographical portrayal. impossible due to the continual development of new forms, both content-oriented and process-oriented. Life history writing, or the narrative study of lives, Feminist biography (Alpern, Antler, Perry, & Scobie, follows the social science research traditions of oral 1992; Ascher, DeSalvo, & Ruddick, 1984; Wagner- history and narrative discourse and, in particular, Martin, 1994) and Black biography ( Backscheider, theoretical constructs from sociology and psychol- 1997) are among the content-related types of biogra- ogy. Along with the biographical quest story of the phy that emphasize identity and the restoration of the 38. The Biographical and Documentary Milieu –•–313

“invisible” subject. Other configurations of biogra- and are well aware that little objectivity exists in their phical inquiry are constantly emerging as researchers portraits of subjects. Yet, their efforts are constantly redefine fact with fiction and center upon the life of under self-scrutiny during the researching and writing an individual and/or document, for example, William process. Their voice and perspective emerges, drawn Schubert’s Love, Justice and Education: John Dewey from documents, facts, psychological evidence, and and the Utopians (2009). feeling for their subjects, and done so with constant In the past, some research orientations were self-reflection and a degree of self-accusation as they defined as “interpretive biography” and added greatly pose questions about their own motives and the to the developing field of educational biography; motives of their biographical subjects. Sensitive biog- however, this descriptor is somewhat of a misnomer raphers are able to create a sense that their figures are for 21st-century research since all biography has speaking in their own voices; yet, researchers are well become viewed, in some form, as interpretive. Biog- aware of their subjectiveness and their interpretive raphy continues to have a well-developed yet evolving perspectives. relationship to autobiography, memoir, and narrative research in education (Denzin, 1989; Epstein, 1991; Portraying the biographical subject’s character rather Rollyson, 2008). Even with the popularity of bio- than merely describing a life. Few readers are satis- graphical inquiry and the growing interest in proso- fied with “just the facts,” and biographers accept a pography (group biography), there remains little responsibility of moving through speculative and consensus on terminology. For example, although inferential ground in their quest to portray the charac- the term auto/biography is used by some qualitative ter (or an aspect) of their subjects or, if dismissing researchers, biography and autobiography are far any notion of “an original identity” and unified more different than conveyed by any solidus or slash. “essential self,” then presenting the different dimen- sions and motives of individuals. In many respects, Contemporary Concerns and Issues ascertaining the nature of character may be consid- in Biographical Inquiry ered a fundamental interpretive research act in writ- ing biography; however, this search is recognized by Fine distinctions cannot always be drawn among the biographers as dangerous and an area where some different styles of qualitative research used in cur- fear to tread. Leon Edel, in an allusion to Henry James’s riculum studies. Yet, the ways in which the biogra- work The Figure in the Carpet, has popularized this pher depicts the biographical subject and approaches interpretive quest as seeking “the figure under the research materials—documents, interview tran- carpet” (Edel, 1959). Edel calls on the biographer to scripts, and material culture—can clarify distinctions discover, in the telling of a life, the subject’s “private in the research methodology. The interpretive issues mythology” by developing an ability to recognize of biographical inquiry help biographical researchers “the reverse of a tapestry”—to understand events and define themselves and their craft as contrasted to behaviors that took place as well as those activities other research milieus that also devote attention to and gestures that could have occurred but did not. the life of an individual (Kridel, 1998). Less signifi- cant to the biographer are the defining methodologi- Defining the parameters of research “accuracy.” This cal topics of the ethnographer and oral historian, issue is perhaps even more complicated for curricu- such as insider–outsider relationships, interviewee larists to determine in light of the field’s contested sense of trust, and triangulation. views of the significance of facts and the construc- Some interpretive issues for the educational biog- tion of truth and in recognition of contemporary rapher who works in the area of curriculum studies autobiographical narratives where impressions of include: events do not necessarily coincide with the narrative accounts. While the biographer’s speculation and Establishing the biographer’s voice. As Paul Murray interpretation can never be bound, Kendall (1965) Kendall (1965) noted, biographers must draw from approached accuracy in a different manner: Biogra- the coldness of documents the warmth of a life being phy, in fact, serves to display one’s imagination lim- lived. Good biographers are cautious where they tread ited by truth, and facts serve to inspire interpretive 314–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

revelation. Edel underscored this same point by not- recordings of phenomena in the social world. While ing that biographers imagine not fact but form and the biographer attends to content and form, the docu- structure. Thus, the concepts of accuracy do not bind mentarian blends inquiry and aesthetics to present the researcher but, rather, provide opportunities to imagery of the individual. expand the forms of truth.

Determining the biographer’s relation to and fasci- Documentary Forms as Archival Inquiry nation with the subject. For both the researcher and The documentary milieu as a form of archival the reader, this issue is most apparent in memoir inquiry seems most pronounced in the area of his- biography, but all forms of biographical inquiry tory, with many curriculum historians working require self-conscious articulation of what draws the extensively with primary documents. Ironically, researcher to the subject (Secrest, 2007). In essence, within the tradition of the social sciences and the biographers are conscious and constantly assessing field of qualitative research, with its emphasis upon their own relation to their subjects. One of the more generating data through various means of inquiry, basic interpretive risks is when biographers become the use of extant documents from the past and pres- influenced by their fascination with the subject so ent seems somewhat overshadowed. Yet, the field of that the researcher’s admiration and identification sociology maintains a longstanding and popular tra- with the individual overwhelms any sense of empathy dition of documentary inquiry and, with continual and understanding. The fear is not a biographer’s loss evolution of hybrid and virtual documentary sources of objectivity; such a state never (or rarely) truly from the Internet and email, this form of data, evi- exists. Yet, fascination with the subject must be rec- dence, and documentation will become more com- ognized and set aside in what could be construed as a monplace as qualitative and quantitative researchers “willing suspension of blind or misguided fascina- recognize that they must appraise and ascertain the tion.” Biographers accept a type of relationship where provenance of information (McCulloch, 2004). From they know their subjects in special ways and balance this perspective, material culture takes the form of love with reason and fascination with fairness. documentation, falling into basic categories of per- sonal, public, and official documents (Hill, 1993). Context of Documentary Inquiry Personal documents include correspondence, jour- and Modes of Expression nals, autobiographical writings, and memoir. Public documents typically comprise published and pub- Documentary research, serving as both a comple- licly presented documents including newspapers, ment to and extension of biographical inquiry, takes magazines, flyers, books, etc. Official documenta- on different meanings in the field of curriculum stud- tion includes administrative documents representing ies. In one sense, documentary research becomes agencies and organizations. synonymous with archival research and addresses issues related to the role and use of documents and Documentary Forms as Aesthetic public and private records. In another sense, docu- Interpretation mentary research produces artifacts and material culture through artistic representation, moving and In another of its forms, documentary research still imagery, and sound recordings. Brian Schultz, couples dissonant paradigms of managing and ascer- former chair of the American Educational Research taining documentary evidence, as conceived in the Association’s Biographical and Documentary traditional social sciences, with creating and formu- Research Special Interest Group, has noted that lating aesthetic presentations, as conceived from the many researchers in the field of curriculum studies arts and humanities. Fundamental documentary per- see documentary inquiry as the art and science of spectives include modes of representation (images, producing the documentation itself and a form of diaries, publications, sound recordings, monuments aesthetic, arts-based inquiry. Thus, the act of “doing and memorials, etc.) and modes of engagement as documentary research” becomes the production of a creative enterprise of presentation, that is, the aes- written accounts, photography, moving image, and thetic presentation of documentary radio, film, and 38. The Biographical and Documentary Milieu –•–315

photography (Nichols, 2001). The aesthetics of docu- A third criterion, representativeness, seeks to mentary studies brings attention to the modes of nar- determine whether the document is typical of such ration (documentary as a form of storytelling) and accounts—perhaps described as “reliable”—and the protocols of subjectivities (the alignment of dif- whether the material represents a collection of pro- ferent perspectives and interpretations as part of the duced materials rather than an idiosyncratic portrayal. documentary items; Austin & de Jong, 2008). A document’s representativeness may be distorted with the passing of time as the survival rate of certain materials becomes greater since the items may have Theoretical Perspectives been viewed as less valuable and, thus, stored away, of Documentary Research rarely seen after their point of origination, and thus preserved. The acquisitions process—archival staff With the use of primary and secondary materials, the members “weeding” the collection (eliminating what researcher must assess and analyze the documents are considered nonessential items)—may also distort themselves before extracting content. Appraising provenance and representativeness. Similarly, some documents typically includes four criteria: authentic- important documents do not survive because their ity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning great significance caused them to become used and (Scott, 2006). Authenticity addresses whether the worn and, subsequently, discarded while less impor- materials are genuine or of questionable origin, and tant documents survive because they are so little whether their production is original and reliable and used. Matters of generalizability and reliability are has not been subsequently altered. If the document constantly hovering above documentary researchers has been transformed, through textual editing, margi- as they examine materials and decide what items nalia, or other means, the researcher seeks to clearly should be drawn upon in their work. Interestingly, identify those alterations. Authenticity is typically John Scott (2006) recognized that determining viewed as the most fundamental criterion for all whether documents are fully authentic, credible, and documentary research in education since the confir- representative may never be able to be confirmed by mation of authorship, place, and date are typically the researcher; thus, he reverses the process and asks determined before any researcher continues working whether the materials may be deemed as inauthentic, with the document. Once determined that the docu- noncredible, or unrepresentative. This has led to a ment is “genuine and of unquestionable origin,” the perspective described as “methodological distrust” material becomes “valid” as an artifact, although its where researchers take a general approach of content may still be questionable or subsequently questioning all materials and demanding that docu- found to be “incorrect.” ments must prove own authenticity, credibility, and While a narrative account or any form of qualita- representativeness before being used. tive data may be original and genuine—authentic— A final criterion—meaning—represents the tex- the content may still be distorted in some manner. tual analysis of the document and whether the evi- Thus, a second criterion in appraising materials is dence is clear and comprehensible. Coupled with this determining credibility and whether the document’s semiotic and intertextual examination is whether the information is honest and accurate. Such a rendering document’s content is appropriately situated within was much easier before our postmodern era and the its historical context; this is ascertained, in part, by recognition of constructed truths. At times, classroom the method in which meaning is constructed and descriptions and narratives suggest that the author perceived by its originally intended audience. While may not have been in a position to formulate a faithful these four criteria are fundamental, Gary McCulloch explanation or that the description was intentionally (2004) underscored a fifth criterion of document made to alter the record for dubious motives or unin- analysis: theorization—the anticipated theoretical, tentionally made merely by witlessness or inexperience. hermeneutic framework for interpreting the material. All accounts become biased in some manner, and the Such theoretical perspectives are commonplace for documentary researcher is constantly ascertaining those in the field of curriculum studies. Documentary motives similar to the biographer as a way to detect research, however, underscores an important dimen- distortion of the material. sion to theorization and the construction of meaning 316–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

of a document: the reconstruction of a text’s meaning the Internet. This has allowed some researchers not as it moves from author to audience. Scott (2006) to recognize the implications of fair use and copy- noted the transition of intended content (the author’s right; yet, for the documentary researcher, few issues intended meaning), the received content (meaning as have become more important or more complex. constructed by the reader/perceiver), and internal While the details of fair use and copyright will meaning (transactional understandings arrived from always mystify scholars, archivists, and librarians, the intended and received meanings). certain basic distinctions can be made as a way to Related analysis and assessment of documents assist and guide the researcher. Fair use clauses per- occurs as materials are ascertained as being public or tain to a researcher’s right to draw upon the content private, primary or secondary (noting that a primary of documents, on a limited basis, in order to advance source need not be the sole original document; pri- scholarship. In contrast, copyright consists primarily mary materials are first-hand documents), and as legal protection of documents produced by an whether the researcher has direct-proximate contact individual and, typically, addresses matters pertain- (being able to examine the original or primary ing to their commercial value. Thus, documentary document) or indirect-mediate access (viewing only researchers may gain access to primary documents a facsimile or scanned e-version). and draw upon content to advance scholarship through the concept of fair use; however, if research- ers proceed to duplicate and disseminate information Contemporary Concerns and Issues from documents, thereby possibly reducing the com- in Documentary Inquiry mercial value of the materials, then they may be violating copyright. While the criteria for assessing materials remains Copyright law often becomes unclear and indis- foundational for all forms of documentary research, tinct and, at times, is ultimately determined through interpretive issues arise that serve to determine the litigation. Issues are further complicated for the use of documents. Among the numerous issues are documentary researcher by the differentiation those addressing copyright and archival access, between copyright and property rights. Archives ascertaining the archival significance of documents, serve to preserve documents in their collections and determining the ethics of documentation. These where they establish guidelines for usage and safety topics remain crucial for documentary researchers of the materials; yet, they may not “own” the items and biographers and are markedly different from nor hold copyright protection. By definition, the issues that arise in other forms of qualitative institution may maintain property rights but the research. repository may not have been given copyright release Copyright and archival access may well prove from the owner/originator of the materials. And, in most cumbersome to documentary researchers (Hill, fact, donors typically do not hold copyright control 1993). When researchers seek access to materials at of all contents in their professional collections. For an archival repository, the collection may be unavail- example, many archival papers of curriculum leaders able for examination (closed) or its usage may be include correspondence from colleagues. These let- restricted in specified ways; for example, control ters are copyrighted by definition by the author. over the reproduction of unpublished materials would However, those letters received from others fall not permit the contents to be quoted. Thus, just within property rights control of the possessor; yet, because a researcher may be able to examine docu- when donated to an archives, copyright of the con- ments, the use of that information may be controlled tents of those received letters remains with the and, if so, the researcher typically signs release forms author. Thus, a documentary researcher working that specify restrictions and guidelines for fair use, with the William H. Schubert Curriculum Studies privacy, and literary rights. Ironically, as the archival Collection, housed at Georgia Southern University, world has become more litigious in recent years, in may draw upon and quote the contents of letters by contrast, our web-based society has become more of Schubert that are contained in the collection. How- a “sampling” generation, duplicating whatever is on ever, letters sent to Schubert by colleagues that are 38. The Biographical and Documentary Milieu –•–317

held in the collection may be read but, officially, may other academics, objectionable feelings or language not be quoted and presented publicly without the used in private conversation, fears as confessed in author’s permission. Thus, while the archival institu- personal correspondence—add to the reader’s under- tion may permit the documentary researcher to standing of curriculum decisions and policies. Fur- examine the materials, the repository may not have ther, unpublished drafts of policy documents and the right to grant permission for public use, that is, obscure conceptual positions and stances taken early the dissemination of quoted and/or reproduced in one’s career offer insight into understanding the material. field of curriculum studies; however, documentary Another issue in documentary research pertains to researchers must decide whether such partially com- ascertaining the significance of materials and infor- pleted statements should be presented publicly. mation. This concern represents an eternal quest of Biographical and documentary researchers believe documentary researchers since, with the passing of their role is to portray their subjects but also to guard time, the most mundane item can conceivably become their figures from unnecessary speculation and con- profound and revelatory due to different settings and jecture, and, for this reason, certain topics may not be context. Researchers develop an uncanny knack for introduced since they do not further the intent of the sensing connections among documents— concomitant biographical and documentary portrayal. knowledge—where significance arises not from a particular fact but from a larger gestalt. This issue pertains not only to working with documents but also Conclusion in terms of what will ultimately appear in the final work. All researchers know that not every docu- Biographical and documentary research has devel- mented point can be included in their research; judg- oped into a thriving and unique milieu in curriculum ments must be made in terms of what to include. studies, and its concerns and issues have led to a Thus, the documentary researcher is engaged in the greater understanding of the field’s commonplaces. quest to locate documents but also must develop the Yet, while many educational researchers may write ability to cope with the archival clutter while engaged about individuals, their work does not necessarily in the chase to locate the significance of documents. represent this biographical milieu, and, similarly, In addition to what can be included in one’s research while all researchers use some type of document in narrative is the issue of what should be included. their work, they may not be engaged in the documen- Documentary researchers (and biographical research- tary research milieu. Biographical and documentary ers) are constantly making a series of difficult ethical research is guided and defined by its unique research judgments concerning whether certain known infor- concerns and issues. mation, drawn from private documents, should be As a milieu in curriculum studies, biographical presented to the public. and documentary research offers great insights for Recognizing these inherent and necessary ethical educational policy makers, curriculum leaders, judgments that must be made by the researcher teachers, and students into the intellectual process of becomes another important issue of concern within conceptualizing curriculum theory and establishing the documentary milieu (Eakin, 2004). Many educational policy. This research milieu also offers a researchers believe that their work may include any form of profound professional development since personal detail—characteristics, sexuality, question- biography permits curricularists to reexamine their able and/or immoral behavior, beliefs—since such lives and careers and to inspire comparison. The information engenders insights for the reader. Docu- biographical and documentary milieu transcends mentary researchers and biographers hold great boundaries so that the researcher may present the power as they decide whether they should introduce universal in a single human life. This is when the private facts about one’s life, information that has sweeping gestures of biographical and documentary often been concealed and would not be known other- research, the power and force of the narrative, enter wise without their intervention. Public knowledge the field of curriculum studies with great promise of an individual’s personal feelings—rivalries with and power. 318–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

References and Further Readings Kridel, C. (n.d.). General comments: One introduction to biographical research. Museum of education Alpern, S., Antler, J., Perry, E. I., & Scobie, I. W. (Eds.). website. Retrieved from http://www.ed.sc.edu/ (1992). The challenge of feminist biography. Urbana, museum/biography-bio_thoughts.html IL: University of Illinois Press. Kridel, C. (Ed.). (1998). Writing educational biography: Ascher, C., DeSalvo, L., & Ruddick, S. (Eds.). (1984). Explorations in qualitative research. New York, Between women. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. NY: Routledge. Austin, T., & Jong, W. de. (2008). Rethinking Kridel, C. (2010). Biographical research. In C. Kridel documentary: New perspectives, new practices. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of curriculum studies (pp. London, UK: Open University Press. 83–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Backschedier, P. R. (1997). Reflections on biography. Martin, J. (2002). The education of John Dewey. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Bullough, R. V., Jr. (2008). Counternarratives: McCulloch, G. (2004). Documentary research in Studies of teacher education and becoming and education, history and the social sciences. London, being a teacher. Albany, NY: State University of UK: RoutledgeFalmer. New York Press. Nichols, B. (2001). Introduction to documentary. Coles, R. (1997). Doing documentary work. New York, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. NY: Oxford University Press. Oates, S. B. (Ed.). (1986). Biography as high adventure. Denzin, N. (1989). Interpretive biography. Thousand Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Oaks, CA: Sage. Roberts, B. (2002). Biographical research. London, UK: Eakin, P. J. (Ed.). (2004). The ethics of life writing. Open University Press. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Rollyson, C. (2005). A higher form of cannibalism? Edel, L. (1959). Writing lives: Principia biographica. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Rollyson, C. (2008). Biography: A user’s guide. Chicago, Epstein, W. (Ed.). (1991). Contesting the subject. West IL: Ivan R. Dee. Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. Ryan, A. (1995). John Dewey and the high tide of Garraty, J. (1957). The nature of biography. New York, American liberalism. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. NY: Knopf. Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: Goodson, I. (2008). Investigating the teacher’s life and John Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: work. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Information Age Publishing. Hill, M. R. (1993). Archival strategies and techniques. Scott, J. P. (Ed.). (2006). Documentary research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Jackson, P. W. (2002). John Dewey and the philosopher’s Secrest, M. (2007). Shoot the widow: Adventures of a task. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. biographer in search of her subject. New York, NY: Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (Eds.). (1993). The Knopf. narrative study of lives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Wagner-Martin, L. (1994). Telling women’s lives. Sage. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Kendall, P. M. (1965). The art of biography. New York, Westbrook, R. B. (1991). John Dewey and American NY: Norton. democracy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 3 9

CURRICULUM AND THE POLICY MILIEU

PAMELA J. KONKOL Concordia University Chicago Center for Policy and Social Justice

JINTING WU University of Macau

n To Dwell With a Boundless Heart (1998), David deeply political character of curriculum as the sensi- W. Jardine encourages us to see curriculum not as tive barometer of social and political events; it also Idiscrete subject matters or what goes on inside highlights curriculum as the process open to debates, the classrooms but as an integrated ecological whole. negotiations, and renewals, the process by which This ecological whole is built on the idea of curricu- pedagogical actors—students, teachers, parents, lum as an interrelated, generative, and ongoing administrators—are governed and govern themselves domain, full of rich interpretations of and dialogues (Kirst & Walker, 1971). with the social, historical, and political world. Indeed, it is not difficult to find signs of powerful influences of the major social events and political debates— Contemporary Concerns About both national and global—on curriculum and policy Curriculum and the Policy Milieu making. For example, the Sputnik crisis and Cold War science paranoia spurred the United States to What comes to mind when we think about curricu- adopt the National Defense Education Act and lum policies? We think about a variety of macro-, revamp its science curriculum; the civil rights move- meso-, and micro-level mandates such as learning ment of the 1950s and 1960s witnessed the emer- standards (e.g., the Common Core State Standards), gence of race as a central issue in curricular language policy, teacher licensing, teacher evalua- discourse; the immigration debates made their way to tion, school certification and accreditation, standard- the controversies of bilingual and multicultural edu- ized testing, ability grouping, and school uniforms, to cation policy. Even though these are not formally name a few. Where does policy come from? Does the educational events, especially curriculum events, policy milieu pertain only to the meeting rooms of they have never been far removed from the everyday local boards of education, district and system admin- realities of the classroom. Thus, the ecological istrators, national think tanks, and transnational insight might be a basis for considering that curricu- entities such as the Organisation for Economic Co- lum, at least in part, is the policy milieu. Thinking operation and Development? Who decides and who about curriculum as policy milieu highlights the benefits? Should curriculum policy development be

319 320–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

exclusively the prerogative of policy elites and corpo- intersect and the policy–practice gaps are continually rate interests—the Carnegie Foundation and Pearson being produced and negotiated. come to mind as two of the biggest players in educa- Importantly, curriculum as policy milieu is not tion policy—or should it engage education research- limited to the realms of early, middle, and secondary ers and professors as well as the students, parents, education. Postsecondary venues such as colleges, PK–12 teachers, and the general public? If the stu- universities, and professional training institutions are dents themselves are part of the curricula (see Chap- also sites of contention regarding contemporary cur- ter 29, “Students as Curriculum,” this volume), ricular concerns. For example, when marketing plans should they also play a role in the process of policy impact program development in teacher education development? Are teachers and students simply the institutions, the long reach of corporate influence on passive recipients of curriculum policies, or are they the curriculum is felt at the university policy table as also mediators of policy outcomes by actively inter- much as it is in the public school classroom. preting, negotiating, and reshaping the contents and Although it would be easy to regard such manifesta- meanings of the curricula? How do competing values tions of curriculum as an effect of policy, it is not that regarding what to teach/learn and how to teach/learn simple. In an attempt to remain solvent, colleges of manifest in concrete everyday policy “plays” in the education have turned to outside marketing firms to classroom? How do we account for the policy– assist in student recruitment and retention. Market practice gap, as well as the unintended consequences research then reveals what administrators and on- of policies? the-ground teachers are socialized to believe is In practice, curriculum is a conflict-ridden policy important regarding teaching and learning, but milieu, contested by different agendas, interests, and despite their own misgivings, individuals and institu- priorities. For instance, teachers often feel defeated tions are compelled to comply. These perceptions, by the enormous pressure levied on them: “If the which are fueled by the interests and agendas out- school fails, if the students do not perform to the test- lined previously in this chapter and reinforced by the ing standards, we are the one to blame. Year in and popular media, are translated into needs and knowl- year out, we are burnt out.” The demand for increased edge gaps by marketing firms. These so-called needs teacher autonomy, however, butt heads with the pow- and knowledge gaps then manifest as policy as col- erful standardizing movement that links higher test leges develop professional programming that is scores with the revival of U.S. human capital and the responsive to these manufactured shortcomings and economy. Students also lament that their favorite arts manifest as curriculum in programs that are revam- programs disappear with budget cuts. Given the ped or newly created to remediate and address these worrisome performance of U.S. students on some supposed gaps. international tests, policy makers have focused on In addition, curriculum as policy milieu is an more “relevant” subjects such as science, technology, expanding field with emerging research paradigms engineering, and mathematics, to the detriment of the informed by national circumstances and global com- arts and humanities. While influential groups such as parisons. For instance, the long-standing racial ten- accrediting associations, testing agencies, and venture sions in the United States inflamed by the 2014 philanthropists exert a standardizing influence on shooting of Black male Michael Brown have invited curriculum, voices from (but not limited to) immi- curricular scholars to reflect on educational grants; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender com- interventions in the injurious racial divides in the munities; religious groups; and teachers’ unions call American schools and society. Moreover, the interna- for destandardized curricular spaces to allow cultural, tional testing regime Programme for International religious, sexual, and professional pluralism to flour- Student Assessment stimulates the adoption of ish. We have no reason to assume that policies travel performance-based assessments and the governing of to the classroom undistorted, or that what appears in educational space by numbers across the globe. It the textbook has not been impacted by political agen- also spurs comparisons of different countries’ cur- das or reflected in what is actually taught in the class- ricular policies and the country-specific social and room. The everyday curricular activities are precisely political issues that complicate their formulation and the “milieu” in which competing policy parameters implementation (Meyer & Benavot, 2013). 39. Curriculum and the Policy Milieu–•–321

Context of Curriculum and and economic backgrounds. The understandings and the Policy Milieu practices from such microcosmic contexts signifi- cantly mediate how curriculum is interpreted and Instead of parsing out “context” as local, national, enacted in the school. and global—as these levels are as much hierarchi- cally as horizontally linked—we think of context as a triangle of sites, players, and stakeholders that are Theory of the Policy Milieu caught up in complex power relations. We consider players and stakeholders as part of the context, as Curriculum as policy milieu engages continual theo- they exert varying degrees of political leverage upon retical debates, first of all, over what to teach, how to curriculum change, regardless of whether such lever- teach, and who the child should be. These are not age is translated into the official policies. Take for self-explanatory questions; scholars and educators of example the Occupy Movement that began in 2011. various stripes have attempted their answers from Building on the worldwide outcry against economic different standpoints, mobilizing elements of tradi- and social inequality, many U.S. educators mobilized tion, community, science, and individual judgment. social media, youth organizations, and grassroots An early landmark in this debate is Spencer’s Educa- activists to deliberate an Occupy curriculum and tion: Intellectual, Moral and Physical (1861), which prevent public education from serving the 1% at the that poses the question “What knowledge is of most expense of the 99% of the society (see Occupy worth?” It argues for expanded curricular offerings Education, 2012). Here the context of curriculum in lower schools to include practical subjects such as involves not only the sites and events of the move- home economics, agriculture, driver training, sex ments but also interactive players and stakeholders education, and industrial arts. Genevan philosopher and their competing agendas, including the Obama Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) in his Émile, or administration, state and federal departments of edu- on Education (1762) expressed his curricular ideal cation, powerful philanthropists such as Bill Gates, not in terms of particular techniques of imparting corporate education contractors, school reform lob- knowledge but in fostering developmentally appro- byists, teachers, parents, and youth themselves. The priate education for pupils’ natural growth, policy milieu is coterminous with the broad context self-governing, and moral cultivation. Influential of social, political, and economic struggles that rev- educational philosophers such as A. S. Neill (1960), erberate in classrooms and are integral to the way we John Dewey (1902), and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi make sense of curricula. (Pinloche, 1901) left their marks on the history of Beyond the national boundaries, we see the global progressive education by advocating for an organic convergence of policy rhetoric in different societies, curriculum process based on children’s emergent cultures, and geographical locations. The ideals of interests, needs, and relationships. freedom, choice, equality, and child-centeredness Such historical efforts in defining the curriculum, have pervaded educational reforms across the globe though not strictly expressed in the language of such that it is almost impossible to think about a policy, form the value basis and philosophical foun- national curriculum that does not follow, or at least dations of contemporary curriculum discourses and attempt to follow, these ideals. Without neglecting practices. Should curricula impart useful, practical local idiosyncrasies in the enactment of world-level skills for life outside the school or should schools policy frameworks (Anderson-Levitt, 2003; Carney, cultivate sociability, humanness, compassion, and Rappleye, & Silova, 2012), we acknowledge that the dispositions for a civilized communal life? Should intricate intertwining of national imageries in the schools aim for developing critical minds or mallea- global horizon suggests that the milieu of curriculum ble citizens of the society? Policy responses to what policy is always-already transnational. On the other students need to learn, what counts for quality educa- end of the scale, the milieu of curriculum policy tion, and what elements constitute desirable citizens can be individual and microcosmic. Students and are not a field of consensus; notions of what consti- teachers bring funds of knowledge (Gonzalez, tutes a “good” education for students from particular Moll, & Amanti, 2005) from their cultural, linguistic, populations and demographics are often mediated by 322–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

where one situates on the political, social, and eco- concerted cultivation model pertains to middle-class nomic spectrum. Similarly, different curriculum parents who consciously structure children’s after- ideologies and guidelines flourish in a wide spectrum school time and engage them in critical thinking and of schools in the United States that includes charter concerted learning activities. On the other hand, the schools, magnet schools, private faith-based schools, natural growth model is the type of childrearing often Montessori schools, and international schools, to practiced by working-class parents who are more name only a few. preoccupied with immediate livelihood concerns, Curriculum as and in the policy milieu also less involved in the structure of the child’s afterschool engages continual theoretical debates over the role of activities, and more inclined toward letting children culture in teaching other people’s children (Delpit, initiate free play. Lareau’s work sheds lights on how 1995), that is, immigrants, ethnic minorities, and different childrearing styles align or misalign with students of color. In an effort to understand why curriculum expectations to perpetuate educational immigrants and students of color experience continu- (dis)advantages and inequality. ous difficulties in schools, the lens of cultural discon- The significance of poverty and privilege cannot tinuity is invoked to explain the gap between be underestimated when considering the manifesta- students’ home culture and that of the school. On the tion and impact of curriculum as policy milieu. Jean one hand is the cultural deficit model. This model Anyon’s (1980) seminal study on the relationship of holds that students who do not come from the White, the curriculum to educational expectations and main- middle-class mainstream experience a cultural mis- tenance of unequal social and economic structures, match between what is taught, practiced, and valued as well as her subsequent follow-up (1981) on social at home and at school. Family and community class and school knowledge, illustrate how theories linguistic, cultural, and value systems are considered of social and cultural reproduction, politics and pol- deficits that impede students’ successful accultura- icy, and the economy are key to understanding how tion of the educative norms. Policy responses follow- our social assumptions and expectations impact how ing this model tend to locate the problems at home, we enact the processes of schooling, education, ped- tacitly blaming the victims and attempting to better agogy, and the curriculum. Anyon’s studies are also integrate students into the pedagogical mainstream. illustrative as to how such assumptions manifest into Contrary to the cultural deficit model is the cul- policy and practice. tural competence model. Scholars have called atten- In addition, curriculum as policy milieu also tion to the different but positive values of the reality, engages a wide range of theoretical debates concern- history, and perspectives of students’ home culture ing gender, race, sexuality, language, identity, place, as integral to their academic competence. Thus, the and history. Multicultural, multilingual, postcolonial, curriculum policy of culturally relevant pedagogy anti-imperialist, feminist, and critical poststructural emphasizes the funds of knowledge students bring to theories reject the value-free curricular orientation the classroom and the importance of channeling and focus on the production of inequality and subor- them in academically meaningful ways (Gay, 2010; dination in curricular policies and practices. In short, Gonzalez et al., 2005; Ladson-Billings, 1995). the kind of theoretical assumptions at play signifi- While the cultural deficit model is criticized for cantly impact how curriculum policies are conceived, overlooking the history of educational struggles implemented, and interpreted. As such, the same within African American and immigrant communi- policy may take different meanings when considered ties (Perry, 1993), theories of cultural and social from different theoretical lenses. In a similar vein as capital lend further insights into how dominant cur- Anyon, Patricia Hinchey (2008) reminded us that our riculum policies often reproduce, if not exacerbate, personal contexts have much to do with how we the existing inequality. In Unequal Childhoods, interpret what is good, necessary, and right in terms sociologist Annette Lareau (2011) explored the of deciding what policies, practices, and curricula are differences in parenting styles between White and “best” for “all kids,” and that what might be reason- Black families and argued that such differences, able in one’s own vision might not be so for other related to class distinctions, influence the children’s people’s children (Delpit, 1995). The notion that performances in and out of school. Specifically, the policy may look and feel very different depending 39. Curriculum and the Policy Milieu–•–323

on the social, political, theoretical, or moral lens imaginations. Also noteworthy is that the story-like employed to interpret such policy is illustrated every presentation in Jonathan Kozol’s highly readable day in the news and social media. Savage Inequalities (1991), among other of his best- sellers, highlights a mode of inquiry with which curricular scholars act as public intellectuals to Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression chronicle the frontlines of educational struggles with a language of compassion and sympathy. Multiple forms of inquiry have been used to study We cannot sufficiently understand curriculum and curriculum as policy milieu, including philosophical, the policy milieu in the absence of policy analysis. sociological, anthropological, historical, autobio- Policy analysis is a multimodal and cross-disciplinary graphical, and increasingly comparative inquiry of enterprise that employs sophisticated methods of the international curriculum policy contexts. More inquiry (Heineman, Bluhm, Peterson, & Kearny, often than not, scholarly works use eclectic modes of 2002). In the time since the policy sciences were first representation, reflecting the multidisciplinary and introduced by Harold Lasswell in 1951, a strange transdisciplinary character of curriculum as policy contradiction has presented itself: Despite the milieu. increasing complexity of the world’s problems and The philosophical mode of inquiry is illustrated the fact that the majority of governmental and non- by educators and theorists who were active during profit agencies have explicit policy analysis and the progressive era or influenced the thinking of that evaluation functions, policy scholars lament that period, including Dewey, Neill, Rousseau, and Maria policy analysis has not produced a meaningful Montessori. While philosophers are concerned about impact on policy makers and that policy analysts the purpose of curriculum, empirical modes of have remained distant from the realm of policy mak- inquiry explore how curriculum ideologies intersect ing (deLeon & Vogenbeck, 2007; Heineman et al., with broader sociopolitical parameters—such as 2002). This contradiction is all too evident in the class, gender, race, sexuality, immigration—to educational and curricular realms; although signifi- impact the daily pedagogical lives of teachers, stu- cant sites of educational policy work and analysis dents, and families. Examples of sociological and exist in this milieu—for example, the National Edu- anthropological inquiry include Mary Metz’s study cation Policy Center, and Chicagoland Researchers of disparate experiences in American high schools and Advocates for Transformative Education (1989), Lareau’s study of unequal childhoods among ( CReATE)—policy decisions are, as discussed previ- families of different class and racial backgrounds ously in this chapter, more likely to be influenced by (2011), Stacey Lee’s study of Asian immigrant stu- corporate (Pearson), philanthropic (Gates Founda- dents’ academic pursuits in American schools (1994), tion), or political players than those with a direct and Lisa Delpit’s study of cultural conflicts in the knowledge of and relationship to curriculum or edu- classroom (1995). Such inquiries also often entail cation scholarship. It is important to remember that historical accounts of curriculum policies and how in a similar way as the face of policy makers and such policies reflect, transmit, and reproduce cultural policy influencers has changed, so has the face of stereotypes and privileges. those who study and analyze policy. A quick Internet The efforts to understand curriculum as autobio- search reveals that policy “centers” that focus on graphical texts, initiated by pioneers such as William educational issues are everywhere; universities from Pinar and Madeleine Grumet in the 1970s and later Research 1 to Research “None” provide institutional elaborated by curriculum scholars such as Janet homes to a variety of policy groups, and organiza- Miller, F. Michael Connelly and D. Jean Clandinin, tions from across the social and political, private and William Schubert, and William Ayers, have also public spectra fund policy work. But what do these become a major contemporary curriculum dis- entities do? What is the function (or would that be course (see Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, consequence?) of the multitude of white papers, 1995/2008). The (auto)biographical approach exam- policy briefs, research endeavors, and pointed cri- ines the existential dimensions of how curriculum tiques? The “truths” that emanate from these entities policy is embodied in life histories, memories, and are often believable and contradictory. To that end, 324–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

do they make a contribution or complicate the con- a fitting symbol for the contested and political nature versation? In our information-rich society, whatever of curriculum. Seeing curriculum as policy milieu is made public is fair game for framing the conversa- rather than merely the effect of policies compels us tion. French philosopher Jacques Ellul (1965) argued to bear witness to the entanglement of pedagogical that those with the most access to information are lives in the complicated ecology. It also redirects also the most susceptible to propaganda. Truth our attention to the policy “play” in the day-to-day becomes what is consumed, that “truth” frames the and keeps our curricular work open to debates and conversation, that conversation functions as the deliberations. knowledge that we have been socialized to accept We cannot, however, downplay the degree to and, as a consequence, becomes the fodder for policy which curriculum in numerous manifestations is making and reform. impacted by policy. Nor can we ignore that curricu- Curriculum as and within the policy milieu is lum has the capacity to influence and create policy in expressed in a wide variety of modalities by a multi- a multitude of ways. The enactment of curriculum in tude of players, interests, and stakeholders inside and classrooms, schools, and outside entities not only outside the disciplinary knowledge base. As the com- informs policies that are created and passed but also position of policy influencers becomes more public pushes against those that are developed without input and more diverse, as the number of individuals and from the immediate stakeholders. This complicated- entities that seek to impact (if not steward) policy ness related to policy as both action and response increases, and as the cadre of stakeholders who feel creates for an often contested and debated space. empowered to respond to policy and reform mea- Policies provide important standards and touch- sures grows, the range of possible manifestations of stones to whatever context in which a given policy is curriculum policy widens. The divergent policy per- enacted. Again, the impact that noneducationally spectives that are expressed daily in Facebook related partisan think tanks, corporate entities, and groups such as “America Doesn’t Want Texas’ Text- philanthropic agencies and individuals currently have books!,” “Lace to the Top,” “Badass Association of in policy-making circles and on the policy-making Teachers,” “ReclaimAERA,” and “Teachers’ Letters process is the subject of conversation in society at to Bill Gates” provide a sense of hopefulness that large as much as within the disciplinary realms of stakeholders on the receiving end of policy initia- education and curriculum studies more specifically. tives (teachers, parents, students, academics, etc.) As discussed previously, that this work is being influ- can begin to make a contribution to the larger con- enced (some would argue corrupted) by interests that versation, if not actualize such perspectives into are often only loosely, if at all, connected to centers of on-the-ground advocacy and activism. Similarly, practice and expertise can and does have grave conse- prolific blogs and bloggers such as Diane Ravitch, quences for stakeholders at all levels. The questions @thechalkface, teacherken, and EduShyster, to name of who makes policy, what interests policy serves, just a few, do much to demystify the milieu for the and why policy is made must be asked alongside the lay community and provoke action. In Chicago, questions of who should make policy. Should curricu- CReATE brings together education researchers to lum policy be the domain of educational experts? And both analyze existing policy as well as to “work col- if so, how is “expert” defined—and by whom? Is lectively to conduct, review, and distribute studies in expertise claimed or earned? Are the “experts” the order to promote public learning and dialogue about university researchers, policy center fellows, on-the- education issues” (CReATE, n.d.). ground educators, or families and communities? Or, given the nature of contemporary society, does the realm of policy making and implementation belong to Curriculum as Cause and Effect those with the loudest voices and the most capital? This is enormously significant; when the work of What do we mean when we talk about curriculum and policy research and policy making is done outside of the policy milieu? The Oxford English Dictionary the conceptual and disciplinary spheres of expertise would have us understand policy as “public practice” for which the policy is being made, the potential and milieu as “social surroundings.” The Latin root increases that it does less to serve the public good for the word curriculum—the “race course”—seems than to serve the needs of those in power. 39. Curriculum and the Policy Milieu–•–325

References and Further Readings Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Anderson-Levitt, K. (2003). A world culture of Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good teaching! schooling? In K. Anderson-Levitt (Ed.), Local The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory meanings, global schooling: Anthropology and Into Practice, 34(3), 159–165. world culture theory (pp. 1–26). New York, NY: Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and Palgrave Macmillan. family life (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum California Press. of work. Journal of Education, 162(1), 67–92. Lasswell, H. (1951). The policy orientation. Anyon, J. (1981). Social class and school knowledge. In D. Lerner & H. D. Lasswell (Eds.), The policy Curriculum Inquiry, 11(1), 3–42. sciences. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Carney, S., Rappleye, J., & Silova, I. (2012). Between Press. faith and science: World culture theory and Lee, S. (1994). Behind the model-minority stereotype: comparative education. Comparative Education Voices of high- and low-achieving Asian American Review, 56(3), 366–393. students. Anthropology of Education Quarterly, Chicagoland Researchers and Advocates for Transformative 25(4), 413–429. Education (CReATE). (n.d.). About CReATE. Metz, M. H. (1989). Real school: A universal drama Retrieved from http://www.createchicago.org and disparate experience. In D. E. Mitchell & DeLeon, P., & Vogenbeck, D. M. (2007). The M. E. Goertz (Eds.), Politics of education policy sciences at the crossroads. In F. Fisher, association yearbook (pp. 75–91). London, UK: G. J. Miller, & M. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of Taylor & Francis. public policy analysis: Theory, politics and methods Meyer, H., & Benavot, A. (Eds.). (2013). PISA, power, (pp. 3–14). New York, NY: CRC Press. and policy: The emergence of global educational Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children. New York, governance. Southampton, Oxford, UK: Symposium NY: The New Press. Books. Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago, Neill, A. S. (1960). Summerhill: A radical approach to IL: University of Chicago Press. child rearing. New York, NY: Hart. Ellul, J. (1964). The technological society (J. Wilkinson, Patton, C., Sawicki, D., & Clark, J. (2012). Basic methods Trans.). New York, NY: Knopf. of policy analysis and planning (3rd ed.). New York, Ellul, J. (1965). Propaganda: The formation of men’s NY: Pearson. attitudes (K. Kellen & J. Lerner, Trans.). New York, Perry, T. (1993). Toward a theory of African-American NY: Knopf. student achievement (Report No. 16). Boston, MA: Fischer, F., Miller, G., & Sidney, M. (Eds.). (2007). Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, Children’s Learning, Wheelock College. and methods. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching (2nd ed.). P. M. (1995/2008). Understanding curriculum: An New York, NY: Teachers College Press. introduction to the study of historical and Gonzalez, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of contemporary curriculum discourses. New York, knowledge. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. NY: Peter Lang. Heineman, R., Bluhm, W., Peterson, S., & Kearny, E. Pinloche, A. (1901). Pestalozzi and the foundation of the (2002). The world of the policy analyst (3rd ed.). modern elementary school. New York, NY: C. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House. Scribner’s Sons. Hinchey, P. (2008). Becoming a critical educator: Rethinking Schools. (2012). Occupy education. Defining a classroom identity, designing a critical Rethinking Schools, 26(3). Retrieved from http:// pedagogy. New York, NY: Peter Lang. www.rethinkingschools.org//cmshandler.asp? Jardine, D. W. (1998). To dwell with a boundless heart: archive/26_03/edit263.shtml Essays in curriculum theory, hermeneutics, and the Rousseau, J.-J. (1762/1979). Émile, or on education (A. ecological imagination. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Bloom, Trans.). New York, NY: Kirst, M. W., & Walker, D. F. (1971). An analysis of Basic Books. curriculum policy-making. Review of Educational Spencer, H. (1861). Education: Intellectual, moral, and Research, 41(5), 479–509. physical. New York, NY: D. Appleton. 40

THE PARENTAL, FAMILIAL, AND COMMUNAL MILIEU

MORGAN E. HALSTEAD Malcolm X Community College

KATHLEEN H. MCINERNEY Saint Xavier University

ow do parents and families influence a child’s school decisions, full-time parent volunteers for trans- education? Do they work with the school and lation or teacher support, or even a family center for Hteachers, or do they get out of the way? adult classes. Some would argue that family involve- Should they become a part of their local school’s ment is not just something that we should do; it is daily operations? If so, how? Are certain families something that we must do for students to succeed considered a detriment to a child’s educational prog- academically, socially, and emotionally (Bauer & ress? Or, does a school’s success depend upon how Shea, 2003; Henderson, Johnson, Mapp, & Davies, well they include parents and families? Family mem- 2007). If parental and community involvement is bers are immediate caretakers, which stereotypically indeed a necessity, it is essential that we understand signifies mother, father, and child, but family can how it works, how it fails, and how it will evolve. include many other participants that are invested in Schools exist within communities, the definition a child’s education and general well-being. A child’s of which carries a geographic significance, but with daily caregiver may be a paid nanny or a retired the changing landscape of school boundaries and grandparent. For instance, children may spend part of attendance barriers, the neighborhood surrounding their time in the home of one parent and the rest of the a school may or may not represent the students who time with another. There may be neighbors, aunts, attend the school. In some areas of the United States, siblings, or family friends who take part in raising a especially in suburban districts, school boundaries child. In fact, the definition of families becomes more are defined by the town in which the student lives. In complex with the awareness of single parents, gay rural districts, where more and more smaller towns parents, homeless children, paid caretakers, and so on. are closing their schools and sending children to Therefore, the parental and familial milieu does not schools that consolidate students from several towns, encompass any one type of family. As the definition the school and the home may in fact be very far of family evolves and progresses so does the defini- away from each other. Furthermore, the rise of the tion of family involvement. Although family involve- school choice movement means that attendance in ment can still involve bake sales, PTA meetings, and urban schools may be defined by a lottery, rather visits for career day, it may also involve sharing major than an address. What then defines a community in

326 40. The Parental, Familial, and Communal Milieu–•–327

relation to a school? Are the members of a neighbor- school administrators, or are they only invited in by hood also members of a neighborhood school com- appointment or when a child is “in trouble?” Are munity? Are students who travel a long distance to parents a part of the school building only during des- school members of all of the communities served ignated parent–teacher meetings, or are they consis- by the centralized school? Who decides what neigh- tently present in the daily operations as volunteers borhood and community mean? How do district and and tutors? How much parent involvement does local political policies impact the definitions of com- a school need to help students succeed? When we munities and families? How do teacher and teacher imagine parent involvement, we think of parent leadership education programs prepare students in teacher associations or parent teacher organizations, their understandings of families and communities? but what are other models or possibilities for access How are the cultural values, concerns, and identities and inclusion? Some argue that more multidimensional of the students, families, and communities represented and multifaceted parent–school–community partner- in the school’s curriculum, pedagogies, policies, and ships support more academic success for students environments? (Epstein, 2008). However, the school– community It should be accepted practice that if a parent has connectivity depends much on the willingness of a child attending a school, the parent’s voice should school personnel and parents. Both parents and teach- matter. However, this practice varies widely accord- ers want more involvement, but often the current ing to parents, schools, and communities. Do parents structures and programs do not support the diversity and community want to have a say? How much of student and community needs. How can parents involvement should be encouraged? Do families, and teachers communicate in a way that supports students, teachers, and schools agree on this? How student success? How can the school integrate the do these groups communicate with each other? How community to support a child’s overall well-being? do linguistic differences increase or decrease the If both parents and school personnel want more level of support for involvement? Does the culture in involvement, what barriers exist to challenge the some schools of security and protection by metal creation of stronger partnerships? Some argue that detectors and even armed teachers create an unwel- teachers are not effectively trained to support parent coming environment for parents and community, or and community involvement. With intense focus on does it help parents feel their children are safe? If curriculum, assessment, and lesson planning, rarely community members pay more in taxes, do they have in teacher education programs is there effective a stronger voice? How do nonparent community focus on parent and community involvement, a sub- members matter? How do or can parent organiza- ject often found as the last chapter in teacher educa- tions and/or community activists influence school tion textbooks. There is also concern when the decisions? cultural background of the teacher significantly differs from the cultural background of the community and families. Given the ever-growing diversity of Contemporary Concerns About Parents students and the changing demographics due to and Community as Curriculum migration, researchers argue that there needs to be a better understanding about the link between home, Contemporary concerns regarding the community school, and community (Li, 2005). Growing linguistic and familial milieu include access, school climate diversity also renews the call for appropriate pro- and culture, educational policy, and community orga- grams for multilingual children who work to support nizing. Who has access to a school building? Which their academic and lifelong success (Soto, 1997). parents are considered welcome and for what pur- How does policy affect parent and community pose? Do schools exist as community oases or as inclusion or exclusion? Although policy makers rec- fortresses? Parental and familial access to schools ognize the importance of family and community, in and children’s education typically depends upon the practice, there is limited action. Parent and commu- level of marginalization of and/or inclusion in the nity involvement often becomes less significant than school culture. For instance, does a school have an teacher training, school funding, and test scores. open-door policy for parents to visit classrooms or Numerous educational policies address family and 328–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

community inclusion. The federal No Child Left often heavily populated by low-income students Behind Act of 2001, for instance, includes a section whose parents may not have the traditional social, on parent involvement that asks schools to create cultural, or political capital to have a presence in programs “based on current research” and that is schools and influence school decisions. Social capital “geared toward lowering barriers to greater partici- theory, as James Coleman (1994) describes, provides pation by parents in school planning, review, and an essential lens for understanding how the communi- improvement experienced” (No Child Left Behind, ties’ and students’ assets are perceived relative to how 2001, p. 182). Urban districts often include offices an oppressed community’s status matches up with, or dedicated to community and family involvement, fails to match up with, the dominant middle-class and suburban districts may have staff whose job it is culture of schooling. Some communities may no lon- to work with parents and reach out to the community. ger be invested in local public schools as traditional However, as municipal, state, and federal policy school attendance and districts are altered by the pres- makers and legislators shrink access to public ser- ence of charter schools and the closing of neighbor- vices such as libraries, hospitals, community mental hood schools so that school communities are less health services, and schools, community members defined by neighborhoods and instead by attendance. are becoming more aware of systemic barriers to Cultural, linguistic, and ethnic contexts also influ- their involvement in school issues. Despite policy, ence the relationships among home, school, and however, even small-scale programs are considered community. Diverse communities can encourage costly and cumbersome, making them less likely to diverse programming, but cultural and linguistic be implemented or enforced. identities of certain communities are considered to When schools offer limited parent involvement, be detrimental to children’s education, creating a some communities work from the outside through deficit model and the need for children to be “saved” grassroots campaigns or community-based organiza- instead having community knowledge (Hong, 2011; tions to get into schools and contribute to school Valenzuela, 1999). Schools that seek to exist as a knowledge. In some urban communities, for instance, community anchor may create programs that empha- parents connect through a community-based organi- size community integration, designing support zation to create programs that support community mechanisms that address challenges, such as GED integration. Or, if policies and practices consis- classes, ESL classes, or parenting classes. However, tently practice exclusion, parents and communities some researchers focus on the increased need to may organize campaigns or activist groups to try to examine how teachers can integrate the culture and change policy or political leaders. language of their students by using the capital that parents and communities offer (Delpit, 2006). They argue that the cultures and languages of children Context of Parents and Community traditionally in poverty are pathologized and that a as Curriculum trend toward ostracizing the community negatively impacts children’s attitude toward school, their self- Contexts such as socioeconomics, politics, geogra- esteem, and their trust in adults (Thompson, 2003; phy, culture, language, and ethnicity all influence the Valenzuela, 1999). Ultimately, current research find- interconnectivity of home, community, and school. ings from scholars (González, Moll, & Amanti, Given the current political economy of the country, 2005) support more inclusivity of students’ culture do traditional models of involvement still work? For and language and integration of the community and whom? How are the changing landscapes of the family as curricular assets to educational systems. economy, especially school funding, affecting how parents and community are involved in their local schools? As revenues and resources formerly directed Theory of Parents and Community toward school budgets are rapidly dwindling, com- as Curriculum munities that are not economically or politically resourced are often disenfranchised in myriad ways. Although there is mostly agreement that parent and In urban communities, the neighborhood schools are community involvement in schools is a good thing 40. The Parental, Familial, and Communal Milieu–•–329

for students, and can help them to be successful, there Beyond social capital, economic capital and edu- is much controversy in how that involvement should cation matters for families and communities in a happen. Part of this controversy can be explained variety of ways. Economic capital refers to the fam- through theories of human capital. Specifically, ily and community’s monetary resources including economic, cultural, and political capital all matter in money, property, and materials. Clearly, wealthier how communities and parents are involved in suburban districts will have more families with eco- education. The three types of capital, as defined by nomic capital than struggling, underfunded urban Pierre Bourdieu (1986), all shape the way parents and rural districts. Cultural capital, however, refers and community are involved with education: social, to nonfinancial assets and may be dependent on com- economic, and cultural. munity and school values and demographics. As The social capital of a family defines the way in described by Pierre Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital which family and community are connected to a includes the symbolic assets of a culture that are larger network of people and resources. For instance, privileged, and how well a person or group can if a parent is actively involved with a parent advisory engage the cultural capital of the dominant culture board with the school, he or she is networked with will determine social and academic achievement or parents, teachers, and school officials, all of whom reify structural inequalities. may offer more resources to help the parent support According to Norman González et al. (2005), the the child. In fact, theorists argue that the social capi- concept of funds of knowledge is of paramount tal of the community, family, and child are directly importance for teachers to develop an understanding connected to student success (see Coleman & Hoffer, of home and community knowledge in their peda- 1987). How parents are connected to the larger com- gogy. How home knowledge is reflected in class- munity can determine the resources that are available room practice is essential for student success, and, to the student. Furthermore, how school cultures therefore, the classroom can act as an extension of value students and community can affect the social the home and the home can extend the classroom. capital of the community members. In Subtractive Families have deeply informed knowledges of how Schooling, Angela Valenzuela (1999) argued that their children learn that teachers often are unfamiliar schools that engage in “subtractive” schooling rather with but can be used in the classroom communica- than “additive” schooling essentially drain the poten- tion and practice. Home knowledges, including tial social capital of students, communities, and indigenous, cultural and linguistic practices, are families. Additive schooling entails “the mainte- often ignored in teacher preparation, which lead to nance of community, which includes improving curriculum and teaching practices based on the dis- home-school relationships” (p. 270), whereas sub- appearing and othering of these knowledges. There- tractive schooling ignores the culture, language, and fore, according to funds of knowledge theory values of the students’ backgrounds. However, there (González et al., 2005), the cultural capital of com- have been immense changes to how parents and munity and school can be redefined and transformed communities are involved with schools and so social to reflect the talents, values, and resources of a com- capital is dependent on school and community. munity instead of viewing them in a deficit model. Whose social capital matters is also contested: The knowledge that family and community can offer Too often in the mainstream media as well as in can support a student’s success and self-esteem. education reform narratives, parents, particularly Cultural capital takes on special significance mothers, are cast as lacking in the kinds of knowl- when teachers and other school personnel are unfa- edge and skills to parent adequately or to prepare miliar with the culture and background of their their children for school (Cook & Fine, 1995). students. This situation is particularly true in lower- Patricia Hills Collins’s articulation of “othermother- income school districts where there is often a ing” (1991) asks us to instead read against the grain mismatch between the cultural capital of the school and to listen to and respect the tradition of commu- personnel and the community of students. Gail nity mothering or othermothering as a tradition of Thompson (2003) argued in What African American womanist and Black feminist parenting as well as Parents Want Educators to Know that for there to be teaching. success in urban, low-income neighborhoods with 330–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

large numbers of African American students, parents activism, and moral responsibility that can translate and community members must be involved for into the classroom and community as well. teachers to understand the students’ culture and, Social capital, funds of knowledge, and Black and therefore, their learning contexts, language, and hab- Chicana feminist theory all offer theoretical lenses its of mind. Guofang Li (2005) discussed a similar for researchers exploring the family and community issue in her research of the contested space between milieu, but because much of the groundwork is situ- mainstream schooling and Asian immigrant families ational and dependent on the culture, values, and when she suggested that the true multicultural educa- populations of the people involved, it is important to tion means changing not only what we teach but also contemplate how the research is presented and, in how we teach it. many cases, how the stories are told. Local knowl- Beyond theories of capital, theories of feminism— edge and local realities are critical components of especially Black, Latina, and “motherwork” contextualizing any theorizing of parents and com- feminism—are important concepts to think about munity as curriculum. Maureen Gillette, a professor when analyzing the parental and community milieu. and dean of education, wrote of the successful Given that women comprise 76% of the teaching teacher preparation program Grow Your Own Teach- workforce (NCES, 2013), as teachers and the pri- ers Illinois (Skinner, Garreton, & Schultz, 2011) and mary participants in children’s education, what role the structures of this project requiring researchers and does feminism play in understanding how teachers community members to acknowledge each other’s are educated? Is parent and community involvement perspectives and positionalities. Gillette stated that also “maternal work” since mothers are often the without “deep collaboration” and “exploring and activists in their children’s education? Black femi- mining the expertise of other members; learning nism, especially as explained by Collins (2000) and about and acknowledging the social, political, eco- bell hooks (1984), suggests that motherhood is an nomic, and bureaucratic landscape of each partner,” essential part of feminism and mothers as caregivers, the project would have undermined its goals (p. 151). community activists, and teachers. In fact, Sofia Villenas (2005) researched the work of Latina moth- ers’ experiences negotiating their identities and their Forms of Inquiry About Parents and families’ education after arriving in the United States. Community as Curriculum Villenas found that mothers act as culture-keepers as well as teachers of resistance especially in child rela- Quantitative studies often present data of what works tionships. The shared characteristics between the and what doesn’t, but because of the multilayered work of mothering and teaching, especially in the complexities of parent and community involvement, early and young child classroom, include caring and inquiry often takes more qualitative, more experien- maternalism (Noddings, 1984; Ruddick, 1989) and tial, and more innovative forms. Qualitative forms relationality (Grumet, 1988) upon which othermoth- may include critical race narrative, counternarrative, ering is based. Collins described othermothering as a oral history, oral narrative research, memoir, collective, community mothering, built on respect ethnography, and indigenous methodologies. In the and imbricated with social activism: 20th century, voices of those who have been oppressed have challenged the dominant modes of intellectual Such power is transformative in that Black women’s inquiry. Unveiling these voices and perspectives has relationship with children and other vulnerable com- transformed modes of inquiry and analysis (see munity members is not intended to dominate or control. Tuhiwai Smith, 2001). Why do other forms of inves- Rather, it’s purpose is to bring people along . . . to “uplift the race” so that vulnerable members of the tigating and representing family and community community will be able to attain the self-reliance and attract researchers? In quantitative inquiry, research independence essential to resistance. (p. 132) questions are posed and interpreted by the researcher; in many kinds of qualitative inquiry, the researcher’s It is in the context of these relationships, the intent perspectives allow for more space and more flexibil- to empower, and through storytelling and narrative ity to hear the voices and feel the experiences of that children learn about social justice, community parents, families, and communities. 40. The Parental, Familial, and Communal Milieu–•–331

Critical race theory, for example, is a form of understanding as well as affirming of insider per- inquiry that emphasizes participants’ experiences of spectives and the empowerment of insider voices in their roles or lack of access to participate, which the process. compels researchers to look into the counternarra- Given that “home knowledge” is an important tives of students, family, and community members. aspect in understanding the possible shared space Daniel Solórzano and Tara Yosso’s (2002) five between school and community, how can we under- essential elements of critical race methodology pro- stand that knowledges are embedded in the cultural vide a methodological framework: racism and race and political circumstances of families and commu- intersecting with other aspects of identity such a nity members? Indigenous studies offer another form gender, age, speech markers; challenging notions of of inquiry for researchers to explore. For instance, race neutrality and scientific objectivity; seeing and Bagele Chilisa (2012) offered substantial indigenous using inquiry for critical change; foregrounding methodology including participatory, appreciative, experiences of the marginalized; and analyzing race transformative, and healing research to explore and other forms of subordination through interdisci- indigenous communities, understand indigenous plinary and historically contextualized inquiry (pp. knowledges, and demonstrate how decolonization of 25–27). Further, researchers engaging the voices and methodology could be moved from theory to prac- experiences of marginalized people, such as parents tice. The depth of inquiry incorporating Chilisa’s and community members, may reject the privileging recommendations results in research that disrupts the of “big data” quantitative inquiry over “critical race dominant mainstream paradigms that often under- quantitative intersectionality” (Covarrubias & Velez, value indigenous knowledge. Renaming indigenous 2013, p. 270). Critical race quantitative intersection- research methods as “storywork,” Jo-Ann Archibald ality uses both qualitative and quantitative method- (2008) connected research methodology to tradi- ologies, including more authentic and race-conscious tional basketry, weaving together values such as analysis of the kinds of research questions asked, mutuality, reverence, and spirit into a research vessel along with their cultural meanings and contexts. that is both container as well as liminal space, allow- Critical race theory can also engage many forms of ing for multiple perspectives and voices that together inquiry including counterstorytelling (Delgado & offer a more holistic cultural text. Stephanic, 2001, p. 30). The intersections of qualita- How can indigenous and everyday views assist us tive and quantitative research approaches can mean- in creating curriculum based on and grounded in ingfully contextualize research questions, research community? While dominant paradigms of research process, and research findings. focus on the particular, the observed, in separation Narrative inquiry, often represented as “stories,” from other cultural factors, indigenous research is an important part of how participation is docu- embraces holism and multiple perspectives. The sci- mented so that multiple views are represented and entific concept of validity often found in quantitative considered, including those of teachers, students, studies differs from indigenous and everyday episte- parents, administrators, and other school community mologies and ethical considerations. Offering a members. Narrative inquiry establishes equity in paradigmatic shift in the ethics of inquiry, Margaret whose experiences are foregrounded when research- Kovach (2009) described the concerns indigenous ing the parental, familial, and communal milieu. researchers have in the creation of vulnerability of Researchers such as JoAnn Phillion, Ming Fang He, indigenous knowledges when researchers from the and Michael Connelly (2005) all rely on narrative outside take “home knowledge” back to the inquiry to explore the experiences of those who have university-based research community. Researchers not previously been heard in some traditional within indigenous frameworks of scholarship also research. Narrative inquiry often includes participa- must allow for some loss of control in the research tory and co-created forms of inquiry, engaging the journey, including grounding the work in relational meanings of familial and cultural milieu in education aspects of sharing the story. Space and community rather than imposing traditional questions and are also important elements in understanding indig- categories of understanding. Participatory inquiry is enous knowledge, for places hold and communicate respectful of the relational nature of experience and identities, “echoes of generations” (p. 61), and other 332–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

noncognitive, holistic ways of knowing. The compre- well as parent education. As with Reggio Emilia hensive care seen in qualitative studies such as these schools and Montessori’s House of Children, this will offer far-reaching methods of inquiry for approach is respectful of parents as children’s first researchers who explore relationships between teachers and offers assistance to struggling families schools and communities. who typically might have access to fewer resources. Community-based organizations have also histori- cally provided education and services grounded in Modes of Expression About Parents the local needs and challenges of families and com- and Communities as Curriculum munities. The work of settlement houses such as Hull House initiated in Chicago by Jane Addams can be To what extent and how are families and communi- seen as pioneering and continuing in the work of ties represented or disappeared from our contempo- many contemporary community-based organiza- rary curricula? How can the histories, strengths, and tions, including hometown associations, civic group concerns of families and communities be engaged as efforts, tribal leagues, and community centers. Infor- curricula? Do schools create models of practice that mal and formal curriculum emerges from the focus focus on parent involvement—that is, limited and of these organizations based typically on community school-driven—or engagement such as partnering assets and needs, for example, cultural identities, with family and community members’ histories, public health initiatives, food justice, housing, and language, cultures, and concerns? citizenship and civic engagement. In several approaches to community as part of the The transformation of schools into community curriculum, for example, Reggio Emilia schools and centers represents embracing, within formal school the educational practices of Maria Montessori, deci- structures, the work that is often done in community- sions about the role of schools emerged from paren- based organizations. In this case, the work of tal and community dialogue and consensus. In community-based organizations can be more deeply rebuilding war-torn villages in Italy, for example, the connected to the community; the school becomes the communities chose to focus on revitalizing the edu- intersection of personal and public spaces. Issues cation of their greatest assets—their children. Fol- addressed in community-based organizations become lowing the principles of Loris Malaguzzi (1993), part of the dialogue about culture and curriculum of these rural communities developed child-driven the school and change the nature of school to an schools, incorporating theories and values focused intergenerational and more organic social space on unfoldment, child-directed learning and relation- (Carger, 1996; Hong, 2011). The Mississippi Free- ships. Montessori’s Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s dom Schools of the civil rights movement show the House, opening in 1907, was conceived to give poor political and educational power of grounding curric- mothers the ability to find work and to provide “a ulum in community concerns (McAdam, 1990). vital organic connection between education and Classrooms, with the presence and assistance of stu- society” (Gutek, 2004, p. 15). Casa dei Bambini, dents, family members, and community members, however, was not simply a daycare but embraced become transformed to be more relational and more modern methods of teaching that included careful culturally responsive spaces. awareness of responding to children’s “sensitive How can our policies and programs support the periods”; curriculum was not based on an adult idea inclusion of families and communities as curricu- of what should be but on what stages of development lum? Modes of expression of curriculum that are the child demonstrated. The building itself was inten- reflective of and comprehensible to multilingual/ tionally in the community served, close to the fami- multicultural children and families often are not lies and called a “school-home.” Montessori’s goals available and programs such as English immersion included betterment of the community through the subtract from the linguistic and cultural assets of the Children’s House, through the provision of social child and family. Political policies that attempt to services to all members of the community (p. 15). eliminate cultural and historical education of particu- Harlem Children’s Zone Promise Academy and lar ethnic groups affect not only the students but also the Promise Neighborhoods program represent a their relationship with communities. Valenzuela’s wrap-around model of school and social services as (1999) analysis of the experience of Chicano students 40. The Parental, Familial, and Communal Milieu–•–333

in high school shows the pervasive and demoralizing mostly unknown history. (Miglietta, Lopez, Stovall, & effects of “subtractive schooling” and how the struc- Williams, 2012, p. viii) tures of academic success jeopardize the resiliency of both students and teachers of color. Expressing cul- These local projects serve as guideposts for rethink- tural knowledge through the use of native languages ing curriculum as organically located in place-based and cultural history adds to the integrity of school critical community inquiry. curriculum and its responsiveness to the community. Understanding the fluid network of schools, par- How can we better understand and support the ents, and community necessitates researching myriad common interests of students, families, and commu- dimensions from both the inside and outside. Involv- nities as curriculum? The contemporary parent- ing parents and community in the daily classroom as initiated activism focused on school issues marks a well as the structure of the school is essential for grassroots movement to transform the traditional student success, but for authentic partnerships to containment of schools and the barriers constructed emerge, there must be organic and equitable relation- among students, families, teachers, and communi- ships among all groups. Communities and families ties. Soo Hong (2011) and Andrea Dyrness (2011) are also experts in education; they hold the cultural, both offered descriptions of these changes in school linguistic, and familial knowledge that students structures. Dyrness showed how mothers, as experts, bring to school every day. Their knowledge can influenced school curriculum in Oakland to include shape and inform relevant and inclusive curriculum. peace-making, equity issues in their community and However, parent and community expertise and collective forms of resistance. Concha Delgado- knowledge are not typically documented, requested, Gaiton (2001) also offered a substantial guide for or included in school curriculum. While educational understanding how families must understand them- leaders and teachers speak of the importance of com- selves as a community before they can influence munity engagement, this engagement too often is schools. The Chicago Grassroots Curriculum Proj- designed to make parents and community members ect, which builds on students collaborating with feel as if they are being included when in fact the elders in the community to create curriculum, gesture falls short of authentic partnership and cer- describes its work as focused on: tainly fails to structuralize “deep collaboration” in curriculum building. Until the kinds of efforts seen Chicago’s land, housing and community histories in Oakland and with Grow Your Own Teachers Illi- including: First Nations peoples, speculation, housing nois and the Chicago Grassroots Curriculum Task racism, labor battles, local resistance, culture, and Force are realized broadly, schools will continue to other community realities over a two hundred and forty (240) year period. This curriculum, being a grassroots marginalize students, families, and communities and writing and editing effort, seeks your input—especially perpetuate the social construction of inequity in for the purpose of studying and contributing to this education.

References and Further Readings education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. the heart, mind, body, and spirit. Vancouver, BC: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. University of British Columbia Press. Coleman, J. (1994). Foundations of social theory. Bauer, A. M., & Shea, T. M. (2003). Parents and Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard schools: Creating a successful partnership for University Press. students with special needs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Coleman, J., & Hoffer, T. (1987). Public and private Merrill/Prentice Hall. highs schools: The impact of communities. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. New York, NY: Basic Books. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Greenwood. New York, NY: Routledge. Carger, C. L. (1996). Of borders and dreams: Cook, D., & Fine, M. (1995). “Motherwit”: Childrearing A Mexican-American experience of urban lessons from African-American mothers of low 334–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

income. In B. Swadener & S. Luback (Eds.), and Asian immigrant parents. Albany, NY: State Children and families “at promise”: Deconstructing University of New York Press. the discourse of risk (pp. 118–142). Albany, NY: Malaguzzi, L. (1993). History, ideas, and basic State University of New York Press. philosophy. In C. Edwards, L. Gandini, & G. Forman Covarrubias, A., & Velez, V. (2013). Critical race (Eds.), The hundred languages of children: The quantitative intersectionality: An anti-racist research Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood paradigm that refuses to “let the numbers speak for education (2nd ed., pp. 49–98). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. themselves.” In M. Lynn & A. Dixon (Eds.), McAdam, D. (1990). Freedom summer. New York, NY: Handbook of critical race theory in education Oxford University Press. (pp. 270–285). New York, NY: Routledge. Miglietta, A., Lopez, A., Stovall, D., & Williams, E. (Eds.). Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory. (2012). Urban renewal or urban removal? Chicago, New York, NY: New York University Press. IL: Chicago Grassroots Curriculum Taskforce. Delgado-Gaiton, C. (2001). The power of community: National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2013). Mobilizing for family and schooling. Blue Ridge Table 209.10. Number and percentage distribution of Summit, PA: Rowman & Littlefield. teachers in public and private elementary and Delpit, L. (2006). Other people’s children: Cultural secondary schools, by selected teacher characteristics: conflict in the classroom (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Selected years, 1987–88 through 2011–12. In Digest The New Press. of education statistics. Washington, DC: Institute of Dyrness, A. (2011). Mothers united: An immigrant Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. struggle for socially just education. Minneapolis, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Public Law No. MN: University of Minnesota Press. 107-110, §115, Stat. 1425 (2002). Epstein, J. (2008). School, family, and community Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminist approach to partnerships: Handbook for action. Thousand Oaks, ethics and moral education. Berkeley, CA: CA: Corwin. University of California Press. Gillette, M. (2011). Doing it better together: The challenges Phillion, J., He, M. F., & Connelly, M. (2005). Narrative and promise of community-based education. In and experience in multicultural education. Thousand E. Skinner, M. Garreton, & B. Schultz (Eds.), Grow Oaks, CA: Sage. your own teachers: Grassroots change for teacher Ruddick, S. (1989). Maternal thinking: Toward a politics education (pp. 146–162). New York, NY: Teachers of peace. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. College Press. Skinner, E., Garreton, M. T., & Schultz, B. D. (Eds.). González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2005). (2011). Grow your own teachers: Grassroots change Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practice in for teacher education. New York, NY: Teachers households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, College Press. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Solórzano, D., & Yosso, T. (2002). Critical race Grumet, M. (1988). Bitter milk. Amherst, MA: University methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical of Massachusetts Press. framework for education research. Qualitative Gutek, G. (Ed.). (2004). The Montessori method: Inquiry, 8(23), 22–44. The origins of an educational innovation. Lanham, Soto, L. D. (1997). Language, culture, and power: Bilingual MD: Rowman & Littlefield. families and the struggle for quality education. Albany, Henderson, A. T., Johnson, V., Mapp, K. L., & Davies, D. NY: State University of New York Press. (Eds.). (2007). Beyond the bake sale: The essential Thompson, G. L. (2003). What African American parents guide to family/school partnerships. New York, NY: want educators to know. Westport, CT: Praeger. The New Press. Tuhiwai, S. L. (2001). Decolonizing methodologies: Hong, S. (2011). A cord of three strands: A new approach Research and indigenous peoples. London, UK: to parent engagement in schools. Cambridge, MA: Zed Books. Harvard Education Press. Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.- hooks, b. (1984). Feminist theory from margin to center. Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Albany, Boston, MA: South End. NY: State University of New York Press. Kovach, M. (2009). Indigenous methodologies: Villenas, S. A. (2005). Between the telling and the told: Characteristics, conversations, and contexts. Latina mothers negotiating education in new Toronto, ON, Canada: University of Toronto Press. borderlands. In J. Phillion, M. F. He, & F. M. Connelly Li, G. (2005). Culturally contested pedagogy: Battles of (Eds.), Narrative and experience in multicultural literacy and schooling between mainstream teachers education (pp. 71–91). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 41

THE TECHNOLOGICAL MILIEU

CHUN LAI University of Hong Kong

JING LEI Syracuse University

o matter whether curriculum is defined as Technology as Curriculum the content, the learning experiences, the Technology as Content Nproducts that students actively construct out of their interaction with the world, or the process of The 21st century is a constantly changing era with questioning and searching for new and complex exponential expansion of information and revolution insights into the world, it is intricately intertwined of knowledge, a globalized era where the communi- with technology. On the one hand, technology is part cations revolution brings about “the death of dis- and parcel of the curriculum, comprising critical tance” (Cairncross, 2001) and a constructive era learning contents and experiences and shaping the where various digital tools enable everyone to create construction and questing process. On the other and participate. Trilling and Fadel (2009) identified hand, curriculum defines the roles technology could three sets of essential skills in the 21st century. The play in learners’ educational experience. first set is made up of learning and innovation skills that engage people in critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration, and cre- The Interaction Between Technology ation and innovation. The second set of skills is and Curriculum comprised of digital literacy skills that enable peo- ple to be “info-savvy, media-fluent, tech-tuned” Technology is a critical component of the curriculum (p. 61). The third set includes career and life skills in the 21st century and shapes curriculum and that highlight productivity and accountability, lead- instruction. And at the same time, subtopics of the ership and responsibility, flexibility and adaptabil- curriculum (content, tool, and context) define the ity, social and cross-cultural skills, and initiative and roles of technology in the curriculum. self-direction. The intersection of these three skill

335 336–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

sets is the capacity to use technology to engage in most appropriate media creation tools to construct self-directed lifelong learning. This view of lifelong ideas and facilitate the exchange of ideas and interac- learning with technology is also shared by Collins tion and sensitivity toward the values and points of and Halverson (2009), who argued that “we are now view behind media messages. Another category entering the lifelong learning era of education, having includes the ability to formulate questions, formulate experienced the apprenticeship and schooling eras” efficient search strategies, evaluate credibility of (p. 5), and that the core education issue in this life- information and data sources, find relevant and useful long-learning era is how to support people to learn on information, and use multiple technological tools to their own with technologies, that is, to choose appro- organize, synthesize, and present information and priate tools, environment, and technologies for learn- data. The third category refers to the ability “to select ing. Thus, it is crucial to equip students with the and use the appropriate tools, to use those tools to knowledge and skills to use technology effectively complete tasks effectively and productively, and to for self-directed learning. A natural question follows: apply current knowledge about technology to learn What do students need to know to effectively use how to use new technologies as they become avail- technology for self-directed learning? able” (National Assessment Governing Board, 2013, Over the years, the definition of technological p. 2.44). These three categories correspond nicely literacy has been broadened immensely, evolving with Trilling and Fadel’s (2009) classification of from a purely technical-procedural construct into a media literacy, information literacy, and ICT literacy complex construct made up of critical consumption, and encompass technical-procedural, cognitive, skillful creation, and mindful application. The metacognitive, attitudinal, and socioemotional National Assessment of Educational Progress dimensions. Thus, current societal and technological (NAEP) Technological and Engineering Literacy developments demand technological literacies to Framework 2014 summarized the different develop learners who better meet the societal demands approaches to technological literacy in three major of the 21st century. interconnected areas. In the first area—technology and society—the framework says that students are Technology as Tool expected to develop the understanding and ability to analyze the relationship between technology and Technology serves as a tool to assist the tradi- society. In the second area—design and systems— tional curriculum and as a medium to enable new students are expected to demonstrate a broad forms of curriculum. Technology has been used to understanding of the working mechanisms behind support various aspects of traditional curriculum. technological systems and the ability to trouble- First of all, it enriches and expands instructional shoot technological problems. In the third area— materials through enabling the incorporation of information and communication technology authentic learning materials and enhancing the pre- (ICT)—students are expected to develop the ability sentation of content ideas. Second, it enables innova- to “make fluent use of digital technologies and tive student-centered learning experiences that free media in creative and innovative ways” (National students from confined walls of classrooms through Assessment Governing Board, 2013, p. 1.9). Thus, inquiry-based learning and collaborative knowledge technological literacy is a multidimensional concept construction with peers and experts from different that defines the various aspects of knowledge and parts of the world. Third, it facilitates the instruc- skills people need in order to function in the digital tional process through providing in-time feedback to world. the teachers and enhancing the interactivity of the When focusing on the knowledge and skills stu- instruction via assistive technologies. Finally, it sup- dents need in order to use technology effectively for ports authentic assessments and better documenta- learning, three major categories are highlighted in the tion of student learning. Thus, technology provides NAEP Technological and Engineering Literacy instructional tools to help with the effective and Framework. One category includes the ability to efficient implementation of face-to-face curriculum. communicate effectively and work collaboratively in Technology also provides platforms to enable vari- a technology-enriched environment to construct and ous forms of digital curriculum such as multimedia exchange ideas and solutions, the ability to utilize the courseware, distance learning, massive open online 41. The Technological Milieu–•–337

courses, and game-based learning. These digital cur- contexts (e.g., simulation games). Thus, technology ricula spur and facilitate the revolution of education enables participative curriculum, making education into the “lifelong learning era” (Collins & Halverson, more experience-based. Second, technology strength- 2009, p. 23). Collins and Halverson argue that in the ens social learning (Brown & Adler, 2008). Technol- lifelong learning era, the responsibilities of education ogy enables social construction of knowledge through shift to the individuals; the focus of the curriculum discussions and interactions around problems. A pro- content reorients toward generic skills and learning to fessional development project by the Carnegie Foun- learn; the pedagogy becomes more interaction- dation provides a telling example: The teachers oriented; assessments become more embedded in the access a gallery of successful teaching and learning learning process; and the learning cultures become cases, use web-based tools to create and upload their more mixed-age. The roles of teachers and students own examples that represent their enhanced under- are redefined in such curricula, and a different set of standing of teaching from studying the successful dispositions and skills are demanded of teachers and cases and their own experience, and then engage in students. When technology is used as the major or continuous discussions around their own cases to co- sole medium to deliver the curriculum, it becomes construct understanding of effective teaching and necessary to structure the learning contents in a user- learning. Technology also creates opportunities for friendly fashion and to facilitate learners’ interaction learners to engage in interactions with the expert with technology and with each other. communities (e.g., collaborative projects between students and experts in different parts of the world) Technology as Context and with the public communities (e.g., share course work on public blogs). Learners are simultaneously involved in different Technology facilitates the personalization of cur- contexts and actively exert agencies to create and riculum by empowering the creation of learner- draw on learning opportunities within and across generated contexts, where learners generate, select, these contexts to meet their learning needs (Barron, and appropriate the resources around them to create 2006). Technology brings new potentials to facilitate learning ecologies that meet their individual learning agency development. For one thing, technology prof- needs (Luckin, 2010). Technology contributes to this fers important learning contexts with unique config- process through allowing learner access to a richer urations of physical, social, and discursive resources collection of resources and through serving as the that enable the construction of learning experiences “more abled partner” to facilitate learners’ meaning to enrich or even revolutionize the curriculum. Tech- making with the resources around them (e.g., mobile nology also provides potential to bridge learning assistants). Also, technology moves the locus of con- experiences across different learning contexts, by trol to the learners wherein they produce and share shaping the current education revolution toward learning materials more conveniently and efficiently. greater recognition of the value of the interdepen- Technology facilitates more student-centered peda- dence and synergy of formal and informal or nonfor- gogies and changes the instruction from didactic to mal learning experiences (Colley, Hodkinson, & interactive (Collins & Halverson, 2010). In this way, Malcolm, 2003; Collins & Halverson, 2010). curriculum is no longer solely controlled by teachers, Technology helps to move curriculum closer to the academics, designers, and policy makers, but rather participative and social nature of learning. First, tech- is in the hands of the learners themselves. Greater nology enhances the participative nature of curricu- learner involvement in curriculum design makes the lum. Technology supports learners to construct and curriculum more personally relevant and culturally represent understanding in tangible forms (e.g., pro- responsive. gramming, modeling, and hypothesis-testing tools). It Technology also facilitates the integration of learn- engages learners in reflections and discussions to ers’ experiences across different settings. Technology share the knowledge construction process and could help merge the boundaries between formal and enhance understanding (e.g., computer- supported informal learning and create more synergy in students’ collaborative learning). And it enables learners to learning experience across different settings. In this exercise collaborative problem solving and decision way, curriculum no longer suffers from a piecemeal making in learning contexts that simulate realistic approach, and learners’ meaning making out of the 338–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

curriculum is more coherent. In effect, researchers and learning (Luckin, 2010), and how to determine the policy makers are advocating “bridging youth’s for- role of each in the curriculum depends on a critical mal and informal learning with participatory media as analysis of each’s strength in the specific area of a major objective facing future education research and study. Technology does excel in certain curricular practice” (Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009, aspects, including providing motivating means to p. 248). Facer and Sandford (2009) pushed this line of improve students’ acquisition of basic skills and thinking further by suggesting technology-enhanced content knowledge; operating in environments “curriculum for networked learning” where technol- where humans cannot; providing a great wealth of ogy facilitates the formation of social networks that resources; enhancing student voice and autonomy in connect and negotiate relationships among learning the curriculum; supporting differentiated curricu- for educational, social, and civic purposes. lum; and strengthening various instructional Enhanced student agency and involvement in cur- approaches. However, technology is weak in sup- riculum design mediated by technology are challeng- porting the social aspects of curriculum such as col- ing our current conceptualization of curriculum laboration and social interaction among students and design and delivery. Innovative curriculum enabled with teachers, value acquisition, and thinking devel- by technology focuses less on what subject matter opment. Thus, what roles technology and teachers content to master and more on the learning experi- should play in an instructional context need to be ences and social interaction in which the content is determined by a careful evaluation and mapping of situated. For instance, Brown and Adler (2008) their respective pedagogical strengths and the coined the term learning 2.0 to highlight social specific instructional purposes under consideration. learning supported by technology. They encouraged Even when an instructional step is predominantly educators to reconceptualize curriculum design from mediated by technology, teachers still play a critical the traditional “supply-push mode” (p. 30), where role in streamlining, scaffolding, and maximizing the an inventory of core knowledge is predetermined learning experience (Kim & Hannafin, 2011). Prior and delivered to the learners through innovative to a technology-enhanced learning experience, teach- pedagogies, to the “demand-pull approach” (p. 30). ers prepare students technically, emotionally, In the “demand-pull mode,” based on their passion culturally, and metacognitively for the prerequisite and needs, learners are given access to a rich operational and learning competencies in the experi- collection of learning communities (a combination of ence. During the technology-enhanced learning physical and virtual communities) around a practice, experience, teachers need to play the role of “prob- and learning emerges through their participation in lem solvers, context analysts, coaches, and evalua- the communities, collateral learning, and reflection. tors” (Kim & Hannafin, 2011, p. 413). And after the Thus, technology not only serves as a context to technology-enhanced learning experience, teachers facilitate curriculum realization and coherence but play the critical role of highlighting, synthesizing, also functions as a force that challenges conceptual- and extending the learning from the experience. izations of curriculum design.

Interaction Between Technology and The Interaction of Technology the Key Components of Curriculum and Other Subject Matters Should we teach digital literacy as an independent As part of the curriculum, technology interacts with subject matter and in a content-independent, the other key components of curriculum such as the pedagogical-free fashion, or should we integrate digi- human players and other subject matters. tal literacy into the instruction of other subject mat- The Role of Technology and Teachers ters? Major technological literacy frameworks such as the ICT literacy framework of the Partnership for One critical curriculum design issue involves the 21st Century Skills (2005), the NAEP Technological roles of different players in the curriculum. Tech- and Engineering Literacy Framework 2014, and the nology and teachers are both important enablers of American Association of School Librarians’ Standards 41. The Technological Milieu–•–339 for the 21st-Century Learner in Action (2008) have Contextual Factors Around recommended integrating technological literacy train- the Interaction ing into the core subjects. For instance, Standards for the 21st-Century Learner in Action (2008) states that Although technology and curriculum are intricately training technological literacy in content areas makes connected, their interaction is under the influence of “the learning of skills more meaningful and impor- various sociological, cultural, and pedagogical fac- tant” (p. 7). Despite these frameworks’ stance on inte- tors. Next, we discuss some factors at the societal, grative training, they more or less treat technological policy, and pedagogical level that shape the interac- literacy as a set of generic skills and transferable tion between technology and curriculum and explore across different disciplines. some issues that are critical to the healthy relationship At the same time, more and more researchers are of the two. highlighting the content-specificity of technology use for learning. Grafstein (2002) pointed out that Forces That Shape the Interaction Between although there are generic skills and concepts related Technology and Curriculum to information literacy that are transferable across disciplines—such as analytical reasoning, critical Culture, in terms of core cultural assumptions and thinking, learning to learn, and information value systems and norms, is the fundamental force retrieval—some information literacy skills are that shapes human identity, purpose, and ways of discipline-specific such as discipline-specific inquiry, thinking. One outcome from studies of culture and problem solving, and evaluation skills. Researchers technology is that cultural differences can lead to further observe that possessing a core set of basic differences in technology adoption, the use of technological skills does not necessarily translate technology, and the outcomes thereof (Leidner & into the knowledge and sophisticated skills required Kayworth, 2006). Technology is not culturally neu- for employing technology-based tools strategically to tral. Cultures vary in their receptivity to technology, optimize learning experiences for learning different and technology carries different connotations in dif- types of content (Kirkwood & Price, 2005). Take ferent cultures. The same technology may be communication with others as an example. Students perceived to carry different social connotations to may be equipped with the generic knowledge and people in different cultures and thus is responded to skills of using various online communication tools differently by people from different cultures. and selecting appropriate tools for different purposes. Researchers have found that students’ perceptions of However, they may not know that when selecting and attitudes toward computers in education are communication tools for foreign language learning, shaped by their national cultural characteristics. The they need to attend to the different affordances of espoused educational values and norms may also audio-based and text-based communication tools for affect the interaction between technology and cur- language learning (e.g., text-based chatting may riculum. Consequently, technologies may be selected enhance their attention to linguistic forms) and the and used differently in different cultures to support different learning opportunities offered by the people educational norms and conventions. Furthermore, they choose to speak to (e.g., talking to language not only national cultural characteristics but also exchange partners may enhance their attention to individuals’ espoused cultural values may affect the linguistic forms). They may not know that when interaction between technology and curriculum at the selecting communication tools for science study, level of learner-generated learning contexts. Thus, they need to attend to whether the communication culture plays an important role in shaping the tools allow for presenting information in multiple direction and strength of the interaction between ways and sharing information to stimulate and facili- technology and curriculum. tate in-depth discussions. Thus, an integrative The sociological realities within and across approach that demands collaboration between the nations also influence the impact of technology on librarians and the discipline teachers and adopts curriculum. One much-researched sociological phe- a discipline-specific way to technological literacy nomenon is the digital divide. Digital divide refers to development is essential. the inequality in the access to, use of, and knowledge 340–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

of information and communication technologies To construct effective technology-enhanced learn- across groups due to political, educational, sociocul- ing experiences for their students, teachers need to tural, socioeconomic, and individual characteristics know how to select a particular technology to serve or (Norris, 2001). The digital divide affects the impact create a particular pedagogy for a particular instruc- of technology on curriculum through two channels. tional content or need—a set of knowledge and skill One is that the difference in the amount of digital labeled TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content access leads to unbalanced distribution of educa- Knowledge) by Mishra and Koehler (2006). According tional resources and opportunities. The other is that to Mishra and Koehler, technologies are not peda- the quality of learners’ educational experience is gogically neutral and different technologies have dif- greatly affected by the quality of the digital informa- ferent affordances and constraints for teaching. Thus, tion to which they have access and their ability to teachers need to understand the affordances and con- make good use of digital technologies and informa- straints of different technologies, which technologies tion. In addition to the consumption gap, the are best suited to address different content ideas in production gap, that is, the difference in learners’ use their domains, how technology shapes the representa- of technologies to create new content and to partici- tions of the content ideas, how content decisions pate in online communities, also affects learners’ define the types of technologies, ways in which the educational opportunities and experiences. In the technologies can be used, knowledge of how to look arena of education, the influence of the digital divide beyond the common use of technologies to creatively originates not only in individual students’ and their reconfigure pedagogical use of technology to advance families’ situations but also in their teachers’ access their particular group of students’ learning, and how and competencies. to strike a dynamic equilibrium among content, Furthermore, the educational technology plans at pedagogy, technology, and teaching contexts. the national and local government and school level Constructing an appropriate technology-enhanced influence the interaction between technology and learning experience is not sufficient in bringing curriculum. The technology plans influence about positive learning outcomes as expected, and technological infrastructure, school stakeholders’ providing appropriate scaffolding to the learners in expectations on the use of technology, professional the learning process is critical. Teachers need to be development opportunities, and the setup of school aware of what different scaffolding mechanisms support and monitoring systems, all of which inevi- need to be built prior to, during, and after students’ tably shape how technology interacts with curriculum engagement with the technology-enhanced learning in a particular instructional context. experience and make conscious scaffolding plans. Prior to the activity, teachers need to prepare stu- Contemporary Concerns dents sufficiently on the relevant technical skills and the unique culture and conventions of social behav- The societal factors just discussed affect the scope ior and interactions in the technological platform, and nature of the interaction between technology and align students’ learning beliefs and expectancies curriculum. However, to facilitate positive outcomes with the activity, and alert students on the relevant from the interaction, two issues are critical: teachers’ metacognitive and cognitive skills they could use to capacities and skills and students’ capacities and maximize the learning. During the activity, teachers skills. are expected to know when to intervene and how to Expected Teachers’ Capacities intervene in respect to the pedagogical purpose of the activity and different needs of students. After the To safeguard the quality of the interaction between activity, teacher scaffolding needs to focus on high- technology and curriculum, teachers need to be able lighting the learning derived from the experience to (a) construct effective technology-enhanced learn- through additional activities around students’ inter- ing experiences for their students, (b) scaffold stu- action with the technological platform and guided dents’ learning processes during such activities, and reflections on the experience. (c) encourage and support students to actively utilize Teachers can encourage and support students to technologies to construct their ecology of learning. go beyond in-class learning experiences and actively 41. The Technological Milieu–•–341

utilize technologies to construct their own ecology of The second level concerns students’ abilities to learning, that is, a configuration of learning experi- engage in self-directed use of technology for learning. ences in many dimensions of life. To do this, teachers This level requires not only the basic understanding need to have the awareness and abilities to deliberately and skills in effective use of a given technology- provide opportunities for students to extend learning enhanced learning experience but also the attitudes, beyond the classroom and to bridge students’ in-class knowledge, and skills needed to engage in self- and out-of-class learning experiences at different directed learning experience (Garrison, 1997). phases of curriculum design and implementation. According to Garrison, the willingness to engage in self-directed learning is determined by both the Expected Students’ Capacities entering motivation and the maintenance of inten- tion. Learners’ entering motivation for self-directed To facilitate positive learning outcomes from the learning behaviors is determined by their interest in interaction between technology and curriculum, particular learning goals (i.e., whether the learning learners need three capacities: (a) the capacity to goal meets personal needs and personal preferences) engage effectively with technology to maximize and their evaluation of whether the goals are achiev- learning, (b) the capacity to select and appropriate able (i.e., whether they perceive themselves as pos- technologies effectively to create technology- sessing the relevant knowledge and ability and enhanced learning experience, and (c) the capacity to whether they perceive there exist institutional, ideo- appropriate and balance technology with other logical, and socioeconomic resources or barriers). resources to create ecologies of learning that fit their A flexible mindset to deal with the uncertainties and learning needs. These three levels of capacities complexities in interaction with technology and a involve an increasingly complex set of knowledge mindset to pursue open-ended learning activities out and skills. of personal interests instead of restricting informal The basic level concerns students’ abilities to use learning activities to school assignments facilitate the technology effectively. At this level, students need to willingness to use technology for self-directed learn- be equipped not only with the general digital litera- ing. Garrison also conceptualized that the knowledge cies and/or information on the technological resources and skill base for self-directed learning involves the available but also more importantly with the meta- abilities to enact learning goals and manage learning cognitive knowledge and skills about the contextual- resources and the competencies to monitor learning ized pedagogical application of various technologies strategies and process. In the context of self-directed and an awareness of the psychological and social use of technology for learning, students’ capacities to factors involved. In other words, students need to navigate the technology landscape—namely, a criti- identify with the pedagogical purpose and benefits of cal awareness of digital choices and actions (Selwyn, the technology-enhanced learning experience; be 2011)—and their abilities to critically evaluate the aware of the particular features in the technology respective pedagogical advantages of different platform that could fit a particular learning purpose technologies and to match the technology with the and know how to use the features effectively; be targeted pedagogical purposes are critical. conscious of the cognitive and metacognitive strate- The third level concerns students’ abilities to uti- gies they could utilize to maximize the pedagogical lize technology and various resources around them to advantage of the platform; know how to overcome construct an ecology of resources that meet their the possible social and emotional barriers that might learning needs (Barron, 2006; Luckin, 2010). At this occur during the interaction; and understand how to level, students need to be aware of the technological connect the particular technology-enhanced learning and other human and physical resources around experience with the other relevant instructional them, understand the pedagogical advantages of dif- events to construct their knowledge and understand- ferent resources available to them, and know how to ing of the issue. In all, learners should be equipped orchestrate various resources available to them to with the pedagogical content knowledge to make create an ecology of language learning that could informed decisions on language learning technology meet their learning needs at different learning stages and strategy selection. and contexts. 342–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Research Inquiries Into Interaction explored the design and implementation of digital Between Curriculum and Technology curriculum, unraveled the pedagogical affordances and constraints of different technologies, and exam- Given that technology interacts with curriculum at ined the efficacies of technologies under different the content, tool, and context levels, the research instructional design and contextual backgrounds. inquiries into the nature of this interaction need to Only recently do we witness increasing attention address issues at these three levels. At the content toward understanding the scaffolding mechanisms in level, research inquiries may focus on issues related the instructional process and the learner preparation/ to the design and implementation of technological training that are critical to safeguarding the favorable literacy curriculum and various forms of digital cur- outcomes of technology-enhanced curriculum. Still riculum. At the tool level, research inquiries may fewer studies have examined how to utilize and coor- examine the pedagogical affordances and constraints dinate advantages of relevant technologies to of various technologies, the effects of technology- construct an enriched technology-enhanced learning enhanced curriculum in different instructional set- experience for a particular instructional purpose. tings and contextual configurations, and the Thus, more research is needed along these directions. knowledge and skills students and teachers need to Moreover, research inquiries are needed that examine possess to enhance the learning process. And at the respective advantages of technologies and other the context level, research inquiries may explore the human and physical resources for a particular learn- combination of different technologies to create opti- ing purpose. At all the three levels, learners are given mal technology-enhanced curriculum and the utiliza- greater responsibilities and autonomy in creating tion of technological, human, and physical resources their learner-centric ecology of learning. Thus, it is to create synergic learning experiences across necessary and important to make use of a variety of different settings. qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method inquiries Current research inquiries at the intersection of to explore how to promote learners’ self-directed use technology and curriculum have mainly focused on of technology for learning and to enhance learners’ the content and tool level. Research at the context capacities to parlay technology and other resources to level is starting to build up. Research studies have construct effective ecologies of learning.

References and Further Readings revolution and schooling in America. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. American Association of School Librarians. (2008). Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2010). The second Stands for the 21st-century learner. Retrieved from educational revolution: Rethinking education in the http://formanlibrary.wikispaces.com/file/view/ age of technology. Journal of Computer Assisted AASL+Implementation+plan.pdf Learning, 26(1), 18–27. Barron, B. (2006). Interest and self-sustained learning as Facer, K., & Sandford, R. (2009). The next 25 years? catalysts of development: A learning ecologies Future scenarios and future directions for education perspective. Human Development, 49, 193–224. and technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Brown, J. S., & Adler, R. P. (2008). Minds on fire: Open Learning, 26, 74–93. education, the long tail, and learning 2.0. Educause Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward Review, 43(1), 17–32. a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, Cairncross, F. (2001). The death of distance: How the 48(1), 18–33. communications revolution is changing our lives. Grafstein, A. (2002). A discipline-based approach to Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. information literacy. The Journal of Academic Colley, H., Hodkinson, P., & Malcom, J. (2003). Librarianship, 28(4), 197–204. Informality and formality in learning: A report for Greenhow, C., Robelia, B., & Hughes, J. E. (2009). the learning and skills research center. London, UK: Learning, teaching and scholarship in a digital age: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Web 2.0 and classroom research: What path Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking should we take now? Educational Researcher, 38, education in the age of technology: The digital 246–259. 41. The Technological Milieu–•–343

Kim, M. C., & Hannafin, M. J. (2011). Scaffolding for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 6th graders’ problem solving in technology- 108(6), 1017–1054. enhanced programs: A qualitative case study. National Assessment Governing Board. (2013). National Instructional Science, 39(3), 255–282. Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Kirkwood, A., & Price, L. (2005). Learners and learning Technological and Engineering Literacy Framework in the 21st century: What do we know about 2014. Retrieved from http://www.nagb.org/ students’ attitudes and experiences of ICT that will publications/frameworks/technology/2014- help us design courses? Studies in Higher Education, technology-framework.html 30(3), 257–274. Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide, civic engagement, Leidner, D. E., & Kayworth, T. (2006). A review of information poverty, and the internet worldwide. culture in information systems research: Towards Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University a theory of information technology culture conflict. Press. MIS Quarterly, 30(2), 357–399. Selwyn, N. (2011). Schools and schooling in the Luckin, R. (2010). Re-designing learning contexts: digital age: A critical perspective. London, UK: Technology-rich, learner-centered ecologies. Routledge. London, UK: Routledge. Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Techonological Learning for life in our times. San Francisco, CA: pedagogical content knowledge: A new framework Jossey-Bass. 42

THE MORAL AND SPIRITUAL MILIEU

Humanistic Alternatives to the Competitive Milieu

H. SVI SHAPIRO University of North Carolina at Greensboro

he late teacher and scholar David Purpel the importance of the clock, the authoritarian regula- (2004) viewed the work of education through tion of bodies, and the force of grading and evalua- Tthe prism of tikkun olam, a Hebrew phrase tions became part of the world-taken-for-granted. that literally means “repairing the world.” It was a Purpel argued passionately and eloquently that edu- view that influenced many generations of his stu- cators should see themselves as acting in a prophetic dents and his colleagues. Drawing on Jewish ethical role. Here following the interpretation of Rabbi and spiritual teaching, tikkun olam asserted that the Abraham Heschel (1962) the prophet is someone work of human beings in this life was, preeminently, who courageously alerts us to society’s inconsistent to heal a broken world and to repair lives that were and contradictory moral behavior (claiming to degraded by unjust and oppressive social conditions. believe one thing but doing the opposite) and insists For Purpel so much else that passed for the practice on the need for a transformation in society and and discourse of education was a distraction from our human behavior to move us to a more socially just need to educate for the possibility of a more just, lov- and compassionate world. At the center of Purpel’s ing, compassionate, and peaceful world. For Purpel, analysis was the way that schools reproduce inequal- it was a mistake to view curriculum as “content.” ity through the centrality of competition in our cul- Rather, he believed that curriculum constitutes the tural practices. Through the ubiquity of competition, entire social and moral milieu of a student’s experi- we rationalize and legitimate a world of division, ence. Education, he asserted, was a holistic process hostility, suspicion, aggression, and the lack of that should always speak to all of our being—to our human dignity for so many. Following Purpel we are minds, hearts, and spirit. He recognized early, in his called to create educational environments that— writing about the “hidden curriculum,” that much of above all else—nurture a loving, compassionate, and the most influential aspects of a young person’s edu- just social order. Curriculum here is that environ- cational experience occurred without conscious ment that can best be a catalyst for the moral and design or attention. Things like classroom seating, spiritual transformation of human behavior.

344 42. The Moral and Spiritual Milieu–•–345

Market Power: Educating for Competition in the lives that human beings face. Whatever the praises sung by the supporters of the free or unregu- The overwhelming power of competition to compel lated market, the evidence of human misery and our attention and to stimulate our passions in the deprivation confronts us on every side. The quiet modern world is undeniable. International sporting violence of lives destroyed and blighted by the ethic competition is but one, if enormously visible, exam- of competition and the moral economy of greedy ple of competition’s grip on human emotions and self-interest are there for all who care to look. imagination. This is powerfully reinforced and daily legitimated by our experience of life in a capitalist or market-dominated society. Throughout our world the Educating Identity for Competition market is increasingly seen as the best way to orga- nize the production and distribution of those goods The market economy produces a market society— and services upon which human life depends. More a society in which our lives are increasingly shaped and more the market has come to be seen as the most by the uncertainty and insecurity of harsh competi- efficient, innovative, and productive means through tion. It is not just access to medical care, mortgages, which societies can meet the expectations of a good jobs, and education that are the result of our capacity life for their citizens (Judt, 2010). Certainly there can to be winners in the race for a decent and secure life. be little doubt of the extraordinary innovative power It is our very being that is shaped by our capacity to of capitalism; its historically unparalleled capacity to compete and succeed in the frighteningly precarious develop new technologies and products and make world that we now live in (Bauman, 2007). We have these available to billions of consumers throughout ourselves become saleable commodities that must the world. Capitalist markets have transformed every compete with other commodified selves in order to aspect of human life from the production of food to prove our worth and value in the world. So-called our means of transportation; from the media of com- reality TV provides us with a mirror to see the kind munication to the extraordinary development of of competitive world that we have created. In these medical technology. Yet despite its amazing power shows individuals fight to survive and win, to be to materially transform lives and improve living con- hired for a job, find the perfect mate, to become rich, ditions for so many, there is also a much darker side and so on. Of course, the popularity of reality TV is to the dominance of the marketplace as the engine no accident. It is only a small step removed from that shapes our world. At its heart is the view that what most people face in the real world. In the what sustains human activity and productivity is the increasingly insecure and uncertain world of global will to compete—for more profit, more status, more capitalism, we feel more and more pressured to sell influence, and more control. What drives capitalism ourselves in order to survive. We are more and more is surely a dismal view of human motivation: urged to make ourselves “marketable,” to become the desire to beat out one’s competition in order to masters of the game of what Erving Goffman (1959) have more, appear superior, own more, and have years ago called “impression management.” more power. Capitalism, for all its extraordinary We need to ask what this hypercompetitive expe- productivity, offers us a vision of human life that is rience does to the emotional formation of young endlessly driven by egotistical desire: the drive to people. How does it shape their affective identity and fulfill one’s self-interest without concern for the the way they see themselves and others? In the first wider social or communal consequences of what one place it instills in them the belief that competing with does (Klein, 2008). The accumulation of profit, not others is simply the natural and expected way in human welfare, guides the markets’ calculus of deci- which individuals relate to one another. Competing sion making. Selfish aggrandizement of the few, not with others for recognition, achievement, affirma- broadly distributed improvement of the lives of the tion, even love, comes to be seen as the fundamental, many, has always been at the cold heart of capital- unalterable nature of human reality. The sooner one ism’s system of organizing society. We can be in no comes to terms with that and learns the rules of this doubt that the ethic of competition has left a grotesque game, the more successful one can expect to be both and ethically insupportable world of huge disparities in school and in the world. What goes along with this 346–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM is a cynicism about any idea that the world can be From Competition to Violence radically different. The notion that the world could operate on the basis of care and compassion for oth- How students behave toward one another may seem ers becomes an entirely unrealistic idea that only fairly unimportant in the bigger scheme of things. out-of-touch dreamers would entertain. Being practi- Nonetheless it points to a culture that is pervaded by cal and hardheaded means embracing the apparent suspicion, distrust, and resentment. There is the fact that self-interest, and aggressively striving for always-present feeling that someone is getting some- one’s own individual success, is what maturity thing (rewards, recognition, approval) that you are demands (Eisler, 2006). not receiving. And it is not hard to grasp how in Of course the ethos of competition, which is the certain circumstances such feelings can shift from powerful, if unspoken, curriculum of schooling, is words and attitudes toward more lethal forms of the recipe for an enormous amount of personal expression. The horror of gun violence on school and stress. Indeed we are increasingly aware of just how college campuses remains vivid in our minds. much anxiety is stirred up in schools today as they These terrible events cannot be separated from become ever more deeply enmeshed in the culture of things like the easy availability of guns in our soci- endless testing. Anxiety is, of course, a dreadful ety, or our toxic notions of masculinity, or our condition that produces a myriad of physical ail- violence-obsessed media culture. Yet here I want to ments and emotional suffering, including violent emphasize the way that school violence is linked to behavior both toward oneself as well as others. a competitive culture. So many times violent out- While causal connections are difficult to prove, it bursts come after a history of belittlement and seems reasonable to suggest that there is some con- marginalization. High schools in particular can be nection between high levels of suicide and depression brutal experiences for students who are marked as among young people and the heightened pressures of misfits or failures in the culture of the school. The schooling. At root this anxiety cannot be separated exclusion, ostracism, or shaming takes a serious toll from heightened levels of fear of appearing inade- on the emotional life of young people at this quate, incompetent, or stupid in the eyes of others. extraordinarily vulnerable developmental stage. The culture of school, with its relentless emphasis on And it can be no surprise that such treatment is the invidiously comparing self with others, turns one’s catalyst for an angry and sometimes rage-filled neighbor into a threatening presence—someone who response. We learn from our first days in school that shines more brightly when your star dims. Of course some will be rewarded, recognized, and lauded for much of the time the emotional consequences of all who they are; others will feel the sting of low stand- this exist below the surface of our daily interactions. ing and, in some cases, their sheer invisibility as Yet, it is not hard to remember the way young persons. Since school is ostensibly about academic children put their hands over the pages of their note- learning and the mastery of skills, it is easy to miss books to avoid the embarrassment of an inappropri- the profound and lasting consequences of schools ate answer and subjection to the giggles and ridicule on our psyches and identities. While the former of their peers. This psychological violence left its is often quickly forgotten by the end of the course enduring scars of shame and hypervigilance that are or semester, the latter influence can stay with us for awakened again and again in the competitive envi- much of our lives. ronment of school and often, later, in other situations in our lives. The heavy emotional effects of learning to see the other as an actual or potential rival cannot The Dissatisfied Self be underestimated in the way it drills into us a sense of the adversarial and damaging nature of The culture of competition produces lives of human relationships. One must always be on guard gnawing dissatisfaction with who we are. Invidious because we live in a world in which each is taught to comparison rules our lives. We are urged to con- maximize our advantage at the expense of the other stantly see ourselves in relationship to the success (Lerner, 2006). and achievement of others. School, advertising, and 42. The Moral and Spiritual Milieu–•–347 popular culture are never-ending lessons in the way Curriculum as Transformation that we lack something that others have: desirable possessions, attractive looks, perfect health, oppor- Of course, enjoyment of, and desire for, competition tunity to attend the best college, exciting travel expe- is a powerful component of the human psyche. It riences, and so on. Our lives are ruled by envy for undoubtedly provides, for millions of people, a what others have or appear to have. We feel our- hugely compelling, exciting, and joyful dimension of selves to be in a state of permanent lack or inade- their lives. I am not advocating the end of sport or quacy. We view our own lives as full of missed those other diversions that rest on pitting human opportunities and failed efforts (de Graaf, Wann, & beings against one another in tests of skill, athletic Naylor, 2005). Self-blaming for our failures and prowess, courage, or chance. My concern is not inadequacies leaves us at war with ourselves, dissat- whether we have a culture in which competition isfied and angry with our lives, thinking, “If only plays a role, but whether we have a society—and a I had worked harder, tried harder, made more effort, world—defined, organized, and shaped by the play taken better care of myself, I would not be where of competitive relationships. In a parallel sense the I am now.” It is not surprising that both psychologi- issue is not whether we will have a market-based cal and spiritual therapies that promise release from economy, but whether we will have a market-based oppressive egos—that relentlessly remind us about society. Our challenge, I believe, is whether we can our own inadequacies and the need to work harder in imagine a world that is not based on competitive order to satisfy them—have become increasingly relationships between human beings but, instead, is popular. How can I feel at one with myself and in organized around the principles of a loving and car- harmony with those around me is the pressing con- ing community. Can we have a society, and most cern of so many of us. How do I live fully in the importantly schools, in which there is much less present moment without spending all my time anx- focus on winners and losers and much more empha- iously wondering about, or planning for, my future? sis on the ways we can cooperate with one another How do I not become addicted to those things that and act in a spirit of solidarity and partnership? Can allow me to escape from the awful feelings of pres- we imagine a world that is not ordered in the manner sure, anxiety, and dissatisfaction that are the conse- of cutthroat national or ethnic self-interest and more quence of our driven culture? A culture that breeds around a shared sense of responsibility? such negative emotion and conflicted self-regard A pedagogy and curriculum concerned with tikkun must inevitably produce a great deal of rage. Such olam must help students understand and challenge rage can be turned inward in the form of depression, the pernicious story our culture tells about the way as well directed at those outside of ourselves, that competition is the best way to motivate human whether intimates or strangers. In each case anger effort. It must encourage students to question the and violence are not far away. For some the violence way the culture inculcates a distrust and suspicion of is turned against the self who, it seems, we can no others and the ever-present anxiety that comes from longer live with. For others anger at the self is vented the endless process of invidious comparison. It must through abuse of one’s family members. Such vio- develop the capacity to question the stories that lence against spouses and children is sadly common shape our lives—stories that tell us that the supply of in the United States. Or the anger is externalized on those things that signify our worth and value in the others who provide scapegoats for one’s fury, whether world is limited, and we have no choice but to battle they be gays and lesbians, Jews, immigrants, Mus- our neighbors to get a share of recognition and lims, women, or ethnic or racial minorities. What- well-being. ever the direction and form in which anger is There is, however, much more to human behav- expressed, we must assume that a culture that sys- iors and human nature than pure selfishness. We are tematically encourages and breeds so much dissatis- certainly capable of insensitivity, cruelty, greed, and faction with who we are must inevitably produce violence. We are also capable of sensitivity, caring, large numbers of individuals who view the world generosity, and empathy. Our capacity for caring is with hostility and negativity. just as wired into us by evolution as our capacity for 348–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

cruelty—perhaps even more so (Shapiro, 2010). of, for example, competitive sports, they place far When people grow up in cultures that do not model more emphasis on students working together in help- partnership or cooperative relations between people, ing ways, in group projects, in peer tutoring, and in they will believe that human nature is uncaring and community service, where the goals are sharing and violent. They will believe that the world is a preda- giving rather hoarding and winning. There is no tory one in which the rule is either to dominate others doubt that we learn most profoundly when we actu- or be dominated by them. In such a world others are ally live something practically rather than merely seen as adversaries out to control or assert their supe- hear about something. For that reason it is important riority over us. The world is a dangerous and hostile that young people experience learning in situations place. Yet as Gandhi reminded us what is habitual can that are free of grades and the pressure to be be unlearned. We can educate to challenge the myths better than someone else (or the fear of being worse). of an unalterably hostile or adversarial world. We When students come together without the sense that can undo the taken-for-granted assumptions about they are being compared, judged, and ranked, there is human nature. We can point to the complexity of the real possibility that they can understand more human intentions and the way that human beings are fully and deeply the beauty and power of human not impelled by any one single motivation. We do beings who share their insights, creativity, and imagi- exhibit loving, caring, and generous behaviors nation. In these situations, young people can truly toward even strangers. We can contemplate how glimpse the possibility of a world where the human unbearable life would be without the loving care of ascent occurs as a result of our common efforts and others. We can look at societies such as those in the mutual responsibility, rather than the aggressive and Scandinavian countries where competition and the self-interested acts of egoistic beings. In actually ethic of the marketplace do not determine social poli- living as a community of caring and compassionate cies to the degree they do in the United States and individuals, students come very much closer to where, as a result, there is relatively little poverty, seeing the ethical, social, and spiritual choice that few people go homeless, there are strong supports for confronts all of us in our divided and violence-torn the unemployed or those unable to work, and there world. is universal access to health care. We can point to societies and cultures that actually do not make com- petition the lynchpin of their social and economic Working to Overcome Invisibility policies and instead prefer the values of social jus- tice, compassion, and solidarity among citizens. We The quest to transform the competitive milieu of edu- can also explore those traditional and native cultures cational institutions and the larger society means to where the organizing moral principles were coopera- challenge those things that limit or invalidate human tion, mutual support, and the sharing of material dignity. In this sense curriculum of tikkun olam or resources. Anthropology also provides us with exam- repairing the world could resist and hopefully over- ples of matriarchal societies where cooperation—not come the widespread culture of invisibility faced by competition—is the dominant value (Eisler, 1988). so many human beings. To make visible and to more Both the questions teachers pose and the examples fully recognize all students, we acknowledge again we provide can challenge the assumptions about the Purpel’s (2004) insightful reminder that no education inevitable and unalterable nature of competitive soci- is, or can be, morally neutral. Education is always eties. Human beings are reflective and malleable undergirded by human values and embodies a par- beings who can choose their ways of life. We are not ticular social, ethical, and spiritual worldview. So, the fated to always live as competitors and adversaries in value of visibility needs to be embraced, and invisi- a world in which self-interest must come first. bility cannot be allowed to reign by intent or by In the school and in the classroom we can go fur- default. All human lives deserve to be seen and ther than merely considering these issues theoreti- treated in their full richness, beauty, and complexity. cally. There are still schools that prefer cooperation Education here means students understanding some- to competition. While such schools do not eliminate thing about spiritual, ethical, and political traditions all forms of competition and recognize the enjoyment upon which our views of human dignity and worth 42. The Moral and Spiritual Milieu–•–349

are built and the consequences of failing to live up to concern for efficiency and profit, and in the scientific the deep significance of these traditions. This involves method with its focus on the empirical and the search looking honestly at the way all of our religious tradi- for relationships between phenomena that are pre- tions have affirmed the preciousness of every life dictable and causal. What is clear is that contempo- while also providing justifications for intolerance, rary schooling in almost every country is more and persecution, and even war. It means also looking at more dominated by quantifiable and demonstrable our most noble statements of human dignity and measures of “outcomes.” Students are deeply sensi- human rights such as the U.S. Constitution, the South tive to the oppressive consequences of this process: African postapartheid constitution, or the United the relentless and stressful focus on testing, educa- Nations Declarations of Human Rights, and appreci- tion that is all about measuring individuals for their ating the way each contributes to a strengthening of position in a hierarchy of success and failure, and the human dignity while also seeing how social, eco- narrowing of the curriculum and what is considered nomic, and cultural reality falls far short of what they educationally worthwhile. At some level all students promise. And it means growing through curricular experience the depersonalizing effects of this obses- experiences that nourish the full range of our human sion with measurement and quantifiable outcomes capacities, including the spiritual and the aesthetic. (Kohn, 2004). Usually, however, its effects—however Equally important is for students to recognize in oppressive to the lives of students—do not become their own lives the way that being invisible or something that can be treated as the object of critical misrecognized is a painful and humiliating experi- discussion. Yet here is a powerful vehicle through ence shared by us all. The classroom should offer a which individuals can, with the encouragement and space where individuals are able to openly acknowl- insights of a critically minded teacher, see the way edge and share how invisibility and misrecognition the full richness, passion, curiosity, and imagination have affected and shaped their own lives. How have of human beings is reduced to the flat homogeneity racism, sexism, anti-Semitism, prejudices toward of a numerical value. Focusing on the positivist cul- others because of their language or dialect, religious ture of schooling allows students to grasp what it preference, sexual orientation, disability, or ethnic means for people to be treated in ways that reduce and national origin caused suffering and pain in their their unique and incommensurable qualities to the lives? This is also a time to consider how social and bland sameness of a grade or other similar forms of institutional practices, such as those found in schools, limited assessment, and to understand how this create and maintain structures of invisibility and mis- facilitates the primary purpose of schools, which is recognition (see Shapiro, 2006). How do institutions to compare and rank students against one another. that are organized around differential rewarding of This is the quiet violence that compresses the wonder human efforts and ability contribute toward the vio- of human intelligence, creativity, and imagination to lence of negative human labels? This is also a place the stunted, but stressful, effects of a culture whose for students to consider what kinds of changes would primary emphasis is on competition and measurable be needed if we are to build a society where all are output. visible in the fullness of their humanity. How would In the end, the notion of curriculum that is framed it affect what is taught in school? How would it influ- by the moral and spiritual impulse of a prophetic ence who speaks in the classroom? And on what basis pedagogy concerned with tikkun olam means chal- or criteria would we decide to reward individuals or lenging an educational vision that is concerned only figure our notions of success and ability. with test scores, jobs, and a corporate agenda (Giroux, One dimension of the dehumanization process 2007). It means seeing the classroom as the place that students in schools are intimately familiar with where students are asked to think about the nature of is that of the pervasive quantification of human activ- living lives of purpose and meaning. Education today ity. Just as in the broader market system, so in has the extraordinary obligation of offering an alter- schools, everything that is considered significant native path for finding meaning in these dangerous must be turned into a measurable number. The ori- and critical times. There can be no greater responsibi- gins of this “positivist” consciousness are complex lity today than educators’ role in helping individuals but it includes both the system of capitalism with its recognize the crisis of meaning that engulfs us while 350–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

encouraging something other than the seductions of shallowness, and ultimate emptiness of a consumer- war, militarism, blind patriotism, and dogmatic driven life. Such an emphasis in our education must belief as the antidote to this crisis. We must affirm to be contrasted with today’s limited focus on skills, our students the deep “ache” for meaning that besets competencies, and careers. The latter, of necessity, so many of our lives and the futility of the obsessive will form part of preparing young people for our consumerism that offers to fill our time and energy complex and technologically developed world. But with endless distractions and superficial novelties. it cannot be allowed to constitute all of our school- Educators can help reveal the nature and dimensions ing. Education must not be severed from its deeper of this spiritual crisis. They can deconstruct for stu- task of nurturing among the young a thoughtful and dents the mechanisms of the market that get us to sensitive humanity and the wisdom to discern endlessly want more. They can point to the danger- authentically worthwhile lives (Greene, 2000). ous and destructive ways societies can respond, Educators, parents, and citizens cannot stand by through the glorification of death and violence, while those whose sole interest is in making our kids when there is an absence of compelling meaning malleable consumers hold so much power to shape (Hedges, 2002). But most of all they can help sug- the identities of the young. Nor can military careers gest other, more inclusive, life-affirming and healing monopolize our nation’s vision of selfless and public responses to our crisis that do not involve demoniz- spirited service. Education’s task is to challenge the ing others, declaring or threatening others with war, limited imagination for what might constitute a pur- and do not assume that we are always perfect or right poseful life beyond either the peddlers of merchandise in our judgments as a nation. Of course, this or the state-sanctioned machinery of violence and demands a very different understanding of why and destruction. It means seeing identity as something how we educate—one that, as Purpel so eloquently formed in and through our relations with others. It argued, unabashedly linked education to moral and means to reflect on what it is to be human. And, spiritual concerns. The classroom becomes a place finally, it means to question what are our responsi- in which young people are encouraged to pursue bilities to those who share our world and how can questions about the purpose and meaning of our each of us contribute to a world of greater justice, lives. And these questions are set against the limits, freedom, love, and compassion.

References and Further Readings Hedges, C. (2002). War is a force that gives us meaning. New York, NY: Public Affairs. Bauman, Z. (1998). Modernity and the holocaust. Ithaca, Heschel, A. (1962). The prophets. New York, NY: NY: Cornell University. Jewish Publication Society of America. Bauman, Z. (2007). Liquid modernity. Cambridge, UK: Judt, T. (2010). Ill fares the land. New York, NY: Penguin. Polity Press. Klein, N. (2008). The shock doctrine: The rise of disaster Eagleton, T. (2000). The ideology of the aesthetic. capitalism. New York, NY: Picador. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Kohn, A. (2004). What does it mean to be well educated? Eisler, R. (1988). The chalice and the blade. New York, Boston, MA: Beacon. NY: HarperCollins. Lerner, M. (2006). The left hand of God. San Francisco, Eisler, R. (2006). The real wealth of nations. CA: Harper. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Levinas, E. (2006). Humanism and the other. Urbana, IL: Fromm, E. (2005). To have or to be. New York, NY: University of Illinois. Continuum. Purpel, D. (2004). Reflections on the moral and spiritual Giroux, H. (2007). The university in chains. Boulder, crisis of education. New York, NY: Peter Lang. CO: Paradigm. Sacks, J. (2006). The politics of hope. London, UK: Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday Vintage. life. New York, NY: Doubleday. Shapiro, H. S. (2006). Losing heart: The moral and Graaf, J. de, Wann, D., & Naylor, T. (2005). Affluenza. spiritual miseducation of America’s children. San Francisco, CA: BK Publishers. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Greene, M. (2000). Releasing the imagination. Shapiro, H. S. (2010). Educating youth for a world New York, NY: Jossey-Bass. beyond violence. New York, NY: Palgrave. 43

THE GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND QUEER MILIEU

SUSAN W. W OOLLEY Colgate University

THERESE QUINN University of Illinois at Chicago

ERICA R. MEINERS Northeastern Illinois University

queer frame is central to this chapter. Queer- us of the criticality of feminist perspectives. Building ness offers the theoretical lens through from these insights, we suggest that just as queer Awhich gender and sexuality, and more can’t be well considered without thinking intersec- broadly notions of normalcy, are viewed and ana- tionally, we can’t understand the curriculum without lyzed. Specifically, the writers assume queerness as also considering schools, labor conditions, the econ- a perspective that, as Cathy Cohen (1999) proposed, omy, and other contexts that work in tandem to affect is anchored by a politics of radical social transforma- the life chances of students and the teaching and tion. Our contribution is informed by Cohen’s (1997) learning possibilities of all school staff. critiques of queer activism that reinforces simple We use queer in multiple ways—as an adjective binaries such as between heterosexual and queer— and as a noun that can, and here does, refer to all and at the same time homogenizes identity—as well sexualities and gender identities that are outside and as by her vision of social change organizing based on challenging of normative, binary categories. To this points of marginality and nonnormativity—or under- end we include Q with letters LGBT (lesbian, gay, standing one’s relation to power. As Cohen notes, a bisexual, and transgender) and use the term as a transformative and inclusive concept of queer must replacement for the letters. Queer is a social category be grounded on an intersectional analysis that takes in constant formation and, thus, like all categories into account the ways that multiple and interlocking used to classify identity, is situated and contingent, systems of oppression interact to regulate and shape inherently unstable and fluid, and potentially con- individual lives (see, e.g., Crenshaw, 1991). Suzanne tested. We also invoke the radical form of queer as Pharr and Susan Raymond’s (1988/1997) proposal a verb or a stance that assumes and honors human that homophobia is a weapon of sexism also reminds complexities, disrupts dominant and hegemonic

351 352–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

forms of normativity, and demands action toward Cody Barker, Corey Jackson, Aiyisha Hassan, Jamey ending oppressive social systems that limit our gen- Rodemeyer, Nicholas Kelo Jr., Alexander “AJ” dered, sexual, and creative lives. In this way, queer as Betts Jr., Carlos Vigil, Kenneth Weishuhn Jr., Phillip a verb destabilizes normativity and exposes pro- Parker, Eric James Borges, Jack Denton Reese, cesses by which identities such as “woman” or Jeffrey Fehr, Jacob Rogers, and Jadin Bell. Many of “homosexual” are constructed and naturalized. these suicides, like Larry’s murder, were preceded Gender and sexuality are discursively produced and by intense sexuality- and gender-policing interper- shaped by networks of power (Foucault, 1978). Using sonal violence and triggered a series of antibullying queer in an analysis of power, we consider how gen- initiatives. In late 2010 writer Dan Savage started der and sexuality co-articulate and intersect with the online video campaign called the It Gets Better other axes of difference—such as race, class, ethnic- Project “in response to a number of [lesbian, gay, ity, citizenship status, native language, disability, bisexual, and transgender] students taking their own age, religion, or housing status, for example—lines lives after being bullied in school,” as described on along which unequal power relations are exercised the project’s website. As of late 2014, the project and material resources are allocated while also had more than 50,000 contributions. This highly vis- deconstructing the very categories such articulations ible platform, with statements from President of difference utilize. Obama, then–secretary of state Hillary Clinton, Rep. Nancy Pelosi, and a host of other politicians and celebrities, spotlighted antigay violence across Contemporary Concerns the nation. The high-profile media attention that centered In 2008, a 15-year-old boy named Lawrence “Larry” select (often White and male) examples of antigay King was shot in the head and killed in his middle bullying also spurred state legislatures to act. States school computer lab by a classmate, Brandon that already had school antibullying programs, includ- McInerney, aged 14. Larry attended a weekly group ing character education or legislation, broadened for gay teens and enjoyed wearing makeup and high them. For example, in 2010, after Rutgers University heels; Brandon was one of many youth and adults at freshman Tyler Clementi’s suicide, the New Jersey Larry’s school who responded to his gender play Legislature approved antibullying legislation that with aggression. Larry defended himself by asserting required teachers to report bullying to administrators, his rights and with an edgy humor: He flirted with and school superintendents to report bullying to the the boys who insulted him—“It’s fun to see them State Board of Education. The legislation also allows squirm”—and invited Brandon to be his Valentine. the suspension or expulsion of students who commit A couple of days later, Brandon brought a gun to acts of bullying. school and used it. While violence is indeed the landscape for many King’s murder was followed by a concentrated queer youth across the country, antibullying laws and well-publicized wave of suicides committed often focus on individual harm rather than on erasing over the next few years by gay-identified or gender- the structural conditions that shape violence and nonconforming youth as well as young people addressing the climates and contexts that naturalize reportedly on the receiving end of homophobic or violence against LGBTQ lives. Across urban centers gender bullying. Gender bullying consists of in the United States, young people, including LGBTQ repeated and targeted harassment involving gender students, experience a range of forms of structural and gender presentation, whereas homophobic bul- violence, including targeted police harassment and lying typically targets one’s sexuality or perceived military recruitment, the continual fear of deporta- sexuality. This tragic list includes, but not limited tion and the force of the state in determining access to, Jaheem Herrera, Carl Joseph Walker-Hoover, to educational opportunities for undocumented Phoebe Prince, Tyler Clementi, Seth Walsh, Asher students, the everyday violence of poverty, and the Brown, Billy Lucas, Justin Aaberg, Raymond Chase, lack of institutional support in schools for marginal- Zach Harrington, Meredith Rezak, Eric Mohat, ized students in the form of resources, rights, or Jeanine Blanchette, Chantal Dube, Brandon Bitner, representation. 43. The Gender, Sexuality, and Queer Milieu –•–353

Obscured through the focus on interpersonal vio- of employment, fewer educators may be willing to lence targeted at LGBTQ lives and the state response risk their jobs by including unsanctioned content in of criminalizing individual perpetrators is also the their classrooms and courses. wider landscape of educational reforms, often dis- We write into this moment as our current queer connected from an LGBTQ analysis, that nonethe- milieu. An unprecedented interest in LGBTQ lives in less make schools and communities increasingly schools spurred by the high-profile media coverage precarious for many, particularly LGBTQ staff and of select youth suicides has prompted an investment students. Public education is being restructured. in antibullying legislation. The media coverage of Chicago closed 49 public schools in predominantly the suicides and the legislative response have served Black neighborhoods in 2013. Charter schools prolif- to mask the sources of punishing heteronormativity erate despite scant evidence demonstrating their stu- in schools and communities, and to distract educators dents’ achievement gains. Teachers, a White and and others from identifying and addressing structural feminized labor pool, are also increasingly deprofes- conditions that foster interpersonal forms of violence. sionalized and under attack. Teacher effectiveness is Public education is undergoing significant structural measured by their “value added” or their effect on reforms that are often not named as relevant in an students’ scores on high-stakes standardized tests. analysis of LGBTQ “issues” in schooling, yet these Increasingly teachers are working in “right to work conditions impact LGBTQ lives in critical ways. states,” and as startlingly visible in the 2010 docu- mentary Waiting for Superman, teachers’ unions are depicted as evil forces that do not care about the lives Context of young people. The constellation of these reforms— often identified as neoliberal, emphasizing the free Acts of interpersonal and structural heteronormativity market and privatization of public resources, includ- and transphobia, of course, are neither new nor surpr- ing schools—creates unstable communities, shifts ising. Just as misogyny and White supremacy also full-time school personnel into “just in time” precari- shape the institution of schooling, heteronormativity— ous workers, and ensures that schools are sites where or the structures and systems “that legitimize and organizing and working for justice is detrimental to privilege heterosexuality and heterosexual relation- one’s employment status. These reforms ensure that ships as fundamental and ‘natural’ within society” LGBTQ students and staff are less protected, more (Cohen, 2005, p. 24)—is pervasive in most institu- vulnerable, and in poor positions to advocate for any tions, including schools. Fear of the queer, or all the student who might be LGBTQ. In charter and other meanings and associations attached to nonheteronor- schools, for example, where teachers, aides, and mativity, leads schools to suppress teachers and other school personnel are employed “at will” and creates cultures that facilitate harm toward gender- can be terminated at any time, for almost any reason, nonconforming and nonheteronormative youth. student vulnerability may be exacerbated. Transphobic and homophobic cultures are persistent Relatedly, queer and other nonnormative lives, and largely still normalized and formative of what including the lives of the disabled, transgendered, happens within school spaces, from the girl/boy line- feminist, and those who are resistant to oppressive up regimens of early years to the heavily policed social structures, have been rarely present in formal boundaries of “proper” school attire. The curriculum curricula (see, e.g., Loewen, 2007; Rofes, 2005). of schooling—including what is present, formal, and Attempts to bring those who are marginalized to the sanctioned; what is “null” or simply not included; and center have been rebuffed by school boards and state what is willfully suppressed—serves social-norming governments, as, for example, with the 1990s “Chil- functions. dren of the Rainbow” curriculum in New York City, As with all of education, the history of curriculum which included the suggestion that lesbians and gay is contested ground, with the normalizing and subjec- men be referenced within a multicultural curriculum, tifying goals of traditional forms resisted by a wide and Arizona’s 2012 banning of ethnic studies from range of curriculum studies orientations—including its high schools. As schools shift from tenurable and social reconstruction; feminist critique and gender tenured positions to precarious and contingent forms analysis; reconceptualization; critical perspectives, 354–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

including labor, race, indigenous, and decolonizing For example, scholarship in queer theory that locates studies, among others; autobiography and biography; sexuality in practices of citizenship, statehood, and and disability, trans, and queer theories. Curriculum nationalism points to the demand for assimilation as scholars within these and emerging areas challenge a retraction of rights and, more importantly, as an each other and education institutions to address acquiescence to deeply problematic constructions of the contexts of schooling at all levels, including the the state. Queer theorists use the term homonational- global economic trends that have created and con- ism to refer to the inclusion of certain nonheterosex- tinue to produce increasingly precarious workplaces ual bodies and practices that do not challenge with fewer employees protected by tenure and their dominant ideologies of White supremacy, capitalism, affiliations with labor unions. This shift is upending or imperialism (Puar, 2007). Homonationalism is also decades of efforts by women to shape—and in par- used to signify how “gay rights” can function as a ticular improve—their working conditions in a shield and a form of legitimation. Pro-gay policies are feminized field or one associated with and devalued used to distract audiences from identifying funda- relative to the social devaluation of women; see, for mental human rights violations and to signify a state example, Joan Smith’s 1979 history of Ella Flagg as modern or cosmopolitan. Homonationalism sug- Young, the first woman elected as president of the gests that if you support the military or engage in National Education Association and to serve as marriage, home ownership, two-parent families, and superintendent of a major public school system; monogamy, and “cover” other potentially disquieting Jackie Blount’s 1995 history of female leadership in forms of difference and maintain alignment with nor- education; and Kate Rousmaniere’s 2005 biography mal life, you are worthy of incorporation into the of Margaret Haley, the founder of the first teachers’ state and might be eligible for some social protections union in the United States. and benefits. Or, a charter school might be lauded These and other histories of education have because of the inclusion of sexual orientation in an explored how local and state governments benefited antidiscrimination policy or for having a Gay Pride from the flexibility and controllability of female Day celebration, yet, under the regime of privatiza- labor. Early White female teachers were poorly paid, tion, the workers at that school do not make a living often not more educated than their students, not wage or have rights to due process. Questions about allowed to express their sexuality or marry, and the assimilative tendencies of social movements are expected to deploy basic and socially conventional far from novel, and LGBTQ activists in school would and conforming curriculums. Feminist school lead- benefit from a closer examination of interrelated ers worked to secure financial security and both social movements that have faced similar tensions. personal and professional autonomy including the More broadly, a queer lens asks us to question what right to due process for teachers, seeing these as keys counts as normal life. In the Queer Art of Failure , to educational reform. Today, as labor loses ground, cultural studies critic Judith “Jack” Halberstam (2011) education remains heteronormative and feminized works to dislodge the pervasive progress narrative and the culture of schooling as a White supremacist central to contemporary understandings of U.S. life. and colonial practice that reinscribes the values of Beyond attempting to dispose of the binary “success/ the settler state continues, albeit not without chal- failure,” Halberstam argues to inhabit and to explore lenge. Queer and trans work in education is one of failure, as we have attempted here. these areas of challenge to oppressive systems within schooling, as we explore in the next sections. Under certain circumstances, failing, losing, forgetting, unmaking, undoing, unbecoming, not knowing may in fact offer more creative, more cooperative, more surprising ways of being in the world. (p. 2) Theory It isn’t hard to see what the trouble with success The contemporary surge of support for select lesbian might be for Halberstam and for queers or others and gay lives places pressures on those of us working whose bodies and life paths are incompatible with nor- for queer justice in school and other contexts to criti- mal life. For many queers, failing at what normative cally examine and reevaluate our goals and tactics. culture has marked as success seems not only more 43. The Gender, Sexuality, and Queer Milieu –•–355

attractive and promising but also the only possible reproduction to maintain the status quo). For those path, anyway. That is, meeting norms is a near impos- bodies and identities that fall outside of dominant sibility—no one is entirely successful at being social norms and that fail to produce or reproduce normative—which is how norms operate as such laborers and the authority of the state, life is subject to powerful disciplining mechanisms. Living the norms, increased scrutiny, vulnerability, and abuse. But whether through agreeing to marriage or overlooking within such vulnerability, there is an ideological space poor workplace practices to maintain the fiction of to rethink success and failure, which thus can push us unity-in-identity, has tangible benefits and also costs. to rethink classroom and pedagogical practices by Queer theorizing’s ability to call into question normal challenging the status quo and by deconstructing and life destabilizes the ways these arrangements of dismantling dominant forms of power. power—ability and labor—delimit and legitimatize In Cruising Utopia, José Muñoz (2009) wrote that specific forms of embodiment, communication, and “queerness is that thing that lets us feel that this cognition as normal and natural. world is not enough, that indeed something is miss- The relationship between bodies and the state in ing” (p. 1). In the next section, we describe some the United States is rooted in notions of egalitarian- recent ways queerness has sparked new political ism and liberalism—that we are all protected under imaginings and practices. the law equally—which has proven throughout his- tory not to apply equally to people labeled as “other” through categories of indigeneity, gender, ability, Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression and race; these groups, often through the categories applied to them, have been subjected to varying This moment is ripe with creative forms of queer degrees of surveillance, poverty, exploitation, and possibilities that fiercely gesture toward other futures. violence sanctioned by the state. While egalitarian- We actively claim, as part of LGBTQ movements for ism and liberalism assume that the state and its legal social justice, our own localized work in schools and apparatus are neutral and benevolent (Spade, 2011), communities, particularly struggles against racial- queers, indigenous people, women, trans people, ized police violence, movements for free postsecond- people with disabilities, people of color, and immi- ary education, and mobilizations against military grants fail at meeting dominant forms of normativity. recruitment and toward the end of permanent war One’s relation to the state and its law hinges on economy of the United States. We offer the follow- dominant constructions of normativity and practices ing examples, not as exemplars or models, but of of delineation, which requires marking some bodies projects and creative engagements that we weave and identities as illegible and others as legitimate. In into our teaching and learning that offer innovative creating the categories of ability and disability, and unpredictable ways of thinking about how to knowledge and practices construct norms of “healthy” enable queer lives in schools and communities to bodies and minds; in creating the categories of hetero flourish. and homo, a fluid range of practices are defined, The Caucus of Rank and File Educators (CORE), delineated, and presumed to be stable and identifi- a coalition within the Chicago Teachers Union that able; in creating the categories of male and female, successfully pressed the union to take action on biological sex is positioned as essential rather than issues such as school closings, recognizes that good socially constructed, and so on. Processes of con- working conditions for teachers translates into safer structing difference produce subjects marked by such classrooms for LGBTQ staff, students, and commu- difference as outside the norm. nities. Its fierce work against the privatization of At stake in this are queer lives and queer forms of schools and the deprofessionalization of teachers knowing and experience. Queer bodies are, always offers a great example of intervention that may not and already, abnormal and abject because of the nor- on the surface look like a queer practice. Yet, in our mative values and means by which society, the state, landscape of corporate-driven education reform, schools, and other institutions and discourses con- CORE’s organizing pushes back on the message of struct, discipline, and privilege bodies that are useful education as business normal. CORE successfully for its ends (i.e., those bodies that can help in social argues not only that good working conditions for 356–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

teachers are good learning conditions for students platforms but also provides other examples of but also that decisions about assessment, curriculum, LGBTQ lives in context. and teacher effectiveness are best made not by for- Sins Invalid is a performance project that inte- profit textbook companies but communities of grates issues of disability and sexuality in the pro- engaged teachers. With proactive research; inten- duction of art that critiques normalizing processes tional coalition building with parent, youth, and com- that center White able-bodied and mentally able munity organizations; and creative use of media, middle-class heterosexual male subjectivities as the CORE is revitalizing labor movements. Its queer norm. Committed to social and economic justice for emphasis on imagination, hope, and artful action as all persons with disabilities, Sins Invalid and its per- resistance to the norms that are rendering schools formances offer narratives and analysis moving from unsafe for students and workers is energizing. identity politics and individual legal rights to collec- Combining art, direct action, and organizing tive claims for human rights, liberation, and beauty. (including the Undocubus Tour), Julio Salgado’s The work of Sins Invalid pushes us to think intersec- Undocuqueer Project exemplifies queer expression tionally about disability issues in society, pleasure, designed to create the world we need. A self- and identity as sites for learning and reflection and described “artivist,” Salgado is a part of the undocu- the connection between queer failure and creative mented movement in the United States that has resistance of dominant forms of normativity. rejected legislation (notably the Development, Relief, Focusing on gender and sexuality, NYQueer is a and Education for Alien Minors Act—DREAM— working group of the larger collective NYCoRE which as of late 2014 has failed to pass Congress) (New York Collective of Radical Educators). that would require young people to accept the state’s NYQueer aims to make resources available for teach- criminalization of their elders/parents in order to ers and schools to address homophobia, transphobia, potentially achieve their own pathway to legalization. and heterosexism in their communities, as well as to As an out queer feminist artist, Salgado produces create safe inclusive spaces for all students, teachers, radical images that have supported immigration and families. Working to support schools in creating organizing and gender and sexual self-determination. environments that embrace diverse forms of self- He chronicles his community in an online comic/zine expression and identity and that foster LGBTQ Liberty for All. youth’s growth and learning, NYQueer brings Through humor and social commentary on the together school officials, teachers, and community absurd, video artists Chris Vargas and Greg You- organizers to critically engage issues of gender and mans present a situation comedy about a cis/trans sexuality in education. gay odd couple caught between liberal LGB and Finally, we are always happy to read and recom- radical queer and trans politics. In their web-based mend Radical Teacher, described on its website as sitcom Falling in Love With Chris and Greg, Vargas “a socialist, feminist, and anti-racist journal on the and Youmans explore LGBTQ issues such as gay theory and practice of teaching.” The journal, which marriage, varying structures of relationships, gender recently moved to an open access, online-only format, transitioning, transgender pregnancy, body issues, addresses the scope of concerns relevant to improving and homonormativity. Offering critique on homonor- our educational lives and communities; recent issues, mative engagements with the state such as gay mar- for example, explore Teaching Inside Carceral Insti- riage as a means to access rights and privileges, tutions (No. 95), Occupy and Education (No. 96), and Vargas and Youmans help us reenvision queer politics Hip Hop and Critical Pedagogy (No. 97), and press- that do not reproduce the status quo, queer futures ing related topics are also presented through the and community that do not rest on marginalization, journal’s Facebook group and blog. and queer failure as a source of knowledge and These examples, and the many others we don’t yet power. Their brilliantly accessible video series not know about and have only started to dream up, are only showcases one entry into a wide world of DIY the future that we are creating together. They, and we, queer media production available through free online are the queer milieu. 43. The Gender, Sexuality, and Queer Milieu –•–357

References and Further Readings Loewen, J. (2007). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. Blount, J. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women New York, NY: Touchstone. and the superintendency 1873–1995. Albany, NY: Muñoz, J. (2009). Cruising utopia: The then and there of State University of New York. queer futurity. New York, NY: New York University Cohen, C. (1997). Punks, bulldaggers, and welfare Press. queens: The radical potential of queer politics? Pharr, S. (Author), & Raymond, S. G. (Illustrator). GLQ, 3, 437–465. (1988/1997). Homophobia: A weapon of sexism. Cohen, C. (1999). What is this movement doing Inverness, CA: Chardon Press. to my politics? Social Text 61, 17(4), Puar, J. (2007). Terrorist assemblages: Homonationalism 111–118. in queer times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Cohen, C. J. (2005). Punks, bulldaggers, and welfare Rofes, E. (2005). A radical rethinking of sexuality and queens: The radical potential of queer politics. schooling: Status quo or status queer? New York, In E. P. Johnson & M. G. Henderson (Eds.), Black NY: Rowman & Littlefield. queer studies (pp. 21–51). Chapel Hill, NC: Duke Rousmaniere, K. (2005). Citizen teacher: The life and University Press. leadership of Margaret Haley. Albany, NY: State Crenshaw, K. (1991). Intersectionality, identity politics, University of New York Press. and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Smith, J. (1979). Ella Flagg Young: Portrait of a leader. Review, 43, 1241–1299. Ames, IA: Educational Studies Press and the Iowa Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality (Vol. 1). State University Research Foundation. New York, NY: Pantheon. Spade, D. (2011). Normal life: Administrative violence, Halberstam, J. (2011). The queer art of failure. Durham, critical trans politics, and the limits of law. NC: Duke University Press. Brooklyn, NY: South End.

Websites It Gets Better Project: http://www.itgetsbetter.org/pages/ about-it-gets-better-project/ Caucus of Rank and File Educators (CORE): http://www Julio Salgado’s Undocuqueer Project: http://juliosalgado83 .coreteachers.org/ .tumblr.com/ Chicago Teachers Union: http://www.ctunet NYQueer: http://www.nycore.org/projects/nyqueer/ .com/ Radical Teacher: http://radicalteacher.library.pitt.edu/ojs/ Falling in Love With Chris and Greg: http:// index.php/radicalteacher fallinginlovewithchrisandgreg.com/ Sins Invalid: http://www.sinsinvalid.org/ 44

THE WOMANIST/BLACK FEMINIST MILIEU

SABRINA ROSS Georgia Southern University

he sociohistorical and cultural contexts within and wholeness of all people. A womanist loves which Black women and other women of music, the moon, the Spirit, food and roundness, and Tcolor live their lives and the ways of under- struggle. Walker emphasized the importance of self- standing the world they develop in response to these love by noting that a womanist “loves herself. contexts constitute the womanist/Black feminist Regardless” (p. xii). Walker’s definition ends with a milieu. The terms womanist and Black feminist refer famous analogy in which she compared Womanism to standpoint perspectives that highlight the unique and feminism: “Womanist is to feminist as purple is epistemologies, or ways of understanding the world, to lavender” (p. xii). that Black women and other women of color use to Implicitly womanist and Black Feminist episte- interpret their lived experiences. Womanist and mologies uphold the importance of self-love, cultur- Black feminist epistemologies presuppose the his- ally derived knowledge construction, and audacious torical and present-day marginalization of women of and courageous behavior oriented toward the goals of color and the devaluation of their culturally derived healing and wholeness for all people. Walker’s pair- forms of knowledge (Collins, 2000; Williams, 2001). ing of womanism with the color purple and feminism Theoretical perspectives based on womanist and with the color lavender is significant. The similarity Black feminist epistemologies are social justice- between the colors purple and lavender illustrate the oriented and privilege the ways of knowing that commonality of gender oppression shared by wom- Black women and other women of color use to anists and feminists; however, Walker’s designation survive and resist oppression (Collins, 2000). of the color purple for womanism also suggests The constituent elements of the womanist/Black important differences between womanists and their feminist milieu are most creatively articulated by feminist counterparts. Womanism’s deeper hue, in Alice Walker (1983) in her book In Search of Our comparison to the color lavender, reflects additional Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. Walker noted contexts of race and class that are also common that a womanist is “a black feminist or feminist of sources of oppression for women of color (Collins, color” (p. xi) who engages in behavior that is outra- 2000; Davis, 1981; hooks, 1981, 1984). geous, courageous, and willful, and who wants “to Although writing that espoused a Black feminist know more and in greater depth than is considered epistemology was being circulated prior to the publi- ‘good’ for one” (p. xi). A womanist loves women cation of In Search of Our Mother’s Gardens, (sexually or nonsexually), appreciates women’s cul- Walker’s creative crystallization of Black feminist ture, and demonstrates commitment to the survival ideas and her coining of the term womanist provided

358 44. The Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu–•–359

an easily accessible framework for womanist thought or enactment. I first discuss how the womanist/Black and activism that inspired many women of color; feminist milieu can be approached and understood as evidence of this inspiration is found in the continued a curriculum topic. I then discuss the ways in which adoption, appropriation, and transformation of the womanist and Black feminist epistemologies impact term womanist by individuals seeking to name, contemporary curriculum issues and concerns. The survive, and transcend the interconnected sources of sociohistorical and cultural context within which oppression that shape their lives. Walker’s definition womanist and Black feminist epistemologies devel- uses the terms womanist, Black feminist, and feminist oped is presented. Germinal works in womanist and of color interchangeably; following Walker’s example, Black feminist thought that articulate the womanist/ many individuals who engage in womanist and Black Black feminist milieu are highlighted with emphasis feminist scholarship and activism also use these terms on womanist and Black feminist work that has interchangeably (see, e.g., Beauboeuf-Lafontant, influenced educational scholarship, curriculum theo- 2002; Collins, 2001). rizing, and activism. Theories supportive of the There are some scholars, however, who contend womanist/Black feminist milieu are addressed, that significant differences exist between the terms followed by an exploration of selected forms of cur- womanism and Black feminism. For some, the term riculum inquiry and modes of expression that have Black feminist is problematic because of its neces- been engaged through womanist and Black feminist sary association with feminism, a movement that perspectives to illuminate the impact of these modes many Black women have critiqued for its racism, of inquiry on curriculum policy and practice. lack of relevance for Black women, and lack of seri- ous attention given to issues experienced by women of color (Collins, 1996; Davis, 1981; Giddings, Curriculum Topic 2006; hooks, 1981, 1984, 1989; Hudson-Weems, 2004). Some individuals view the term womanist as Despite the promises and possibilities for emanci- more reflective of a transnational and multicultural patory praxis (i.e., reflection on oppressive and agenda of women’s empowerment (Collins, 1996; dehumanizing educational contexts and deliberate Jain & Turner, 2012), while others argue that wom- action to alter those contexts) inherent in much cur- anist philosophy, particularly when applied to reli- riculum scholarship, the curriculum field remains gious and ethical studies, is heteronormative and predominantly White. Whiteness in curriculum homophobic (Coleman, 2006). Still others take issue studies is maintained in large part by continued acts with the term womanist, arguing that its lack of focus of racism and colonization that repeatedly “absorb, on motherhood and family-centeredness are not silence, and replace the non-white other, perpetuat- reflective of authentic African culture and traditions ing white supremacy and settlerhood” (Tuck & (Hudson-Weems, 2004; Oyewumi, 2004). Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2013). Actions aimed at As these differing views make clear, womanism identifying hegemonic curricular practices and and Black feminism are complex and contested terms reclaiming curricular spaces for marginalized and/ that resist simple definitions. In this chapter, the or historically underrepresented groups can be terms womanist and Black feminist are used inter- understood as methods of browning the curriculum changeably to facilitate a general discussion of the (Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2006). womanist/Black feminist milieu and its contributions The womanist/Black feminist milieu contributes to to education and curriculum studies; however, in the browning of curriculum studies by illuminating order to gain greater understanding of the breadth the ways in which contexts of race/ethnicity, gender, and scope of womanist and Black feminist episte- and other identity constructs influence all aspects of mologies, scholarship, and activism, sustained read- curriculum policy and practice. Additionally, work ing on the diverse viewpoints associated with these for social justice engaged by individuals embracing topics is required. womanist and/or Black feminist epistemologies This chapter highlights the significance of the strengthens the field of curriculum studies through womanist/Black feminist milieu for contemporary introduction of culturally derived forms of knowl- curriculum theorizing, development, implementation, edge that influence how curriculum is understood and 360–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

enacted. The insertion of womanist and Black femi- which they develop and implement curriculum and nist epistemologies in curriculum studies challenges scholarship demonstrate the complexity of Black the presumed normalcy and neutrality of existing women’s lives and the value of understanding Black forms of curriculum theorizing, development, and women and their scholarship and activism as topics implementation; in so doing, these epistemologies of curriculum study. offer innovative approaches to curriculum policy and practice. These innovations are reflective of contem- New Ways of Understanding and porary curriculum concerns, which will be discussed Interacting With Students in the following section. Much of the scholarship framed by womanist and/ or Black feminist epistemologies focuses on peda- Contemporary Concerns gogical issues and highlights new ways of under- standing and interacting with students. Some of these In the field of education in general and in curriculum works challenge taken-for-granted assumptions of studies, evidence of a womanist/Black feminist teacher authority over students when the teachers are milieu manifests itself through the introduction of women of color and the students are predominantly new ways of understanding curriculum, innovative White (Henry, 1993; Williams & Evans-Winters, ways of understanding and interacting with students, 2005). Other scholarship in this area uses womanist and new ways of thinking about curriculum and and/or Black feminist epistemologies to encourage pedagogy. students to engage in educational transformation. For example, Cozart and Gordon (2006) tackle the issue New Ways of Understanding Curriculum of the relevance of social foundations courses for teacher education students; they model womanist While understanding curriculum as racial and principles of caring for their students and encourage gender texts has been widely recognized in contem- the students to reimagine connections between acts porary curriculum discourse (Pinar, Reynolds, of caring and educational transformation. Slattery, & Taubman, 1995), womanist and Black feminist epistemologies have extended these New Ways of Thinking About approaches to curriculum discourse by highlighting Curriculum and Pedagogy the usefulness of the experiences of Black women and other women of color as topics of curriculum The infusion of womanist and Black feminist epis- theorizing and by presenting the scholarship and temologies in the field of education encourages new activism of women of color as sources of curriculum ways of thinking about curricular and pedagogical study. For example, Baszile’s (2006) reflections on issues. Some ways the womanist/Black feminist ways in which claiming what she referred to as the milieu manifests itself in the field of education “ontoepistemological in-between” (p. 198) or her include the introduction of innovative pedagogical sociospacial location as a Black woman working for practices and the challenging of hegemonic educa- social justice within a predominantly White institu- tional notions, theories, and practices. For example, tion necessitated that she use her scholarship and Brock (2011) deconstructed cultural practices of teaching as forms of struggle. As another example, verbal insults commonly referred to as “the dozens” Paul’s (2001) text, Life, Culture, and Education on (p. 379) in order to engage students in critical think- the Academic Plantation, provides an insider’s view ing about taken-for-granted cultural practices. As of the often hostile treatment women faculty of color another example, Guillory (2010) supported the inclu- experience within the academy. Finally, Hill’s (2010) sion of rap, with its positive, negative, and contradic- examination of the leadership and pedagogy of Black tory representations, into the official curricula of women educators highlights exemplary aspects of public schools, arguing that such curricula would curriculum practice engaged by the Black women in teach important lessons about public pedagogy. Other her study. In each of these examples, the study of work in this area exhibits innovativeness by challeng- Black women’s experiences and the unique ways in ing the presumed neutrality of foundational concepts 44. The Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu–•–361

such as caring in education (Beauboeuf-Lafontant, feminist movement. Audre Lorde (1984) argued for 2002; Roseboro & Ross, 2009). the importance of an exclusive focus on women of color rather than oppressive diversionary tactics that compel women of color to convert White men or Context White feminist women.

The development of the womanist/Black feminist Women of today are still being called upon to stretch milieu began to take shape in the nexus of the civil across the gap of male ignorance to educate men as to rights and women’s rights movements of the 1950s our existence and our needs. This is an old and primary tool of oppressors to keep the oppressed occupied with and 1960s, though its origins can be traced back to the master’s concerns. Now we hear that it is the task of the courageous acts of resistance accomplished by women of Color to educate white women—in the face Black women during U.S. slavery. of tremendous resistance—as to our existence, our dif- In 1974, the Combahee River Collective, a group ferences, our relative roles in our joint survival. This is of self-identified Black feminists from Boston a diversion of energies and a tragic repetition of racist patriarchal thought. (p. 113) (named after Harriet Tubman’s successful destruc- tion of Confederate supplies along the Combahee River near Beaufort, South Carolina), began meeting Spurred by the impetus to develop and implement their own politics during the 1970s and 1980s, to identify and articulate their specific politics, sepa- groups such as the Combahee River Collective, the rate from the politics of the women’s movement, National Black Feminist Organization, and Black which they felt were becoming increasingly racist Women Organized for Action began meeting for and exclusionary (Combahee River Collective, emotional support, consciousness raising, and infor- 1977/1983). Giddings (2006) also noted the alienation mation dissemination (Combahee River Collective, a majority of Black women increasingly perceived 1983; Hull & Smith, 1982). With the initiation of the toward the women’s movement and the chauvinism National Conference on Third World Women and Black women experienced from Black males within Violence, Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, the civil rights movement and particularly within the and the development of women’s studies programs Southern Christian Leadership Conference and the for Black women and other women of color, an envi- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. ronment in which women of color could organize, Black women and other historically marginalized research their histories, articulate and disseminate groups developed social thought with the purpose of their politics, and engage activism was formed challenging oppression (Collins, 2000). It is perhaps (Combahee River Collective, 1983; Hull & Smith, not difficult to imagine, then, how contexts of racial, 1982; Smith, 2000). gender, class, and other forms of oppression experi- Though Alice Walker’s definition of womanism enced by Black women and other women of color was being appropriated by women of color soon encouraged the development of womanist and Black after its introduction, contributions to womanist feminist epistemologies. Participation in acts of writing were slower to develop, reflecting a “ten- resistance to slavery and various liberation move- dency of womanism to be approached and expressed ments including the antislavery movement, the intuitively rather than analytically” (Phillips, 2006, women’s suffrage movement, the civil rights and p. xxi). In her introduction to The Womanist Reader, Black liberation movements, and the women’s move- Phillips (2006) chronicled the rise and relative ment honed the activist skills of women of color, yet demise of womanism in academic realms (except also indicated the need for politics that specifically for religious studies, where it continues to flourish) addressed the ways in which contexts of race, and the increasing popularity of womanist thought gender, sexuality, and class interacted to influence and activism outside academic arenas. The increas- their lives. ing popularity of womanism is due, in large part, to While some women of color engaged in the neces- its universal, humanistic nature. Phillips argued that sary work of educating men of color and White anyone of any culture, ethnicity, or gender can be a women on issues of sexism and racism, others womanist, as long as she or he is aligned with the redirected efforts toward building a uniquely Black goals of wholeness and healing for all humanity. 362–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Emphasizing the universal orientation of womanism, disciplinary, hegemonic, and interpersonal); each she wrote: plays a specific role in maintaining the domination of Black women and other oppressed groups. The struc- To be a womanist, one must identify one’s cultural tural domain organizes social institutions such as roots and experience oneself as a cultural or ethnic schools and media, while the disciplinary domain being rather than a racial being, but one must also be able to see oneself and one’s people as part of a larger manages oppression through surveillance and the global body defined by common humanness. Such enforcement of policies, laws, and regulations identification preserves valuable streams of difference (Collins, 2000). The hegemonic domain justifies for the benefit of all humanity, while simultaneously practices occurring within the structural and disci- detaching these streams of difference from particular plinary domains through ideology, culture, and their bodies or identities. From this ground, people can begin the process of struggling for commonweal at the suc- subsequent influence on individual consciousness cessive levels of community as defined by the and the interpersonal domain involves everyday acts womanist—from one’s own group, to all humanity, to of individual behavior (Collins, 2000). livingkind, to Earth, to the universe, to all the realms of Collins argues that controlling images, or hege- creation. (pp. xxvi–xxxvii) monic negative representations of Black women, are Within the contexts discussed above, Black femi- perpetuated in society to justify the socioeconomic nist theorizing (and later womanist theorizing) and political oppression of Black women. Through emerged; theories of the womanist/Black feminist safe spaces or sites where Black women can cultivate milieu are discussed in the following section. definitions of self that contradict controlling images, Black women engage in dialogical processes of indi- vidual and group critical consciousness to resist Theories of the Womanist/Black oppression and work for social change (Collins, Feminist Milieu 2000). As individuals develop critical consciousness, their relationship to structures of oppression within Patricia Hill Collins’s (2001) book Black Feminist the matrix of domination changes; as individual Thought is arguably the most comprehensive theo- Black women who are critically conscious engage in retical detailing of Black feminist thought. A major dialogue with other Black women, their ideas con- theme of this book is that the historical and contem- tinually reshape the contours of Black feminist porary suppression of Black women’s ideas is thought for social justice. Collins (2000) describes integral to maintaining Black women’s social, eco- this as a dialogical process of individual and group nomic, and political oppression. Illuminating and consciousness in relation to social change. learning from the suppressed ideas of Black women Clenora Hudson-Weems introduced the concept is a major tool for empowerment (Collins, 2000). of Africana womanist theory in the late 1980s Consistent with this theme, much of Black Feminist (Phillips, 2006). In her book Africana Womanism: Thought builds upon the writing and activism of his- Reclaiming Ourselves, Hudson-Weems argued for torical and contemporary Black women who consis- the inappropriateness of feminism, Black feminism, tently engage “a process of self-conscious struggle African feminism, and Alice Walker’s womanism as on behalf of Black women” (p. 15). Collins’s major theoretical models for women of African descent and contributions to the womanist/Black feminist milieu their struggles against oppression. Hudson-Weems include (a) an emphasis on reclaiming Black wom- (2004) claimed that feminism (and Black feminism en’s ideas as discussed earlier, and (b) a classification by association), developed by White women and system for identifying and developing strategies of endorsing White values and epistemologies, resistance to micro- and macro-level structures of contradicts the goals and values of Africana women. power that oppress Black women. Similarly, Hudson-Weems (1993/2006) suggested The matrix of domination is Collins’s heuristic that Alice Walker’s concept of womanism, with its model for understanding the relationships of power focus on individuality and women’s relationships that affect Black women within given social contexts. with each other (as opposed to Black women’s rela- Matrices of domination are organized through four tionships with their male counterparts), holds little interconnected domains of power (i.e., structural, distinction from feminism and, as a result, is also an 44. The Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu–•–363

inappropriate framework for women of African Sisters in the Wilderness; Emilie Townes’s (2002) A descent. Instead, she offered Africana womanism, a Troubling in My Soul; Katie Cannon’s (2003) Katie’s theoretical model based on African culture, philoso- Canon; Monica Coleman’s (2013) Ain’t I a Womanist phy, and epistemology that privileges issues of race Too? and her Third-Wave Womanist Religious over gender and emphasizes family-centeredness and Thought. cooperative activism with Africana men against oppression. Emphasizing the distinctiveness of Africana womanism, she wrote: Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression

Neither an outgrowth nor an addendum to feminism, Within academia, there are unique challenges for Africana Womanism is not Black feminism, African scholars of color who strive to engage in educational feminism, or Walker’s Womanism that some Africana women have come to embrace. Africana Womanism is research that is compatible with their spiritual and an ideology created and designed for all women of intellectual leanings (Dillard, 2006). The forms of African descent. It is grounded in African culture, and inquiry and modes of expression by Black feminist therefore, it necessarily focuses on the unique and womanist scholars creatively respond to this experiences, struggles, needs, and desires of African challenge through the development of innovative women. (p. 48) inquiry that is theoretical (e.g., Baszile, 2006; Dillard, In her book, Hudson-Weems (2004) offered 18 2006; Guillory, 2011; Roseboro & Ross, 2009), traits of Africana women; some of these traits include empirical (e.g., Jain & Turner, 2012), or a combina- family-centeredness, strength, cooperative struggle tion of theoretical and pedagogical (e.g., Brock, with Africana men for freedom, adaptability, mother- 2005, 2011; Cozart & Gordon, 2006; Paul, 2001). ing, nurturing, and male compatibility. The salience Though representing only a sampling of the woman- of racism as a primary source of oppression for ist and Black feminist scholarship that forms the women of African descent and the insistence that contours of the womanist/Black feminist milieu, Africana women and men must struggle together the following forms of inquiry nevertheless illustrate against oppression are main features of Africana the creativity, epistemological diversity, and social womanism. justice focus of womanist and Black feminist inquiry. Much of the work in womanist theory was devel- Using a life history methodology, Beauboeuf- oped by womanist theologians and ethicists in the Lafontant (2005) interviewed Black women educa- field of religious studies who embraced the defini- tors with social justice leanings to identify common tion of womanist developed by Alice Walker based themes related to their teaching practices indicative on her articulation that a womanist “loves the Spirit” of a womanist epistemology. Each of the interviewed (1983, p. xii). Like Black feminist and Africana educators utilized wisdom from their foremothers womanist theory, womanist theory in religious stud- and identified with historical Black women’s activ- ies utilizes the historical and contemporary work of ism. Additionally, caring for students was a central Black women and other women of color as inspira- component of each educator’s political activism. The tion, guidance, and strategies of resisting oppression. salience of these womanist themes in the life In addition, womanist theological and ethical schol- histories of each Black woman educator demon- ars also deconstruct racist, patriarchal, and sexist strates the usefulness of womanist perspective in practices within religious and academic communities illuminating the motivations and teaching practices as well as canonical texts. of Black women educators. Importantly, Beauboeuf- Womanist theorists take seriously the goal of heal- Lafontant suggested that the womanist themes in her ing and wholeness for all people and, toward this goal, findings could be used to reinvigorate the current produce scholarship on a wide range of topics including teaching force with critical thinking and social jus- suffering and evil (Townes, 2002), womanist peda- tice ethics. Thus, her work also connects to broader gogy (Canon, 2003), biblical hermeneutics (Williams, issues of curriculum policy and enactment through 2001), depression (Coleman, 2012), and third-wave an offering of womanist ways of knowing to enhance womanism ( Coleman, 2013). Germinal texts in wom- the dispositions and teaching practices of in-service anist theorizing include Delores Williams’s (2001) teachers. 364–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Ross’s (2013) The Politics of Politeness explores were previously enrolled in one of two classes she the curricular significance of Southern space through taught: the African American Woman, and Racism historical analysis and self-reflection. Using Black and Sexism. There is much significance in Brock’s feminism and critical race theory to connect histori- subtitle, The Personal and the Pedagogical; her cal processes of racial formation and cultural images research epitomizes connections between self and of Southern ladies and mammies to contemporary teaching. Throughout the text, she engaged in self- processes of teacher education in the Deep South, her reflection to better understand herself in order to theorizing attempts to explain passive-aggressive engage in “good teaching of Black women about responses of White pre-service teachers to the pres- Black women” (Brock, 2005, p. 131). In her critical ence and curricula of women faculty of color engag- action research project, Brock relied on several prin- ing in social justice pedagogy. Using the metaphor of ciples of Black feminist epistemology to guide her travel, Ross conceptualized her social justice peda- inquiry, including experiences as a criterion of mean- gogy within a predominantly White institution as ing, an ethic of personal accountability, and the use of metaphorically trespassing on White space. She dialogue to assess knowledge claims (Collins, 2000). described tepid classroom engagement by pre- service Her sista talk—or the dialogues she engaged in with teachers who responded to her attempts to elicit dis- her former students—embraced each of these princi- cussion around issues such as cultural and linguistic ples as the women-constructed knowledge by dis- bias with amiable head nodding and silence. While cussing texts, reflecting on representations of Black Ross initially attributed these classroom interactions women, and sharing their own lived experiences in to students’ shyness and Southern politeness, she further transformation. reinterpreted the student responses after receiving numerous course evaluations that attacked her per- sonally and indicated strong displeasure with the Future Work course subject matter. In this text, seemingly benign manifestations of Southern politeness are theorized Womanist and Black feminist scholarship and activ- as strategic acts of resistance that punish trespass ism have much to contribute to education in general onto White space by putting Ross “in her place” as a and curriculum studies specifically. There is a need Black woman in the South. By exploring the curricu- for the continued browning of curriculum studies lar implications of students’ passive-aggressive (Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2006), and scholarship politeness and offering strategies to address these within the womanist/Black feminist milieu can con- culturally rooted practices of resistance, Ross’s work tribute much to this process. There is also a need to reflects several Black feminist and womanist themes continually push theoretical and methodological including the significance of history on present-day boundaries in educational research to make room for race/ethnic and gender relations, emphasis on survival social-cultural sensibilities of social justice–oriented and self-care for women of color, and a commitment scholars (Dillard, 2006). These forms of inquiry are to social justice. illustrative of creative ways in which womanist and Finally, Brock’s (2005) Sista Talk: The Personal Black feminist scholarship and activism transcends and the Pedagogical is a creative blend of self- epistemological, theoretical, and methodologi- reflection, internal dialogue with the African goddess cal boundaries. Future work within these areas will Oshun, and dialogue with eight Black women who continue to contribute to these efforts.

References and Further Readings dilemmas within the academy (pp. 195–208). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Baszile, D. T. (2006). In this place where I don’t quite Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2002). A womanist experience belong: Claiming the ontoepistemological of caring: Understanding the pedagogy of exemplary in-between. In T. R. Berry & N. D. Mizelle (Eds.), black women teachers. The Urban Review, 34(1), From oppression to grace: Women of color and their 71–86. 44. The Womanist/Black Feminist Milieu–•–365

Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2005). Womanist lessons for Guillory, N. (2011). What’s a hip hop feminist doing in reinventing teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, teacher education? A journey back to curriculum 56, 436–445. theory in three acts. Journal of Curriculum Brock, R. (2005). Sista talk: The personal and the Theorizing, 27(3), 20–32. pedagogical. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Henry, A. (1993). There are no safe places: Pedagogy as Brock, R. (2011). Recovering from ‘yo mama is so powerful and dangerous terrain. Action in Teacher stupid’: (En)gendering a critical paradigm on Black Research, 15(4), 1–4. feminist theory and pedagogy. International Hill, D. (2010). Dismantling the master’s house: A call Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 24(3), for womanism, herstory, and the power of Black 379–396. women teacher educators. In T. Huber-Warring (Ed.), Cannon, K. G. (2003). Katie’s canon: Womanism and the Storied inquiries in international landscapes: An soul of the Black community. New York, NY: anthology of educational research (pp. 71–80). Continuum. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Coleman, M. (2006). Must I be a womanist? Journal of hooks, b. (1981). Ain’t I a woman: Black women and Feminist Studies in Religion, 22(1), 85–96. feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press. Coleman, M. (2012). Not alone: Reflections on faith and hooks, b. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to depression. Culver City, CA: Inner Prizes. center. Boston, MA: South End Press. Coleman, M. (2013). Ain’t I a womanist, too?: Third- hooks, b. (1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, wave womanist religious thought. Minneapolis, MN: thinking Black. Boston, MA: South End Press. Fortress Press. Hudson-Weems, C. (1993/2006). Africana womanism. Collins, P. H. (1996). What’s in a name?: Womanism, In L. Phillips (Ed.), The womanist reader Black feminism, and beyond. The Black Scholar, (pp. 44–54). New York, NY: Routledge. 26(1), 9–17. Hudson-Weems, C. (2004). Africana womanism: Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, Reclaiming ourselves. Troy, MI: Bedford consciousness, and the politics of empowerment Publishers. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Hull, G. T., & Smith, B. (1982). Introduction: The Combahee River Collective. (1977/1983). A Black politics of Black women’s studies. In G. Hull, feminist statement. In C. Moraga & G. Anzaldúa P. Bell Scott, & B. Smith (Eds.), All the women are (Eds.), This bridge called my back: Writings by White, all the Blacks are men, but some of us are radical women of color (pp. 210–218). New York, brave: Black women’s studies (pp. xvii–xxi). NY: Kitchen Table/Women of Color Press. New York, NY: The Feminist Press. Cozart, S. C., & Gordon, J. (2006). Using womanist Jain, D., & Turner, C. (2012). Purple is to lavender: caring as a framework to teach social foundations. Womanism, resistance, and the politics of naming. High School Journal, 19(1), 9–15. Negro Educational Review, 63(3), 67–88. D avis, A. Y. (1981). Women, race, and class. New York, L orde, A. (1984). The master’s tools will never dismantle NY: Vintage Books. the master’s house. In A. Lorde (Ed.), Sister Dillard, C. (2006). When the music changes, so should outsider: Essays and speeches (pp. 110–113). the dance: Cultural and spiritual considerations in Berkeley, CA: The Crossing Press. paradigm “proliferation.” International Journal of Oyewumi, O. (2004). African women and feminism: Qualitative Studies in Education, 19(1), 59–76. Reflecting on the politics of sisterhood. Trenton, NJ: Gaztambide-Fernandez, R. (2006). Regarding race: The Africa World Press. necessary browning of our curriculum and public Paul, D. G. (2001). Life and education on the academic pedagogy project. Journal of Curriculum and plantation: Womanist thought and perspective. Pedagogy, 3(1) 60–65. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Giddings, P. (2006/1984). When and where I enter: The Phillips, L. (Ed.). (2006). The womanist reader. New impact of Black women on race and sex in America. York, NY: Routledge. New York, NY: Amistad. Pinar, W., Reynolds, W., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. Guillory, N. (2010). (A) troubling pedagogy: Public (1995). Understanding curriculum: An introduction pedagogies of Black women rappers. In E. to the study of historical and contemporary Maleweski (Ed.), Curriculum studies: The next curriculum discourses. New York, NY: Peter Lang. moment (pp. 209–222). New York, NY: Lawrence Roseboro, D., & Ross, S. N. (2009). Care-sickness: Erlbaum. Black women educators, ethic of care, and a 366–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

hermeneutic of suspicion. Educational Foundations, Tuck, E., & Gaztambide-Fendandez, R. (2013). 23(3–4), 19–40. Curriculum, replacement, and settler futurity. Ross, S. N. (2013). The politics of politeness: Theorizing Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 29(1), race, gender, and education in White southern space. 72–89. In W. M. Reynolds (Ed.), A curriculum of place: Walker, A. (1983). In search of our mother’s gardens: Understandings emerging through the southern mist Womanist prose. Orlando, FL: Harcourt. (pp. 143–160). New York, NY: Peter Lang. Williams, D. G., & Evans-Winters, V. (2005). Smith, B. (2000). Introduction. In B. Smith (Ed.), Home The burden of teaching teachers: Memoirs of race girls: A Black feminist anthology (pp. xxi–lviii). discourse in teacher education. Urban Review, 37(3), New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 201–219. Townes, E. M. (Ed.). (2002). A troubling in my soul: Williams, D. S. (2001). Sisters in the wilderness: The Womanist perspectives on evil and suffering. challenge of womanist God-talk. Maryknoll, NY: Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. Orbis Books. 45

THE SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS MILIEU

ADAM HOWARD Colby College

KATY SWALWELL Iowa State University

ocioeconomic class is a deceptively simple status, or wealth. It also incorporates how people sociological category, one that has ironically experience their material realities (both absolute and Sbeen described as an “inherently indescribable relative) in a way that produces complex identities. concept” (Conley, 2008, p. 367). Social class is often Conventional class distinctions thus highlight the reduced to whether someone is rich or poor; these unequal possibilities that influence how people enact “folk conceptions of class” often highlight life trajec- their identities and interact with the world. Even com- tories related to education, occupation, and income. mon descriptors of class status reveal such levels of Certainly, how much money people have, how they nuance interlaced with judgments about moral char- earn their money, and what they do with their money acter in connection with race and gender (e.g., “white are key elements to understanding what constitutes trash,” “old money,” “nouveau riche,” “welfare socioeconomic status. In this vein, Wright and queen,” “gold digger,” “highfalutin,’ ” “uppity”). Rogers (2010) identified a taxonomy of positions Class is thus both a description of the level to which within a capitalist class structure based primarily one has access and control over shifting material upon education, money, and wealth: a small yet goods and resources, as well as a performance of extremely rich corporate managerial class; an unsta- identity that one learns and constructs through ble middle class whose position is tied to training in unequal, unstable relationships with institutions and technical skills for jobs with particular credentials; individuals. a large working class rapidly losing any former pro- Because schools are important sites of class con- tections they may have had through unionization; testation, inequality, and identity formation, the a segment of this working class with little to no job explicit and hidden curricula in their policies, struc- security; and a thoroughly marginalized poor whose tures, and practices and how families and educators living conditions make it virtually impossible to operate within them are important units of analysis acquire the skills and education needed for jobs that for educational research (Weis, 2008). Conversely, could potentially lift them out of poverty. attention to educational policy, practice, context, and Though these more structural classifications are theory without a consideration of the class milieu useful, class is more than one’s income, employee presents an impartial picture at best of how and why

367 368–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

schools function as they do. Attention to class in sense of ease balance fear and anxieties is now begin- relation to social and political struggles is particu- ning to topple, as risks threaten to outweigh familiar larly important in an era dominated by an increasingly securities” (pp. 2–3). Many scholars argue that the popular logic that dismisses widening economic current social and economic instabilities are influ- inequality as a cause for concern, thinking made encing the lives and self-understandings of young popular by what Apple (2006) calls a fragile alli- people from all social class groups in profound ways ance of neoliberals, neoconservatives, authoritarian and changing how they, especially affluent youth, populists, and the professional managerial class. imagine their futures.

Contemporary Concerns: The Shifting Context: Keeping Things Steady on Social and Economic Landscapes Shifting Ground “Within Class” “Outside Class” Privileged young people are likely to remain at the As the U.S. economy has become increasingly top despite the shifts in the social and economic land- global, the number of stable, high-paying jobs has scapes. As the divide between the haves and have- dramatically decreased, while there has been a strong nots has expanded, those at the top of the economic growth in the number of low-paying jobs with little spectrum have become wealthier in recent years. to no benefits or security. Competition for well-paid Wealthy individuals didn’t just weather the worst jobs is fierce, and access to these jobs is increasingly economic decline in decades better than everyone dependent upon earning a college degree. At the else; they emerged from the 2008 financial crisis same time, 4-year institutions of higher education, with an increased net worth. The recovery era especially top-ranked ones, have become more selec- incomes of the wealthiest Americans have surged tive and more expensive while offering students less with high stock prices, rising home values, and financial assistance. Even for those who do earn a increased corporate profits, while the incomes of college degree, the employment picture is still bleak everyone else are hindered by high unemployment given that this credential no longer translates directly and stagnant wages. Economic inequalities in the to economic success. As if these troubling economic United States are at levels not seen since the Great realities were not enough, young people are coming Depression. of age during the aftermath of a severe economic Against the backdrop of this class stratification, crisis. The U.S. economy was continuing to recover the explicit curriculum available to students in elite in early 2015, more than 6 years since the start of the educational institutions continues to be substantively financial crisis. Many Americans still have diffi- different from what is available to the large majority culty finding employment or earning enough income of U.S. students. These differences in the actual con- to meet basic needs. Nearly everyone in the tent that different kinds of schools deliver through United States was affected by this global economic courses are significant because they mean that stu- crisis and many continued to be affected for years dents are being prepared to assume particular social afterward. roles (Lareau, 2003; Willis, 1981). As such, these This crisis, along with the constantly shifting eco- curricular arrangements are not just significant in nomic and social terrain of what is commonly terms of what and how students learn but also in how referred to as the new economy, has produced a they come to understand themselves as subjects. In middle class with troubled and uneasy identities. particular, the curriculum at elite schools plays a Hacker (2006) claimed, for example, that the eco- significant role in the production of particular elite nomic and social insecurities that were historically subjectivities (Gaztambide-Fernández & Howard, limited to the working poor are increasingly part of 2010), providing a stabilizing force within the the lives of the middle class and even upper middle shifting landscape of opportunity. class. Furthermore, Reay, Crozier, and James (2011) This widening wealth inequality manages to stay contended, “The stable, middle-class, emotional largely hidden or unquestioned given that the myth economy, in which satisfactions, entitlements and a of meritocracy has such deep and extensive roots in 45. The Socioeconomic Class Milieu–•–369

the United States. The belief in class mobility and a the movement of families and individuals up and relatively even distribution of wealth is strong despite down the economic ladder—is the promise that lies at evidence to the contrary. Within this ideology, eco- the heart of this belief. Although there is some class nomic inequality (and the differential education fluidity in the United States and almost everyone in available to people in different classes) is both under- this country can point to at least one example where estimated and justified as the result of poor or good this is true, the reality is that social class is much less decisions individuals make over time. In contrast fluid than most people think. A 2005 poll found that with race or gender, social class is presented as a the misconception that one could start out poor, work choice and thus dismissed as a legitimate issue in hard, and become rich was more common than it was debates about schools. For example, consultant 20 years before, during a period in which there was profiteers such as Payne (1996) and educators advo- even more static distribution of income across the cating market-based reforms argue that a child’s generations with fewer opportunities for advance- economic circumstances are no excuse for low ment (New York Times Correspondents, 2005). Even achievement and that a great teacher can overcome more recently when—according to a poll conducted whatever the effects of poverty may be. In fact, class by the Pew Research Center—Americans have status and identity are a result of individuals’ strug- become increasingly aware of class divisions in the gles within a system built upon maintaining class nation and believing there are strong conflicts between advantage in ways that are deeply intertwined with the rich and the poor, dominant attitudes and beliefs race and gender, as well as other forms of identity related to social class have remained largely (Grant & Sleeter, 1986). unchanged (Morin, 2012). Even with increased awareness of class divisions and conflicts, then, peo- ple continue to believe that individuals became rich Theory: “Late to Class” Shifting mainly because of their own hard work, ambition, or Attention to Elites education. Like most other industrialized nations, we rarely A terrible truth exists within every society through- face the consequences of the relationship between out the world: Some benefit from privileged circum- privilege and oppression. And what are some of stances at the expense of others. In the United States, these consequences in the United States? In 2010, this is certainly the case where the advantages of a nearly 49 million people living in more than relative few are related to the predicaments of many. 17 million households (i.e., 14.5% of households in In fact, the consequences of the relationship between the country) were food-insecure, meaning they privilege and oppression can be seen in virtually all lacked access to adequate food, at least during cer- aspects of American life including in health care, tain times of the year (Coleman-Jensen, Nord, where the differences in overall health and lifespan Andrews, & Carlson, 2011); and in 2013, approxi- are widening despite all the advances in medicine; in mately 610,000 people were homeless (National education, where school success remains linked Alliance to End Homelessness, 2014). Even when tightly to a student’s social class; and in the labor people have glimmers of awareness of these realities, market, where the top 1% saw an average of around poverty, homelessness, and hunger are seen as unfor- 200% increase in their net income over the past tunate but temporary and as natural consequences of 30 years, while during the same time the net income bad choices made by the disadvantaged themselves. of the bottom 20% stayed approximately the same Many in the United States believe those experiencing (Gibson & Perot, 2011). These kinds of endur- these inhumane conditions have brought their “pre- ing inequalities make the United States the most dicament” upon themselves and their conditions will stratified society in the industrialized world. change only when they change. This belief not only Americans often cloak these inequalities with a ignores the pervasive nature of oppression but also strong belief in meritocracy or what most simply refer plays a role in maintaining oppressive conditions. to as the “American Dream”—the belief that anyone Highlighting the persistent oppressive conditions in this country can be successful, financially and oth- in our society is certainly important but not enough for erwise, if they work hard enough. Mobility—that is, developing an adequate understanding of inequality. 370–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

In other words, we have to do more than just under- circumstances and outcomes between poor and afflu- stand how oppression works. We must also turn our ent students. A variety of issues and questions relat- attention to the privileged side of the relationship that ing to social class have been explored in this body of generates and sustains inequalities. If we are to under- literature, such as achievement patterns, funding and stand this relationship (and, therefore, oppression), we resources, tracking, hidden curriculum, disadvan- must understand how privilege works and what role it tages of poor children as they enter formal schooling, plays in reproducing inequalities. We must understand the overrepresentation of poor students in special the role played by those who benefit most from exist- education, and the leveling of students’ aspirations ing inequalities and how these inequalities are repro- (e.g., Anyon, 1980; Oakes, 2005). This extensive duced and justified by and through the daily practices body of research has documented the various ways of privileged individuals and groups. that schools reflect the social class divisions of the In recent years, there has been a small yet impor- larger society fairly consistently through structures, tant body of research on elite students and elite edu- practices, curriculum, and policies and the lived cation that offers a more comprehensive exploration experiences of, and the interactions among, those of the role privilege plays in creating and maintaining within schools (e.g., Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977; educational inequalities. This work has revealed the Bowles & Gintis, 1976). contours and consequences of privilege that shape However, in the 1990s, it became apparently students’ experiences and identities while offering an unfashionable in academic circles to talk about class, analysis of how privilege and elite class status are as if class no longer mattered and the historic con- “transferred from one generation to the next through cerns of many researchers and theorists had a range of mechanisms, [that] can be both hidden and disappeared. As with other fields, this was evident in visible, [are] experienced in both material and sub- curriculum studies. As Wright (2000) noted in his jective terms, [are] related to the marginalization and thorough review and characterization of the field of oppression of others, and intersect with and [are] curriculum theorizing, the topic of social class “has inflected by other categories of identification” (Gaz- receded quite substantially in representation in cur- tambide-Fernández & Howard, 2010, p. 198). While riculum theorizing (as it has in social theory in gen- these recent advances in scholarship about elites and eral)” and adds that encountering a scholarly piece elite education represent a significant shift in how on social class “is like finding a rare gem” (p. 7). In the social class influences on schooling are under- the past 15 years or so, the subject of social class has stood and explored, there is much ground yet to cover been infrequently addressed, even in passing, in and important questions remain to be addressed articles and books, and at conferences and other pro- about the role of privilege in reinforcing and regener- fessional gatherings. Why is social class essentially ating class inequalities in the educational context. ignored in curriculum studies and other fields? This work, however, is providing new methodologi- It is reasonable to assume that there are several cal and theoretical frameworks for exploring class in reasons behind this lack of scholarship on social the new economy. class since what gets studied is political and ideologi- cal and, as Brantlinger (2003) argued, is often “a product of influential groups’ intentions and is based Forms of Inquiry and Modes of on their desire to sustain their own personal inter- Expression: The Need for New ests” (p. 21). We argue that this lack of attention to Frameworks “After Class” social class is not simply a “gap” in curriculum stud- ies but a product of scholars’ reluctance to engage Although disagreements arise in explaining school theoretically and empirically with social class issues achievement disparities between low-income and under the scalpel of their analysis—which may also high-income students, there is a fair amount of include implicating themselves and their ways of agreement in educational literature that there is a knowing and doing along the way. Most explana- high correlation between student class status and tions, however, suggest that past and present school achievement and attainment. Consistently, approaches to understanding social class need to research studies document the differences in school be reconceived within newer theoretical perspectives 45. The Socioeconomic Class Milieu–•–371

and methodological approaches in order to revive the continued need for interrogating class. Especially conversations about, and explorations of, class. with scholars studying elites and elite education, With rising economic inequalities and increased contemporary theorizations of class are increasingly uncertainties of the global economy, the time is ripe less concerned with class being a form of social and for working toward developing new explanatory economic classification and more concerned with the frameworks and new ways to generate conversations ways class is experienced and forged, recognizing about social class. A few scholars are engaging in that class operates in many different ways and at efforts to provide such perspectives (e.g., Van Galen several different levels. In particular, class has been & Noblit, 2007). Noblit (2007), for example, argued, increasingly reconceputalized as fundamentally “Class has become déclassé in social analysis because about agency and affect (Maxwell & Aggleton, it has had to take too much weight” (p. 343). He 2013). Even though human agency exists within the urged us to take the weight off class in considering contradiction between people as social producers and the various forms of stratification. Noblit (2007), as social products, meanings, in particular ideolo- however, possibly, took too much weight off class in gies, that create and reinforce class structures and his argument that it must be “reaccomplished through relations and, consequently, inequities are neither other forms of difference” (p. 343). This position imposed nor stable. Individuals mediate class forces raises the question: How far can social class be and have the capacity to transform meanings in order reconstituted through other forms of difference to interrupt the cultural processes that validate and before our analysis or discussion is really no longer support existing inequity-producing class structures about social class? Noblit’s argument rightly calls and relations. With the agency to form meanings, for the need for exploring the complicated intersec- class, therefore, is not something individuals are pas- tions of different categories of identity; however, his sively given or possess but instead something they analysis, as well as the analyses of others who have actively co-construct and cultivate. Moreover, suggested the ways in which we reinvigorate the although everyone has the agency to form and study of social class by redirecting our focus toward develop particular meanings, the advantaging cir- other forms of difference, falls short in acknowledg- cumstances enjoyed by affluent individuals grant ing fully the distinct nature of social class. This them a greater capacity than disadvantaged individu- approach for reconstituting social class could serve als to form their own meanings and also use those to encourage that which proponents attempt to meanings in ways to protect their class interests. address: class becoming even more déclassé in social Similarly, people’s forms of knowledge and under- analysis. standing shape affective responses or emotions. Others attempt to imagine newer theoretical per- Although most emotions are predominantly viewed spectives by revisiting and reworking past theoretical as universal experiences and natural human phenom- frameworks but, in the end, have relied on the present ena, emotions are anything but natural or universal and past too heavily to imagine something different (Lutz, 1988). People may experience similar emo- from existing perspectives (Van Galen & Noblit, tions; however, the individual implicates meanings 2007). Even though newer theoretical perspectives for those emotions. However, emotions are more than must be situated in established ones, it is essential to individual responses, but instead are constituted rela- acknowledge how limiting it is to break away from tionally in sociocultural contexts. Emotions, Lutz the past when heavily relying on that past in develop- (1988) contended, “can be viewed as cultural and ing newer perspectives. We must not rely solely or interpersonal products of naming, justifying, and even heavily on past perspectives in moving toward persuading by people in relationship to each other. possibilities that are unforeseeable from those per- Emotional meaning is then a social rather than an spectives. In recent years, several scholars have individual achievement—an emergent product of called for theorizing class within newer frameworks, social life” (p. 5). As such, emotions orient individu- but have been less clear about how to engage in such als in space and time, as individuals develop felt theoretical efforts. attachments to particular categories and places. However, there are a few scholars mapping new Ahmed (2004) argued, “What moves us, what makes theoretical and methodological terrain, emphasizing us feel, is also that which holds us in place” (p. 11). 372–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Emotions operate in the formation of places and sub- collective action; and to build alliances in planning, jects, thus creating a particular milieu for educational implementing, and disseminating research (Stoudt, institutions and fostering identifications with the Fox, & Fine, 2012). These commitments are main- meanings, practices, and social and cultural particu- tained though a living dialectical process that impacts larities of those spaces. Class as affect provides a researchers, participants, and contexts in which they framework for understanding how students give act. Conceptual, pedagogical, and research frame- meaning, affectively, to class forces at play within the works developed from these efforts are advancing schooling context. understandings of social class and allowing people to In addition to these advancements in the theoriza- contest class inequalities. Though this emerging body tion of class, collaborative, participatory, embodied, of work is opening up opportunities for individual and and arts-based research projects are forging new ways social transformation, we must, as Lather (2001) to study and understand social class dynamics that are reminded us, “move toward and experience the shaping educational experiences. There are commit- promise that is unforeseeable from the perspective of ments strongly upheld in most of these projects: to our present conceptual frameworks” in the pursuit of examine an issue or problem collectively; to engage in “a future that must remain to come” (p. 192). reflection; to put data to use through individual and Transformational work, it is worth noting, never ends.

References and Further Readings Gibson, D., & Perot, C. (2011, March/April). It’s the inequality, stupid. Mother Jones. Retrieved from Ahmed, S. (2004). The cultural politics of emotion. http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2011/02/ New York, NY: Routledge. income-inequality-in-america-chart-graph Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum Grant, C., & Sleeter, C. (1986). Race, class, and gender of work. Journal of Education, 162(1), 67–92. in education research: An argument for integrative Apple, M. (2006). Educating the “right” way: Markets, analysis. Educational Researcher, 56(2), 195–211. standards, God, and inequality. New York, NY: Hacker, J. S. (2006). The great risk shift. New York, NY: Routledge. Oxford University Press. Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and education, society, and culture. London, UK: Sage. family life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in a capitalist Press. America: Educational reform and the contradictions Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and of economic life. New York, NY: Basic Books. pedagogy within the postmodern. New York, NY: Brantlinger, E. (2003). Dividing classes: How the middle Routledge. class negotiates and rationalizes school advantage. Lather, P. (2001). Ten years later, yet again: Critical New York, NY: Routledge. pedagogy and its complicities. In K. Weiler (Ed.), Coleman-Jensen, A., Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, Feminist engagements: Reading, resisting, and S. (2011). Household food security in the United revisioning male theorists in education and States in 2010 (Research Report No. ERR-125). cultural studies (pp. 183–195). New York, NY: Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ Routledge. err-economic-research-report/err125.aspx Lutz, C. (1988). Unnatural emotions: Everyday Conley, D. (2008). Reading between the lines (of this sentiments on a Micronesia atoll and their challenge volume): A reflection on why we should stick to folk to western theory. Chicago, IL: University of concepts of social class. In A. Lareau & D. Conley Chicago Press. (Eds.), Social class: How does it work? (pp. 366–374). Maxwell, C., & Aggleton, P. (Eds.). (2013). Privilege, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. agency and affect: Understanding the production Gaztambide-Fernández, R., & Howard, A. (2010). and effects of action. New York, NY: Palgrave Conclusion: Outlining a research agenda on elite Macmillan. education. In A. Howard & R. Gaztambide- Morin, R. (2012). Rising share of Americans see conflict Fernández (Eds.), Educating elites: Class privilege between rich and poor. Retrieved from http://www and educational advantage (pp. 195–209). Lanham, .pewsocialtrends.org/2012/01/11/rising-share- MD: Rowman & Littlefield. of-americans-see-conflict-between-rich-and-poor/ 45. The Socioeconomic Class Milieu–•–373

National Alliance to End Homelessness. (2014). The state Van Galen, J. A., & Noblit, G. W. (Eds.). (2007). Late to of homelessness in 2014. Retrieved from http://www class: Social class and schooling in the new .endhomelessness.org/library/entry/ economy. Albany, NY: State University of the-state-of-homelessness-2014 New York Press. New York Times Correspondents. (2005). Class matters. Weis, L. (2008). The way class works: Readings on New York, NY: Henry Holt. school, family, and the economy. New York, NY: Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure Routledge. inequality (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale Willis, P. (1981). Learning to labor: How working class University Press. kids get working class jobs. New York, NY: Payne, R. (1996). A framework for understanding Columbia University Press. poverty. Highlands, TX: AHA! Press. Wright, E. O., & Rogers, J. (2010). American society: Reay, D., Crozier, G., & James, D. (2011). White middle- How it really works. New York, NY: class identities and urban schooling. New York, Norton. NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Wright, H. K. (2000). Nailing jell-o to the wall: Stoudt, B. G., Fox, M., & Fine, M. (2012). Contesting Pinpointing aspects of state-of-the-art privilege with critical participatory action research. curriculum theorizing. Educational Researcher, Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 178–193. 29(5), 4–13. 46

THE CORPORATE–MILITARY– GOVERNMENTAL MILIEU

BRAD J. PORFILIO California State University, East Bay

DEREK R. FORD Syracuse University

his chapter explores how the contemporary face of capitalism (Hursh, 2011; McLaren, 2015; corporate–military–governmental milieu Saltman, 2003). Political, economic, and educational Timpacts developments within U.S. K–12 powerbrokers in industrial societies such as the schools and society. A critical examination of the United States and Canada have supported neoliberal contemporary corporate–military–governmental ideologies espoused by pro-capital academics, such milieu is essential for becoming educated, empow- as Milton Friedman and Friedrich Hayek, for improv- ered, and free in a Freirian sense (Freire, 1970) to ing all segments of social life. Unfortunately, over understand the constitutive forces and structures the past 25 years, the support for “unregulated or free responsible for breeding oppression and injustice in markets, the withering away of the state as govern- our daily affairs, as well as to recognize the urgency ment’s role in regulating businesses and funding to become active in the struggle for building socially social services are either eliminated or privatized, just schools, institutions, and relationships. Although and encouraging individuals to become self- interested politicians, government officials, and the corporate entrepreneurs” (Hursh, 2011, p. 35) has denigrated elite have supported and promulgated corporate and rather than improved the human condition. For military imperatives in U.S. schools for about instance, neoliberal capitalism is inextricably tied 2 centuries (e.g., schools across the United States in to creation of the prison-industrial complex, to a 1832 purchased McGuffey Readers from publishing maldistribution of resources and income, to increased houses; the National Defense Act of 1916 authorized childhood poverty, to massive unemployment, and high schools to hire military personnel as educators; to educational inequalities along the lines of class and large-scale corporations made hundreds of thou- and race. sands of dollars of test sales by the mid-1950s), there It should be noted that support for free-market has been an exponential rise in corporate and military ideals as a basis for developing policies, practices, involvement in PK–12 U.S. educational institutions and initiatives in social institutions has functioned as over the past 25 years or so. propaganda for the state to cede power to corporate Many scholars pinpoint corporate and military powerbrokers. For instance, in the United States, ascendancy over schools and society to the changing government officials have acted at the behest of the

374 46. The Corporate–Military–Governmental Milieu–•–375

corporations and facilitated the corporate takeover of former militaries as civilians to carry out passive or such social domains as health care, transportation, defensive security” (Gomez del Prado, 2014). postcatastrophe restoration (e.g., restoration work Military spending is also increasing across after Hurricane Sandy and Hurricane Katrina), parks, Western Europe, as new wars are being waged. water, digital networks, and education. Furthermore, Many of these wars are more “traditional,” such as international organizations and Western governmen- the invasions and occupations of Iraq and Afghanistan. tal leaders have wielded their power when corporate In these wars, certain nations (including the United control is threatened or when the very economic States, Britain, France, Germany, Canada, Australia, system that supports the exploitation of labor is chal- and Italy) bombed and invaded sovereign countries lenged. For instance, this dynamic is witnessed in the to overthrow their governments. Yet many of these U.S. government implementing the $700 billion powers have also been involved in what we might Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) in 2008. call “proxy wars,” in which they placed limited num- TARP was designed to rescue financial institutions bers of military personnel on the ground and worked and as an economic system that promulgated an to support proxy forces. This was the script that was “industry wide scam that involved the mass sale of followed in the 2011 war on Libya. In that war, mismarked, fraudulent mortgage-backed securities” Belgium, France, Denmark, Italy, the United States, (Taibbi, 2011). Norway, Qatar, Spain, and other states provided air During this same period of time, the U.S. govern- and intelligence support, weapons and money, and ment and business leaders have supported militarism justification for a grouping of rebels that ultimately— to compel global citizens to support neoliberal ide- and thanks only to foreign intervention—overthrew ologies. For instance, U.S. corporate leaders and the sovereign government of Libya. government officials have used advanced technology In addition to external wars and military opera- and military formations to extend neoliberal policies tions, we also have to take into account the internal across the Middle East (Schwartz, 2011). U.S. mili- militarization that takes place in countries such as the tary invasions in Iraq and Afghanistan provided the United States. A prime and recent example of this impetus for U.S. business leaders and government intensification is the U.S. support for militarizing officials to rebuild these countries through neoliberal police. There are numerous federal programs that economic reforms (Schwartz, 2011). supply local police departments with “excess” Moreover, U.S. government’s continued support military-grade equipment such as assault weapons of militarism aids the corporate world’s desire to and surveillance cameras and training from the amass wealth, control labor power and resources, and Department of Defense. As a result, local police and concentrate power. The U.S. Department of Defense sheriff’s departments are now equipped with mine- “manages a global real property portfolio that con- resistant ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles. sists of more than 555,000 facilities . . . located on Military tanks accompany police on special weapons over 5,000 sites worldwide and covering over and tactics raids. The militarization of the police was 28 million acres” (2012, p. 2). The United States on full display with the repression of the Ferguson maintains 666 military sites in foreign countries (Missouri) protests in late 2014. Police officers rode (p. 23). The U.S. military budget doubled from 1998 in tanks, dressed in camouflage, and carried assault to 2008. Funding for the military was projected to rifles replete with sniper scopes that were modeled account for approximately 17% of the total federal on the M4 carbine assault rifle. They wore body budget in fiscal 2014 and 57% of the discretionary armor and carried over half a dozen rounds of extra budget, or the spending that lawmakers decide on ammunition on their body. Looking at the images of each year in the appropriations process (NPP, 2013). these police officers, it was difficult for viewers to The U.S. government has also supported corpora- tell if they had been deployed in Ferguson or Mosul tions and backed military incursions by privatizing (Iraq). elements of warfare. Private military and security The increased impact of commercial imperatives companies have been invested with the power to and military ideologies on daily affairs in the broader move “weapons and military equipment” as well as society has also shaped the nature of PK–12 school- to provide “services for military operations recruiting ing in the United States. According to Peter McLaren 376–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

(2012), during the 1980s, U.S. government officials’ wealth, and to strip educators’ professional auton- support of market-driven educational reforms went omy and expertise for honing students’ ability to into “full swing” with the “voucher movement” sup- understand themselves in relationship to the world. porting government-funded certificates permitting Militarized schooling also is designed to position parents to send their child to the school of their students, particularly low-income students and stu- choice (p. 40) and when business leaders made dents of color, to become dutiful citizens who are vouchers become “a reality” by running charter complicit in supporting the U.S. military and its schools. Over the past 25 years, U.S. government agenda to globalize capitalism overseas. Since the officials have supported corporate CEOs’ desire to passage of NCLB, military recruiters also have had implement corporate policies and formations to access to primary and secondary school students. allegedly “solve” problems impacting PK–12 These schools can also be required to provide contact schools. For example, the No Child Left Behind Act information for students if requested by the U.S. mili- of 2001 (NCLB) mandated schools across the United tary. Students’ parents must opt out if they wish to be States to institute high-stakes examinations and led exempt from such requests. As of 2013, more than many of them to adopt test preparation materials, 500,000 students were enrolled in JROTC programs which were produced by such corporate giants as in 3,400 U.S. high schools (Jones, 2013), which are McGraw-Hill and Pearson, to allegedly position predominantly located in poor rural and urban com- teachers and students in “low performing schools to munities, particularly in the South. Specifically tar- work harder” and increase student learning by “tying geting oppressed and economically disadvantaged negative consequences (e.g., public exposure, exter- students, these programs promise college tuition and nal take over) to standardized” testing (Nichols, other funding. For instance, a magnet, highly selec- Glass, & Berliner, 2012, p. 1). Market-based reform tive and competitive high school in Chicago had is now reflected in almost every element in school- seven military recruiter visits and 150 from univer- ing, including financing school construction, manag- sity recruiters. In juxtaposition, in a neighborhood ing day-to-day activities, training school personnel school whose students were 80% Latino/a, the ratio and educators, assessing student performance, devel- was almost even: nine military recruiter visits and oping school curricula, advertising products and sell- 10 visits from college recruiters (Reed, 2005). ing services, and promulgating school policies by U.S. students have been inculcated to embrace the controlling school boards. Furthermore, the Obama U.S. military’s agenda, since there has been a con- administration instituted Race to the Top (RTT) in stant influx of military personnel teaching in school 2009, a $4.35-billon “competitive incentive pro- and serving as school administrators. Military weap- gram” designed to push more and more state officials onry has also become part of the fabric of school life. to implement such market-driven reforms as charter For instance, school districts in San Diego and schools, privatized teacher certification programs, Los Angeles, California, received MRAP vehicles high-stakes testing, and test-driven accountability through the Department of Defense’s “Excess Prop- (Carr & Porfilio, 2011). erty” program, also referred to as the 1033 Program. U.S. government officials have also supported A letter sent to the Department of Defense by a coali- instituting militaristic formations alongside market- tion of community and legal groups—including the driven reform initiatives. For instance, the state has NAACP—discussed about two dozen school dis- backed schools to engage in a billion-dollar market tricts in eight states that received military surplus with the corporate world through the purchase of equipment from the program (NAACP, 2014). One metal detectors, surveillance cameras, privatized school district in Florida purchased 28 M16 assault security forces, and boot camp programs. The corpo- rifles through the program (Gartner, 2014). rate world has touted these reforms as methods to stop violence and to make students responsible citi- zens. In reality, as Kenneth Saltman (2003) posited, Contemporary Concerns militarized public schooling is another avenue to give power to the corporate world. It allows corpora- One of the most remarkable achievements of the tions to enact their vision of education, to amass corporatization and militarization of education has 46. The Corporate–Military–Governmental Milieu–•–377

been the cleaving of politics and education. The “subpar” test scores. Alternatively, they can be out- nexus between education and politics has always right fired if they vocally or visibly speak out or been a central concern and debate for educators, edu- otherwise contest the corporate privatization and cational theorists, researchers, and policy makers, militarization of schooling. dating back to Socrates and Plato. Yet contemporary On the other hand, students are increasingly being discourse around education—and this is not just lim- seen as mere receptacles for information, knowl- ited to the discourse pulsing through the corporate edges, and skills. In this standardized atmosphere, mass media, but includes teacher education pro- there is no room for students to emerge as unique and grams, professional educational organizations, and singular beings (Biesta, 2006, 2009). In other words, academic publishing outlets—is predicated upon the students are not seen as active agents in the learning very severance of education from the political. process or as individuals with distinct perspectives Instead of political concerns over values, direc- and knowledges to bring into the classroom and the tions, goals, and purposes, educational debates are learning experience. increasingly staged in a highly abstracted economic School administration is also profoundly changed register. Gert Biesta (2006) documented problems in this environment. Saltman (2010) wrote about the with this succinctly, writing: ways in which corporate and military logics have changed educational leadership. Looking at groups To think of education as an economic transaction not such as the Eli Broad Foundation, Saltman observed only misconstrues the role of the learner and educator that educational leaders and administrators are now in the educational relationship, it also results in a situa- seen as CEOs. Further, in this context “military lead- tion in which questions about the content and purpose of education become subject to the forces of the market ership is celebrated for its alleged link with corporate instead of being the concern of professional judgment management—a focus on discipline, order, and and democratic deliberation. (p. 31) enforcement of mandates through a hierarchy at every level of public schooling” (p. 81). Thus, recent transformations in education have Taken together, these trends are of particular altered our very subjectivity. Instead of being educa- import at the moment because they are working to tors who have knowledges, experiences, and critical widen educational inequalities. Oppressed racial ideas to bring to students, teachers are viewed as groups, the working class, and poor people are dis- service providers, as technicians whose only job is to proportionately affected by the militarization and deliver content as efficiently as possible. On the privatization of education. This means that those who other side of the educational relationship, students are in the most need of education are those who and parents are no longer conceived of as citizens receive the worst education: scripted curricula, gruel- who are connected to a public realm. Instead, they ing standardized testing, test-polluted educators, are positioned as consumers. surveillance, and discipline. This latest trend is par- With the increasing emphasis on standardized ticularly worrisome to many because of its contradic- testing and accountability mechanisms, the very act tion of a democratic ethos. In 2013, the Civil Rights of teaching is under attack. Many teachers today Project at the University of California, Los Angeles, have little agency when it comes to determining what released a report documenting the overuse of their students should know, how they should learn it, suspension in middle and high schools in the United and when they should engage the material. Instead, States. Over two million students were suspended scripted curricula provide overly structured lesson during the 2009–2010 school year, the vast majority plans with specific time allotments and even word- of whom were suspended for minor infractions such for-word phrasing for how to speak with students. as school dress code violations or disruptive behavior. One of the main problems with this, particularly as Youth of color are suspended at a much higher rate regards challenging the corporate–military–govern- than White students: Black students are suspended at ment milieu in education, is that critical teachers are a rate of 24.3%, while the rate for White students is either pushed out or fired. They are pushed out if 7.1% (Losen & Martinez, 2013). Not only, then, is the they deviate too much from the script, which can contemporary moment one of declining educational result in their school being designated as “failing” or attainment, but it is also one of increasing educational 378–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

inequality that is exacerbating power differences along the world’s leading powers at the time (e.g., the the lines of race, class, gender, sexuality, nationality, United States, Britain, France, Portugal, and and ability. Germany) took the map of Africa and divided it among themselves. While the division of the world into colonies by imperialist powers had been going Contexts on for decades in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, this conference definitely marked the beginning of War has become a seemingly permanent, all-encom- the age of imperialism. By 1911, all of Africa was passing phenomenon of the contemporary world colonized, with the main exception of Ethiopia. (Vidal, 2002). As Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri Liberia was technically independent, but it was in (2005) wrote, “War is becoming a general phenom- reality under the domination of the United States. enon, global and interminable” (p. 3). What this With the world divided between the imperialist pow- means is not only that there are currently dozens of ers, wars were fought as inter-imperialist rivalries wars raging on all continents with the exception of until the 1940s. World War I, for example, was most maybe Antarctica (although this will depend on immediately triggered by a competition among our definition of war) but also that war has perme- Russia, Serbia, and Austrio-Hungary over which ated all aspects of life. Consider, for example, the nation would control the Balkans. During the war, ways in which the language of war frames so many the United States, France, and Russia signed the areas of our daily lives: Pat Benatar sings about love Sykes-Picot Agreement, which was a proposal to as a “battlefield”; football lexicon includes talk of divide the Ottoman Empire (which contained much “blitzing”; and some business ventures are referred of what is now referred to as the “Middle East”) in to as “hostile takeovers”; when U.S. president the case of the Empire’s defeat in the war. Lyndon B. Johnson led an effort to reduce poverty, he By the end of World War II, however, the world called it a “war on poverty.” Indeed, it is difficult, if scene was entirely different. Most of the imperialist not impossible, to go through a day without encoun- powers—with the major exception of the United tering war either directly or indirectly through a States—were devastated by the war. As a result, the representation. former great powers such as Britain, France, and Given this pervasiveness, education must necessar- Germany were unable to maintain absolute domi- ily exhibit some relationship to war and militarization. nance over their colonies. While the United States That education must engage with war is exacerbated stepped up as the major imperialist power, many of by the fact that education has historically been the colonies began to be liberated in the period that tightly linked to the nation-state (Spring, 1972). followed World War II. Many of these newly liber- Indeed, education, particularly since the rise of pub- ated colonies chose to align not with their former lic education with capitalism, has most often been colonizers but with the Soviet Union. Thus, the explicitly justified by its ability to produce particu- period from the end of World War II until roughly lar types of citizens and workers for the state and its 1989–1991, when the Soviet Union was dissolved economy. Historically, one of the most effective and overthrown, was characterized as the “Cold ways that governments have legitimated collecting War.” This war was, of course, “cold” only in certain and spending tax revenue on education has been by areas at certain times. But the main line of struggle linking public education to a more productive citi- was between imperialism and the Soviet Union. With zenry, and this includes citizens as workers but also the Soviet Union off the world stage, the United as patriots. Indeed, this is in large part why so many States began an aggressive attack to reassert control schools begin their day with the recitation of the over large portions of the globe. Wars on Iraq, Pledge of Allegiance. Yugoslavia, Panama, Afghanistan, Iraq again, Libya, In order to understand the contemporary nexus of and Syria were waged. education and the state, military, and corporation, The imperialist club that was devastated in World some historical context is needed. We can locate the War II and then severely weakened by the Soviet contemporary state of war and militarization with the Union has successfully regrouped. This is the context Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. At this conference, in which the contemporary state of permanent war 46. The Corporate–Military–Governmental Milieu–•–379

must be viewed. It also provides an important correc- with the 1983 publication of A Nation at Risk by tive to the “antiterrorism” justification for so many President Reagan’s National Commission on Excel- wars. In other words, it is not the case that the United lence in Education. Blaming the economic recession States invaded and occupied Iraq and Afghanistan to of the late 1970s and early 1980s on public schools, counter any terrorist operations. In fact, before the this report embedded the goals and purposes of edu- U.S. invasion, Iraq was a secular nation that would cation within a nationalist framework of economic not tolerate any religious fundamentalist grouping and technological productivity, called for “rigorous” operating in the territory. It can be argued that the standards and accountability mechanisms and tech- U.S. war on that country and its support for reaction- nologies, and placed teachers in the crosshairs of ary rebels in Syria allowed for the growth of al Qaeda reform efforts, among other things. All of this was and its offspring—the Islamic State of the Levant— done within the Cold War, arms-race crisis rhetoric: that is currently terrorizing so much of the Middle East. Our nation is at risk. Our once unchallenged preemi- nence in commerce, industry, science, and technologi- cal innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world. This report is concerned with Theory only one of the many causes and dimensions of the problem, but it is the one that undergirds American One of the crucial theoretical tools for understanding prosperity, security, and civility. . . . The educational the contemporary relationship among corporations, foundations of our society are presently being eroded the military, and the government is neoliberalism. At by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very first blush, the term neoliberalism refers to an ideol- future as a Nation and as a people. . . . If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the ogy with a broad, evolving, and, at times, contradic- mediocre educational performance that exists today, we tory set of strategies and tactics that have been might well have viewed it as an act of war. (National deployed in and by late industrial-capitalist societies Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983, p. 5) beginning in the 1970s. Uniting these different strate- gies and tactics is a generalized push to bring The unnamed competitors in this report are not everything under and, for that matter, beyond and only the United States’ inter-imperialist rivals like including the sun under the rule and logic of the mar- Britain and Japan but also those such as the Soviet ket (Ford, 2013). Whatever was once public must now Union. The public school is situated as the corner- become private. Neoliberalism is, then, as David stone of the United States’ economic and social suc- Harvey (2005) wrote, “a theory of political economic cess, and this is directly linked to its military success. practices proposing that human well-being can best While this was only a report, it laid the groundwork be advanced by the maximization of entrepreneurial for RTT, introduced by and passed under the Obama freedoms within an institutional framework charac- administration as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. RTT is a cash-prize terized by private property rights, individual liberty, contest that rewards states for falling into line with unencumbered markets, and free trade” (p. 22). neoliberal education policies. Paul Carr and Brad This signals a retreat of government from the mar- Porfilio (2011) delineate several aspects of RTT that ket in a particular sense. In the theory of neoliberal- help facilitate the privatization of education, or the ism, the government is supposed to be “hands-off ” transfer of capital away from the public and into the completely. However, this is only partially true. On hands of corporations and other private interests. the one hand, government regulations over busi- First, the program expedites the expansion of charter nesses and corporations are reduced or eliminated. schools by encouraging states to remove or raise caps On the other hand, however, the government plays an on the percentage of charter schools that can operate enormously important role in setting up and enforc- in the state. Carr and Porfilio note, “New York State ing the legal and property requirements of neoliber- passed a law specifically to increase the amount of alism. One of the most relevant examples of this in charter schools in the state, which gave them a better the United States is the government’s role in opening chance to net federal dollars” (p. 11). Charter up education to privatization. The beginning of the schools, of course, allow corporations and wealthy neoliberal agenda for education is generally located individuals to capture federal and state moneys 380–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

destined for education through operating the school order to interrogate the claims made by numerous and exploiting the labor power of nonunionized and U.S. politicians, government officials, and corporate precarious teachers and staff. This is particularly true leaders that corporate mandates a priori improve of “for-profit” charter schools, although “nonprofit” student achievement (Nichols et al., 2012). charter schools also run on similar logic. Increas- Philosophical and theoretical inquiry involves rig- ingly, charter schools are joining with military and orously throwing into question the most fundamental “national security” entities to create “homeland secu- concepts, frameworks, and terms used to think about rity” schools. One example of this is the collabora- education. For example, Tyson Lewis (2013) has tion between Innovative Schools and the Delaware recently questioned the pervasiveness of potentiality Academy of Public Safety and Security. in education. The notion that education is about real- izing one’s potential is commonplace; it pervades educational rhetoric at all levels of society. Yet, Lewis Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression argues that this insistence on potentiality actually serves to reproduce the current economic, social, and Many scholars have engaged in qualitative forms of political order by fitting students into that order that research to understand how the U.S. government’s is “obsessed with the measure of what someone can support of corporate and military formations in do in order to fulfill a particular role within the PK–12 schools have impacted teaching and learning, economy” (p. 8) instead of asking how students might teacher and student identity formation, and the lived resist that order or how students might be otherwise. experience of those who have been impacted by the Postmodern theorists, who continually inquire current schooling milieu. Qualitative researchers why there are power differentials and injustices have also engaged in historical analysis to uncover inside and outside of K–12 classrooms, have interro- why various social actors, including youth, educa- gated the claims made by the dominant powerbrokers tors, government officials, and community members, and others who support military and corporate imper- were complicit in supporting for-profit educational atives to improve education. For instance, these ventures and military practices to ameliorate educa- theorists have challenged numerous educational phi- tional outcomes for students. Some qualitative lanthropists’ and corporate leaders’ contentions that researchers have done formal ethnographic studies charter schools, high-stakes testing, and STEM edu- by immersing themselves within educational settings cation will improve the educational performance of for extended periods of time so as to gain a mole’s students marginalized by social class and race. Other eye view of how school officials, administrators, and postmodernists have challenged the dominant narra- educators become impacted by commercial and mili- tive that conflates economic power with expertise tary imperatives, including high-stakes examina- when it comes to generating educational reforms. tions, charter schools, military recruitment, scripted They have placed the voices of marginalized stu- curricula, and computing software. Other scholars dents, educators, and other community members at have reflected upon their lived experience through the center of academic discussion in order to illustrate autoethnographic accounts so as to illustrate not only that these social actors have a more profound under- how they have been impacted by commercial and standing of how to eliminate educational inequalities military schooling practices but also how they found as compared with those who wield the most power. In cracks amid the status quo and successfully imple- a democratic society, such voices have immense mented social justice teaching practices, alternative potential to influence the public’s understanding of policies, and alternative educational structures. Other educational issues as well as to create and implement scholars have engaged in quantitative research in policy and practices in K–12 schools.

References and Further Readings Biesta, G. J. J. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: Ethics, politics, democracy. Boulder, Biesta, G. J. J. (2006). Beyond learning: Democratic CO: Paradigm. education for a human future. Boulder, CO: Carr, P. R., & Porfilio, B. J. (2011). The Obama Paradigm. education files: Is there hope to stop the neoliberal 46. The Corporate–Military–Governmental Milieu–•–381

agenda in education? Journal of Inquiry & Action, Rights Project. Retrieved from http://civilrightsproject 4(1), 1–30. .ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights- Department of Defense. (2012). Department of Defense remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/ base structure support fiscal year 2012 baseline out-of-school-and-off-track-the-overuse-of- (A summary of DoD’s real property inventory). suspensions-in-american-middle-and-high-schools Retrieved from http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/download/ McLaren, P. (2012). Class struggle unchained. bsr/BSR2012Baseline.pdf In P. Orelus & C. Malott (Eds.), Radical voices for Duggan, L. (2012). The twilight of equality? democratic schooling. Exposing neoliberal Neoliberalism, cultural politics, and the attack on inequalities (pp. 25–64). New York, NY: democracy. Boston, MA: Beacon. Palgrave Macmillan. Fabricant, M., & Fine, M. (2012). Charter schools and McLaren, P. (2015). Life in schools: An introduction to the corporate makeover of public education: What’s critical pedagogy in the foundations of education at stake? New York, NY: Teachers College Press. (6th ed.). Boulder, CO: Paradigm. Ford, D. R. (2013). Toward a theory of the educational NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund and Texas encounter: Gert Biesta’s educational theory and the Appleseed. (2014, September 15). Letter to right to the city. Critical Studies in Education, 64(3), Mark D. Harnitchek, USN Director, Defense 299–310. Logistics Agency. Retrieved from http://www Ford, D. R. (2014). Spatializing Marxist educational .naacpldf.org/document/ldf-texas-appleseed-letter theory: School, the built environment, fixed capital National Commission on Excellence in Education. and (relational) space. Policy Futures in Education, (1983). A nation at risk: A report to the nation and 12(6), 784–793. the Secretary of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Forte, M. (2012). Slouching towards sirte: NATO’s war Department of Education. Retrieved from https:// on Libya and Africa. Montreal, QC: Baraka Books. datacenter.spps.org/uploads/SOTW_A_Nation_at_ Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Risk_1983.pdf NY: Herder and Herder. National Priorities Project (NPP). (2013, August 1). Gartner, L. (2014, October 1). Pinellas schools returning Military spending fact sheet. Retrieved from https:// M-16 assault rifles. Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved www.nationalpriorities.org/analysis/2013/august- from http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/k12/ recess-legislator-meeting-fact-sheets/ pinellas-schools-return-m-16-assault-rifles/2200245 military-spending-fact-sheet/ Gomez del Prado, J. L. (2014, July 1). The privatization Nichols, S. L., Glass, G. V., & Berliner, D. C. (2012). of war: Mercenaries, private military and security High-stakes testing and student achievement: companies (PMSC). Retrieved from http://www Updated analyses with NAEP data. Education and .globalresearch.ca/the-privatization-of-war- Policy Analysis Achieve, 20(20), 1–35. mercenaries-private-military-and-security- Noguera, P. (2009). The trouble with Black boys: . . . companies-pmsc/21826 And other reflections on race, equity, and the future Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2005). Multitude: War and of public education. San Francisco, CA: democracy in the age of empire. New York, NY: Jossey-Bass. Penguin Books. Obama, B. (2011, January 26). State of the Union 2011: Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. President Obama’s State of the Union Address. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/ Hursh, D. (2011). Explaining Obama: The continuation of State_of_the_Union/state-of-the-union-2011-full- free market politics in education and the economy. transcript/story?id=12759395 The Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education, Porfilio, B. J. (2012). Neoliberalism and education. 4(1), 32–47. In P. Orelus & C. Malott (Eds.), Radical voices for Jones, A. (2013, December 16). America’s child soldiers. democratic schooling: Exposing neoliberal The Nation. Retrieved from http://www.thenation inequalities (pp. 65–92). New York, NY: .com/article/177603/americas-child-soldiers Palgrave Macmillan. Lewis, T. E. (2013). On study: Giorgio Agamben and Reed, C. L. (2005, July 3). Military finally gives educational potentiality. New York, NY: Routledge. Hispanic war dead proper recognition; Despite Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of school & intense recruitment, deaths long overlooked. off track: The overuse of suspensions in American Chicago Sun-Times, p. 18. middle and high schools. Los Angeles, CA: The Saltman, K. J. (2003). Education as enforcement: UCLA Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil The militarization and corporatization of schools. 382–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Retrieved from http://clogic.eserver.org/2003/ Spring, J. (1972). Education and the rise of the corporate saltman.html state. Boston, MA: Beacon. Saltman, K. J. (2010). The gift of education: Public Taibbi, M. (2011, February 11). Why isn’t Wall Street in education and venture philanthropy. New York, NY: jail? Rolling Stone. Retrieved from http://www Palgrave Macmillan. .rollingstone.com/politics/news/ Schwartz, M. (2011). Military neoliberalism: Endless war why-isnt-wall-street-in-jail-20110216 and humanitarian crisis in the twenty-first century. Vidal, G. (2002). Perpetual war for perpetual peace. Societies Without Borders, 6(1), 190–303. New York, NY: Nation Books. 47

THE YOUTH CULTURAL MILIEU

DEBBIE SONU Hunter College, City University of New York

SHERICK HUGHES University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

outh can no longer be understood as a rigid essence. In fact, any attempt to produce youth as a set of developmental stages nor fully definitive group is one example of how human Ydescribed by predetermined cultural scripts, beings niche themselves into a system of classifica- such as age, race, class, gender, sexuality, and reli- tion. Fabrication, then, is the making of people gion (e.g., Brown, 2011; Dimitriadis, 2007; Lesko & through embodied categorization. It is the process by Talburt, 2012). To understand youth in their lived which human beings are differentiated according to experiences, educators and researchers must accept labels and how these labels discursively play into the the historically complex and oftentimes contradic- everyday lives of its people. When youth are imag- tory meanings that youth and youth culture evoke. ined to be rebellious, overemotional, unruly, and This emergent field draws from an array of disciplines, narcissistic, these characteristics shape a discourse including developmental psychology, sociology, that marks them as distinct from children and adults. cultural studies, as well as postcolonial, postmodern- Portrayals of youth as dangerously seduced by peer ist, and poststructural thought (Cieslik & Simpson, pressure, or not yet endowed by the faculties of rea- 2013). It involves the examination of evolving iden- son, set the stage for adult counterparts to act upon tities, as they are caught within the imagination of their fears and anxieties and intervene upon their adults and adulthood. Such impressions of youth are, lives in ways that may be repressive and deleterious therefore, intensely “elastic and polysemantic” to their sense of self. (Dimitriadis, 2007, p. 3); they sit at the intersections Here, we revisit the youth cultural milieu in order of a hope for the future, the moral panic of failure, to critically rupture regulatory practices that reduce the pressures of the market, and the vulnerabilities youth into a static definition. We hope this enables associated with becoming in the world. educators and researchers working with youth to envi- Thomas Popkewitz’s (2004) use of the term fabri- sion spaces within which to learn from and learn with cation may be an important way to understand youth youth. Thus, we identify key complexities and com- outside of the rigid constructs and stereotypes that mon misrepresentations of youth in order to suggest oftentimes contain them. He argues that youth culture possible frames from which to study youth culture as cannot be viewed as a fixed entity with a fundamental lived experience within a shifting global context.

383 384–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Contemporary Concerns live in communities divested of resources and mar- ginalized by race and ethnicity underperform their As Nancy Lesko (2001/2012) showed, understanding suburban wealthy counterparts in educational youth as a fabrication gives visibility to the rules and achievement. Societal factors such as lack of access standards that order the subject of youth, as well as to high-quality education, political disenfranchise- places it at the intersection of legal, educational, ment, and institutional, microaggressive, and direct medical, and psychological problematizations and racial discrimination become powerful forces that interventions. Issues such as weight, drug use, binge carry the potential to disempower otherwise moti- drinking, sexuality, and mental health have at vari- vated and talented youth. Such communities are fre- ous moments been worked up into a crisis through an quently, and uniquely, undermined by policies and assemblage of media, policy, and medical reports. In practices related to economic segregation, juvenile addressing these anxieties, adults have forced youth justice, stop-and-frisk, gang and street violence, into a perpetual state of distrust and surveillance police brutality, and the absence of college-going through a slew of policies and programs, such as citi- pathways and opportunities. zenship education, character education, and sex At the same time, youth are participating as active education, all aimed at defining, managing, and agents in new social landscapes created by global monitoring the kinds of attitudes, behaviors, and flow and advanced technology. In a world hinging on relationships determined to be acceptable for youth. the posthuman realities of technological integration However, according to Rob White and Johanna Wyn and dependency, new forms of expression, represen- (2011), such programs actually say less about the tation, authorship, and access are being met with nature of young people and more about the kinds of adult concerns over privacy, appropriateness, and civic subjects that are privileged and reinforced by control. Cyberspace provides, for those who have adults in society. access, a multidimensional world rife with participa- As argued by Noah Sobe (2012), one of the most tory potential. For those shut out from such compe- persistent problems found in conceptions of youth is tencies, inequities in the new world order promise to that they represent both a societal hope and a social concretize the haves from the have-nots. Yet, it is the danger. While youth are oftentimes maligned as presence of technology in the lives of new genera- peer-obsessed, irresponsible, and sexually compro- tions that has fueled national and international move- mising, they are at the same time contrastingly imag- ments for human rights and freedoms. Youth, acting ined as the future of humanity, charged with securing individually and in solidarity with others, are con- the nation’s future domestic and social prosperity. nected through a politically charged and socially By announcing the need for youth to harness their aware global network. The Internet, and particularly enthusiasms to the task of nation building, Sobe social media such as Facebook and Twitter, connects (2012) pointed out that the youth body was first and youth with each other in organizing efforts that foremost seen as a nationalized one used for the produce new forms of knowledge. advancement of the state. These perceptions set the stage for a proliferation of policies and practices that aim to cultivate the kinds of dispositions youth need Context in order to ensure a strong and stable country. Additionally, youth are shaped by school cultures G. Stanley Hall’s (1904) landmark two-volume the- and educational conditions that are increasingly being sis, Adolescence, alongside Charles Darwin’s Origin dominated by rigid content standards and high-stakes of Species and Herbert Spencer’s Social Statistics testing. With an overemphasis on individualization, from the mid-1800s, was greatly influential in estab- meritocracy, global competition, and dominance, lishing theory that explained human development as youth are emerging within a condition that forwards beginning from savagery and progressively develop- self-interest over community and care. This condition ing into more civilized stages. In his view, adoles- is particularly detrimental for those whose lives do cence is a period of “storm and stress” that can be not mirror the privileges of White, middle-class traced back through generational memory to a time society. By nearly every statistical marker, youth who marked by evolutionary turmoil and disruption. Such 47. The Youth Cultural Milieu–•–385

recapitulation theories, as detailed in Lesko’s opportunities in the deprived slum areas of 1940s and (2001/2012) Act Your Age!: A Cultural Construction 1950s Chicago. The urban child, grown out of of Adolescence, not only suggest that there is an a socioeconomic condition awash with poverty and absolute biological reality that positions adolescents social disadvantage, was now explained through as inferior and underdeveloped but also make empir- a structural-interactionism that forwarded a distinct ical claims that support White superiority and male pathology of poor communication skills, low motiva- dominance as evolutionary end points. tion, and a lack of self-esteem produced by institu- At the turn of the 20th century, fascination with tional and societal conditioning, not pathology or the factory model ushered in a significant shift genetics. toward a life connected to productive purpose and Dramatic population and income growth post– social efficiency. At this time, youth became a corpo- World War II brought on spectacular developments in real site upon which to address the incredible changes the youth market and its associated media. Com- arising from rapid industrialization. Scientific modification took center stage among U.S., British, psychology became the dominant framework for and French social theorists who produced new inter- identifying patterns of growth; thus, through devel- related systems of knowledge linked to shifting opmental psychology youth became a stage between popular and mass culture. Increased educational childhood and adulthood marked by physiological opportunity spurred generational as well as geo- and social changes known as puberty. Framed as graphical breaches between adult and youth a distinct unitary group, youth were oftentimes subcultures with schools, not workplace or family, assigned a qualitative script of development that becoming central to the social lives of youth. Around reputes them as biologically erratic, unpredictable, the 1950s, Robert Lynd and Helen Lynd (1929/1959) hormonal, unruly, and irrational. This provided asserted the school as more than just an academic a powerful rationale for the surveillance and gover- center, but rather “a city within the city,” a space for nance of the young body (Fendler, 2001). Such an autonomous interclass culture of youth with lan- a reliance on developmental psychology continues to guage, symbols, and value systems distinct from serve as a basis for methods of progressive efficiency those in wider society (p. 211). Compensatory that include not only delineations for normalcy, schooling, the increase in leisure time, child labor benchmarks for improvement, and strategies for laws, and economic growth spurred a kind of youth intervention but also justification for punitive regula- culture that found its home within the walls of the tion, management, and intervention. In schools, effi- school, a micro-culture expressed by brotherhoods, cient organization and the inscription of behaviorist parties, dances, fashion, and music. objectives establish predetermined systems for Following the pioneering work of the Birmingham assessing social, emotional, and academic growth, all Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) of which is based on notions of the normal child. in the 1970s, subcultural theories began to dominate Contrary to the dominant psychological belief that the study of youth. Drawing on the cultural Marxism human behavior was driven by genetics or the exis- of Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser, CCCS tence of a “criminal personality,” sociologists who published its path-breaking account of working-class were part of the Chicago School began to study the youth, Resistance Through Rituals (Hall & Jeffer- formation of subcultural groups as a response deter- son, 1993/2006), in which it was argued that the mined by the cultural norms of circumstance and not collective sense of self-expression exhibited by as a symptom of psychological deficiency (Frith, youth was not only different from the dominant 1984, p. 40). Classical ethnographic studies such as mainstream but also a legitimate form of resistance Frederic Thrasher’s The Gang: A Study of 1313 to hegemonic institutions found in British society. Gangs in Chicago; William Foote Whyte’s Street This study, together with post-Centre work of theo- Corner Society; August B. Hollingshead’s rists such as Paul Willis (1977), Dick Hebdige Elmstown’s Youth; and Albert Cohen’s Delinquent (1979), and Angela McRobbie (1976), continues to Boys: The Culture of the Gang demonstrate how remain highly influential to contemporary academic “delinquent” gangs of young men emerged in direct research, helping to lay theoretical groundwork for response to the limited educational and employment the study of popular culture as both a product of the 386–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

capitalist economy and a site for counterhegemonic place inside, outside, and between national boundar- response and resistance. ies. These studies show cultural practices to be frag- Popular culture, as inspired by cultural theorists mented and ephemeral, occurring within a shifting (Hall, 1992, 1997/2003; McCarthy, 1998; Storey, social terrain where global mainstreams and local 1997/2012) who are grounded in the work of critical substreams are rearticulated and reconstructed in and Marxist social theorists, is understood as a site complex and uneven ways. Because initial ethnogra- of struggle among the forces of resistance by subor- phies of youth focused almost exclusively on males dinate and dominant groups in society. It is not and whiteness, the lives of females, racial minorities, a static culture of the masses but rather a terrain of and LGBT youth became largely marginalized or exchanges mediated through texts and practices. In absent. For example, early psychoanalysis or his work, Henry Giroux (1996) examined the ways in sociology, such as Hall’s (1904) famous volume which popular culture through media propels a nega- Adolescence, first linked the subcategory of girls to a tive image of youth as a fugitive culture reputed by problematizing individuality, which was later mistrust, alienation, misogyny, and apathy. As explained as being shaped by institutional and social a mode of cultural criticism and social action, demands. Since then new areas of scholarship, such Giroux, alongside many critical and hip hop peda- as girls studies, have come to light, tracing and iden- gogues, forwards a pedagogy that interrogates tifying how gender is produced, consumed, and per- popular film and music as a serious site of cultural formed (Nayak & Kehily, 2008). Such frameworks knowledge making, discerning with youth the dan- bring together feminism, critical theory, and cultural gerous and damaging messages that impinge upon studies in order to dismantle the regulation of the their embodied sense of self. female-embodied self and to allow for spaces in which youth creatively express their experiences and aspirations. Theory With similar concerns over representation and regulation, new conceptualizations about how youth From its beginnings in developmental psychology negotiate race, ethnicity, and immigrant lives ushered through its sociological and subcultural uptake, and in an important attempt to reframe youth as powerful more currently expanded upon through postmodern- users of language and literacy and as vital partici- ism, the category of youth has been shaped by a wide pants in cultural communities ripe with knowledge range of theoretical moments. Since the 1990s, post- and expertise (Valenzuela, 1999). In an effort to modern scholars began to critique any reliance on overturn youth marginalization, scholars, adopting metanarratives by refusing to ascribe single mean- the language of empowerment, liberation, and democ- ings to popular culture phenomena and disrupting racy, came to invoke a participatory turn in research any satisfactory claim of its impact on society or methodology and a renewed commitment to social individual identity. In postmodernism, a more gen- transformation and civic engagement in schools. eral term that encompasses poststructuralism and Still, the complicated desire to lift the spirit of deconstruction, there is no easily determined rela- another is always entrenched in relations of power tionship between youth and youth culture, nor is and authority, and the right of youth to not share their there transparency in desire or language. In this theo- delicate and private stories and avoid the risk of retical shift, final meanings are impossible, reason exposure or the possibility of academic exploitation cannot satisfactorily explain the world, notions of must be protected (Tuck & Yang, 2014). Conceptual- progress are ruptured, and difference in both radical ization of youth agency and resistance came to and material become staunchly defended. dominate a scene once governed by the principles Within and among every society, youth participate of psychology and development by the follow- in practices of cultural production and consumption, ing: expanding locations and methods of research; interpretation, and distribution. Contemporary stud- challenging existing characterizations of youth; ies of youth and commodification illustrate how working against deviancy and social deficit mod- cultural productions are influenced by sociocultural, els; examining the regulatory and reproductive roles mediated forms of style and representations that take of institutions like schools; and raising questions of 47. The Youth Cultural Milieu–•–387

power in research relationships and representations societal norms of race, class, gender, religion, and (Fine, 1991). disability (e.g., Brown, 2011; Lipman, 2003; Raible & Furthermore, feminist and race scholars extended Irizarry, 2010). Most research on the youth cultural the concept of commodification to analyze how spe- milieu can be understood through at least four dis- cific elements of youth identities, such as race, eth- tinct forms of inquiry: (1) historical, (2) phenomeno- nicity, gender, and sexuality, were mediated through logical/ethnographic, (3) narrative/biographical, and the culture industry (Hall, 1997; hooks, 1995). Such (4) applied. Each of these forms of inquiry can be scholars provided useful critiques of the commodifi- linked with a particular mode of expression. cation of youth culture by illustrating how art Historical inquiry into the youth cultural milieu (Wallace & Dent, 1998), music (jagodzinski, 2013; can be instructive for the past, present, and future of McCarthy, Hudak, Miklaucic, & Saukko, 1999), and youth studies. In the United States and other Western fashion (McRobbie, 1999) contributed to the fetish- societies, “historical studies show that the category ism of gender and multiculturalism. Popular media, of youth as we understand it today is a relatively including film, television, and advertising, are social- recent phenomenon dating from the 18th century” izing agents that invent and construct individual and (Cieslik & Simpson, 2013, p. 3). However, other group identities for youth. However, assumptions historical studies date the concept of youth back to about the potentially adverse impact of media on ancient Greece. For example, some 40 years ago, young people, particularly causal links between vio- Youth and History by John Gillis (1974) offered a lent content and aggression, ignore viewer interpreta- promising historical study into the youth cultural tion, discernment, and the ways young people make milieu that challenged readers to revisit youth and sense of media (Buckingham, 2007). More recently, adolescence with a socioeconomic and historical media platforms such as the Internet are theorized as lens. Anthony Brown (2011) demonstrated this form a space of self-making and place-making, serving as of inquiry by appropriating Popkewitz’s method public arenas through which youth trace the intimate called Historicizing of Knowledge. Brown (2011) patterns of who they are within the larger participa- explained how further “historicizing of knowledge tory terrain. Sunaina Maira and Elisabeth Soep as a method of analysis examines how trajectories of (2004) used the term global youthscape to describe a the past help to shape how ‘ideas and events of the “site that is not just geographical or temporal, but present are constructed’” (p. 2047). With a particular also social and political as well, as ‘place’ that is type of historical inquiry, Brown was able to exca- bound up with questions of power and materiality” vate common distortions from social science about (p. 262). Within these hybrid cultural constellations, youth from the 1930s to 1950s that portrayed young youth are not uncomplicated consumers; they are Black males as “absent and wandering,” and in the creative negotiators of the market (Frymer, Carlin, & 1960s as “impotent and powerless.” In addition, he Broughton, 2011), skeptics who refashion and finds that social science of the 1980s largely depicts redirect what they consume and witness. a misleading distortion of the Black male as a proto- typical “absent father” who is psychologically powerless. This form of inquiry may be particularly Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression useful for understanding youth cultural curricula as partially historical texts (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Social science can be distinguished by its distinct Taubman, 1995). forms of inquiry and related modes of expression. Phenomenological/ethnographic inquiry involves Social science concerned with youth culture covers a “personal introspection and reflection long associated wide range of inquiries including studies that pay with curriculum studies as well as deep, empirical attention to ways in which youth sexuality is shaped immersion in particular sites and settings” (Chapter 17, by societal norms (Gilbert, 2007). Those studies “Popular Culture as Subject Matter,” this volume). document how youth in the shadow of adults rehearse, Ethnography was the key to the development of youth act out, and elaborate normative sex–gender rela- and youth culture as a subject of study. Paul Willis’s tions. Other studies of youth culture pay attention to (1977) groundbreaking study of working-class boys the complex ways that youth are shaped by adult and who grew up to have working-class jobs emphasized 388–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

the need to understand youth cultural locations as their forms of resistance. Applied inquiries into youth well as the specific economic, educational, and politi- culture are not about the corralling of youth into dis- cal contexts that make youth distinct from adults. As tinct categories but rather challenging the production described by David Kirkland (2014), ethnography of youth altogether. Drawing from critical race, femi- allowed “Willis to see (and reveal to others) the nist, queer, disability, neo-Marxist, indigenous, and mechanisms of inequity, a system of inputs and out- poststructural theory, “youth participatory action comes that gets reproduced at various intersections of research” (yPAR) is a method of research that con- stagnant structural conditions and in the fluidity of tests the structural and ideological violence placed on human agency” (p. 182). This form of inquiry may be youth through demonizing public representations and particularly useful for understanding youth cultural stereotypes (Irizarry, 2009, p. 194; Irizarry & Brown, curricula as partially phenomenological/ethnographic 2014, p. 80). These projects, launched in schools, texts (Pinar et al., 1995). communities, youth organizations, and prisons, Narrative/biographical inquiry attempts to under- address a wide range of issues and bring together an stand the way youth make meaning of their lives and array of embodied experiences. Pepi Leistyna (2003) how they express that meaning narratively. Evidence argued that the voices of youth must be recognized, can be gathered from interviews, field notes, archival heard, and critically engaged, no matter how theoreti- data, document analysis, intergenerational dialogues, cally insightful or weak. Yet, Soep (2012) cautioned photos, letters, and other artifacts. Since the advent researchers who in their desire to counter stereotypes of postmodernism, researchers have been increas- of youth and youth delinquency sometimes leave ingly interested in previously “hidden” histories, readers with the impression that all forms of plural perspectives, and the intersections of multiple oppositionality can be interpreted as forms of critical identities and contexts that can emerge from narra- social resistance. There is an error, says Pedro tive inquiry. However, youth continue to be treated as Noguera and Chiara Cannella (2006), when a refram- a unified category whose ontological quality is given ing becomes a rationale for antisocial or destructive as the source of knowledge. They continue to be frag- behavior rather than addressing conditions that bear mented into subcultural groups such as “urban down on young people. Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang youth,” or generalized by contextual terms such as (2014) concur and further caution youth researchers racial, gendered, sexual, or developmental. In addi- that yPAR “is not immune to the fetish for pain nar- tion, an increasing amount of social science research ratives. It is a misconception that by simply building focuses on youth development “standards” and participation into a project—by increasing the num- “norms” through making more efficient youth, cur- ber of people who collaborate in collecting the ricula, and teachers and by the identification of data—ethical issues of representation, voice, con- value-added qualities to secure a one-size-fits-all sumption, and voyeurism are resolved” (p. 230). This approach to “high achievement.” It is in this type of form of inquiry may be useful for examining youth neoliberalism that “biography came to occupy an cultural curricula as partially applied and participatory important place in youth studies” (Cieslik & Simpson, texts (Pinar et al., 1995). 2013). The utility of a biographical approach to youth transitions lies in the insight that it can provide into the role of youth in the dynamic processes of Conclusion their own transitions from youth to adulthood in their particular societal contexts (Henderson, Holland, Although scholarship on youth and youth culture has McGrellis, Sharpe, & Thomson, 2007). This form of moved away from an approach that treats youth as inquiry may be particularly useful for understanding either underdeveloped or victims in need of protec- youth cultural curricula as partially autobiographical/ tion, there still remains a need to understand young biographical texts (Kridel, 1998; Pinar et al., 1995). people in ways that both honor their singularity with- Applied inquiry includes youth studies that reject out deterministically framing their life existences. the category of youth as simplistic and uncompli- YenYen Woo (as cited in Lesko & Talburt, 2001/2012) cated. They tend to highlight oppressive conditions argued for an approach of coevalness, a way of within which youth are subjected and then document understanding how adults occupy the same world as 47. The Youth Cultural Milieu–•–389

youth, growing together rather than being explained youth account for not only complexities of youth by linearities that presuppose age. She called for cultures but also the interstices within a time of revo- recursive approaches that evaluate our own lives with lutionary developments in communication technolo- respect to young people and cautions against theories gies and the new social media. In the face of spatial that insist on concepts of staged and normal develop- reconfigurations and transnationalism, young people ment. In a similar vein, Lesko and Susan Talburt are developing modalities in emergent and newly encouraged reflection upon the social imaginings imagined cultural spaces, marked by ever-changing that adults construct by asking what are youth sym- representations, new sites for political engagement, bolic of and why do they invoke certain kinds of and multiple senses of identification. Indeed, there is enchantment for their adult counterparts? evidence suggesting strongly that contemporary As youth move transnationally, more nuanced and youth are remapping traditional understandings of complex theorization is replacing rigid constructs curriculum in new ways that challenge us not to mis- that distinguish absolutely between normal and devi- take the curriculum map from the territories (Wynter, ant. New frames of conceptualizing and researching 2006) of the youth cultural milieu.

References and Further Readings Giroux, H. (1996). Fugitive cultures: Race, violence, and youth. New York, NY: Routledge. Brown, A. (2011). “Same old stories”: The Black male in Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its social science and educational literature, 1930s to relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, the present. Teachers College Record, 113(9), sex, crime, religion, and education. New York, NY: 2047–2079. Appleton. Buckingham, D. (2007). Youth, identity, and digital Hall, S. (1992). Cultural studies and its theoretical media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. legacies. In L. Grossberg, G. Nelson, & Cieslik, M., & Simpson, D. (2013). Key concepts in youth P. A. Treichler (Eds.), Cultural studies studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (pp. 277–294). New York, NY: Routledge. Dimitriadis, G. (2007). Studying urban youth culture. Hall, S. (1997/2003). Representations: Cultural New York, NY: Peter Lang. representations and signifying practices. London, Fendler, L. (2001). Educating flexible souls: The UK: Sage. construction of subjectivity through Hall, S., & Jefferson, T. (1993/2006). Resistance through developmentality and interaction. In K. Hultqvist & rituals: Youth subcultures in post-war Britain. G. Dahlberg (Eds.), Governing the child in the new New York, NY: Routledge. millennium (pp. 119–142). New York, NY: Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The meaning of style. RoutledgeFalmer. London, UK: Methuen. Fine, M. (1991). Framing dropouts: Notes on the politics Henderson, S., Holland, J., McGrellis, S., Sharpe, S., & of an urban public high school. Albany, NY: State Thomson, R. (2007). Inventing adulthoods: University of New York Press. A biographical approach to youth transitions. Fine, M., & Weis, L. (2003). Silenced voices and London, UK: Sage. extraordinary conversations: Re-imagining schools. hooks, b. (1995). Art on my mind: Visual politics. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. New York, NY: The New Press. Frith, S. (1984). The sociology of youth. Lancashire, UK: Irizarry, J. G. (2009). Reinvigorating multicultural Causeway Press. education through youth participatory action Frymer, B., Carlin, M., & Broughton, J. (2011). Cultural research. Multicultural Perspectives, 11(4), studies, education, and youth: Beyond schools. 194–199. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Irizarry, J. G., & Brown, T. (2014). Humanizing research Gilbert, J. (2007). Risking a relation: Sex education and in dehumanizing spaces: The challenges and adolescent development. Sex Education, 7(1), opportunities of conducting participatory action 47–61. research with youth in schools. In D. Paris & Gillis, J. R. (1974). Youth and history: Tradition and M. T. Winn (Eds.), Humanizing research: change in European age relations, 1770-present. Decolonizing qualitative inquiry with youth and New York, NY: Academic Press. communities (pp. 63–80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 390–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

jagodzinski, j. (2013). Music in youth culture: Paris, D., & Winn, M. T. (2014). Humanizing research: A Lacanian approach. New York, NY: Palgrave Decolonizing qualitative inquiry with youth and Macmillan. communities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kirkland, D. E. (2014). Why I study culture, and why it Percy-Smith, B., & Weil, S. (2003). Empowering youth matters: Humanizing ethnographies in social science in research and social processes using critically research. In D. Paris & M. T. Winn (Eds.), reflexive action research: Learning from practice. Humanizing research: Decolonizing qualitative In A. Bennett, M. Cieslik, & S. Miles (Eds.), inquiry with youth and communities (pp. 179–200). Researching youth. New York, NY: Palgrave. London, UK: Sage. Pinar, W., Reynolds, W., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. Kridel, C. (1998). Writing educational biography: (1995). Understanding curriculum. New York, NY: Explorations in qualitative research. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Routledge. Popkewitz, T. (2004). The alchemy of the mathematics Leistyna, P. (2003). Facing oppression: Youth voices from curriculum: Inscriptions and the fabrication of the the front. In K. Saltman & D. Gabbards (Eds.), child. American Educational Research Journal, Education as enforcement: The militarization and 41(1), 3–34. corporatization of schools (pp. 101–125). New York, Raible, J., & Irizarry, J. G. (2010). Redirecting the NY: RoutledgeFalmer. teacher’s gaze: Teacher education, youth Lesko, N. (2001/2012). Act your age! A cultural surveillance and the school-to-prison pipeline. construction of adolescence. New York, NY: Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(5), 1196–1203. Routledge. Sarup, M. (1996). Identity, culture, and the postmodern Lesko, N., & Talburt, S. (2012). Keywords in youth world. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. studies: Tracing affects, movements, knowledges. Sobe, N. W. (2012). Transnational governance. New York, NY: Routledge. In N. Lesko & S. Talburt (Eds.), Keywords in youth Lipman, P. (2003). Chicago school policy: Regulating studies: Tracing affects, movements, knowledges Black and Latino youth in the global city. Race, (pp. 97–102). New York, NY: Routledge. Ethnicity and Education, 6(4), 331–355. Soep, E. (2012). Resistance. In N. Lesko & S. Talburt Lynd, R., & Lynd, H. (1929/1959). Middletown: A study (Eds.), Keywords in youth studies: Tracing affects, in modern American culture. San Diego, CA: movements, knowledges (pp. 126–130). New York, Harcourt Brace Javanovich. NY: Routledge. Maira, S., & Soep, E. (2004). Youthscapes: The popular, Storey, J. (1997/2012). Cultural theory and popular the national, the global. Philadelphia, PA: University culture: An introduction. New York, NY: Routledge. of Pennsylvania Press. Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2014). R-words: Refusing McCarthy, C. (1998). The uses of culture: Education and research. In D. Paris & M. T. Winn (Eds.), the limits of ethnic affiliation (Vol. 32). New York, Humanizing research: Decolonizing qualitative NY: Routledge. inquiry with youth and communities (pp. 223–248). McCarthy, C., Hudak, G., Miklaucic, S., & Saukko, P. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (1999). Sound identities: Popular music and the Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.- cultural politics of education. New York, NY: Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Albany, Peter Lang. NY: State University of New York Press. McRobbie, A. (1991/2000). Feminism and youth culture. White, R., & Wyn, J. (2011). Youth and society: New York, NY: Routledge. Exploring the social dynamics of youth experience. McRobbie, A. (1999). Culture society: Art, fashion and New York, NY: Oxford University Press. popular music. New York, NY: Routledge. Willis, P. (1977). Learning to labor: How working class Nayak, A., & Kehily, M. J. (2008). Gender, youth and kids get working class jobs. Farnborough, UK: Saxon culture: Young masculinities and femininities. House. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Wynter, S. (2006). On how we mistook the map for the Noguera, P., & Cannella, C. (2006). Youth agency, territory and re-imprisoned ourselves in our resistance, and civic activism. In S. Ginwright, unbearable wrongness of being, of désêtre: Black P. Noguera, & J. Cammarota (Eds.), Beyond studies toward the human project. In L. R. Gordon & resistance! Youth activism and community J. A. Gordon (Eds.), Not only the master’s tools: change (pp. 333–348). New York, NY: African-American studies in theory and practice Routledge. (pp. 107–169). Boulder, CO: Paradigm. 48

DESCHOOLING, HOMESCHOOLING, AND UNSCHOOLING IN THE ALTERNATIVE SCHOOL MILIEU

KRISTIN D. JONES Concordia University Chicago

CYNTHIA COLE ROBINSON Purdue University Calumet

KELLY P. V AUGHAN Purdue University Calumet

chooling, a sacred cow of our modern culture, culturally unresponsive; the current schooling atmo- pervades our lives in countless ways. Those sphere is one of standardization and testing; and the Swho choose a form of home education often school does not reflect the values or culture of the feel dismissed or judged unfairly by their neighbors home. Or as A. S. Neill (1960/1992) summarized, and the academy. We wish to clarify the wide range schooling offers “discipline from above, strenuous of reasons for and types of schooling alternatives, work, obedience without question, shortage of free dispel derogatory generalizations, summarize cri- time” (p. 49). Among the many alternatives to tiques of home education, and celebrate the diverse schooling, most fall into one (or more) of three cat- alternatives in a democracy. egories: homeschooling, unschooling, and deschool- The impetus for these alternatives comes from ing. By homeschooling, families typically refer to the many critiques of schooling, including schools teach replication of schooling practices in the home, that is, obedience over criticism; schools neglect a child’s the parent becoming the teacher and the house happiness; children deserve more freedom in their replacing the school building. Homeschooling, curricular choices; schools commodify learning; stu- though often grounded in religious practice, also dents become separated from their community, occurs in secular or agnostic homes. A more recent family, and nature; schools are dangerous, unjust, or phenomenon, unschooling, began with the criticisms

391 392–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

offered by John Holt beginning in the 1960s and acceptance of such sponsorship supports interests of 1970s (Holt & Ferenga, 2003); unschoolers claim the power elite (Mills, 1956). that schooling ignores the ways children learn best and often hinders meaningful learning experiences. Unschoolers reject the structured learning of school- Contemporary Concerns About the ing, formal curricula, and testing; religion rarely Alternative Schooling Milieu plays a role in the decision to unschool. Finally, deschooling refers to a broader denunciation of the Although we can only estimate how many individuals institutional life, a critique begun by Ivan Illich choose home education, the National Center for Edu- (1970/2004). Illich encourages others to build mean- cational Statistics found that 1.5 million children in the ingful lives for themselves outside of institutions— United States were homeschooled in 2007, an increase including education, medicine, and transportation— from 1.1 million in 2003 (NCES, 2008). However, while also looking beyond the commodification of most state laws do not require registration or account- learning in capitalism (see Illich, 1980). While ability for families engaged in home education. homeschooling transplants the structure of schooling Families that choose alternatives for their children’s into the home, deschooling refers to an ideology and learning address myriad contemporary concerns. social critique and unschooling is an ideological Geert Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions the- reaction and a radical lifestyle shift. ory offers two societal cultural orientations— While the term homeschooling is often used as an individualism and collectivism. In an individualistic umbrella term for all of these alternatives, we are society, they point out that the gaze is inward and including homeschooling, unschooling, and thus focused on the person. Motivations, goals, and deschooling as parts of a diverse home education successes are defined by the needs and desires of the movement. There are a variety of reasons that par- individual. In contrast, collectivistic societies place ents choose to be part of this movement, most of the greatest emphasis and value on the larger groups, them pedagogical or ideological (see Van Galen in for example, the community, family. The United Knowles, Marlow, & Muchmore, 1992). In such States primarily exemplifies an individualistic soci- alternatives, the terms pedagogy and pedagogues ety due to the capitalistic economic and political often replace teaching or schooling and teachers to system and its emphasis on the individual. According offer a blending of theory and practice in the political to cultural dimensions theory, the United States is an act (or praxis) of striving to overcome problems of individualistic society; hence, the use of this theory institutionalized education. Pedagogues often focus as a basis for the critique of alternative schooling on following the needs, interests, and natural curiosi- presents an irony. ties of the child while rejecting the rigidity and Jonathan Kozol (1972), who can be viewed as a authoritative nature of public and many private collectivist, challenged alternatives such as Summer- schools. Pedagogues create educational opportuni- hill free schools (see Neill, 1960/1992) as escapist ties with child-centered or negotiated curricula that and individualistic. Summerhill, a free school still utilize a variety of experiences and materials as the open in England, began as an alternative boarding curriculum. Ideologues often focus upon a rejection school to give students freedom and curricular of the public school curriculum, which they replace choice, allowing them to play and create or attend with a structured and formal curriculum that is more classes at will. Rather than truly addressing the aligned with the family’s values. While the ideologi- needs of urban students, students of minority cul- cal home education movement is most often associ- tures, or students living in poverty, Kozol argued, a ated with religious conservatives, it can also apply to school of happiness off in the country avoids the families that reject implicit and explicit messages realities of urban communities. Alternatives to public within traditional schools that they believe reinforce schools, Kozol argued, disregard basic educational notions of White supremacy, consumerism, or injus- needs of a diverse population and ignore the White tice. The latter group often seeks alternative educa- privilege that allows for these alternatives. tion from that controlled by state or corporate However, as Illich (1980) and as Gustavo Esteva, (private wealth) sponsorship, because they hold that Madhu Suri Prakash, and Dana Stuchul (see Hern, 48. Alternative Schooling Milieu–•–393

2008) argued, any form of schooling, even the support for the family and the mother serving as the Kozolesque urban free schools, reproduces capital- stay-at-home mom and teacher (McElroy, 2002). ism. Schooling mirrors other institutional dependen- This makes home education a less likely option for cies, so that schooling becomes the only way of single-parent households, particularly for culturally learning; the need for schooling, artificially created, diverse groups that are more likely to have single- makes us not only consumers of it but also dependent parent households headed by mothers. Further, fami- on it. A more collectivist approach in schooling alter- lies with fewer financial resources, less flexible work natives emerges as many indigenous communities schedules, and/or less education may not feel that reclaim their local, nonschooling methods for living home education is a viable option for their children. and learning (Esteva & Prakash, 1998) and as urban Hence, homeschooling is often viewed as exclusive. dropouts find more meaningful ways to spend their Within this context, critics raise questions about who time than in schooling (Illich, 1980). has the most power and economic and social capital Wendell Berry (1990) challenged the current to opt out of traditional public education. Critics also individualism of schooling, particularly the cycle of argue that efforts to create individual alternatives to students leaving home, never to return. This is of public schooling can weaken the struggle to create interest among racially, ethnically, and culturally high-quality, culturally responsive, democratic diverse groups, particularly those that are also socio- public school systems for all children. economically disadvantaged. The cultural dissonance It must also be noted that those outside the domi- that exists between students’ nonschool curriculum, nant culture may express greater hesitation to pursue that is, what is learned in the home and community alternatives to traditional education because despite environment (Schubert, 1986), and mainstream cul- the many problems with traditional education it is ture that serves as a model within in-school curricu- still understood to be a necessary step toward eco- lum and the hidden curriculum (Anyon, 1996) nomic success (Kozol, 1972; Llewellyn, 1996). Lisa implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) suggests a Delpit (1988) contended that there is a cultural rejection of the cultural self. Furthermore, when knowledge—that is, “culture of power”—that is those who follow the mainstream schooling ideals transmitted in mainstream (or dominant) schooling suffer unemployment or underemployment, it fuels (p. 282). This cultural capital is needed for those pessimistic anticipatory socialization since the ben- from socioeconomically disadvantaged and disen- efits of schooling have not been realized economi- franchised groups to succeed. Delpit defined the cally (Mays, 1980). When academically successful “culture of power” as an implied system of values, students are encouraged to leave their communities, beliefs, ways of acting and being that is the capital this perpetuates the pessimism. Therefore, a cycle is needed for social mobility. Those who lack knowl- created whereby socioeconomically disadvantaged edge of the culture of power are viewed as inferior communities lose their most valuable resources and deficient in key ways. Therefore, home education through attrition. Rather than education pulling these could present particular challenges for these stu- students away from their communities, Berry argued, dents, while traditional schools present educational schooling should give students the tools they need to quality issues. practice stewardship of the local land and local Feminist scholars have also critiqued home educa- culture. tion. They argue that the vast majority of parents While there is an increasing diversity within the responsible for home education are highly educated home education movement, it must be acknowledged women. They put their family lives first, opting not that home education has largely been associated with to enter the workforce, which causes much debate privilege. Even as the number of families participat- among feminists, some of whom say it perpetuates ing in home education is growing in both size and sexism. They hold that it makes women dependent diversity, home education families disproportion- on their husbands to provide for the family; thus, ately identify as non-Hispanic White. The over- they yield decision-making power. In this regard, it whelming majority of families who participate in is seen as a return to the old patriarchal ideals that home education are highly educated, two-parent feminists worked to change. Conversely, some femi- households with the father providing the financial nists argue that feminism is about choice and that 394–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

these homeschooling women are empowered because formal schooling, for example, covertly learning to they exercise deliberate choice among options read and write, education of slaves consisted primar- (McElroy, 2002). Socialization is also an area of ily of what is known today as the nonschool or out- concern regarding messages taught to young girls by side curriculum (Schubert, 2010) meaning that which homeschooling mothers cast in the traditional gender is learned from the home environment, peers, and roles, while questions are also raised regarding the community. For many Native American communi- perceptions and views of women held by boys ties, schools were utilized as institutions of “decul- educated within the home (Lyster-Mensh, 2000). turalization,” which Joel Spring (2004a) defined as Variations proliferate to raise more issues regard- “the educational process of destroying a people’s ing the following: feminist women who opt to culture and replacing it with a new culture” (p. 3). As homeschool their children during the day, then work Spring explained, the government subsidized mis- evenings or weekends; parents who divide time so sionary schooling for Native American children in both have equal access to careers; families that find the early 19th century focused on the acceptance of meaningful experiences that do not rely on the Christianity and the acquisition of literacy skills in money economy; home education co-ops that join in the English language. Some Native American tribes collective work to address group and communal worked with missionaries to create successful schools needs. Debates and critiques over such matters may that taught literacy while respecting the culture of the further the conversation, deepen our understanding students. However, beginning in the late 1860s, of alternatives to schooling, and highlight innovative boarding schools that removed children from their possibilities families are creating to better serve their homes and communities sought to replace the lan- interests. guage and cultural tradition of Native American children (see Spring, 2004a, chapter 2). Major themes in curricular debates today are rel- Context of Schooling Alternatives evance and purpose, which raises key questions. How does the curriculum that students learn help In order to understand alternatives to education, we them to make meaning of their lives and the world must understand the social and historical context of around them? Is this knowledge and experiences both traditional and alternative schooling regarding what are needed for these students at this particular religious freedom, cultural relevance, and the time in their lives and history? What is the purpose political purposes. of formal schooling today? Should that purpose be For millennia, humans have done the work of the same for all? If so, are we succeeding at prepar- subsistence, entertained themselves, created beauty, ing students for that purpose? Unfortunately, official and pondered the world around them, all without answers to such questions and the relevance of cur- schooling. Curricular history begins before school- riculum for African American students and other ing, with ancient humans striving to live and learn students of color remain similar to those in the slav- (see Schubert, 1986). In times when schooling was ery era in that there is a disconnection between the reserved for an elite few, when magic and mythology daily lives of said students and the content and permeated daily life, the learning of the masses took education afforded them. a much different shape than today’s school day. Hence, the history of schooling in the United Scholars today are looking anew at historical learning States is by historical definition one of exclusion—of experiences in daily life and subsistence work. slave completely, and of the indigenous and impov- When we consider the context of schooling or erished, and of women and immigrants in major alternative education in the United States, we must proportions. Horace Mann, an egalitarian, under- consider those who have been denied formal school- stood the disparity between the ideals on which the ing or those for whom formal schooling was utilized United States was founded and the realities of as a means to diminish existing cultural traditions American life. Mann believed that formal schooling and knowledge. Due to slavery, African Americans should be accessible to the poor and women. His were denied human status and thus access to formal support for African Americans (enslaved at the time) schooling. While some slaves were taught aspects of is less clear as he sought the support of slave owners 48. Alternative Schooling Milieu–•–395

to fund public schools. In the mid-1830s, his concept and implemented. Yet it was not until the 1950s that of a common school that would be supported by pub- today’s home education movements began to flour- lic tax dollars and attended by people regardless of ish. Home education initiatives were primarily peda- ethnic, gender, class, and religious background began gogical in nature, although proponents offered a to be put into practice. The common school, started progressive, and sometimes radical, critique of tradi- in the American North, was to address the changing tional schooling. In the mid-1950s, the voices of economic, social, and political structures; prepare dissension rose against in-school curricula that students for democratic living; and address perceived neglected or negated students’ nonschool experi- social deficits. Following the Civil War, there were ences or curricula. There was a movement back to efforts, led in part by African Americans, to expand the nonschool curriculum during the civil rights universal education in the South; however, it would movement as students of color were taught by be many decades before universal public schooling schools to be ashamed of their culture and daily lives was realized in the South (Anderson, 1988). either through teachers and/or peers degrading cul- Schools were seen both as a tool of liberation and tures of color overtly or by glorifying White culture. enlightenment; thus early proponents of the common African American curricularists resurrected theorists school advocated for social justice causes such as such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Woodson, who called abolition, women’s voting rights, and inclusive for a curriculum that reflected students’ lives outside schooling. However, such was not the reality of the of school with special focus on what was learned in day. Schools remained exclusive institutions, and the home and community. In the 1960s and 1970s, through much of the 19th century, a substantial pro- among civil rights and antiwar movements, alterna- portion of the young learned via work outside of tive schooling movements in education flourished. schools and schools were criticized for perpetrating Free schools, schools without walls, freedom schools, social control and deculturalization (Spring, 2004a). and community schools were all created to change Alternatives take root and thrive in beds of pedagogical and/or political practices within schools. exclusion—ergo, the genesis of alternative schooling During this period, Illich advocated for deschooling in America. of society, and reformers such as Holt and Herbert Curricular theorists have emphasized the impor- Kohl advocated for broader conceptions of education tance of nonschool curricula and regarded it as an and a greater focus on the natural learning of the essential element to schooling. John Dewey (1916) child. Critiques of public schools abounded and believed that salient aspects of education occurred home education was characterized as a progressive outside of school; hence, he was known as a pioneer movement tied to a radical critique of schooling of the field trip, viewing schools as guides for and a commitment to child-centered learning (see nonschool curriculum. Knowles et al., 1992). Carter G. Woodson (1933) suggested a best prac- In the last few decades, there has been a shift tices model for teaching practices for formal school- away from the progressive foundation of home edu- ing, a culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, cation and an increasing popularity of home school- 1995) that would allow all students’ (especially ing among the religious right (see Knowles et al., African Americans) schooling to be aligned with 1992). The context of schooling in the United States their home and community environment. Like carries a founding concept of religious freedom, and Dewey, he held that nonschool curriculum should be today’s instantiation reveals that many religious used to teach concepts within school. Soon, how- families have felt ignored and mocked in public life. ever, common school curricula were pushed toward In fact, during the formation of common schools in standardization and measurement, and nonschool the United States, many Catholics rejected what they curricula began to be deemed less important or viewed as the Protestant influences in public educa- ignored. tion and in large numbers chose to create alternative During the progressive education movement, institutions (see Tyack, 1976). Today, home educa- efforts to make education more relevant for children tion offers a solution, an Eden where families’ own were occurring at the same time as early alternative religious values and teachings can flourish. Although education programs for adults were being developed in some cases this religious alternative may be a form 396–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

of resistance to scientific research (e.g., teaching cre- even in nonschool settings. The dichotomy of in- ationism in place of evolution), it allows families to school versus nonschool curriculum creates a knowl- choose for themselves how and what they learn. edge and learning disconnection. Today curriculum Many of these families see schooling as secular theorists aim to merge the two, creating learning indoctrination and do not see their worldview reflected experiences that speak to the whole life of the stu- in institutionalized public or private curricula. dent. The intention is to yield students who are able In the political context of schooling alternatives, to understand the world as an interconnected schooling became seen by some as a tool of global- experience. The guiding principle among these ization. Spring (2004b) revealed the hidden hege- philosophies is educating the holistic child for life. monic forces behind charitable work in education, Following the civil rights movement, consider- including that of nongovernmental organizations. ation of the nonschool curriculum became key in We spread schooling much like missionaries sharing response to school integration. Students of color were their Gospel, assuming that schooling is a human marginalized and scholars of African American cur- right rather than a modern construct. We do not riculum revisited theory of Du Bois, Woodson, and question our sacred cows. others, recommending curricula inclusive of students’ Within the social context of schooling alterna- lives outside of home and community culture. tives, Esteva and Prakash (1998) discussed the Mwalimu Shujaa (1994) argued that there is a importance of local culture and grassroots living as substantial difference between “education” and learning. In a clear challenge to globalization, their “schooling” and that many African American children grassroots postmodernism calls us to slow our steps experience schooling that serves to “perpetuate and and appreciate local culture. In examples from indig- maintain the society’s existing power relations and enous communities, Esteva and Prakash shared how institutional structures” (p. 15). Shujaa emphasized daily living becomes learning, how community out- the need for independent schools and organizations weighs consumerism, how grassroots efforts can “to ensure that African-centered cultural knowledge fight corporations. These critiques lay the groundwork is systemically transmitted” to children (p. 32). for communities who do not see their culture and/or Also emerging from the civil rights movement is language reflected in schooling, sharing radical alter- feminist inquiry. Feminist theory finds that tradi- natives based in indigenous culture, and the emerging tional schooling indoctrinates the gender-specific movement of localization and d eprofessionalization socialization of girls and reinforces patriarchal struc- among moderns. ture, fails to address girls’ cognitive learning differ- ences (Sadker & Sadker, 1994), fails to provide the needed attention or encouragement from teachers, Theory of Schooling Alternatives and facilitates girls’ choices of traditional female coursework that leads to underpaying jobs. Just as there is much diversity in alternatives to In the 1970s, the reconceptualization movement in learning, there are many diverse theories that pertain curriculum studies expanded the focus of inquiry from to alternative schooling. Dewey’s (1916) progressive school-based curriculum to broader conceptualizations philosophy of education states that the purpose of of education. The broad reconceptualized field seeks schooling is to prepare students to become citizens of to understand the personal, political, and cultural democracy who could solve societal problems. experiences of schooling and society (Pinar, Reynolds, Hence, classrooms should represent democratic soci- Slattery, & Taubman, 1995; Schubert, 1986). ety. Therefore, he advocates for taking students out- side the classroom on field trips to experience the Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression world as he views the nonschool curriculum as the primary curriculum and the in-school curriculum as Forms of Inquiry About Schooling Alternatives an instrument to enhance and direct the knowledge gained from those experiences. Dewey’s progressive Curricularists use diverse methods of inquiry to philosophy began an alternative view of education in study alternatives to schooling. They employ histori- Western thought, connecting experience to learning cal inquiry to understand critiques of contemporary 48. Alternative Schooling Milieu–•–397

home education alternatives. Illich (1970/2004, actual projects. Thus, we look first at public spaces. 1980) laid out the historical cost of the ideological Matt Hern’s Purple Thistle Center in Vancouver, a roots of Western schooling along with other institu- deschooling project, offers children a public space tions. Historians such as James Anderson (1988) and with shared tools, where they are also not limited to William Watkins (2001) demonstrated how school- the views, culture, and language of home (Hern, ing maintains the existing social order and how 2008). Many homeschooling families also offer co-ops White superiority developed in the American South. of parent-led optional classes for any students. Schubert (1986) diversified historical inquiry, Other public spaces might also be free schools extending our historical gaze to ancient history and (Kozol, 1972; Neill, 1960/1992). Some families, like learning outside of schools. Kozol, choose to explicitly teach curricula compara- Oral history is a form of inquiry that uses inter- ble to the local school district, that is, home educa- views or recounting of life experiences as data tion or schooling-at-home. Others, like Neill, choose sources for historical and autobiographical writing. child-directed constructivist approaches, that is, This form of inquiry illuminates critical race theory unschooling. and feminism, theoretical frameworks developed to Families who choose alternatives to schooling liberate the oppressed. Such work lends voice to and express their choice in myriad modes. One common empowers people who have been marginalized; it mode of expression, the rejection of schooling val- shares their experiences in their words and voices ues, can become religious-based homeschooling on that too often have been omitted. one hand or progressive unschooling on the other. Other scholars and practitioners employ autobio- Both reject the dominant discourse of schooling, but graphical and ethnographic inquiry. Autobiographi- from very different angles. One religious home- cal works and case studies offer insights into the schooling family rejects the lack of their religion in many educational alternatives to schooling. John the schooling ideology, while another secular family Taylor Gatto (1992), Kozol (1972), and Neill might choose unschooling because they reject the (1960/1992) all shared anecdotal work and case stud- structured learning and pervasive testing of school- ies from their various alternatives to schooling. Ann ing. This is not to say that all homeschoolers are Lynn Lopez (1993) shared her home education expe- religious or that all unschoolers are secular. Many riences and challenges us to explore public space and unschooling parents object to the ideology of school- the possibilities of community as educational con- ing; many homeschooling parents simply feel their texts. Many nonacademic perspectives also offer children flourish more at home. refreshing perspectives on alternatives to schooling. Alternatives to schooling can be progressive in In Allison McKee’s Homeschooling Our Children, nature, specifically paths that draw on the progressive Unschooling Ourselves (2002), she followed a family philosophy of Dewey. Some progressive expressions in their decision to participate in home education, use recent research on children’s learning and parent- their journey of encountering community resources, ing. Often child-centered in nature, the progressive and the many lessons learned for both parents and expressions revolutionize perspective on childhood, children. Not to be ignored are the plethora of other parenting, and learning. However, other modes of autobiographical accounts of schooling alternatives expression challenge this notion of progress, in the form of books, blogs, websites, and podcasts, connecting it to globalization and hegemony over all too plentiful to review here. indigenous life. Esteva and Prakash (1998) connected schooling to the disappearance of indigenous life. Modes of Expression About This critique of progress leads to a mode of expression Schooling Alternatives that is simply grassroots living and learning. Rather than focus on diverse ways to express fruits of inquiry (stories, philosophical treatises, sta- Diverse Alternatives in a Democracy tistics, popular media articles, interviews, works of art, and more) that provide persuasion for or aga- In alternatives to schooling, as in any area of a demo- inst alternative schools, we emphasize expression as cratic society, there is much diversity. Disagreement 398–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

exists on how much a child should direct his or her these approaches, from indigenous resistance to own learning, how much of a curriculum should be urban reforms, from unschooling explorers to reli- universal, and which alternative best serves the needs gious homeschooling, we see citizens in a democracy of all students. While Illich encourages the deschool- making their own decisions about how to live their ing and deinstitutionalization of society, we also have lives. Not one of these alternatives satisfies each citi- Kozol’s idea of free schools that address the needs of zen, but each citizen can choose what best satisfies urban students with community-based and parent- him or her, and that, perhaps, is the beauty of the based decisions about traditional curriculum. In all living-learning experience in a democracy.

References and Further Readings phases of home education in the United States, 1970–1990. American Journal of Education, 100(2), Anderson, J. (1988). The education of Blacks in the south, 195–235. 1860–1935. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Kozol, J. (1972). Free schools. Boston, MA: Houghton Carolina Press. Mifflin. Anyon, J. (1996). Social class and the hidden curriculum Ladson-Billings, G. (1995, Autumn). Toward a theory of of work. In E. Hollins (Ed.), Transforming culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational curriculum for a culturally diverse society Research Journal, 31(3), 465–491. (pp. 179–203). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Llewellyn, G. (1996). Freedom challenge: African Berry, W. (1990). What are people for? Essays by American homeschoolers. Eugene, OR: Lowry Wendell Berry. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and House. Giroux. Lopez, A. L. (1993). Exploring possibilities for Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist progressive curriculum and teaching in three urban America: Educational reform and the contradictions contexts (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). of economic life. New York, NY: Basic Books. University of Illinois, Chicago. Delpit, L. (1988). The silenced dialogue: Power and Lyster-Mensh, L. (2000, November/December). Is pedagogy in educating other people’s children. homeschooling sexist? Home Education Magazine. Harvard Educational Review, 58(3), 280–298. Retrieved from http://homeedmag.com/HEM/176/ Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York, ndsexist.php NY: Free Press. Mays, J. (1980). The impact of neighbourhood values. Esteva, G., & Prakash, M. S. (1998). Grassroots In M. Craft, J. Raynor, & L. Cohen (Eds.), Linking postmodernism: Beyond human rights, the individual home and school (pp. 56–69). London, UK: self, and the global economy. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Peter Lang. McElroy, W. (2002, February 1). Can a feminist Gatto, J. T. (1992). Dumbing us down: The hidden homeschool her child? Leading feminist voices are curriculum of compulsory schooling. Gabriola silent or ambivalent about homeschooling. The Island, BC: New Society Publishers. Freeman. Retrieved from http://fee.org/freeman/ Hern, M. (Ed.). (2008). Everywhere all the time: detail/can-a-feminist-homeschool-her-child A new deschooling reader. Oakland, CA: McKee, A. (2002). Homeschooling our children, AK Press. unschooling ourselves. Madison, WI: Bittersweet Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: House. International differences in work-related values. Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. New York, NY: Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Oxford University Press. Holt, J., & Ferenga, P. (2003). Teach your own: The John National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2008, Holt book of home schooling. Cambridge, MA: December). 1.5 million homeschooled students in the Da Capo Press. United States in 2007. Retrieved from http://nces Illich, I. (1970/2004). Deschooling society. New York, .ed.gov/pubs2009/2009030.pdf NY: Marion Boyars. Neill, A. S. (1960/1992). Summerhill school: A new view Illich, I. (1980). Toward a history of needs. New York, of childhood. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. NY: Bantam. Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, Knowles, J. G., Marlow, S. E., & Muchmore, J. A. P. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. New York, (1992). From pedagogy to ideology: Origins and NY: Peter Lang. 48. Alternative Schooling Milieu–•–399

Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: Spring, J. (2004a). Deculturalization and the struggle for How America’s schools cheat girls. New York, NY: equality: A brief history of the education of Charles Scribner’s Sons. dominated cultures in the United States. New York, Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, NY: McGraw-Hill. paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Macmillan. Spring, J. (2004b). How educational ideologies are Schubert, W. H. (2010). Outside curriculum and public shaping global society: Intergovernmental pedagogy. In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & organizations, NGOs, and the decline of the J. Burdick (Eds.), Handbook of public pedagogy: nation-state. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Education and learning beyond schooling Tyack, D. (1974). One best system: A history of (pp. 10–19). New York, NY: Routledge. American urban education. Cambridge, MA: Shujaa, M. (1994). Education and schooling: You can Harvard University Press. have one without the other. In M. Shujaa (Ed.), Too Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black much schooling, too little education: A paradox of education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Black life in White societies (pp. 13–36). Trenton, Woodson, C. G. (1933). The mis-education of the Negro. NJ: African World Press. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. 49

GE OGRAPHICAL MILIEU

ROBERT J. HELFENBEIN Loyola University Maryland

The curriculum constructed of these particulars will be brought to bear, not in some archetypical class- room, but in a particular locus in time and space with smells, shadows, seats, and conditions outside its walls which may have much to do with what is achieved inside.

—Schwab, 1978, p. 310

uestions around curriculum often begin in the subfield of geography, seeks to understand how the general, the abstract. Certainly, in these times, social construction of space and place interacts with Qan educator’s first thoughts often turn to the and reinforces structures of power and personal and mandates of the state or district or some new national group identity. A critical geography of education tries framework of standards. These structures serve to to understand how the lived experiences of schools reinforce the simple definition of curriculum as the (i.e., students, teachers, and the larger community) are “what” of the process of teaching and learning. How- defined, constrained, and liberated by spatial relation- ever, one might notice that the conversation often ships. To understand how critical approaches might quickly turns to the particulars of how that curriculum take up the geographical engages such a complex set is translated into teaching or—as characterized by of issues that one rightly begins with definitions. scholars such as Elliot Eisner, David Flinders, Patrick In traditional conceptions, the terms space and Slattery, and Karen Zumwalt—enacted. If one focuses place are used interchangeably with little to no distinc- on enactment in the study of curriculum, issues of tion. To geographers, however, the difference between context and the interpersonal become more impor- the terms is the basis of their entire field of study. tant, and it might even be said that we need attention Geographers begin to think of space as the physical to the “where” of curriculum. Central to Joseph attributes of the world around us or, more theoreti- Schwab’s conception of curriculum work is the notion cally, the spatial forces at work on people. While this of milieu, the context in which curriculum takes is what most of us think of as geography—things like place. Critical geography, a distinct yet varied mountains, rivers, borders, and capitals—spatial

Author’s Note: Portions of this chapter are adapted from “Critical Geographies of Education,” by R. J. Helfenbein, in Encyclope- dia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education, edited by E. F. Provenzo Jr. (Ed.) & A. B. Provenzo (Assoc. Ed.), 2009, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

400 49. Geographical Milieu–•–401

forces also include less tangible forces such as eco- of identity formation always happens in spaces that nomics, politics, and culture. Geographers point out both construct and limit possibilities and the places that something like a national border certainly repre- that already have been invested with meaning. A criti- sents the spatial but is man-made, can change over cal geography of education insists on including all the time, may have varying levels of importance, and varying forces that act on young people, educators, ultimately means different things to different people. and community members as they come to know Space, therefore, can be both natural and man-made, themselves and their place in the world. Although with key characteristics within which humans interact most education scholars would suggest that the pro- with both constraints and possibilities. cess of identity formation takes place in dramatic Place, on the other hand, is a particular form of ways during the period of adolescence, most contem- space—one in which people have imposed meaning porary thinkers describe the process of identity as one onto particular locations or spatial characteristics. All that is continual, ever changing. This is to say that for people have places that hold special meaning to them critical geographers, place and space play a role in for any variety of reasons, good or bad. Recent theo- setting the limits for a person’s process of identity and retical geographers, informed by parallel develop- simultaneously reflect and come to have meaning in ments in Marxist, feminist, and poststructural social the interaction with the identities of those young theory, have become interested in the processes people. Some might suggest that the question of involved in space becoming a place and what that “Who am I?” needs to begin with the spatial twist of might mean for the people involved. As these processes “Where am I?” undoubtedly involve issues of power and identity and Taking up the geographies of schools can serve as operate in simultaneous and complex ways, to take a point to begin looking at youth and educators and up this field of study requires some distinction; that their intersections with power and identity within a distinction is known as critical geography. spatial frame. Beginning at the smallest scale, some Power, for critical geographers, is always a key scholars study the physical geography of classrooms component in spatial relations (after all, this is what themselves and map out how the teachers interact makes them “critical”). For example, school spaces with students; how the students interact, or don’t, for young people are defined by restrictions and with each other; and how bodies are arranged and privileges. At certain times of the day students can arrange themselves. Expanding the scale, other only be in certain parts of the school property; simply researchers study school buildings and architectural being in a particular area can mean big trouble from layouts to see if the experiences of students are in adults. This shows how those that have power—in some way controlled by the physical nature of a this case, teachers and administrators—can define school campus. Many of these thinkers, for example, the limits of where youth can and cannot go. This suggest that racial segregation continues to happen in happens all the time in social relations. Furthermore, desegregated schools through the tracking of stu- young people themselves engage in similar practices. dents through certain classes and, therefore, through A common example could be how seating patterns in certain parts of the building. Still other researchers a school cafeteria are divided up. Although there are offer an analysis of schools that begins with the usually no official rules as to who sits where, stu- unequal system of school funding based on property dents typically think of certain areas as their own or, value and the taxes the states collect. How neighbor- sometimes dangerously, clearly belonging to another hoods themselves are segregated and how resources group. Critical geographers would think about all the spread out across school systems might be the basis factors that come into play in the process of making of their study. Critical geography, interested in com- those spatial divisions for students and then think ing to understand human interaction in all its com- about what those separations might mean in the plexity, would insist on an analysis that includes all development of their identities. these scales at once. Identity—commonly expressed in the question, While schools might be a place to start such study, “Who am I?”—involves how people come to see the- they should not be the markers of where to stop. mselves as individuals and as members of larger Many studies of youth and education tend to stop at society. Critical geographers suggest that this process the doorway of the school, failing to recognize how 402–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

young people both bring the world of their home and can be described objectively have all been widely neighborhood into the school every day but also how refuted (Gregory, 1994; Harvey, 1989; Massey, 1994, events in the school day are carried outside the four 1996; Said, 1978; Willinsky, 1998). Many scholars walls of school buildings. Very often, youth culture suggest that geography is humanly constructed and is simply divided into studies of school experiences that all forms of geography either reproduce or chal- and studies of rebellion—or what some call “devi- lenge particular knowledge, identity formations, and ance.” A critical geographer thinks that division is power relations (Thornton, 2003). Each interpreta- too simple an explanation or even description of the tion of the world, Stephen Thornton added, carries a lives of young people. Attention to the geographical series of explicit, implicit, and null assumptions, milieu also insists that trying to understand students’ values, and perspectives about what the world is and experiences in schools must include some under- should be. Sandra Schmidt (2010) suggested rem- standing of the spaces and places that the students nants of colonial and imperial thinking still function bring with them. In other words, we must know within secondary school geography curriculum in where kids are coming from. ways that are difficult for critical educators to over- Finally, some critical geographers suggest that if come, and William Gaudelli and Timothy Patterson an individual or group enjoys some degree of power, (2013) critiqued the Advanced Placement Human they then must be able to have some control of space Geography curriculum as serving to obscure spatial (Harvey, 2008). If this is true, then study of the relations of power and privilege. Seen this way, geog- spaces that are controlled by youth should become a raphy is inherently political and pedagogical, which part of our study of human geography. How students provokes such questions as: What world does geog- divide up the spaces of schools and neighborhoods raphy education make possible and intelligible, to shows how structures of power are at work within whom, how, to what ends, and with what conse- those groups and how the culture of those young quences? How does it position those it engages to people works. Assumptions about youth and what inter/act (or abstain from it) in the world, at what was once termed deviance no longer sufficiently scales, with what purposes? Who, in current societal explain the behaviors, cultures, or geographies of arrangements, has the power to “name” the world and young people. Rather, critical geography offers thus determine its meaning? What power arrange- another insight into the particular ways in which ments underlie the discourses made available in identity is formed as a process, how structures of geography education? Who does or does not get power operate on young people, and how youth privileged by them? culture responds to the places in which it resides. Critical geography begins with a reconsideration of the concepts of space and place. Critical geogra- phers such as Derek Gregory, David Harvey, Henri The Practical: Geography as Curriculum Lefebvre, Doreen Massey, and Edward Soja have pointed out the conceptual flaw in not seeing these References to community suggest a third body of expe- concepts as in relation and fluid. Soja (1980), for rience which should be represented in the curriculum- example, noted that space is commonly seen as making group: experience of the milieus in which the child’s learning will take place and in which its fruits “something physical and external to the social will be brought to bear. The relevant milieus are context . . . —its container—rather than a structure manifold. (Schwab, 1978, p. 366) created by society” (p. 210). They suggest that the relations, processes, and mutually constitutive nature It is the curriculum specialist who knows the concrete of the spatial milieu allow for a consideration of the embodiments, the material objects, which are the indis- ways in which meaning making and identity are putable constituents of a curriculum. (Schwab, 1978, pp. 368–369) entangled in a profoundly spatial context. The empha- sis on the embodiment of power and ideology in In spite of traditional geography’s tendency to pres- spaces and places allows for new considerations of ent itself as scientific and objective, the idea that structure and agency in social theory, or, as David geography is neutral, value-free, or that there is an Gruenewald (2003) offered, the hope then is that epistemological vantage point from which the world space and place become “the focus of critical social 49. Geographical Milieu–•–403

analysis” (p. 628). These positions then provide cur- disciplines largely define conceptions of school sub- riculum theorizing new openings as space and place jects, dating back from the turn of the century, are reexamined, an inquiry into what current under- although this dominance has been periodically ques- standings of them promote and inhibit and raise tioned (see Kliebard, 2004). The curriculum, depart- questions such as: How do we currently conceptual- ments, and school design itself become mapped onto ize space and place in our work and what are the the school grounds and into the experiences of stu- implications of those conceptions? What do these dents. Interdisciplinary work, while valued in schools conceptions help produce and/or mitigate among of education and theoretical exploration, still seems students, parents, teachers, and the community? How as something akin to a border-crossing. Indeed, one do they allow students to think, imagine, and be in of the latest and most persuasive buzzwords in the the world as they negotiate a sense of place? In what field is “curriculum mapping,” and all levels of edu- ways are global, economic forces impacting the cation employ this metaphor. Instead, critical schools and communities in which we work and how geographers of curriculum might begin with the do these shifts impact other conceptions of the role of acknowledgment that maps are dangerous. Maps, the school in a participatory democracy? and the borders they re/enforce, limit what is possi- Recognizing the role of language and social con- ble in situations, and “curriculum mapping” must be struction as well as the material in spatial relations aware of this. Critical geographers of curriculum requires an attention to ideological and cultural would also interrogate how power relations affect the forces and their impact on the larger social world. creation of such maps and ask who benefits from The focus here is only on what a few inherently inter- those maps. connected issues might mean for curriculum studies, Although often not claiming critical geography, by examining the ways in which discursive and there is a scholarly record of growing attention to the material interact in both curriculum and pedagogy special in educational research. A spatial approach within the geographical milieu. can be seem in the areas of “politics of location” (Freire, 1970), classroom geographies, cultural stud- ies approaches to education, as well as various eth- Curriculum as Geography: A Spatial Turn nographies about specific schools and the lives of students and teachers. There are books that address So what then would it mean to think of curriculum as geography as a subject, as in elementary education geography? The metaphors of mapping (cognitive (Sobel, 1998); secondary social studies education and curricular) appear in the discourse quite fre- (Kincheloe, 2001; Segall & Helfenbein, 2008); activ- quently, but this “spatial turn” implies new ways of ism, advocacy, and social justice movements looking at schools, schooling, and the lived experi- (Harvey, 1996; Soja, 2010); and education for social ence in education. Only recently (and rarely) has justice (Kenreich, 2013). Other books have taken on there been a recognition that, to understand the com- the notion of place, such as Joe Kincheloe and plexity of educative spaces, one needs a more open, William Pinar’s Curriculum as Social Psychoanaly- fluid understanding of schools as spaces and places sis (1991) and Peter McLaren’s Life in Schools (see Buendía & Ares, 2006; Ellis, 2004; Helfenbein, (1993). Shared concerns with critical geography 2010). Jan Nespor (1997) eloquently described the coincide with this work, for example, identity and school as a “tangled web of practices” including con- power in relation to place. While coming from a dif- textual considerations as well as multiple, moving ferent theoretical trajectory, the language of critical political agendas that all impact the people that inter- geographers is evoked in Hongyu Wang’s (2004) act with them (see also Tate, 2008). This type of The Call From the Stranger on a Journey Home. One analysis, however, requires an inquiry that takes into of today’s eminent scholars in curriculum theory, consideration multiple scales of relations and turns Pinar (2004), wrote, “public education is, by defini- the analytic focus to the interaction among these tion, a political, psycho-social, fundamentally forces. The geographies of school curriculum intellectual reconstruction of self and society, a pro- are most visible in the ways in which the subjects cess in which educators occupy public and private themselves are mapped, bordered, and defined. The spaces in between the academic disciplines and the 404–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

state (and problems) of mass culture, between intel- the responses to global economic forces by multiple lectual development and social engagement, between levels of government and business interests. Urban erudition and everyday life” (p. 1). settings provide the most condensed site for analyses It would seem that exploring critical geography as of these processes, and urban education reform connected to these efforts may provide generative exhibits all of the characteristics of changing spa- explication and new directions for the work to pro- tial ordering and prioritization and the impact of ceed. The complexities of these webs are formida- demographic and socioeconomic shifts. ble, but understanding the tensions, contradictions, competitions, and congregations within them is necessary to recognize myriad forces that influence Geography, Curriculum, and students’ lives. Such understanding is vital to efforts Globalization aimed at creating new and positive possibilities for students, particularly in places where students are Increasingly, globalization as a term is being dis- bound by constrictive fetters and oppressive snares cussed in educational research settings, in many that limit educational achievement in relation to the ways taken as a given that precludes careful examina- communities in which they live. tion. Attendant terms such as neoliberalism and An example might illuminate the contemporary neoconservatism are also bandied about in conversa- scene. The key curriculum question remains, although tions and presentations at professional meetings. not untroubled, “What knowledge is of most worth?” However, the implications—and for that matter, (Pinar, 2004; Spencer, 1861), and, as schools cannot contested nature of all of these terms—rarely seem to teach everything, the process of curriculum design is enter into the analysis. For those interested in the exclusionary by nature. But two seemingly contra- geographical milieu and critical educational projects dictory forces are at work in contemporary urban writ large, globalization and its attendant terms hold school and curriculum reform: the global and the significant potential for research. local. The global question focuses on a 21st-century Taylor (2005), in talking about the theoretical economy and how students will enter the workforce. possibilities opened up by critical geography in the The rhetoric of the global revolves around new con- field of composition studies, defined the role of criti- ditions of a globalized economy and how schools are cal educators as “ultimately about disorientation, “behind the curve.” Simultaneously, an increased reorientation, [and] a more useful psychogeographi- rhetoric on teaching “urban kids” and, stated even cal mapping” (p. 4). This could also be suggested as more specifically, Black and Hispanic students, turns a description of what teachers do every time they try attention toward localized spaces and particular to get students to think. But perhaps more interest- populations. Small schools, resurgence in vocational ingly, this descriptor of critical education follows education, culturally relevant pedagogy, school precisely the nature of capital in the post–Cold War choice, and charter schools are all offered as poten- socioeconomic present. Globalization—or, compel- tial answers. But of course, curriculum reform with lingly in my view, Empire, as described by Michael an ear to the global workplace and the particular Hardt and Antonio Negri (2000, 2004)—moves needs of the local community presents challenges through the process of disorientation (or deterritori- that must be addressed by the “yes, and” rather than alization), reorientation (reterritorialization), and the “either or.” mapping. I ponder: Critical geography, or the geography of the “yes, Globalization is the pulsing extension of the contradic- and,” insists on attention to both the global and the tory processes of capital throughout the spatial realm. local, not only in the sense of assessing needs of the By offering the descriptor “pulsing” I suggest that future citizens and workers of communities, but also these forces extend and retract—what Lefebvre calls in the critical understanding of present conditions in the “incessant to-and-fro”—in the hopes of new mar- which students, teachers, and parents find themselves kets, the reinscription of old ones, and the extraction of markets where there once were none which becomes (see Helfenbein, 2010). The localized context of job a point important to the connection to public educa- opportunities, obstacles to academic achievement, tion. Lefebvre (2003) argues that fundamentally these and even school funding are in no way separate from processes follow the broadly conceived characteristics 49. Geographical Milieu–•–405

of urbanization. As these processes extend through simply pointing out the complexity of any spatial the spatial, we see the urbanization of everything. analysis but also points to two important distinctions: (Helfenbein, 2011, p. 323) (1) the subjectivity of our relationship to spaces, and (2) the lack of guarantee, or determinism, in the Implications for thinking about the social milieu nature of both social and spatial production. Taking then in specifically spatial terms reside in the bed- up these two distinctions and their subsequent objects rock of research in critical curriculum studies: What of analysis (e.g., power, identity, positionality, the knowledge is of most worth? Who gets to decide and border, and, perhaps most importantly, a rethinking what forces are at work in that decision? And how of the global and the local) provides the grounding are the impacts of those decisions lived by those for a curriculum study of the geographical milieu. affected? This chapter offers possible ways in which critical The spatial in all theorizing, and specifically in geography can inform the work of scholars in cur- social education curriculum, requires that we speak riculum, cultural studies, and beyond. Beginning to notions of space as a concept. with defining contemporary theorizations of space, Space is a medium—and the changing way in which we place, power, and identity relevant to curriculum understand, practice and live in terms of our space pro- studies, the intent was to show how diverse efforts in vides clues to how our capitalist world of nation-states “taking space seriously” (Helfenbein & Taylor, is giving way to an unanticipated geopolitics—a new 2009, p. 236) bring new and productive ways to sense of our relation to our bodies, world and planets as understand the lived experience of schools and its a changing space of distance and difference. (Shields, 1999, p. 147) relationship with the geographical milieu. Not only does this trajectory offer insight into geography as Shields reinforced recent directions in geographic curriculum, but it also suggests thinking of curricu- theory and recognizes that space is productive, the lum as geography in the hopes of creating and open- conduit for, and the product of social relations. ing up new understandings within the context of an This multifaceted characterization serves more than increasingly globalized world.

References and Further Readings Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2000). Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Buendía, E., & Ares, N. (2006). Geographies of Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2004). Multitude: War and difference: The social production of the east side, democracy in the age of empire. New York, NY: west side, and central city school. New York, NY: Penguin. Peter Lang. Harvey, D. (1989). The condition of postmodernity: Ellis, J. (2004). The significance of place in the An enquiry into the origins of cultural change. curriculum of children’s everyday lives. Taboo: The Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. Journal of Culture and Education, 8(1), 23–42. Harvey, D. (1996). Justice, nature, and the geography of Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, difference. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. NY: Continuum. Harvey, D. (2008). The right to the city. New Left Gaudelli, W., & Patterson, T. (2013). “It’s just Review, 53, 23–40. geography”: Critical geography and a critique of Helfenbein, R. (2006). Space, place, and identity in the advanced placement human geography. teaching of history: Using critical geography to teach In T. W. Kenreich (Ed.), Geography and social teachers in the American South. In A. Segall, justice in the classroom (pp. 114–128). New York, E. Heilman, & C. Cherryholmes (Eds.), Social NY: Routledge. studies—the next generation: Re-searching in the Gieryn, (2000). A space for place in sociology. Annual postmodern (pp. 111–124). New York, NY: Review of Sociology, 26, 463–496. Peter Lang. Gregory, D. (1994). Geographical imaginations. Helfenbein, R. (2009). Critical geographies of education. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. In E. F. Provenzo Jr. & A. B. Provenzo (Eds.), Gruenewald, D. (2003). The best of both worlds: Encyclopedia of the social and cultural foundations A critical pedagogy of place. Educational of education (pp. 192–193). Thousand Oaks, CA: Researcher, 32(4), 3–12. Sage. 406–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Helfenbein, R. (2010). Thinking through scale: Critical Schmidt, S. (2010). Bringing the other closer to home: geography and curriculum spaces. In E. Malewski The challenges of geography in the postcolony. (Ed.), Curriculum studies handbook: The next Critical Literacy: Theories and Practices, 4(1), moment (pp. 304–317). New York, NY: Routledge. 29–47. Helfenbein, R. (2011). The urbanization of everything: Schwab, J. J. (1978). Science, curriculum, and liberal Thoughts on globalization and education. education: Selected essays. Chicago, IL: University In S. Tozer, B. Gallegos, & A. Henry (Eds.), of Chicago Press. Handbook of research in social foundations of Segall, A., & Helfenbein, R. (2008). Research on K-12 education. New York, NY: Routledge. geography education. In L. Levstik & C. Tyson Helfenbein, R., & Taylor, L. H. (Eds.). (2009). Critical (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies geographies in/of education [Special issue]. education (pp. 259–283). New York, NY: Educational Studies 45(3), 236–239. Routledge. Kenreich, T. W. (Ed.). (2013). Geography and social Shields, R. (1999). Lefevbre, love and struggle. justice in the classroom. New York, NY: Routledge. New York, NY: Routledge. Kincheloe, J. (2001). Getting beyond the facts: Teaching Sobel, D. (1998). Mapmaking with children: Sense of social studies/social sciences in the twenty-first place education for the elementary years. New York, century. New York, NY: Peter Lang. NY: Heinemann. Kincheloe, J., & Pinar, W. (Eds.). (1991). Curriculum as Soja, E. W. (1980). The socio-spatial dialectic. Annals of social psychoanalysis: The significance of place. the Association of American Geographers, 70, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 207–225. Kliebard, H. M. (2004). The struggle for the American Soja, E. W. (2010). Seeking spatial justice. Minneapolis, curriculum, 1893–1958. New York, NY: MN: University of Minnesota Press. RoutledgeFalmer. Spencer, H. (1861). Education: Intellectual, moral, and Lefebvre, H. (1992). The production of space. Malden, physical. New York, NY: D. Appleton & Company. MA: Blackwell. Tate, W. F. (2008). “Geography of opportunity”: Poverty, Massey, D. (1994). Space, place, and gender. place, and educational out-comes. Educational Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Researcher, 37, 397–411. Massey, D. (1996). The conceptualization of place. Taylor, H. (2005). Gimme some space: How composition In D. Massey & P. Jess (Eds.), A place in the can benefit from critical geography. Paper presented world?: Places, cultures, and globalization at the Annual Meeting of the American Association (pp. 45–86). New York, NY: Oxford University for the Advancement of Curriculum Studies, Press. Montreal, QC. McLaren, P. (1993). Life in schools: An introduction to Thornton, S. J. (2003). Placing geography: Moving critical pedagogy in the foundations of education beyond the past in social studies education. Paper (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Nespor, J. (1997). Tangled up in school: Politics, space, Council for the Social Studies, Chicago, IL. bodies, and signs in educational process. Mahwah, Wang, H. (2004). The call from the stranger on a journey NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. home: Curriculum in a third space. New York, NY: Pinar, W. (2004). What is curriculum theory? Mahwah, Peter Lang. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Willinsky, J. (1998). Learning to divide the world: Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism: Western conceptions of Education at empire’s end. Minneapolis, MN: the Orient. New York, NY: Penguin Books. University of Minnesota Press. 50

POPULAR CULTURAL MILIEU ILLUSTRATED THROUGH A HIP-HOP CULTURALLY VALUES-DRIVEN PEDAGOGY

SUNNI ALI Northeastern Illinois University

KIMYA BARDEN Northeastern Illinois University

Pac,” “Lil Wayne,” and “Lil’ Kim” enter benefits of having a 2Pac, Lil Wayne, and Lil’ Kim in your classroom. They seem to be high on a classroom when the curriculum is engaging. The “2marijuana; are dressed in modern, hip use of a hip-hop culturally responsive pedagogy and attire; and are fashionably late to your classroom. As curriculum helps involve and intellectually influence always, they like to sit in the back of the room talk- the academic engagement of “challenged” minority ing, laying their heads down onto the desk, or “chill- learners within a classroom (Emdin, 2010). The ing” nonresponsively to the lessons taking place enactment of this effective, engaging, and responsive within your setting. Does this sound familiar? It curriculum can address concerns about students with should, as numerous studies have raised concern social-emotional issues or school-related problems. about the critical engagement, initiative, and perfor- The “real” strengths of providing students with a hip- mance of low-income minority students, particularly hop culturally values-driven (CVD) curriculum—a those attending urban schools. Absenteeism and derivative of culturally relevant and responsive dropout rates among low-income minority students pedagogy—is that it materializes success through raise concerns about their attitudes toward curriculum engaging students’ investment with the classroom and instruction. Many low-income urban minority practice, addresses their attitudes toward the learning youth appear to have no connection with or interest in process, and builds relational capital among partici- schooling and the learning process (Shujja, 1996). pants in the academic environment (Ali & Ryan, Despite these challenges, there are a lot of positive 2013), which is the focus of this chapter.

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Contemporary Concerns and Contexts with peers and teachers, display a persistent depres- sive mood, and/or are diagnosed with schizophrenia. Educators are no longer charged with implementing While emotional disturbances manifest broadly the proverbial “reading, writing, and arithmetic” across students, African Americans and males are pedagogy alone. American schools and classrooms overrepresented in receiving services in schools have increasingly become sites for teachers to adopt under this category. The implications for inner city multiple identities and expertise that extend beyond teachers in large cities such as Chicago, New York, traditional content instruction to include “teaching” and Los Angeles are particularly noteworthy as these about concepts such as social justice, social responsi- school districts are more likely to instruct and bility, and social-emotional development. The latter “label” African Americans, males in particular, as concept is particularly salient as American class- emotionally disturbed. rooms are increasingly populated with diverse learn- In addition to manifestations of social-emotional ers with diverse social-emotional needs, which impact health, teachers are also privy to community factors student learning, engagement, and responsiveness. that impact children’s social-emotional develop- Social-emotional development can be understood ment. Community-based violence, in particular, as a symbiotic relationship with self and other social may impact students’ ability to learn. In a path- beings. It is a set of competencies that focuses on the breaking study on violence, Carl C. Bell and Esther ability to (1) identify and understand one’s own feel- J. Jenkins (1991) described three types of commu- ings, (2) manage strong emotions and their expres- nity-based violent experiences that impact Chicago sion in a constructive manner, (3) develop empathy youth: victimization, witnessing, and hearing. Vic- for others, and (4) establish and maintain interper- timization is a form of direct violence and includes sonal relationships (Cooley-Strickland et al., 2009). deliberate acts intended to cause harm or death. Many teachers and schools are now charged with Witnessing and hearing about violence can be con- cultivating and disseminating “social skills” curricu- sidered a form of indirect violence with the former lum designed to complement traditional instruction conceptualized as observing harmful interpersonal with the hopes of developing students’ competencies acts firsthand and the latter experienced aurally in both academic subjects and pro-social responsive- through hearsay, conversation, and even radio news ness to other human beings. National initiatives such programs. According to Julie L. Crouch and col- as the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emo- leagues (2000), race is a strong predictor of children tional Learning (CASEL) speak to the primacy of witnessing violence with 57% of the African Ameri- schools as receptacles for promoting social-emotional can children witnessing violence compared to 50% development as its mission is “to help make evi- of the Latinos and 34% of the Caucasians (Crouch et dence-based social and emotional learning an inte- al., 2000). Furthermore, this trinity of community gral part of education from preschool through high violent experiences can interfere with student school” (CASEL, 2014). learning and engagement and contribute to mental Despite teachers having a conceptual understand- health challenges such as anxiety, depression, and ing of social-emotional development garnered in substance abuse (Cooley-Strickland et al., 2009). formal postsecondary education, many, particularly Although media found online can serve as class- those who teach in urban, inner cities, lament how to room resources for educators and students, recent best support students who need extensive social- scholarship also suggests the plethora of media, par- emotional support. According to the Center for Pub- ticularly social media, consumed by students impacts lic Education (n.d.), 5.7 million children aged 6 to 12 their social, emotional (or social-emotional), and received special education services under the Indi- intellectual development (Buckingham, 2007). Youth viduals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in and adolescents’ affinity for following friends and the fall of 2008. More importantly, 7.2%, or over celebrities on social media sites such as Facebook, 400,000 American children, were diagnosed with an Instagram, and Twitter may lead to depression and emotional disturbance. Under the IDEA, children anxiety (O’Keefe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Frequent with emotional disturbances include those who lack perusing of such sites in isolation distinguished by the ability to maintain interpersonal relationships continuously viewing the lifestyles of peers and 50. Popular Cultural Milieu–•–409

celebrities may compromise feelings of self-esteem transfer their experiences, values, and perspectives to and generate feelings of self-doubt for some youth. academic learning outcomes (Gillborn & Ladson- Hypersexualized content of music videos, social Billings, 2009). According to researchers, a cultur- media “posts,” and “sexting” can lead to premature ally relevant education model allows students to sexual experiences and feelings of confusion and personalize their learning experiences while improv- social withdrawal. Cyber-bullying, a form of peer-to- ing their perspective toward school (Perry, Steele, & peer digital harassment, has been shown to increase Hilliard, 2003). As a practice, when educators are student’s depression, anxiety, and even lead to able to construct a curriculum integrating hip-hop suicide attempts (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). messaging, it presents meaning and value for young Thus, to support students formally diagnosed with people. Students’ cultural language, view, and per- emotional challenges, students undiagnosed yet still spectives from hip-hop only strengthen literacy and exhibiting emotional disturbances due to community social studies learning opportunities. violence, and students subconsciously impacted by incessant media consumption, schools and teachers Instructional Vibrancy must begin to summon innovative teaching practices. Given technology’s increasing influence on Ameri- When adopting a hip-hop culturally responsive can children, using hip-hop as a form of pedagogy pedagogy, the curriculum establishes an art-integrated may support positive social-emotional development practice because of the injection of creative auditory among youth to aid in classroom engagement, and visual stimuli into the academic setting. This processing, and content mastery. helps connect students with the lessons being taught (Kitwana, 2002). There exists vibrancy and “elastic impression” on students to relate to what the teacher Theoretical Perspectives for Developing is doing in the classroom when hip-hop emerges as a CVD Curriculum and Pedagogy part of the study or educational lesson. Several studies by Marc Lamont Hill and Emery Petchauer (2014) What exactly is a curriculum and pedagogy that is reviewed classroom cultures that infused lyrics into CVD and how can it be used to empower a hip-hop their literacy assignments. Students not only evalu- perspective? Essentially a CVD model allows educa- ated the context and inferences used from the lyrics tors to listen to students’ needs, address those needs, but also were able to deconstruct the narrative or mes- and connect an educator to a student’s culture. Les- sage delivered by the artist. Educators applying this sons within the classroom are tailored to support the practice of connecting students to literacy eventually community in a more meaningful way by adding align the information to required text or readings. students’ voices and cultural perspectives to the For example, educators can infuse the East and instructional narrative. This model of teaching allows West Coast lyrical hip-hop rivalries into the study of the educator to learn who the students are and to literature by comparing them to Beowulf’s boast relate the curriculum to their needs. What makes this poem of how this medieval epic hero victoriously an effective pedagogy is that it provides youth with defeated his adversary Grendel. 2Pac (1996) declared more options within a learning environment. Apply- in his song “Hail Mary”: ing a hip-hop perspective to this pedagogy empowers I’m a ghost in these killin’ fields/Hail Mary catch young people’s ability to navigate through a curricu- me if I go, let’s go deep inside/The solitary mind of lum integrating their experiences and social observa- a madman who screams in the dark/Evil lurks, tions within an educational community. In particular, enemies, see me flee/Activate my hate, let it break, the usage of a CVD model incorporating a hip-hop to the flame/Set trip, empty out my clip, never stop modality in a literacy or social studies class has the to aim. potential to increase minority students’ level of It sounds similar to the message in Beowulf engagement, classroom dialogue, and intellectual declaring: participation within the academic setting. This learn- ing model further provides minority youth a connect- Death is not easily escaped/Try it who will/But every ing bridge to school because youth are better able to living soul among the children of men dwelling upon 410–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

the earth goeth of necessity/Unto his destined place their landscape background, it communicates the where the body/Fast in its narrow bed, sleepeth after notion that nobody cares about their suffering. When feast. (Raffel, 1963, p. 61) Lil Wayne raps that “Everybody wanna tell me what I need,” and the condition hardly improves, it forces Bringing together these passages allows an instruc- people to either “live by the sword and die by the tor to compare and contrast 2Pac’s death premoni- sword” or better yet smoke “weed” to mentally tions with Beowulf’s epic battle eulogy (Hill & escape their living hell (Lil Wayne, 2013; Smith et Petchauer, 2014). al., 2012). Students residing in many poor urban The fact that 2Pac’s lyrics can be harnessed and communities completely identify and relate to this used within the framework of a classroom environ- video’s message and as a result emphatically com- ment supports the idea and notion that learning is prehend the lesson objective. Similar to Lil Wayne, reciprocal and both a traditional and modern fabric of students discover the reality that Lower Ninth Ward the past. Instructionally relating and connecting 2Pac residents share with Somalian and Serbian refugees. lyrics to Old English, Medieval literature, and ideas Furthermore, students can visually see how people in is intriguing enough to make supposedly challenged the Lower Ninth Ward have a second-class citizen- students relate to hip-hop machismo. ship status parallel to poor people living in a third- A hip-hop curriculum also provides teachers with world country. Recall the day when the levees broke, the opportunity to utilize visual stimuli, which fur- leaving poor African Americans extremely vulnera- ther promotes students’ engagement with instruc- ble, and media outlets referred to these individuals as tional lessons. Some teachers within urban school refugees (Horne, 2006). The hip-hop video lesson environments have been using hip-hop videos as articulates for students their own experiences and “instructional hooks” to empower students’ connec- challenges living within disadvantaged African tion to their educational lessons (Smith, Jackson, American neighborhoods. A teacher’s instruction Kitwana, & Pollard III, 2012). For instance, students becomes transformative when students are able to in a class on world history can refer to Lil Wayne’s connect or relate an excitable “hip” video’s imagery “God Bless Amerika” video to discuss how war and to lessons about world poverty and global disasters. natural disasters are the leading factors causing refu- This not only empowered students’ voice and “buy gee problems (Crawford, 2014). Teachers can con- in” to learn about global causes and effects defining vey to students that people with minimal disposable a refugee but also provided a visual window of ines- resources are more deeply impacted by global capable opportunity to synthesize the teacher’s tragedies. instructional motive or intent. To more effectively explain the instructional per- spective, educators can display hip-hop video imag- Literacy Skills ery of New Orleans’ Lower Ninth Ward conditions in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Using Lil The effective use of a hip-hop pedagogy builds Wayne’s “God Bless Amerika” video would allow upon students’ vocabulary pedigree and literary skills. students to identify and explain the way poor African Some curriculums are now applying hip-hop lyrics to American Katrina victims were treated like refugees translate literary poetic devices such as allusion, allit- by their government similar to war refugees from eration, kenning, or metaphors to advance students’ Somalia or Serbia. The only difference is that Katrina comprehension of British English. When Romeo said victims encountered a disastrous flood from several to Juliet, “From forth the fatal loins of these two levees collapsing, while civil war forced Somalian foes/A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life/ and Serbian people into destitute conditions. Whose misadventure piteous overthrows/Doth with When Lil Wayne (2013) said, “God bless Amerika, their death bury their parents,” it applied the poetic This so godless Amerika, I heard tomorrow ain’t device of allusion comparable with Lupe’s vernacular promised today, And I’m smoking on them flowers, expression that “Yeah, I am back up on the air- catch the bouquet,” while children in the video waves/Feeling like a Soldier and I ain’t talking where appear poor and hungry coming from deplorable the Bears play/Flair, look how I Fred Astaire down housing conditions with an American flag draped as the staircases/It’s finna be a hair-raising tortoise 50. Popular Cultural Milieu–•–411

versus hare race” (Lupe Fiasco, 2006; Shake- critically contradicts this argument supporting the speare, 2014, p. 32). Many educators are applying viewpoint that students learn better when they speak hip-hop to teach poetry and classic literary works and translate conversations from their own realities. to engage students’ focus toward such lessons. When students are translating and decoding instruc- Hip-hop colloquial expressions or words have tion from their lens, Delpit (2006) referred to this also been used to advance the literary culture of the type of learning as “biculturality.” This means stu- United States (Emdin, 2010). It is ironic to find what dents have a language system of their own that was once thought of as “Black slang” is now an requires valuing and adherence if learning is to actu- acceptable contemporary vernacular. Words like ally take place within a standard classroom setting. flex, buggin, dope, or homie are now exercised as When this occurs, a classroom becomes authenti- everyday linguistic terminology to personify an cated and real because students are intellectually object or express people’s emotions or attitude about qualifying academic concepts based upon their something. Essentially the hip-hop art form has linguistic understanding (Perry et al., 2003). helped many Americans discover their cultural lin- guistic self. When language is expressed as an art Restoring a Connection form, it better connects students to lessons and enriches a curriculum’s objective (Delpit, 2006). A hip-hop CVD model allows students’ inner There are multiple ways hip-hop can communi- human and cultural experiences to materialize within cate language by shifting different terms to translate the physical space of a classroom. When students are a message. If applied to instruction, students could provided opportunities of self-expression, they are translate and decode traditional English into their educated to learn how classroom instruction con- own cultural message. In other words, “rap” vocabu- nects with their own lived experiences and environ- lary is used to create a new reality with the way ments. Lawrence Krisna Parker, known by the stage students accurately understand and describe their name KRS-One, expounded on this saying: comprehension of classroom lessons. Lisa Delpit This of course, is in no way a degradation of math and (2006) and Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa science. But if math and science are not put in their Hilliard III (2003) discussed how cultural language proper intellectual places, real HipHop as well as the should advance the educational experience to pro- nature of one’s true reality will be impossible to vide students with a better opportunity to express comprehend. (2013, p. 17) their understanding and synthesis of subject matter. Math and science, according to KRS-One, as This model actually facilitates higher learning expe- authentic “sciences,” should be used to help students riences within the classroom because students speak perceive the importance of learning these brilliant and interpret from a “voice” of instructional under- pedagogies rather than believing they are somehow standing. It increases students’ involvement and obscure or disconnected experiences. Math is used participation within the learning arena. Some critics every day when, for example, spending money or suggest teaching using African American vernacular, thinking about how to access power, whereas science sometimes referred to as Ebonics, simply reinforces assists in cooking or nourishing one’s body. In other nonstandard English. However, a CVD pedagogy words, both of these fields have to be applied and stresses the importance of educators allowing stu- shown to students to demonstrate how they contribute dents to utilize their cultural dialect in academic to their intellectual wherewithal. spaces to effectively communicate their ideas and When students perceive learning as a part of their understanding of instructional lessons. To do so reality, it causes them to want to learn more. The inevitably grants minority learners with more access problem, from Paulo Freire’s (2000) belief, is that far to engage academia (Perry & Delpit, 1998). Simi- too many subject areas are taught as an abstract con- larly some scholars believe this language conceptual cept instead of an applied approach. History, science, model incapacitates students’ ability to translate the math, and English are viewed as separated fragments standard language system into academic and profes- of each other rather than interdisciplinary units of sional success. Such an argument has been widely the same field. All of these subjects should be uti- addressed for a number of years. Hip-hop linguistics lized and connected to students’ educational 412–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM experiences by way of project-based learning oppor- Transformative Learning, Modes tunities. Whatever learners are currently studying in of Expression, and Forms of Inquiry history should already apply to what they are learn- ing in English, science, and math. Freire asserts this 2Pac, Lil Wayne, and Lil’ Kim return to class the next is a type of classical education where fields of study day excited from experiencing yesterday’s hip-hop are seen as organic experiences versus an abstract CVD lesson. Not only were they involved in develop- study. ing an interdisciplinary project-based assignment KRS-One addresses this issue when he teaches between their English and social studies classes read- about the origins of hip-hop as a cultural movement. ing Erik Larson’s Devil in the White City (2004), but As it relates to history, KRS-One discusses Afrika also they seemed highly engaged with the Bambaataa’s architecture and engineering of a cul- art-integrated lessons utilized within the classroom. tural movement that blended math, science, and 2Pac is examining the murder mystery of English. From the standpoint of cleaning up or H. H. Holmes’s crimes as depicted in the book and redeeming parts of New York’s urban culture that developing poetic letters expressing the killer’s had been abandoned by mainstream society, Bam- intentions for committing mass murder. Lil Wayne is baataa used music as a source to teach people how reading a section of the book with his peers about the they could transform their lives. Embedded within skeletal wages and hazardous work assignments this musical narrative is a powerful lesson of how immigrant employees received to build and design people used graffiti or “tagging” to beautify aban- the “White City” for the Chicago World’s Fair in doned, burnt-out apartment complexes scattered 1893. Lil Wayne’s task is to write diary entries of throughout the Bronx and Brooklyn that were delib- an immigrant who worked on the White City. The erately destroyed by arsonist landlords to collect teachers have agreed he can use poetry or any other insurance claims. To exorcise illicit and criminal creative writing styles to complete the diary, includ- activities normalized within these abandoned build- ing Internet blogs, Facebook posts, memoirs, or a ings’ interiors and courtyards, Bambaataa produced television skit. Lil’ Kim is studying several cases of and performed parties (Parker, 2013). As an English missing women the serial killer is suspected of lesson, poetry with its multiple literary devices edu- murdering. Her assignment is to role-play a woman cated and entertained people about their cultural who escaped Holmes’s death traps and report on the history and the principles of community empower- mysteries of his dwellings and personality. Again, the ment. Rent parties emerged to support families in teacher is allowing her to apply creative writing need. Aesthetic graffiti became a necessary tool to concepts such as notebook, dialogue, protagonist, manifest innate natural talents to reclaim forgotten point of view, and plot to express her comprehension spaces. Disc jockeys like Kool DJ Herc and Grand and synthesis of Holmes and the female victims he Master Flash engineered their record turntables murdered. Other students are applying science to applying science and math, using thrown-away determine the chemical Holmes used to incapacitate mechanical parts from industrial lots and janitorial his victims, or utilizing geometry to erect a building garbage to develop the “cut and scratch” dual tech- onto the campus of the White City. These kinds of nique of playing music. Hip-hop, to become a suc- popular cultural milieu, and the artistry involved, cess, applied an interdisciplinary methodology to inevitably are modes of expression. Viewed in this proactively engage its clientele and community. It way, the hip-hop artist 2Pac and other artists changed the way today’s youth express their atti- can be seen as educational scholars, theorists, or tudes and the way they behave in the classroom and researchers. in their neighborhoods. Teachers should apply an The ability of students to experience voice in a interdisciplinary, project-based, CVD learning classroom radically materializes desired learning construct as an instructional strategy to improve the outcomes, which represents the true intent of engagement of minority learners. Without orches- transformative education (Ladson-Billings, 2005). trating a direct, interdisciplinary response to students, 2Pac, the stage name for Tupac Shakur, at one point they will continue to remain disengaged, discon- in his life attended a performing arts school in Balti- nected, and unexpressed within many standard more where he studied the works of Shakespeare, classroom settings. Machiavelli, Nietzsche, and Hegel. These literary 50. Popular Cultural Milieu–•–413

texts and the associated philosophies had a deep (e.g., Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Denzin, Lincoln, & impact on 2Pac’s viewpoints and beliefs (Rose, Tuhiwai Smith, 2008) to capture key features of popu- 2013). At the Baltimore Performing Art Academy, lar cultural milieu in its many forms, or hip-hop peda- 2Pac participated in plays, designed visual sets, gogy in particular, it is possible to argue that hip-hop applied poetic devices, and so forth, to express his artists are theorists and researchers in popular culture understanding of academic lessons. 2Pac discusses who have, in fact, developed their own forms of the- the impact this sort of curriculum had upon him ory and inquiry that are true to the medium they cre- when he says: ate. Whereas the forms of expression are incorporated into the work of the hip-hop artists, many scholars There should be a class on drugs. There should be a study the popular cultural milieu in various ways. For class on sex education, a real sex education class. Not just pictures and diaphragms and un-logical terms and instance, educational researchers use anthropological things like that. . . . There should be a class on scams, forms of ethnographic methods to study hip-hop cur- there should be a class on religious cults, there should be riculum and pedagogy (Hill, 2009). Greg Dimitriadis a class on police brutality, there should be a class on (2001/2009) conducted an ethnography of hip-hop apartheid, there should be on racism in America, there culture at a community center. Similarly, both David should be a class on why people are hungry, but there Stovall (2006) and Marc Lamont Hill (2009) used are not, there’s class on gym, you know, physical educa- tion. . . . Actually they should be teaching you English, ethnographic methods to study critical hip-hop peda- and then teaching you how to understand double-talk, gogy in high school settings. Ernest Morell and Jef- politicians’ double-talk. (Tupac Shakur, 2013) frey Duncan-Andrade (2002) narratively documented their work engaging youth through hip-hop to teach For 2Pac, education is not or should never be just traditional and canonical texts. Other scholars such as about abstract concepts inherited within subject matters. Carol Lee (2007) have guided the study of hip-hop Rather it should address the needs of a community and the popular cultural milieu through what Lee has while teaching students how to translate assignments called cultural modeling. into their perspectives. When students become investi- gative clinicians and participants of their own learning, The whole issue of responding to popular cultural they transform into intellectual scholar warriors (Rose, milieu in curriculum would require book-length 2013). A hip-hop CVD allows students to speak from treatment. In fact, this has been done in another their own voices, vernacular, and understanding with- handbook (Sandlin, Schultz, & Burdick, 2010). In out any racial or subjective judgments cast toward this chapter, we illustrate how hip-hop, one highly them. It beckons them to seek out meaning, under- influential dimension of the popular cultural milieu, standing, and clarity, which adds value to their lived can become culturally relevant by employing a CVD experiences. More important, it builds efficacy and pedagogy. In doing so we acknowledge that this cultural capital in learners and helps them to find real pedagogy is derived from culturally responsive meaning and purpose of education. teaching as characterized by Gloria Ladson-Billings Questions remain: Do 2Pac and other hip-hop art- (1994), who has continued to develop this approach ists’ lyrics and intellectual philosophy actually reflect through hip-hop as elaborated on her websites at the a modality of inquiry? If 2Pac can be considered a University of Wisconsin. A central point of this philosopher, educator, and theorizer, can the represen- chapter is that culturally relevant and highly educative tations in his music not be a form of inquiry in and of dimensions of popular culture can be the basis for themselves? While one could and should turn to the curriculum in a diverse array of subjects and educa- arts-based research of Tom Barone and Elliot Eisner tional contexts. It can engage student experiences (2012), or many other forms of qualitative inquiry and invigorate their aspirations to excel.

References and Further Readings Ali, S., & Ryan, M. (2013). Merging and creating culturally relevant pedagogy in public education. Afterschool Alliance. (2009). America after 3 pm. The Journal of Research Initiatives, 1(1), 40–46. most in-depth study of how America’s children spend Asante, M. K. (2009). It’s bigger than hip-hop: The rise their afternoons. Retrieved from http://www of the post-hip-hop generation. New York, NY: .afterschoolalliance.org St. Martin’s Griffin. 414–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Barone, T., & Eisner, E. W. (2012). Arts based research. Hill, M. L. (2009). Beats, rhymes, and classroom life: Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hip-hop pedagogy and the politics of identity. Bell, C. C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1991). Traumatic stress and New York, NY: Teachers College Press. children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Hill, M. L., & Petchauer, E. (2014). Schooling hip-hop: Underserved, 2, 175–188. Expanding hip-hop based education across the Buckingham, D. (2007). Youth, identity, and digital curriculum. New York, NY: Teachers College media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Press. Center for Public Education. (n.d.). How many students Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, with disabilities are in our schools? Retrieved from cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide http://www.data-first.org/data/how-many-students- Research, 14, 206–212. with-disabilities-are-in-our-schools/ Horne, J. (2006). Breach of faith: Hurricane Katrina and Clay, A. (2012). The hip-hop generation fights back: the near death of a great American city. New York, Youth, activism and post-civil rights politics. NY: Random House. New York, NY: New York University Press. Kitwana, B. (2002). The hip-hop generation. New York, Collaborative for Academic Social Emotional Learning NY: Basic Civitas. (CASEL). (n.d.). Collaborative for academic social Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: emotional learning. Retrieved from http://www Successful teachers of African American children. .casel.org/about/ San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Cooley-Strickland, M., Quille, T. J., Griffin, R. S., Stuart, Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). Beyond the big house: E. A., Bradshaw, C. P., & Furr-Holden, D. (2009). African American educators on teacher education. Community violence and youth: Affect, behavior, New York, NY: Teachers College Press. substance use, and academics. Clinical Child Family Larson, E. (2004). The devil in the white city: A saga of Psychological Review, 12(2), 127–156. magic and murder at the fair that changed America. Crawford, B. (2014). Writin’ dirty: An anthology. New York, NY: Vintage. New York, NY: Byron Crawford. Lee, C. (2007). Culture, literacy, and learning: Taking Crouch, J. L., Hanson, R. F., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, bloom in the midst of the whirlwind. New York, NY: D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2000). Income, race/ Teachers College Press. ethnicity, and exposure to violence in youth: Results Lil Wayne. (2013, March 25). Lil Wayne takes it “Back to from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of His Roots” on “I am not a human being II.” Rolling Community Psychology, 28, 625–641. Stone. Retrieved from http://www Delpit, L. (2006). Other people’s children: Cultural .rollingstone.com/music/news/lil-wayne-takes-it- conflict in the classroom (2nd ed.). New York, NY: back-to-his-roots-on-i-am-not-a-human- The New Press. being-ii-20130325 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). Lupe Fiasco. (2006). Real. Food & Liquor [Recorded by Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Atlantic]. CA: Sage. Morrell, E., & Duncan-Andrade, J. (2002). Toward a Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & Tuhiwai Smith, L. (Eds.). critical classroom discourse: Promoting academic (2008). Handbook of critical and indigenous literacy through engaging hip-hop culture with urban methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. youth. English Journal, 91(6), 88–94. Dimitriadis, G. (2001/2009). Performing identity/ O’Keeffe, G. S., & Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011). Clinical performing culture: Hip hop as text, pedagogy, report on the impact of social media on children, and lived practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127, Peter Lang. 800–804. Emdin, C. (2010). Urban science education for the hip- Parker, K. (2013). Instructions for the hip hop scholar. hop generation. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense. New York, NY: Brooklyn Press. Fernandes, S. (2011). Close to the edge: In search of the Perry, T., & Delpit, L. (1998). The real ebonics debate: global hip hop generation. New York, NY: Verso. Power, language, and the education of African- Forman, M. (2011). That’s the joint! The hip-hop studies. American children. Boston, MA: Beacon. New York, NY: Routledge. Perry, T., Steele, C., & Hilliard , A., III. (2003). Young, Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed gifted, and Black. Boston, MA: Beacon. (30th anniversary ed.). New York, NY: Continuum. Raffel, B. (Trans.). (1963). Beowulf. New York, NY: Gillborn, D., & Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). Critical race Mentor/New American Library of World theory. New York, NY: Routledge. Literature. 50. Popular Cultural Milieu–•–415

Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). 58374429412/tupac-shakur-in-order-to-choose- Generation m2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year your-path olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation. Shujja, M. (1996). Beyond desegregation: The politics of Rose, T. (2013). Black noise: Rap music and black quality in African American schooling. Thousand culture in contemporary America. Middletown, CT: Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Wesleyan University Press. Smith, E., Jackson, P., Kitwana, B., & Pollard, A., III. Sandlin, J. A., Schultz, B. D., & Burdick, J. (Eds.). (2005). The hip-hop church: Connecting with the (2010). Handbook of public pedagogy. New York, movement shaping our culture. Downers Grove, IL: NY: Routledge. InterVarsity Press. Shakespeare, W. (2014). The tragedy of Romeo and Juliet Stovall, D. (2006). We can relate: Hip-hop culture, critical (Illustrated). E-Book, Amazon Digital. pedagogy, and the secondary classroom. Urban Shakur, T. (2013, August 15). In order to choose your Education, 41(6), 585–602. path. Research & Develop (blog). Retrieved 2Pac. (1996). Makaveli: The Don Killuminati. (Koch/ from http://blog.researchdevelop.org/post/ Death Row). 51

BROWNING THE CURRICULUM

A Project of Unsettlement

RUBÉN GAZTAMBIDE-FERNÁNDEZ University of Toronto

his chapter describes an impossible project— who have challenged racism and White supremacy in perhaps an oxymoron. “Browning” the cur- education, browning emerges as a response to an Triculum involves the exhumation of ghosts espoused yet minimally enacted commitment to past and present, and like the process of caramelizing diversity—ostensibly benign, yet as typically insti- by exposing raw food to high heat, it aims to trans- tuted, itself a colonial project—within scholarly orga- form—even undo—the very thing it seeks to under- nizations dedicated to curriculum work. It evolves stand: curriculum and the work curriculum does. At through concerted efforts to reveal the inadequacies the hands of those who have been historically mar- of how scholars and organizations respond to the ginalized by the curriculum, this is a messy process persistence of the heteropatriarchal White supremacy that leaves dirty marks—not just new marks, but and colonialism that permeates curriculum. This alterations on marks that were there to begin with response has taken a number of different directions, and that have been covered by the layers that including, for example, critiques of citation practices, domestication leaves behind. the (in)visibility of racialized bodies, the desire to This chapter outlines the contours of “browning” negate racist politics, and the appropriation of modes as an attempt to unsettle curriculum—both its study of theorizing (see Gaztambide- Fernández, 2006; as well as its making, in order to describe what it Gaztambide-Fernández & Murad, 2011). could have been, had it been what it cannot be. As a Understanding curriculum as always-already a decolonial and antiracist move, browning seeks to colonial project, browning does not seek to establish historicize as well as dissect the complexity of cur- a new mode of doing curriculum. Rather, it demands riculum as a colonial project based on heteropatriar- a recognition of the ways in which curriculum, how- chal White supremacy—not just the unambiguous ever invoked, always carries its history as a colonial White supremacy of Ku Klux Klans and organized project—the traces that dirty the otherwise tidy image hate groups, but the White supremacy of state- of curriculum. To brown is to expose while it is also sanctioned police violence, elusive micro aggres- to dirty—to mess with and in the process to change sions, and apparently innocuous exclusions from the by making explicit what is otherwise supposed to school curriculum. Building on the work of scholars remain hidden. Yet, because this hiding is critical to

416 51. Browning the Curriculum–•–417

the very constitution of curriculum, browning is also making. Whether it is expressed through Spencer’s about the undoing of curriculum—it seeks to unhinge social Darwinist conception of worthy knowledge, and thus to unsettle curriculum as a project of colonial John Dewey’s pragmatist view of educative experi- settlement and a tool of domination. ence, Paulo Freire’s critical “conscientization” toward full humanity, William Pinar’s autobiograph- ical deconstruction of the human subject and cosmo- Historical Hindsight politan renewal, underneath each of these proposals lurks the specter of Man, as the descriptive statement At its core, curriculum is a humanist project; it is of the human (Wynter, 2003). fundamentally about the possibility that “humans” Consider the racist and colonial assumptions can be improved—made better through educational underlying the evolution of the modern schooling projects. Thus, curriculum relies on particular defini- project as illustrated through the emergence of resi- tions of what it means to be human and what counts dential schooling and the argument for universal as worthwhile knowledge, including knowledge public education. The professed “fathers” of public about human potentiality and the imagined human schooling—Horace Mann (in the United States) and self. In short, curriculum is a technology for the pro- Edgerton Ryerson (in Canada)—envisioned a system duction of humanness. Yet the concept of the human for the improvement of Man and the assimilation of is not universal. Rather, both the concept of the the not-quite-so. Both Mann and Ryerson saw univer- human and the assumption of its universality emerge sal schooling as the necessary mechanism for the from the particularity of the European Enlighten- development of a properly civilized nation that assim- ment. There are different conceptions of how this ilated all into its own self-image. Yet, the limits of “human” comes to be fully developed and debates possibility as to the assimilation of “other-than-Man” about what this human should know and be able to are clearly evident in the “separate but equal” doctrine do. Yet all these ideals share a fundamental view of and its de facto inequality. It is also evident in the the human based on the domination of the European, evolution of discourses about disability and abnor- heterosexual, male subject as the model of human- mality that continue to be deeply racialized and fun- ness, what Denise Ferreira da Silva (2007) called the damental to the constitution of the imagined educated “transparent I.” As da Silva argued, humanism is human subject (Erevelles, 2011; Winfield, 2007). a racial project. If this was self-evident when The project of assimilation of the not-quite, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote his famous Emile and never-quite human is violently expressed through when Herbert Spencer posed the question, “What Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt’s genocidal rallying knowledge is of most worth?” the project of brown- cry, “Kill the Indian, . . . save the Man,” and his proj- ing seeks to reveal how it continues to operate, albeit ect of forced cultural assimilation through residential in more subtle ways, within contemporary curricu- schools. In Canada, beloved prime minister and lum projects by throwing dust on the otherwise invis- father of Confederation John MacDonald established ible ghost of Man—the Enlightened conception of residential schooling as part of a larger project to the human—that animates and gives curriculum wrangle Indigenous people from the land, undermine substance. treaties, destroy families, erase Indigenous language, From the historical hindsight of the 21st century, and enforce European cultural domination through marked as it is by the ecological degradation, contin- forced assimilation. Likewise, the enslavement of ued colonization, and further marginalization of what Black people was premised on their presumed inca- the human marks as “non-White,” it is not difficult to pacity for humanness and thus ineducability; it is see evidence of White supremacy at particular his- expressed a century and a half later through the torical junctures in the “official story” of curriculum. school-to-prison pipeline and the prison plantations Indeed, how curriculum is historicized into an offi- of the 21st century (Meiners & Winn, 2010). cial narrative is itself evidence of this, with its Mass schooling demands not only an image of assumption of a field that improves through a self- what it means to be “properly” human but also the reflexive process into subsequently more adequate, production of theories of learning and conceptions of more accurate, and more productive modes of human knowledge. In the canonic narrative of curriculum, 418–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

these theories evolved since the turn of the 20th existentialism, from a concern with curricular con- century, in the academic work of scholars such as tent and organization to an examination of the Dewey, Edward Thorndike, Franklin Bobbitt, and subject and the phenomenology of educational expe- others. While ostensibly distinct, these theories of rience. In part as a reaction to the increasing learning and development were linked to theories of technicalization of education in which curriculum racial superiority, such as eugenics and recapitula- continues to be understood as design, the “reconcep- tion theory (Fallace, 2012; Winfield, 2007). Although tualization” of curriculum studies during the 1970s eugenicists and recapitulation theorists may have turned the field toward self-excavation and ideologi- differed on who could and how to become properly cal critique. Despite the continued richness of its human, closer to Man, they shared an understanding theoretical and conceptual venturing, the reconceptu- of civilization and human development that relied on alization—now “post”-reconceptualization—of cur- the self-image of the White male subject as the pin- riculum work has largely failed in several ways. nacle of human evolution. As the work of becoming First, after almost 4 decades of scholarly work, more human, curriculum is at its heart about becom- reconceptualist curriculum work has left largely ing in the likeness of the proverbial “Father,” the untouched the mainstream focus on content and White heteropatriarchal male subject. design. Indeed, the traces of reconceptualization in In the hegemonic White supremacist academic national, provincial/state, or local policy are almost industrial complex that has defined curriculum work, null. Moreover, despite some important work that the emergence of multiculturalism in the 1960s has focused on the force of continued racism in edu- marked a critical challenge to the dominance of the cation, reconceptualization has largely failed to White male subject as the descriptive statement of dethrone the White subject as the definition of the human. The pluralist proposition of multicultur- humanity. Increasingly solipsistic and enamored alism cracks the door of the dominant conception of with its own image, (post)reconceptualist curriculum the human, shedding light on racism and colonial- scholarship continues to struggle with its self- ism, and pointing to the possibility of multiple and conscious humanist inheritance, quibbling that any particular conceptions of the human as the subject of and all suggestions of continued White supremacy curriculum. And yet, as Eve Tuck and Rubén are manifestations of “identity politics.” As a paren- Gaztambide-Fernández (2013) argued, multicultural- tal silencing device, the severe dismissal forestalls ism has been consumed by the gluttony of White and shelters curriculum work, turning attention back supremacy, as it masticates everything in its path, to itself and its own solipsistic embroilment with taking possession and transforming it into its own escaping from the existentialist looking glass. Most image. Absorbing what it needs, discarding what it recently this manifests through a negation of the fears, the result has been a euphemistic construction humanist project that, nonetheless, reinscribes of diversity that reinscribes whiteness as the singular whiteness, now as the only legitimate “posthuman.” definition of the hegemonic center—the “undiverse.” The legal challenges that drove the civil rights move- ment demand for equal schooling left unchallenged The Problem That Is the (Racist) Present White supremacy and the conception of literacy as White property, demanding proximity to Whites as It might be tempting to reinterpret these historical the definition of equality. At the hands of the state narratives as evidence of curriculum’s past—of and ideological institutions such as schools, multi- beliefs and attitudes that have been surpassed and culturalism concretized the boundaries that not only corrected by a more enlightened, compassionate, and distinguish between one culture and another but also embracing version of Man, now construed as “diverse secure the hierarchical positioning of one culture men and women.” The project of browning is to over all others and further enforce the very idea reveal the opposite: how these apparently less-than- of what it means to be—to have and to hold—“a human brutalities are in fact all-too-human and how culture.” they persist in contemporary modes of curriculum At the same time, the work of curriculum theoriz- work, from the minutiae of curriculum design to the ing shifted in some academic spaces to a profound obfuscations of curriculum theorizing. Regardless of 51. Browning the Curriculum–•–419

how the human is reimagined, curriculum projects as more knowledgeable and thus more deserving of are always premised on an idealized subject, the the land and its resources. More insidiously, it image in the fountain of the narcissistic father seek- translates Indigenous knowledge into the White ing to reproduce and recreate himself through—now supremacist hierarchy of knowing by integrating it inclusive, now reflective, now ethical—educational into curriculum standards and textbooks, historiciz- projects. What browning reveals is that such recre- ing Indigenous narratives into linear logics, and ations require not only a becoming-subject through incorporating Indigenous ways of knowing into what the curricular journey but also a becoming-object Sandy Grande (2004) called the “whitestream.” through curricular projects of elimination, incarcera- Appropriating Indigenous narratives as “American tion, and perpetual marginalization. At the heart of history,” the curriculum confirms the White subject these projects is the machinery of schooling. as the true native, the only native, the native by The century-and-a-half history of contemporary manifest destiny. schooling reveals its fundamental role in the consti- At the margins of such supremacist text, however, tution of the properly human subject and its corol- is the spillage of what supremacy cannot eliminate— lary, the not-quite-human. First, modern schooling is the excrement of the White subject as he attempts to premised on the idea that some ways of knowing are consume all in his path; the excesses that spill superior to others, more adequate for contemporary beyond the neat confines of the curriculum drain, society and more relevant to the success of the mod- beyond inclusion, available only for elimination. ern economic system. Even as a wider range of This is the object of browning. “knowledges” are deemed relevant, how knowledge is expressed, transmitted, and confirmed remains ensconced in the singular, rational, and individual- Theoretical Heat ized conception of what it means to know, most recently through the so-called Common Core State A number of theoretical approaches provide concep- Standards. From this view, knowledge can be par- tual strategies for illuminating the operations of celed into subjects, structured into mandated curricu- White supremacist ideology in contemporary curricu- lum documents, sequenced into levels and grades, lum. In this section, I summarize two such approaches, and, most importantly, assessed through standardized theorizing settler colonialism and critical race theory methods. (CRT). Like a magnifying glass, these theoretical Standardized assessment is, indeed, a defining lenses focus the light into a searing beam that burns characteristic of contemporary schooling. From IQ and cuts through the layers of humanist discourse tests to SATs and other forms of high-stakes testing, in curriculum studies, excavating to reveal the under- the ability to standardize both knowledge and lying racist logic. Some of these approaches are knowing is central to the enforcement of a White complementary, while others raise necessary tensions supremacist logic that requires a hierarchy of human and, sometimes, competing ways of approaching subjectivity. The logic of schooling normalizes this the problem of persistent colonization and White hierarchy through practices such as tracking, which supremacy. distribute learning opportunities in ways that make Examining the operations of the settler colonial outcomes predetermined by racist logic appear as project is fundamental to the project of radically natural and common sense. In the last 2 decades, unsettling curriculum work. Settler colonization is both formal and informal forms of tracking/stream- an attempt not only to occupy land but also to ing have resegregated schools and played a central impose a particular logic of occupation (Veracini, role in the reemergence of a new plantation based on 2010). This logic renders Indigenous people as inca- the prison industrial complex. The school to prison pable of “properly” taking care of the land and casts pipeline is, in effect, a direct result of curricular the occupier as the legitimate “owner” by divinely segregation and how White supremacy imposes appointed destiny; the supremacy of the colonial set- a particular structure on knowledge. tler is not just logical, it is divine (McCoy, 2014). In This logic also confirms the right of the settler to light of the impossibility of physically eradicating own and inhabit stolen land, by construing the settler the “native,” settler colonialism devises a curricular 420–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

project invested in complete assimilation. This ass- reveal artificial boundaries but also rather take “the imilation takes two forms; first, the conversion of border,” both real and symbolic, as the site of conflict those who survive genocide by other means; and over political belonging and cultural identification— second, the incorporation of Indigenous ways of as the place where the brown matter of the human is knowing and being, as well as ways of resisting revealed as precisely all-too-human. Tribal critical colonial settlement. This incorporation renders the theory (TribalCrit) examines the “liminality” of settler as the true native, confirming manifest destiny Indigenous people as political and racialized subjects and the divinity of the right to occupy (Miller, 2006). in the specific context of settler colonization This insight, as noted later, helps us understand the (Brayboy, 2005). Both TribalCrit and LatCrit schol- colonial entrapment of additive approaches to multi- ars move beyond CRT’s central focus on revealing culturalism through curriculum products such as the legal, political, and cultural dynamics that produce textbooks and policies. and are produced by the Black/White racial binary The divine right of the settler to occupy land must that dominates discourses of race in the United be confirmed through both religious and secular log- States, what W. E. B. Du Bois (1903) succinctly ics that produce the supreme White subject. This named “the problem of the color line” (p. 3). White subject, however, must be continually pro- To reveal the persistence of colonial and racist duced and that production requires the constitution logics, these critical lenses mobilize narrative modes of national as well as cultural borders that protect not only to reveal the machinations of White suprem- access not only to land but also to particular subject acy but also to bring forth new modes of being and positions along with the material, legal, and sym- knowing. CRT scholars insist on “counternarrative” bolic resources attached to being a particular kind of as an antiracist strategy that topples normative person—the right kind of human. mythologies of what it means to be human. TribalCrit CRT and the variants that have germinated from it scholars ground their work on storytelling as a mode provide an important foundation for dismantling of revealing and theorizing experience as well as these logics. By tracing how race and racial catego- exerting sovereignty over knowledge. LatCrit schol- ries are continually constructed and negotiated ars mobilize testimonios to reassert the centrality of through legal, educational, and other ideological hybridity—or mestizaje—and movement across bor- processes, CRT unmasks the White supremacist ders and to reveal both the violence and the beauty logic that enforces racial categories (Delgado & inherent in the encounters that produce subjectivity. Stefancic, 2012). CRT sheds a searing light, reveal- All of these approaches demand the examination ing the shadows of the artificial boundaries that of how systems of domination intersect through cat- enforce racial hierarchies, which, while false, have egories of race, gender, sexuality, etc., that, while real material, symbolic, and affective consequences. socially constructed and imposed, are also materi- These boundaries do not require explicit enactments ally, symbolically, and affectively lived. Such an of racism through literal statements or acts of vio- analysis, often described as intersectional (aka “inter- lence by individuals. Rather, they operate institution- locking matrix of oppression,” “standpoint theory,” ally and ideologically, producing what Eduardo etc.), reveals the complicated ways in which these Bonilla-Silva (2001) called “color-blind racism.” categories overlay. This overlap shapes the experi- This “racism without racists” allows White suprema- ence of oppression and marginalization while at the cist logics to operate while occluding racist attitudes same time providing the social material upon which (Bonilla-Silva, 2013). standpoints develop and orientations toward the CRT has been taken in a number of directions world become concretized. There are ample debates focusing on a wider range of experiences of racializa- regarding the ways in which these categories of iden- tion emerging from different histories of coloniza- tification intersect and whether, when, and how one tion, enslavement, and marginalization. For instance, category takes prevalence over others. Because these Latino critical race theory (LatCrit) scholars examine categories are political as well as social and cultural, the transnational dynamics of migration that have their intersections can occlude their power as catego- shaped the congealing of a Latina/o subjectivity ries, creating a thick veil of mythologies that limits (Delgado Bernal, 2002). These dynamics not only our capacity to see their constructedness, in part 51. Browning the Curriculum–•–421

because of how “real” they become through the lived reworking dominant ideological forms for liberatory experience of what Frantz Fanon (1967) called purposes, teases apart the signifiers that both dis- sociogeny. tract from and secure the hold of White supremacist Reflecting on the lived experience of blackness, power hierarchies. This deconstruction of historical, Fanon argues that the Black subject emerges as a political, and sociocultural signifiers requires rec- reflection of the image—the mask—that White ognizing how different ideological frames overlay supremacist ideology has constructed as the opposite and often hide each other. of whiteness. This incongruity between the first- and Andrea Smith (2006), for instance, pointed to the third-person account of the Black subject that three ideological “pillars” or “logics” of Du Bois (1903) called “double-consciousness” and White supremacy and their intricate relationship to that Fanon dubbed the “triple person” is fundamental heteropatriarchy as the foundational “building block” to how non-White (i.e., not-quite-human) subjects of colonization and empire. The logics of slavery/ come into self-consciousness. Ever aware of how capitalism, genocide/colonialism, and orientalism/ blackness has been construed at the bottom of a war intersect to justify colonization and naturalize a racial ordering, the Black subject precariously hierarchical order that pits people of color against emerges through the collusion of a present self- each other. These logics promote an illusory “conver- consciousness with a mythologized savage past that gence” between the interests of particular groups and justifies enslavement and imprisonment in the scope the aims of empire and colonization, producing con- of the White father’s gun. ditions that advance some at the expense of others, This bind leaves little outside of identity as a strat- but ultimately securing White supremacist hierarchies egy of subjective reconstitution. As Stuart Hall (Bell, 1979). (1996) has argued, identification is a political process Such analyses reveal how various kinds of con- that, on the one hand, reinscribes but, on the other, temporary curriculum work are implicated in the makes reinvention of social categories possible. And persistence of White supremacy. These conceptual yet, it is precisely identity that the supreme father tools can be mobilized in a number of ways in rela- now wants to rob, diminished as anti-intellectual, tionship to a range of dynamics operating in curricu- abandoned by a now posthuman subject that is lum work. Ostensibly, an examination of citation at once beyond identity, and yet again anew the practices (i.e., whose scholarship is cited, how often, White (now cosmopolitan, now self-reflexive, now and by whom) and the optical verification of pres- decentered and postidentititarian) subject. ences and absences within curriculum spaces of various kinds (i.e., what the physical presence and organization of particular bodies suggests about who Forms of Inquiry and Modes of belongs and who controls particular spaces), from Expression: Eating the Mainstream academic to policy contexts, provides some— perhaps equivocal—evidence. Within reconceptualized cur- Understanding identification is necessary for riculum studies, this manifests in the creation of revealing the ideological mechanisms of White canonical lists intended to construct an image of cur- supremacy. Intellectually, it requires the kind of riculum studies as a legitimate academic field. Of ideological critique that Chela Sandoval (2000), course, the very idea of a legitimate academic field drawing on Roland Barthe’s conceptualization of requires a supremacist logic that assumes that some mythologies, called “meta-ideologizing.” Politi- works are more important than others. In light of the cally, this requires a persistent attention to the con- long-standing critique of the colonizing effects of ditions on the ground and a careful mobilization of canonical logics, the very idea of a canon seems what Sandoval called “ differential consciousness” absurd, yet necessary for legitimation within the and what Gayatri Spivak (1990) has labeled “strate- White supremacist logic of academia (Desai, 2013). gic essentialism.” Pedagogically, it demands a This can be corrected, for example, through a commitment to solidarity based on relationality, rehistoricizing of curriculum as a field that starts transitivity, and creativity (Gaztambide-Fernández, from the struggles of various communities of color 2012). Sandoval’s (2000) meta- ideologizing, or over both access to and the ability to construct the 422–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

curriculum (Brown & Au, 2014). Likewise, this reinvent and recover subjectivities (Alcoff, 2000). It rehistorization might take as a point of departure the engages the transitivity of solidarity by assuming intellectual work of women and men of color such as that all parties must be transformed by solidary Sara Winnemucca (Paiute), Eugenio María de Hostos, action. This requires an active and creative Pura Belpré White, Ida B. Wells, Carter G. Woodson, engagement with both the material and the symbolic Sojourner Truth, and Du Bois. Fundamental to the content of specific struggles in specific contexts browning of curriculum studies, however, are critical (Gaztambide-Fernández, 2012). readings of the “foundational” work of mainstream In the context of schools, such work presents a education scholars that reveals how White supremacy peculiar contradiction: Since educational institutions has shaped and continues to manifest in curriculum are fundamentally racist and premised on the elimi- studies. nation of non-White subjectivities, then curriculum Beyond academia, the browning of curriculum is can never be decolonized, at least until schools—as also concerned with how White supremacy persists we know them—cease to exist. This bind of having through mainstream curriculum documents, includ- to work in and against institutions can create ing textbooks, policies, government mandates, and locations of anxiety, where Sandoval’s differential other “official” documents. From analyses of policy consciousness is a necessary tool for what Gerald artifacts such as the 1983 report A Nation at Risk and Vizenor (2008) called “survivance,” involving the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 to examina- imaginative acts of remembrance and creation tions of textbooks and other curricular materials, through the exclamation of active presences leading browning the curriculum requires exhuming the ways to empowerment and freedom. in which even the most progressive of these docu- Such work demands new modes of humanness ments continues to embrace racial thinking and White that take marginalization as the starting point. Some supremacy. The most recent of these educational have proposed an antihumanist position or a posthu- schemes is the move toward Common Core Stan- manist sensibility. Such projects, however, seem dards, along with the further entrenchment of neolib- more interested in recasting the White male subject eral policies that seek to privatize public schooling. as an antidote to White man himself. The desperate A close reading of such reform policies requires a move to erase the human while at the same time rein- decolonial critique that unsettles curriculum from its scribing White man does little to decolonize, as it roots. The unsettling and unearthing of these roots leaves untouched the privilege of the already consti- requires an analysis that reveals how White suprem- tuted White male, now repeated as a farcical carica- acy continues to shape curriculum work in all ture of his previous self—as zombie, as superhero. spheres. Such analyses must be done through a direct Such posthumanist futures promise little to those engagement with an anticolonial politics of resis- who have never been human enough and on whose tance to White supremacy that continually names the broken backs the supremacy of the White male sub- otherwise invisible and sometimes silent ways in ject stands. What we need, instead, are new formula- which White supremacy and colonialism persist. tions of human cohabitation and collectivity, some of Doing this work requires a commitment to antiracist which might be based on modes that preexisted the and decolonizing pedagogies premised on relational- 5 centuries of colonization and the very invention of ity, a collectivist understanding of learning, and to an the human. This is the aim of browning the ethic of solidarity. Such an ethic understands solidar- curriculum—the end of curriculum itself, as a ity as a relational project that strategically engages humanist project; the recasting of the human through processes of identification as a place from which to the nonhuman other; indeed, an oxymoron.

References and Further Readings postmodernism (pp. 312–337). Berkeley, CA: University of California. Alcoff, L. (2000). Who’s afraid of identity politics? Bell, D. (1979). Brown v. Board of Education and the In P. Moya & M. Hames-García (Eds.), Reclaiming interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard Law Review, identity: Realist theory and the predicament of 93, 518. 51. Browning the Curriculum–•–423

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2001). White supremacy and racism in Grande, S. (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American the post-civil rights era. Boulder, CO: Lynne social and political thought. Boulder, CO: Rowman Rienner. & Littlefield. Bonilla-Silva, E. (2013). Racism without racists: Color- Hall, S. (1996). New ethnicities. In D. Morley & K. Chen blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality (Eds.), Stuart Hall: Critical dialogues in cultural in America. Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield. studies (pp. 441–449). London, UK: Routledge. Brayboy, B. (2005). Toward a tribal critical race theory in McCoy, K. (2014). Manifesting destiny: A land education education. The Urban Review, 37(5), 425–446. analysis of settler colonialism in Jamestown, Brown, A., & Au, W. (2014). Race, memory and master Virginia, USA. Environmental Education Research, narratives: A critical essay on U.S. curriculum 20(1), 82–97. history. Curriculum Inquiry, 44(3), 358–389. Meiners, E., & Winn, M. (2010). Resisting the school to Da Silva, D. F. (2007). Toward a global idea of race (Vol. prison pipeline: The practice to build abolition 27). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota democracies. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 13(3), Press. 271–276. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory: Miller, R. J. (2006). Native America, discovered and An introduction. New York, NY: New York conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and University Press. manifest destiny. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical race theory, Latino Sandoval, C. (2000). Methodology of the oppressed. critical theory, and critical raced-gendered Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. epistemologies: Recognizing students of color as Smith, A. (2006). Heteropatriarchy and the three pillars holders and creators of knowledge. Qualitative of white supremacy: Rethinking women of color Inquiry, 8(1), 105–126. organizing. In INCITE! Women of Color Against Desai, C. (2013). Do we want something new or just Violence (Eds.), Color of violence: The INCITE! repetition of 1492? Engaging with the “Next” anthology (pp. 66–73). Cambridge, MA: South End. moment in curriculum studies. Journal of Spivak, G. (1990). The post-colonial critique: Interviews, Curriculum Theorizing, 28(2), 153–167. strategies, dialogues. New York, NY: Routledge. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk: Essays Tuck, E., & Gaztambide-Fernández, R. A. (2013). and sketches. Chicago, IL: McClurg & Co. Curriculum, replacement, and settler futurity. Erevelles, N. (2011). Disability and difference in global Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 29(1), 72–89. contexts: Enabling a transformative body politic. Veracini, L. (2010). Settler colonialism: A theoretical New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. overview. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Fallace, T. (2012). Recapitulation theory and the new Vizenor, G. (Ed.). (2008). Survivance: Narratives of education: Race, culture, imperialism, and pedagogy, native presence. Lincoln, NE: University of 1894–1916. Curriculum Inquiry, 42(4), 510–533. Nebraska Press. Fanon, F. (1967). Black skin, White masks. New York, Winfield, A. G. (2007). Eugenics and education in NY: Grove Press. America: Institutionalized racism and the Gaztambide-Fernández, R. (2006). Regarding race: implications of history, ideology, and memory. The necessary browning of our curriculum and New York, NY: Peter Lang. pedagogy public project. Journal of Curriculum Wynter, S. (2001). Towards the sociogenic principle: and Pedagogy, 3(1), 60–65. Fanon, identity, the puzzle of conscious experience, Gaztambide-Fernández, R. (2012). Decolonization and and what it is like to be “Black.” In M. Durán-Cogan the pedagogy of solidarity. Decolonization: & A. Gomez-Moriana (Eds.), National identities and Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 41–67. sociopolitical changes in Latin America (pp. 30–66). Gaztambide-Fernández, R., & Murad, Z. (2011). Out of New York, NY: Routledge. line: Perspectives on the “browning” of curriculum Wynter, S. (2003). Unsettling the coloniality of being/ and pedagogy [Introduction to Perspective Section]. power/truth/freedom: Towards the human, after man, Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, 8(1), its overrepresentation—An argument. CR: The New 14–16. Centennial Review, 3(3), 257–337. 52

ECOLOGICAL MILIEU

JASON MICHAEL LUKASIK Northeastern Illinois University

hat does it mean to teach for a curriculum Ecological milieu draws upon foundational that is inclusive of all living and nonliving knowledge about the environment and the study of Wthings in a particular space? How do we ecology and the study of the interdependence of liv- come to know a place and the knowledge inherent to ing things in a specific ecosystem and recognizes that particular place? Ecological milieu is best that places and the life that inhabits them inform our defined as an intellectual (and often physical) space understanding of the world. Reflective of the state of whereby knowledge is constructed through an inter- discourse in the field, this chapter will assume the dependent mélange of knowledges, practices, tradi- term ecological to have a more applied and holistic tions, beings, lives, and organisms. In the wake of the meaning. While still concerned with the interdepen- ecological crisis, emphasis on the ecological has dence of living beings, ecological milieu extends increased in both academic and popular literature. In that relational understanding to include human the field of curriculum studies, ecological milieu has knowledge, livelihood, and economy—in other evolved from referring to physical surroundings to words, how might we consider the interdependence a much more complex dialectical phenomenon, of the complex fabric that makes up human and invoking a complex conversation among various nonhuman life? knowledges and sensibilities. In particular, this con- versation attempts to make sense and meaning of how the ecosystems in which we are situated act on Contemporary Concerns About our understanding of the world and an appreciation Ecological Milieu of how our actions impact ecosystems. Matters of the ecological milieu are driven by Al Gore’s award-winning documentary An Inconve- many questions. How do we come to understand the nient Truth (2006) highlighted the mounting evi- place in which we are situated? How do spaces, dence that the earth is experiencing changes in its places, and the many beings that occupy them inform climate that are human-made and severely threaten our individual and collective experiences? How do numerous forms of life in ecosystems across the our individual (and collective) human lives impact globe. An overwhelming number of scientists and other beings around us, and how does this impact agencies consider this evidence to be irrefutable. shape our subsequent relationship to the world? Such attention to climate change has prompted many

424 52. Ecological Milieu–•–425

educators and activists alike to take up the issue of inhabit a given place but also the knowledge and the environment in their teaching and practice. But cultural systems that contribute to its existence. the changing climatic world is also a world experi- Richard Kahn (2008) pointed out that to be ecologi- encing global economic, social, and political change cal is to “think and live historically . . . to move in a that threatens the sustainability of both natural and bed of context.” Much of the theoretical basis for human systems. ecological milieu stems from inquiry into contexts. Aside from rising sea levels, which threaten Aside from the more obvious context of biological countless coastal communities (human and nonhu- diversity, concerns over cultural diversity, race, man), the ecological crisis raises serious questions class, gender, and economy all underpin the about the sustainability of the many human cultures theoretical foundation upon which ecological milieu on earth. An increasingly globalized economy has is constructed. led to a homogenization of cultures and has posed a There is a distinct relationship between race and serious threat to diversity (and diverse ways of land. Human work on the land has long been associ- knowing others). Consumptive practices of the West ated with that of menial labor, and those who do that have become more prolific as markets are expanded work are often subordinated through class or race. across the globe, displacing traditional practices for Wendell Berry (2002) has argued that the problem of Western education. race in the United States is grounded in a desire to Education as a “human right” becomes a form of rise above the “human condition,” whereby success “recolonization” as the autonomy of cultures is is merely the ability to distance oneself from those threatened through the proclamation that “education activities needed to live (grow food, harvest crops, is essential for the survival of every culture, past, slaughter animals for meat, prepare food, procure present, and future” (Prakash & Esteva, 1998, p. 11). drinking water). Berry noted that in the years follow- What entails is a systemic process of the removal of ing civil rights legislation, Black land ownership cultures, loss of languages, traditions, and communi- experienced its “steepest decline” (p. 51). This is ties, displaced by Western knowledge and orienta- related, Berry argued, to the systemic understanding tion to knowledge, place, and people. Rebecca that “American blacks will be made better or more Martusewicz, Jeff Edmundson, and John Lupinacci useful or more secure by becoming as greedy, self- (2011) have noted that while “changes introduced by ish, wasteful, and thoughtless as affluent American modern society have improved the level of comfort whites” (p. 49). This underlying narrative of success in those societies,” these changes have also “increased as moving away from land has implications in his- our relative insecurity” (p. 5). For example, cultures torical struggles for racial equality. bell hooks (2009) that have recently joined the global economy were wrote that “W.E.B. Du Bois’ vision of the talented previously self-sufficient, “living on land now con- tenth did not include farmers” or those who other- trolled by transnational corporations” (p. 6). Loss of wise worked with the land (p. 44). hooks (2009) said land accompanies a loss of culture and the means to that both her grandparents “understood that black subsist. folks who had their ‘forty acres and a mule’ or even These transformations around the globe, shifting just their one acre, could sustain their lives by grow- economies to focus on industrial production for a ing food, by creating shelter that was not mortgaged” Western consumer market, entail devastating impacts (p. 46). hooks, like Booker T. Washington, ques- on local ecosystems such as watershed contamina- tioned “social and racial uplift that meant black folks tion and overusage of water, air pollution, destruc- would lead us away from respect for the land . . . to tion of sensitive habitat areas, overfishing, and imitate the social mores of affluent whites” (p. 46). deforestation. Questions arise as to whether people marginalized along lines of class and/or race attaining high-status positions should be equated with progress and suc- Contexts of Ecological Milieu cess, especially when success for some serves as “both a false beacon for populations that could not C. A. Bowers (2001) asked that we consider not only hope for such attainment, and a standing rebuke the conservation of places and the organisms that for not having made it” (Prashad, 2012, p. 103). 426–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

To counter this, Berry advocated the idea of com- situated; our attempts to understand this link are monwealth, or the “wealth of localities and the local informed by diverse and interrelated knowledges. economies of household, neighborhood, and com- The ecological milieu, then, represents the emergent munity” (p. 58). He is critical of social mobilization conversation about places, people, and the countless that is wholly dependent on becoming disconnected relationships (biological, emotional, communal) that from the land and work associated with it. define places, natural or otherwise, and community, As we look to orientations to the land that are dif- human or otherwise. ferent from those underpinned by what hooks (2000) The concept of the ecological milieu complements called a white supremacist-capitalistic-patriarchal curriculum studies quite well. The work of John episteme or orientation to knowledge, many scholars Dewey situated the circumstances surrounding the look to indigenous practices and traditions, though child and the curriculum as being fluid and dynamic, this is not without problems. Too often, discussions one not being clearly or easily separated from the of indigenous practices relegate native people to other (see Chapter 29, “Students as Curriculum,” in being “people of the land.” This becomes a this volume). While the term ecological was not challenge—how do we learn from non-Western explicitly developed by Dewey, he was aware of the cultures regarding their relationship to land and the complex nature of experience and that the natural natural world without narrowly defining their world in which we are situated certainly contributes relationship as being “one with nature?” Timothy to that fabric (Dewey, 1929). Regan (2005) has challenged the way in which indig- The work of L. Thomas Hopkins is of particular enous peoples are presented ahistorically and interest to the study of the ecological. In his book unidimensionally and says that even categories of Integration: Its Meaning and Application, Hopkins “Western” and “non-Western” essentialize the (1937) sought to define the “integrated” individual experiences of diverse people and traditions. through diverse disciplinary lenses. This book, inclu- Consequently, many of the categorical delinea- sive of chapters authored by scholars in seemingly tions used to organize our analysis of the ecological disparate fields (such as philosophy, biology, and the crisis (consumers, producers, capitalists, etc.) should arts), sought to provide various definitions of the be troubled for their complexities; the conversation “integrated individual.” Hopkins’s theorization of is only limited by dualistic argumentation. Context the integrated individual led to his discussion of the is key: Contextual understanding of ecological “emerging self ” that is in constant interaction with milieu is better understood through an examination environment. In The Emerging Self in School and of the theoretical contributions to this emergent field Home, Hopkins (1954) drew from biological pro- of study. cesses to articulate an approach to understanding human experience. While Hopkins did not discuss integration of ecological knowledge per se, a clarifi- Theory of Ecological Milieu cation of curriculum inquiry as one of “integration,” or bringing together diverse knowledges, is comple- While much of the knowledge associated with con- mentary to the ecological, especially when one con- versations about the environment resides within the siders an ecological approach to knowledge. Hopkins, natural sciences, important contributions to the dia- like many curriculum theorists at his time, placed logue are being made by both educators and humans in the center of the world, though this should philosophers, even if these contributions lie on the not be seen as a limitation. Given his application of margins (see Kahn, Nocella, & Fassbinder, 2012). the interrelatedness of organisms in an environment, Theoretical orientations that underpin the study of Hopkins provides a foundation upon which to build ecological milieu seek to explore the interconnected- an ecological appreciation in curriculum. ness among humans, their places of inhabitation, and C. A. Bowers (1993, 1995, 2001) is credited with the knowledges that define that place for them. It is being a primary force in encouraging curricular dis- in this interconnectedness that ecological becomes course around ecological and environmental con- both substantive and metaphorical—humans are cern. In Educating for an Ecologically Sustainable inextricably linked to the world in which they are Culture, Bowers (1995) addressed the values that 52. Ecological Milieu–•–427

underpin the ecological crisis and argued that “the of what he called an American tradition of exploita- deepest assumptions of the culture . . . go unrecog- tion, whereby successive generations learn to be nized even in the face of the most radical political “successful” by finding a place and/or people to change” (p. 2). While many works in curriculum exploit—that is the way people “make it” in the studies were debating questions of racial, class, and United States (Berry, 1996). gender inequity, Bowers pushed for the discourse to The land ethic provides a foundation for inquiry include the cultural assumptions that predicate many into the meaning made about the spaces occupied by of the global environmental issues we face today. To people, or place. Place-based education emphasizes discuss the ecological, one needs to discuss the learning about human relationships in the local envi- cultural. ronment. Described by David Gruenewald and Bowers (2009) has argued that academic dis- Gregory Smith (2008) as a form of “new localism,” course is trapped in a double-bind thinking—a “lin- place-based education contests increasing globaliza- guistic domination of the present by the past” (p. 5). tion and homogenization of global cultures by The double bind, Bowers argued, limits attempts to reinforcing the importance of local knowledge and resolve ecological problems by applying the same culture and seeks practices that sustain both. logic to solutions that underpins the creation of the Place-based education requires that students be problem. Thus, cultural assumptions must be inter- enabled to learn from spaces beyond the classroom rogated along with the immediate environmental walls, overcoming “the traditional isolation of threat. Bowers has highlighted the importance of schooling from community life” (Gruenewald & “conserving” those traditions that sustain ecological Smith, 2008, p. xx). To this end, Bill Bigelow (1996) balance, such as the notion of the idea of the has questioned how schools teach a “hidden anti- commons. ecological curriculum” by reinforcing values that Bowers drew from a rich tradition discussing land privilege indoor spaces over outdoor spaces. Bigelow and the commons. In A Sand County Almanac, Aldo noted that the vibrant natural areas immediately out- Leopold (1949) detailed the passing of seasons in the side his school were not utilized as part of classroom sand counties of central Wisconsin. Detailed and instruction, reifying the notion that important deci- precise, observational and insightful, this work calls sions are made indoors. In order to avoid an antieco- for an appreciation of the natural world and the logical experience in schools, Bigelow argued that subtle complexities of life found therein. Leopold we must make full use of the natural world immedi- began with observations of seasonal change and its ately outside the school, no matter how small or impact on ecosystems. Following this, he discussed “wild.” the tendency for humans to destroy ecological bal- While much of place-based education concerns ance as a matter of progress. What entails is the the local places we inhabit, Greenwood (2013) development of what Leopold called a “land ethic,” argued that the tension between “locally focused or way of living “with wilderness.” Leopold’s land educational inquiry, and inquiry that is attuned to a ethic seeks to transform the human relationship with wider array of worldwide interconnection” (p. 452) the land from one of “conqueror . . . to plain member captures the modern-day discourse in place-based and citizen of it” (p. 240). This approach to living educational literature. How then do we nurture a with the land entails considerable reflection on the local sense of place while also learning about “other” ways in which one’s livelihood impacts the world. places? Leopold argued that a “thing has value insofar as it Whereas the study of place does assume a critical preserves the stability and health of the biotic disposition toward capitalist industrial practice (see community (Kruidenier & Morrison, 2013, p. 436). Gruenewald, 2003), ecopedagogy specifically The question of how modern society can live engaged the problem. Building from a foundation in “with wilderness” is raised throughout much of critical pedagogy, ecopedagogy integrates critical Berry’s work. The agrarian philosopher, writer, and theory to study the intersection between social tobacco farmer has written extensively on the topics and environmental issues. Heavily influenced by of local economies, efficiency of land, and the value Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, first pub- of both land and those who work it. Berry was critical lished in 1968, ecopedagogy seeks a trans-member, 428–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

trans-species liberatory pedagogy, one that encom- the ways in which the means of production entail a passes the concerns of oppressed people, animals, harsh reality whereby both humans and ecosystems and indigenous concerns (Kahn, 2008). Ecopeda- are harmed. For example, Derek Rasmussen (2005) gogy entails the development of a critical ecoliteracy detailed the health issues of the Inuit people of the that lends itself toward ethical responsibility and province of Nunavut, Canada. Despite practicing action, the goal of which is a move beyond “mere traditional hunting and gathering, an overwhelming observation and understanding of natural and social number have been sickened with industrial disease, systems” toward action that seeks to repair the harm such as dioxin in breast milk and high PCB body done to natural and social systems. Ecopedagogy burdens. Rasmussen noted that while citizens who calls for us to be mindful not to reproduce social live in the industrial and urbanized North America systems that have contributed to the ecological crisis are more than willing to contribute money, food, in our efforts to take action. For example, Richard and medical supplies to support the Inuit, they fail Kahn (2009) has questioned the way in which “green to evaluate how their industrial existence and liveli- consumerism” enables individuals to feel good about hood contributes to the demise of other people. environmentally friendly purchases while avoiding This dynamic acknowledges the ways in which the critical issue of challenging human overcon- “settlers” seek a sort of innocence regarding rela- sumption, an issue directly tied to the ecological tions with indigenous peoples, who are often crisis. Additionally, some scholars have called for oppressed by the same forces of progress that mark less emphasis on individual actions for the environ- the land. ment and instead a greater focus on community and Lupinacci (2011) said that “education ought to be systemic changes (Kruidenier & Morrison, 2013). for understanding that we are all connected to diverse, local, living relationships” and that we should “learn to value and participate in living Forms of Inquiry and Modes locally toward the long-term health of diverse of Expression communities” (p. 101). Inquiries into ecological milieu entail a discussion of community and diver- How does one inquire into human relationships with sity that is inclusive of nonhuman organisms and the another and the environment? How do we articulate relationships among all entities in an ecosystem. the cultural underpinnings of the ecological crisis? Just as ecological milieu entails a discussion drawing from complex and diverse theoretical orientations, Modes of Expression of Ecological Milieu forms of inquiry of ecological milieu are equally diverse. Each form of inquiry examined here should Modes of expression or representation of ecological not be taken as the only path toward understanding milieu are clearly found in a variety of environmen- the ecological, but one of many emergent ways of tal education programming both in and out of knowing and experiencing the world around us. An schools. Environmental education entails “giving important theme throughout these unique forms of students basic knowledge of ecology, of ecological inquiry is questioning the social, cultural, and eco- systems, encouraging appreciation of the outdoors, nomic underpinnings of the ecological crisis— [and] awareness of ecological issues” (Martusewicz, naming the cause of environmental problems entails Edmundson, & Lupinacci, 2011, p. 10). It is difficult a complex discussion. Martusewicz, Edmundson, to discuss environmental education without also and Lupinacci (2011) have developed what they call discussing out-of-school curriculum. William an “ecological cultural analysis,” an ecojustice Schubert (1981) argued that “school curriculum is inquiry that broadens the dialogue to integrate social, but one among many curricula” (p. 186) and that political, and cultural lenses into educational curricular inquiry need be inclusive of work, home, critique. family, media, and other “out of school educative In seeking to integrate human and ecological forces” (p. 190). Consequently, much of the literature concerns, inquiry into environmental racism reveals regarding environmental education presupposes an 52. Ecological Milieu–•–429

out-of-school context, though this context is typi- practices “commons oriented thinking” (p. 296). cally limited to outdoor spaces and natural areas. Environmentally oriented schooling is not unique to Drawing from both place-based and environmen- K–12 education. For example, Northland College is tal education, the No Child Left Inside movement a small, environmental liberal arts college in the seeks to encourage learning outside the bounds of the northwoods of Wisconsin, along the shore of Lake traditional classroom. In particular, this movement Superior. Place plays a major role, as does examin- seeks opportunities for students to engage in envi- ing the political and scientific underpinnings of ronmental activities outside the classroom. Richard ecological problems. Louv’s work Last Child in the Woods (2005/2008) Despite ecological concerns becoming a subject argues that students have developed what he calls of greater interest at academic conferences and the “nature deficit disorder” from a lack of experience in focus of curricular objectives in classrooms, the the outdoors. As part of the No Child Left Inside study of ecological milieu as it pertains to curriculum movement, teachers in K–12 schools throughout the remains an emergent field that is in its infancy. One country create opportunities to bring their students finds that forms of inquiry employ different modes outside, into whatever natural areas might be acces- of expression from histories to interpretative essays, sible to the school. At the most basic level, students from ethnographies to stories and narratives, from can go outside and observe local flora and fauna. empirical studies to critical discourses—in short More advanced applications might investigate human many forms of qualitative and quantitative inquiry impact on local ecosystems immediately around the and expression, from arts-based to phenomenologi- school. cal, humanistic, and scientific. Focus in this section Partnerships with local environmental organiza- primarily has been on actual projects, because eco- tions, museums, and nature preserves can provide logical education projects often use multiple integra- rich outdoor experiences to youth, especially in tions of diverse modes of expression. Many scholars urban communities. An example of this collaboration recognize that continued conversation is necessary to is found in school garden projects. Garden projects move toward increasingly diverse configurations of have become a common project-based curriculum inquiry and meaningful and sustainable modes of application in schools around the country. Various expression. organizations committed to issues of food security, healthy eating, and local economy, such as the West- ern Growers Foundation through its Collective Toward a Curricular Expression School Garden Network, provide outside support for of Ecological Inquiry teachers who wish to integrate this into their class- room practice. School gardens are particularly useful Aldo Leopold (1949) said that “conservation is a in urban areas where local nature study is hindered state of harmony between men and land” (p. 243). By by school policy or geography. School gardens may men he meant all humans. If we are to embrace con- lead to discussion about the problem of “food des- servation of life and ecological tradition, it is impera- erts” in urban areas where socioeconomic forces tive to engage the question of what knowledge is make it difficult for marginalized residents to access worthwhile and what kinds of lives are worth living. fresh, inexpensive, and/or local produce. The ecological is both substantive and metaphorical— Environmentally focused schools provide another it comes down to seeking a balance. How can we example of ecological milieu in practice. Sunnyside come to understand the fragile and dynamic balance Environmental School in Portland, Oregon, is an of interdependent relationships in our ecosystem? elementary school that is environmentally and com- How, too, do we seek balance and harmony among munity-focused. Emphasizing both time in nature the diverse knowledges concerning place? Through and project-based curriculum, Martusewicz et al. continued curricular conversation, we can continue (2011) noted that while “there is little effort to exam- to interrogate, understand, and integratively partici- ine the deep cultural assumptions of modernity or the pate within the tenuous balance between life and language that carries those assumptions,” the school knowledge that underpins the ecological milieu. 430–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

References and Further Readings Hopkins, L. T. (1954). The emerging self in school and home. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Berry, W. (1996). The unsettling of America: Culture & Kahn, R. (2008). Towards ecopedagogy: Weaving a agriculture (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Sierra broad-based pedagogy of liberation for animals, Club Books. nature, and the oppressed people of the earth. Berry, W. (2002). Racism and the economy. In A. Darder, M. Baltodano, & R. Torres (Eds.), The In N. Wirzba (Ed.), The art of commonplace: critical pedagogy reader (pp. 522–540). New York, The agrarian essays of Wendell Berry (pp. 47–64). NY: Routledge. Berkley, CA: Counterpoint. Kahn, R. (2009). Producing crisis: Green consumerism Bigelow, B. (1996). How my schooling taught me as an ecopedagogical issue. In J. Sandlin & contempt for the earth. Rethinking Schools, 11(1), P. McLaren (Eds.), Critical pedagogies of 14–17. consumption: Living and learning in the shadow of Bowers, C. A. (1993). Education, cultural myths, and the “shopocalypse” (pp. 47–57). New York, NY: ecological crisis: Toward deep changes. Albany, Routledge. NY: State University of New York Press. Kahn, R., Nocella, A. J., & Fassbinder, S. D. (Eds.). Bowers, C. A. (1995). Educating for an ecologically (2012). Greening the academy: Ecopedagogy sustainable culture: Rethinking moral education, through the liberal arts. Rotterdam, Netherlands: creativity, intelligence, and other modern Sense. orthodoxies. Albany, NY: State University of Kovel, J. (2007). The enemy of nature: The end of New York Press. capitalism or the end of the world? (2nd ed.). Bowers, C. A. (2001). Educating for ecojustice and London, UK: Zed Books. community. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Kruidenier, D., & Morrison, S. (2013). Avoid the Press. banking model in social and environmental justice Bowers, C. A. (2009, Spring). The linguistic colonization education: Interrogate the tensions. Educational of the present by the past. AERA Division B: studies, 49, 430–442. Curriculum Studies Newsletter. Leopold, A. (1949/1966). A Sand County almanac: With Dewey, J. (1929). Experience and nature. New York, essays on conservation from round river. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. NY: Oxford University Press. Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New York, Louv, R. (2005/2008). Last child in the woods: Saving NY: Grove Press. our children from nature deficit disorder. Chapel Gandhi, L. (1998). Postcolonial theory: A critical Hill, NC: Algonquin Books. introduction. New York, NY: Columbia University Lupinacci, J. (2011). Educating for commons sense: Press. Learning that is situational, local and supportive of Greenwood, D. (2013). What is outside of outdoor living systems. Powerplay, 3(1), 97–103. education? Becoming responsive to other places. Martusewicz, R., Edmundson, J., & Lupinacci, J. (2011). Educational Studies, 49(5), 451–464. EcoJustice education: Toward diverse, democratic, Gruenewald, D. (2003). The best of both worlds: and sustainable communities. New York, NY: A critical pedagogy of place. Educational Routledge. Researcher, 32(4), 3–12. Orr, D. (2004). Earth in mind: On education, Gruenewald, D., & Smith, G. (Eds.). (2008). Place-based environment, and the human prospect (2nd ed.). education in the global age: Local diversity. Washington, DC: Island Press. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Prakash, M., & Esteva, G. (1998). Escaping education: Guggenheim, D. (Director). (2006). An inconvenient Living as learning within grassroots cultures. truth: A global warning [DVD]. Hollywood: New York, NY: Peter Lang. Paramount. Prashad, V. (2012). This concerns everyone: Presentation hooks, b. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate given at the Annual Meeting of National Association politics. Boston, MA: South End Press. for Multicultural Education (NAME), Chicago, hooks, b. (2009). Belonging: A culture of place. November 4, 2011. Multicultural Perspectives, 14(2), New York, NY: Routledge. 103–106. Hopkins, L. T. (1937). Integration: It’s meaning Rasmussen, D. (2005). Cease to do evil, then learn to do and application. New York, NY: good (A pedagogy for the oppressor). In C. A. D. Appleton-Century. Bowers & F. Apffel-Marglin (Eds.), Rethinking 52. Ecological Milieu–•–431

Freire: Globalization and the environmental crisis Schubert, W. (2009). Love, justice, and education: John (pp. 115–132). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dewey and the Utopians. Charlotte, NC: Information Regan, T. (2005). Non-western educational traditions: Age Publishers. Indigenous approaches to educational thought and Schubert, W. H. (1981). Knowledge about out-of-school practice (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. curriculum. Educational Forum, 45(2), 185–99.

Websites

Collective School Garden Network: http://www.csgn.org 53

GLOBAL, TRANSNATIONAL, AND LOCAL CURRICULUM

NINA ASHER University of Minnesota–Twin Cities

CHRISTOPHER L. KOLB University of Minnesota–Twin Cities

I was in line for the security check at the international airport of a mid-sized U.S. city, right on the east- ern edge of the Midwest, in July 2013. The names, in white lettering, on the back of a fellow traveler’s bright, deep blue T-shirt (in fact the same blue that TSA officials wear) caught my (Nina’s) eye. Five or six names in a list with a two-digit number after each name. All ending in “Singh” or “Kaur.” The date at the top of the list was 08.05.12. It took me a few minutes to realize—this traveler was wearing a T-shirt memorializing those killed by Wade Michael Page, a White supremacist, who attacked a gurudwara (the place of worship for Sikhs) in Oak Creek Wisconsin, on August 5, 2012.

I wondered about the woman’s decision to wear it while flying. Did she wear it every time she flew? What were her thoughts and feelings as she went through the security check? Was the choice of the color inten- tional? Was this an act of resistance? Then I saw the front of the T-shirt. It said, “I pledge humanity.” I had my answer: yes, it was an act of resistance, on so many levels.

n this chapter, two U.S.-based scholars discuss key curriculum of the larger U.S. society, then what are considerations for curriculum in the international/ some questions that curriculum scholars and other Itransnational milieu, which is characterized also educators need to consider? How do we construe and by discourses and efforts to counter globalizing forces. engage both belonging and difference? How might The opening narrative serves as just one instance of schools and classrooms function as “embryonic the evidence of the inescapable intertwining of global, societies” (Dewey, 1990/1900, 1902, p. 18)? How transnational, and local concerns even in micro- might we, as “agents of translation” (Schwab, 1973, contexts within the United States today. If, indeed, we p. 502), represent the “five bodies of experience” read this text—literally and metaphorically—as the (p. 502)—subject matter, learners, milieus, teachers,

432 53. Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum –•–433

and curriculum making—that curriculum theorist of color, continued racial and socioeconomic segre- Joseph Schwab identified four decades ago as part of gation, structural poverty, and a system(at)ic under- his call for “the practical”? For instance, Schwab valuing of teaching and teachers in a United States wrote: that remains firmly in the grip of untrammeled capi- talism. In 2012, for example, fully 42% of 13-year- Knowledge of the children should include a range of old students assessed on the National Assessment of information about their present state of mind and heart treated as a stage in development toward their probable Educational Progress mathematics test were Black, destiny as adults. This should include some probabilities Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific Islander—compared with about their future economic status and function; what only 20% in 1978 (National Center for Education leisure they will enjoy; what adult aspirations and atti- Statistics, 2013). The number of Hispanic students tudes they, their friends and neighbors are likely to have; completing this test alone has more than tripled in what roles they will play in the family, their political community, their ethnic or religious community. . . . 3 decades—one outcome of continuous, high levels Relevant milieus will also include the family, the of immigration from Mexico and Central America. community, the particular groupings of religious, class, This shift reflects more global trends in immigration, or ethic genus. What aspirations, styles of life, attitudes in which movement from the global South to the toward education, and ethical standards characterize global North “has been the main driver of global these parents and, through their roles as parents, affect migration trends” since 1990 (United Nations the children (as well as the character of what can and cannot be attempted in a curriculum)? (1973, p. 503) Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013). Still, while the participation of students of color— His words and insights resonate today—in fact including many immigrant youths—has increased they appear to speak directly to the issues implied in dramatically, people of color continue to comprise a the opening narrative. What is the state of mind and comparatively small portion of the teaching work- heart of the young Sikh American kids—and, indeed, force. In 2007–2008, for instance, only about 16% of of all kids—in Oak Creek? How is “community”— full-time and part-time public school teachers were political, religious, ethnic—constructed in Oak Creek? Black, Hispanic, Asian, Pacific Islander, Native What are the aspirations and fears of the parents of American, or multiracial (U.S. Department of Educa- these kids? And what do teachers and other educators tion, 2012)—up only slightly from about 12% in attempt in the curriculum? What don’t they? Why? 1972 (Villegas, Strom, & Lucas, 2012). With few Perhaps John Dewey and Schwab saw this com- adult role models of color in their classrooms, and ing. Perhaps not. What we do know is that it is our higher rates of structural, historically sedimented task to wrestle with and identify what must, can, and poverty at home and in their communities (Aud, should be attempted in a curriculum that engages the Fox, & KewalRamani, 2010), students of color face global, transnational, and local in agentic, produc- steeper challenges in relation to educational achieve- tive, generative, and forward-looking ways. In so ment and, ultimately, upward social and economic doing we will need to consider how local educational mobility. Such systemic poverty among people of spaces reflect—and also counter—increasingly glo- color is perpetuated, in part, by apparatuses of global balized societal trends and issues, as rapidly chang- capitalism that favor White communities and the ing demographics and information flows within and global North, encourage individualism over collec- outside the United States, along with the spread of tivism, and value the “rights” of corporations over capitalism and corporatization, shape the character of those of individuals—particularly in the realm of our classrooms and curricula in the coming years. education. And how might we then also envision education as These concerns make culturally relevant programs one of the influences shaping societies? in critical multicultural education, antioppressive education, and critical literacy education essential for Contemporary Concerns educational progress and achievement. However, such programs in the United States have been Even as our student populations become more diverse attacked (mostly by right-wing political groups) for in terms of race, ethnicity, and nationality, we con- their so-called political correctness, dilution of tinue to struggle with such issues as lack of teachers “American” identity, emphasis on promoting “White 434–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

guilt,” and tendencies toward capitalist critique. Wit- financescape, ideoscape, technoscape, and mediascape ness, for example, a blanket ban on ethnic studies in in the context of “progress” defined by a globalized Tucson’s (Arizona) public schools. These attacks act capitalism. For instance, as critical thinkers in the to maintain existing ideological balances in curricula U.S. education field (e.g., Kumashiro, 2008; across the United States, by which White, wealthy, McCarthy & Teasley, 2008; Taubman, 2009) have male, heterosexual, English-speaking, and nonim- noted, the last 2 decades have been marked by the migrant interests are best served. pursuit of individual monetary gain (often read as “wealth” and “success”); the headiness of facile, vir- tual proximity afforded by digitization; the spread of Theoretical Frames Western-style capitalism and corporatization in various countries; and the effects of escalating con- In considering how global influences shape curricula, sumerism, debilitating economic collapses, and envi- local educational experience, and the contemporary ronmental depletion—all in a context of increasing concerns outlined earlier, curriculum scholars today global interdependence. These preoccupations have may turn to a broad range of theoretical perspectives resulted in material, everyday consequences for and approaches, including critical theory, multicultur- schools around the world. alism, postcolonialism, indigenous theory, feminism, The dynamic intersections of financescape, poststructuralism and postmodernism, anthropologi- ideoscape, and ethnoscape are evident, for instance, cal theory, historiography, sociological theory, cul- in terms of how corporatized discourses of standard- tural studies, literary criticism, psychoanalysis, race ization and accountability are shaping not only cur- studies, and queer theory. We draw particularly on riculum and teaching (including interactions in Arjun Appadurai’s (1996) notion of various, porous, classrooms and schools) but also the lives of stu- and fluid global “scapes” and, in relation, the produc- dents and teachers. In his essay titled “The global tion of “locality . . . in new globalized ways” (p. 9). war against teachers,” Vijay Prashad (2006) dis- For instance, ethnoscape, according to Appadurai, is cussed how the “U.S. ruling class” (p. 12), in order “the landscape of persons who constitute the shifting to maintain power, works to spread its particular world in which we live . . . moving groups and indi- ideologies of capitalism and democracy overseas— viduals constitute an essential feature of the world not only shaping discourses of national identity and and appear to affect the politics of (and between) security but also silencing speech, including the nations to a hitherto unprecedented degree” (p. 33). speech of teachers, with the demand that they “stick Technoscape is “the global configuration, also ever to the facts” (p. 12) and not teach in ways that dis- fluid, of technology . . . that . . . now moves at high rupt the status quo (attacks on multicultural and speeds across various kinds of previously impervious critical educational curricula provide clear exam- boundaries” (p. 34). Mediascape refers to the spread ples). Mediocrity that maintains systems of con- among private and public interests worldwide of elec- sumption and production becomes the goal, not tronic capabilities to generate and disseminate infor- intellectual endeavor that interrogates, critiques, or mation; financescape refers to the rapid, complex revisions. The spread of high-stakes testing, value- flows of global capital; and ideoscape refers to politi- added assessments, and related discourses of cal ideologies of states and counterideological move- accountability deforming U.S. schooling is symp- ments. These “scapes”—construed as dynamic tomatic, as are the growth of charter schools and the spheres of social, cultural, political, and economic increasing privatization of public education. In this influence that shape global human interaction today— climate, protests against such educational discourses capture and frame the movement of human, material, and practices have grown in various parts of the cultural, financial, and political capital and related country, as documented in The New York Times, The discourses, including educational discourses and Washington Post, and The Huffington Post, among practices, within and across national borders. other sources (see, for instance, Hernández & Baker, Indeed, educational discourses may be understood 2013; Klein, 2013; Simon, 2012; Strauss, 2013; as shaped by the global/transnational ethnoscape, Winerip, 2012). 53. Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum –•–435

Forms of Inquiry Into Global, While particular qualitative paradigms have pro- Transnational, and Local Curriculum vided the frameworks for much inquiry into the international/transnational/counternational/counter- Empirical inquiry into the international/transna- globalizational milieu, researchers in this field have tional/counternational/counterglobalizational milieu also emphasized the importance of methodological has been varied in both theory and method, although innovation and flexibility. Scholars such as Joe a large portion of this work has been qualitative in Kincheloe, Peter McLaren, and Shirley Steinberg nature (Denzin & Giardina, 2013; Denzin, Lincoln, & have advocated for multidisciplinary research in the Smith, 2008). The need for close attention to com- spirit of bricolage, a process in which “research plex social and institutional forces that privilege and knowledges such as ethnography, textual analysis, reproduce particular ways of learning and knowing, semiotics, hermeneutics, psychoanalysis, phenome- as well as demands for deep analysis of researchers’ nology, historiography, discourse analysis combined own positions as (trans)national (i.e., with reference with philosophical analysis, literacy analysis, aes- to and across specific national contexts) and global thetic criticism, and theatrical and dramatic ways of (i.e., with reference to the larger global context) citi- observing and making meaning” (Kincheloe, zens, has recommended methodologies like critical McLaren, & Steinberg, 2012, p. 21) are combined to ethnography, autoethnography, critical comparative achieve the methodological and theoretical complex- research, and critical narrative research as generative ity appropriate for studying issues of identity, poli- approaches to international/transnational/counterna- tics, and social action. Similarly, Donna Mertens and tional/counterglobalizational scholarship (Denzin & colleagues have pioneered a “transformative” para- Giardina, 2013; Steinberg & Cannella, 2012). In digm in mixed methods research, in which addition, scholars such as Linda Tuhiwai Smith, quantitative and qualitative methods are strategically Bekisizwe Ndimande, Kakali Bhattacharya, and combined to address problems related to social jus- Bagele Chilisa have called for indigenous and decol- tice and human rights (Mertens, 2013). Such openness onizing research methodologies that are based upon to multidisciplinarity and improvisation is particu- and privilege indigenous ways of knowing, being, larly important in studies of identity, discourse, and and interpreting the world. Smith’s work with Maori social marginalization, as scholars seek new ways of peoples in New Zealand, for example, provides working within the confines of research methodolo- numerous examples of how educational researchers gies that are themselves implicated by systems of can reframe research agendas, questions, methods, social, institutional, and political power (Lather, and ethics to generate culturally sensitive and 2007; Smith, 2012). enriching scholarship in the interests of research participants. For Smith (2012) and other indigenous methodologists, questions like who defines the Modes of Expression About Global, research problem, who determines a study’s rele- Transnational, and Local Curriculum vance, and who will gain knowledge or status from the research are paramount. In the context of an Many scholars who study international, transna- increasingly diverse global ethnoscape—with a con- tional, and global issues in curriculum have found stantly shifting makeup of racial, national, and trans- personal and professional voice through the use of national identities—these methodologies seek to narrative, either as one part of a larger project acknowledge and leverage viewpoints and lived (e.g., as short vignettes within a longer ethnography) experiences of all peoples in the service of basic or as the primary means of representing research. humanism and social justice. Furthermore, critical The goals for such work are varied, including and indigenous methodologies demand close exami- attempts to document and describe everyday enact- nation, interrogation, and ultimately transformation ments, negotiations, and tensions of/within dis- of a global ideoscape that favors Whiteness, wealth, course, identity, and power in educational contexts. and corporatization in many (if not most) aspects of Bic Ngo (2010), for instance, mixed narrative with society and culture. insightful historical and discursive analysis to 436–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

demonstrate how Lao American high school students between education and society as mutual and bidi- construct, negotiate, and reinvent their identities rectional, with each playing a role in shaping the as “urban” and “immigrant” youths. Some forms of other, rather than allowing education to succumb to narrative—including counternarratives or critical the forces of global corporatism? race narratives—actively seek to disrupt common- Perhaps, following Pratt (1991), we may seek the sense or normative understandings (sometimes called “pedagogical arts of the contact zone” (p. 40). master narratives) of people and their experiences in According to Pratt, contact zones are “social spaces the world. Daniel Solórzano and Tara Yosso (2002), where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each for example, have described how telling countersto- other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical rela- ries about people of color can upset pervasive racist, tions of power, such as colonialism, slavery, or their sexist, and classist narratives in education. aftermaths as they are lived out in many parts of the With roots in oral historical traditions, such sto- world today” (p. 34). And Pratt recommended that ries have the potential not only to describe the expe- storytelling, exercises in identifying with the ideas riences and politics of individuals’ everyday lives and thoughts of others, the development of collab- but also to remake social power relationships in orative critiques, and engagement with difference small but cumulative strides. Personal narratives, and formerly suppressed histories and narratives are whether focused on research participants or research- the pedagogical arts with which we may teach and ers themselves through autoethnography or memoir, learn effectively. can help both teachers and students (re)imagine pos- Deepening the analyses further, perhaps like Thich sibilities for social and cultural identities and con- Nhat Hanh’s (1992) “organic gardeners,” we can texts. Furthermore, narrative representations of practice and foster a culture of “looking deeply” research may make curriculum scholarship more (p. 58) toward healing splits between “us” and “them.” relevant and accessible to wider audiences, aiding efforts to make scholarly work more meaningful for When we have a compost bin filled with organic mate- research participants and their communities. rial which is decomposing and smelly, we know that we can transform the waste into beautiful flowers. At first, we may see the compost and the flowers as opposite, but when we look deeply, we see that the flowers Implications for Policy and Practice already exist in the compost, and the compost already in Relation to Contexts exists in the flowers. . . . When a good organic gardener looks into her compost, she can see that . . . she values Given that educational contexts are interdisciplinary, the rotting material and does not discriminate against it. fluid, hybrid, and rapidly, constantly changing, U.S. . . . We need the insight and non-dual vision of the educators—including teachers and teacher educa- organic gardener. (p. 58) tors, educational researchers, and curriculum schol- Indeed, returning to the traveler in the TSA-blue ars, whether working within the United States or T-shirt, one may read the text (the actual text) as across national borders—need to be prepared to cul- breaking down binaries and calling stereotypes into tivate agility and nimbleness in engaging difference(s) question. Brown of skin, passing through check- not only of race, culture, gender, nation, and socio- points where security and surveillance have been economic status but also in terms of the framing of heightened and where racial/ethnic profiling is even educational work—its purpose and role in larger less covert than in U.S. society “at large,” she social and global contexts, particularly given the reminded those around her that acts of terrorism hap- pervasive influence of the various “scapes” outlined pen “here,” “at home,” where “we” are the victims earlier. Specifically: What are key curricular and and survivors. In this instance, “here” was a small pedagogical considerations for fostering community town in the Midwestern United States; the home in contexts of belonging and difference? For attain- space was the gurudwara; and “we” were Americans ing synchronicity in milieus of difference or, as and Indians like any other Americans and Indians. Schwab phrased it, “maintaining coordinacy” (1973, And (not “but”), we were also Sikh and brown. The p. 511)? For rethinking education as agentic? What “them,” in this instance, was actually also one of are some possibilities for framing the relationship us—and he was a White American. Even as the 53. Global, Transnational, and Local Curriculum –•–437

traveler saw and spoke to the “rotting material,” she and challenge the hegemony of global scapes through also went beyond a reactive response to an agentic local, everyday educational practices. one—to the “non-dual vision of the organic gar- On a larger scale, however, how can we emerge dener”—in stating, “I pledge humanity.” This traveler from the confines of untrammeled corporatism and served as a social justice activist and a critical move toward a more organic and agentic view of educator. education? Examples from outside the United States It is such critical reading of texts and contexts that may provide some guidance. For instance, in Finnish we will need to foster in students, teachers, parents, Lessons: What Can the World Learn From Educa- and communities as the forces of Appadurai’s tional Change in Finland, Pasi Sahlberg (2011) has dynamic scapes shape human interaction on a global suggested, “the true Finnish difference is that teachers scale in increasingly complex and (at times) contra- in Finland may exercise their professional knowledge dictory ways. We will need to teach teachers and both widely and freely in their schools” (p. 7). Teach- youths of all races, cultures, and socioeconomic ing, in Finland, is the “number one profession among backgrounds to see—presently and historically, young Finns—above medicine and law—and . . . pri- locally and globally, every day and over time—the mary teacher education in Finnish universities is one topographies of the shifting ethnoscape, technoscape, of the most competitive choices of study” (pp. 7–8). mediascape, financescape, and ideoscape of which (In which case, one may ask why the United States they are a part. And we will need to encourage them has not built similarly on its own history of progres- to see themselves not simply as cogs in a global sive education when others—such as Finland—have apparatus—dependent on the turning of every other done so.) And in the ethnically and politically com- gear and belt—but also as essential actors who can plex kingdom of Bhutan, the concept of “gross influence the inputs and outcomes of the apparatus national happiness,” informed by the importance of both above and below. Practicing teachers and sustainability in life and nature, is more important in administrators must also share their stories—through shaping policy and development—including in edu- research publications (like those described earlier), cation—than is “gross domestic product” (McDonald, practitioner publications, and popular media—of 2005; Rinzin, Vermeulen, & Glasbergen, 2007). Fol- how they have acted, whether successfully or unsuc- lowing such examples then, instead of convincing cessfully, to change the discourses of education in ourselves that we should settle for a seemingly unend- their local sites of teaching and learning. Certainly, ing series of such “quick fixes” as vouchers, charter examples of individual acts of resistance and inno- schools, and value-added assessments, we may do vation in teaching abound: Witness, for instance, better to take the time to “look deeply,” as Hanh sug- several excellent writings available from Milwaukee- gests. Taking the time to look deeply at our own and based publisher Rethinking Schools, which cite other nations’ educational discourses and practices, as instances of critical, self-reflexive curricula and well as the “scapes” within which they exist, might pedagogical approaches. These publications high- allow us to see otherwise obscured possibilities for light ways in which schools and teachers can take up revisioning education today.

References and Further Readings Denzin, N. K., & Giardina, M. D. (Eds.). (2013). Global dimensions of qualitative inquiry. Walnut Creek, Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: Cultural CA: Left Coast Press. dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis, MN: Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & Smith, L. T. (2008). University of Minnesota Press. Handbook of critical and indigenous methodologies. Aud, S., Fox, M., & KewalRamani, A. (2010). Status and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups Dewey, J. (1990/1900, 1902). The school and society and (NCES 2010-015). Washington, DC: National the child and the curriculum. Chicago, IL: Center for Education Statistics, Institute of University of Chicago Press. Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Hanh, T. N. (1992). Peace is every step: The path of Education. mindfulness in everyday life. New York, NY: Bantam. 438–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Hernández, J. C., & Baker, A. (2013, April 19). A tough Sahlberg, P. (2011). Finnish lessons: What can the world new test spurs protest and tears. The New York learn from educational change in Finland? Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/ New York, NY: Teachers College Press. 2013/04/19/education/common-core-testing-spurs- Schwab, J. (1973). The practical 3: Translation into outrage-and-protest-among-parents.html curriculum. The School Review, 81(4), Kincheloe, J. L., McLaren, P., & Steinberg, S. R. (2012). 501–522. Critical pedagogy and qualitative research: Moving Simon, S. (2012, June 12). Standardized testing protests to the bricolage. In S. R. Steinberg & G. S. Cannella by parents, teachers, administrators growing (Eds.), Critical qualitative research reader nationwide. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from (pp. 14–32). New York, NY: Peter Lang. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/12/feature- Klein, R. (2013, May 23). NYC school principals send us-parents-prot_n_1588975.html letter refusing to consider recent state test in fall Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: admissions. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/23/nyc- New York, NY: Zed Books. principals-letter-common-core-standards- Solorzano, D. G., & Yosso, T. J. (2002). Critical race test_n_3328478.html methodology: Counter-storytelling as an analytical Kumashiro, K. K. (2008). The seduction of common framework for education research. Qualitative sense: How the right has framed the debate on Inquiry, 8(23), 22–44. America’s schools. New York, NY: Teachers Steinberg, S. R., & Cannella, G. S. (Eds.). (2012). College Press. Critical qualitative research reader. New York, NY: Lather, P. (2007). Getting lost: Feminist efforts toward a Peter Lang. double(d) science. Albany, NY: State University of Strauss, V. (2013, February 22). Massachusetts New York Press. professors protest high-stakes standardized tests. McCarthy, C., & Teasley, C. (Eds.). (2008). Transnational The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www perspectives on culture, policy, and education: .washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/ Redirecting cultural studies in neoliberal times wp/2013/02/22/massachusetts-professors- (Vol. 21). New York, NY: Peter Lang. protest-high-stakes-standardized-tests/ McDonald, R. (2005, Summer). Towards a new Taubman, P. M. (2009). Teaching by numbers: conceptualization of gross national happiness and its Deconstructing the discourse of standards and foundation. Journal of Bhutan Studies, 12, 23–46. accountability in education. New York, NY: Mertens, D. M. (2013). Navigating the terrain of social Routledge. justice: Multiple voices in mixed methods research. United Nations Department of Economic and Social In N. K. Denzin & M. D. Giardina (Eds.), Global Affairs. (2013). International migration 2013: dimensions of qualitative inquiry (pp. 181–193). Migrants by origin and destination (Population Facts Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. No. 2013/3). Retrieved from http://esa.un.org/ National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2013). unmigration/documents/PF_South-South_ The nation’s report card: Trends in academic migration_2013.pdf progress 2012 (NCES 2013–456). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Statistics. (2012). Digest of Education Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Statistics, 2011 (NCES 2012-001). Washington, DC: Ngo, B. (2010). Unresolved identities: Discourse, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for ambivalence, and urban immigrant schools. Albany, Education Statistics. NY: State University of New York Press. Villegas, A. M., Strom, K., & Lucas, T. (2012). Closing Prashad, V. (2006). The global war against teachers. the racial/ethnic gap between students of color and Radical History Review, 95, 9–20. their teachers: An elusive goal. Equity & Excellence Pratt, M. L. (1991). Arts of the contact zone. Profession, in Education, 45(2), 283–301. 91, 33–40. Winerip, M. (2012, May 6). Move to outsource teacher Rinzin, C., Vermeulen, W. J. V., & Glasbergen, P. licensing process draws protest. The New York (2007). Public perceptions of Bhutan’s approach to Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/ sustainable development in practice. Sustainable 2012/05/07/education/new-procedure-for-teaching- Development, 15, 52–68. license-draws-protest.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 54

INDIGENOUS LAND AND DECOLONIZING CURRICULUM

EVE TUCK State University of New York at New Paltz

urriculum has a long history as a tool of set- The 19 men, deemed hostiles, were rounded up, and tler colonialism, a history that includes resis- marched by foot, horse, train, and eventually boat to the tance from Indigenous peoples. As Eve Tuck San Francisco bay, a journey that took more than a C month to complete (Holliday, n.d.). When the captured and K. Wayne Yang (2014b) wrote of one such Hopi men arrived, they were sensationalized by San incident of resistance, Francisco newspapers as a “Batch of Apaches [sic]” imprisoned “until they have learned to appreciate the In 1895, 19 Hopi men were incarcerated in the prison advantage of education” (Holliday, n.d.). They were facility on Alcatraz Island, “because,” as reported by a kept on Alcatraz from January 3 to August 7, 1895. San Francisco newspaper, “they would not let their Hopi refusals to send (or more often agreeing to children go to school.” The U.S. Federal Government send but never sending) their children to remote board- had enacted policies in Orayvi and across Hopi lands ing schools became emblematic of Hopi resistance to that were designed to limit Hopi sovereignty and facili- settler colonialism and the settler colonial state writ tate settler colonialism. The new policies divided large. (p. 1) shared land into individual tracts, removed Hopi people from mesas, required new agricultural practices, and To write about Indigenous land and decolonizing demanded that Hopi children attend far away boarding curriculum, especially in the context of the United schools (Sakiestewa, 2010). In the lead up to the arrest of the 19 men, white settlers had drawn a false dichot- States, Canada, and other settler colonial nation- omy between Hopi who were “Friendlies” and states, requires addressing the aims and structures of “Hostiles”; hostiles were those who refused to give up settler colonialism, curriculum as Indigenous erasure collective planting of wheat in favor of individualized and assimilation, the persistence of Indigenous land farming practice, those who refused to adopt Washington as curriculum, the project(s) of decolonization, and ways, and refused to turn over their children. A nearby Mormon/Navajo land dispute involving bloodshed how they might differ from other social justice added to settlers’ fearful exasperation over the Hopi efforts. This chapter discusses all of these aspects of refusals. Indigenous land, curriculum, and decolonization.

Author’s Note: This chapter synthesizes discussions from several publications (Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernández, 2013; Tuck & McKenzie, 2015; Tuck, McKenzie, & McCoy, 2014; Tuck & Yang, 2012, 2014).

439 440–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Aims and Structures of Indigenous peoples into savages, unhumans, and eventu- Settler Colonialism ally, ghosts. As a structure and not a past event, settler colonialism circulates stories of Indigenous peoples as extinct, disappeared, or maybe as never having existed at In settler colonial contexts, as Tuck and Yang all. The goal of settler colonialism is to erase Indigenous (2014a) noted, “land is the ultimate pursuit. Settlers peoples from valuable land. (p. 66) arrive in a new (to them) place and claim it as theirs.” Scholars of settler colonialism seek to understand the In settler colonial Virginia and other colonies that particular features of settler colonialism and how the would form the United States, Africans were stolen, shapes and contours of domination of settler colonial enslaved, and brought by force to the colonies. There nation-states (such as the United States, Canada, they were kept as “chattel,” which means property of New Zealand, Israel, China, and Australia) differ the owner, and were barred from owning land (see from other forms of coloniality. Jodi Byrd argues McCoy, 2014). As Tuck and McKenzie (2015) that it was the “breakaway” speed formation of set- argued, “In chattel slavery, it is the body that is valu- able, not the person. The person is seen as in excess tler colonies that produced the global North, which of the body; the person is ownable, punishable, shifts the brunt of its militaristic, economic, and murderable” (p. 66). environmental needs on the global South, all the Antiblackness is a core feature of settler colonial- while maintaining “internally contradictory quag- ism. Settler colonialism circulated stories of (the mires where human rights, equal rights, and descendants of) chattel slaves as monsters, as requir- recognitions are predicated on the very systems that ing containment; similarly, the contemporary prison propagate and maintain the dispossession of indige- industrial complex in the United States can be under- nous peoples for the common good of the world” stood as “an extension of chattel slavery, in which (2011, p. xix). A primary understanding in settler Black and brown bodies are contained to build colonial studies is that invasion is a structure, not the wealth of mostly white towns relying finan- (just) an event in time (Wolfe, 1999). That structure cially on incarceration centers” (Tuck & McKenzie, destroys and then later erases Indigenous peoples 2015, p. 67). (via assimilation or cultural strangling, but also Scott Lauria Morgensen argued that the term set- schooling and curriculum) and uses weapons and tler is “a way to describe colonizers that highlights policy to extinguish Indigenous claims to land. As their desires to be emplaced on Indigenous land” Tuck and Yang (2014a) noted, (2011, n.p.). Settlers live on stolen land and make it Settlement requires the labor of chattel slaves and guest their home. Settlers are not immigrants; they imple- workers, who must be kept landless and estranged from ment their own laws and understandings of the world their homelands. The settlers locate themselves at the onto stolen land. As Tuck and McKenzie (2015) noted, top and at the center of all typologies—as simultane- ously most superior and most normal. Because land is Settler pursuits of valuable land are the context for the the ultimate pursuit, settler colonialism involves a dae- invention of race in the United States—race, almost dal arrangement of justifications and unhistories in two hundred years after plantation colonies were estab- order to deny genocide and brutality. Settler colonial- lished, became the justification for the ways in which ism must cover its tracks, and does so by making its settlers made Indigenous peoples and slaves inhuman structuring natural, inevitable, invisible, and immutable. to get land and labor. (p. 71) (pp. 812–813) Settlers are defined by their actions; they are not a Settler colonialism can be understood through a particular (racial) group (Tuck & Yang, 2012). As triad of relationships among settlers, chattel slaves, Eve Tuck, Allison Guess, and Hannah Sultan (2014, and Indigenous peoples. As Tuck and Marcia n.p.) noted, McKenzie (2015) noted, Jodi Byrd’s borrowing of the word arrivants from Settler colonialism wants Indigenous land, not Indige- African Caribbean poet Kamau Brathwaite in place of nous peoples, so Indigenous peoples are cleared out of “chattel slave,” refers broadly to people forced into the the way of colonial expansion, first via genocide and Americas “through the violence of European and destruction, and later through incorporation and assimi- Anglo-American colonialism and imperialism lation (Wolfe, 2006). The settler colonial discourse turns around the globe,” (2011, p. xix). This nomenclature is 54. Indigenous Land and Decolonizing Curriculum–•–441

a recognition of the ways in which arrivants both resist cracks and fissures through which Indigenous life and participate as settlers in the historical project of and knowledge have persisted and thrived despite settler colonialism. The word “arrivants” helps to high- settlement” (Tuck et al., 2014, p. 8). light the complicity of all arrivants [including Black people] in Indigenous erasure and dispossession, because settler colonialism “requires settlers and arriv- ants to cathect the space of the native as their home,” Curriculum as Indigenous Erasure (ibid., p. xxxix; see also da Silva, 2013). But “arriv- and Assimilation ants” may also conceal the unique positioning of Black- ness in settler colonialism and the complicity of white Curriculum and its history in the United States have, people and nonwhite people (including Native people) for the most part, invested in settler colonialism and in antiblackness. the permanence of the settler colonial nation-state It cannot be emphasized too many times that set- (Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernández, 2013; see also tler colonialism wants Indigenous land. Some readers Willinsky, 1998). In particular, the settler colonial will understandably credit the way settler colonial- curricular project of replacement has attempted to ism takes Indigenous land and turns it into property erase Indigenous peoples and replace them with set- to capitalistic appetites for resources and means of tlers, who see themselves as the rightful claimants to production, yet capitalism is not the singular expla- land and as indigenous (Donald, 2012; Tuck & nation for the pursuit of land—the case of Chinese Gaztambide-Fernández, 2013). As Tuck and Rubén Tibet is evidence of that. For the purposes of the Gaztambide-Fernández (2013) noted, discussions in this chapter, the problem is settlement; curriculum is but one site in which, as “settler colo- The historical work of curriculum scholars like nialism turns Indigenous land into property by Douglas McKnight (2003), William Watkins (2001), destroying Indigenous peoples and turns humans into John Willinsky (1998), and Annie Winfield (2007), among others, demonstrate that from its inception and chattel/property by destroying their humanity” to the present day, the project of schooling in the US (Tuck & McKenzie, 2015, p. 68). and Canada has been a white supremacist project. More Indeed, “settler colonialism destroys to replace” specifically, McKnight (2003) and Willinsky (1998) (Wolfe, 2006, p. 388). In the global North it does so demonstrate how the project of schooling has been by denying the existence of Indigenous peoples and historically premised, first and foremost, on maintain- the legitimacy of claims to land. It denies the long- ing symbolic logics through which to justify the theft and occupation of Indigenous land. Their work points lasting impacts of slavery. It continues to dispossess to the ways in which schools were instruments of Indigenous peoples and Black peoples, promoting settlement, as evidenced in the important role they White supremacy. It requires arrivants to participate played in what McKnight describes as the “jeremiad” as settlers. Settler colonialism implicates everyone, of colonial Puritans who sought to establish a utopian and in doing so, in being so uncomfortable to dis- society. The critical role of schooling in the project of settler cuss, it is evasive. Indeed, settler colonialism covers colonialism is further evidenced during the expansion its tracks (Veracini, 2011). As Tuck, McKenzie, and of the “chartered academics” throughout the 17th and Kate McCoy (2014) noted, 18th century, when small schools were established in local communities, mostly by settler merchants A final general characteristic of settler colonialism is its (Beadie & Tolley, 2002). It is also manifest in the attempt (and failure) to contain Indigenous agency and establishment of Indian schools within the context of resistance. Indigenous peoples have refused settler what eventually became elite Universities (such as encroachment, even while losing their lives and home- Harvard), and perhaps most perversely implemented in lands. Writing about Aotearoa/New Zealand, [Jo] the Indian Boarding Schools, where assimilationist Smith (2011) cites the long history of Maori resistance projects to “kill the Indian, save the man” involved to settler invasion, describing the settler nation’s need widespread violence and abuse and ultimately served as to “continually code, decode, and recode social norms models for the Nazi genocide. and social spaces so as to secure a meaningful (read: Intimately linked to schools, the field of curriculum proprietary) relationship to the territories and resources studies has played a significant role in the maintenance at stake” (112, parentheses original). (p. 8) of settler colonialism. Early curriculum scholars con- ceived of educational projects through logics of replace- Thus, settler colonialism is “both an ongoing and ment in which the settler ultimately comes to replace incomplete project, with internal contradictions, the Native. . . . 442–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, universe demands that each and every entity in it seek the view that all non-white cultures represented earlier and sustain personal relationships. . . . [Thus], the cor- stages of development akin to childhood was expressed responding question faced by American Indians when by all curriculum thinkers, progressive and technocratic contemplating action is whether or not the proposed alike (Fallace, 2012). Recapitulation theory proposed action is appropriate. Appropriateness includes the that individual development followed the stages of the moral dimension of respect for the part of nature that development of the species, with European civilization will be used or affected in our action. Thus, killing an representing the full maturation of an adult. While animal or catching a fish involved paying respect to the some early scholars believed that blacks and Indians species and the individual animal or fish that such were incapable for being civilized, the dominant view action had disturbed. Harvesting plants also involved was that schooling could provide the necessary curricu- paying respect to the plants. These actions were neces- lum to civilize these representations of earlier forms of sary because of the recognition that the universe was human life, which meant to make them more like their built upon constructive and cooperative relationships white teachers. (p. 75–77) that had to be maintained. (p. 23–24)

As Tuck and McKenzie (2015) noted, for reasons The Persistence of Indigenous related to Deloria’s observations about the relation- Land as Curriculum ship between action and place,

Quechua scholar Sandy Grande (2004) elaborated the Indigenous authors have indicated preference for the “deep structures” of what she calls “colonialist con- term “land” over place. “Land” in these discussions is often shorthand for land, water, air, and subterranean sciousness.” These are the animating beliefs that earth—for example, in discussions of wetlands course through colonialist societies, hegemonic per- (Bang et al., 2014) and Sea Country. (p. 51; see also spectives that serve as common sense. These deep Whitehorse, Watkin, Sellwood, Barrett, & Chigeza, structures involve five core beliefs—“(1) belief in 2014) progress as change and change as progress; (2) belief in the effective separateness of faith and reason; As Greg Lowan has discussed, each group of (3) belief in the essential quality of the universe and Indigenous peoples has a distinct relationship to the of ‘reality’ as impersonal, secular, material, mecha- place they live, and these relationships cannot be generalized. Cajete (1994) articulated: nistic, and relativistic; (4) subscription to ontological individualism; and (5) belief in human beings as Every cultural group established relations to [their separate from and superior to the rest of nature” land] over time. Whether that place is in the desert, a (p. 69). For Grande, contemporary cultural and eco- mountain valley, or along a seashore, it is in the context logical crises can be credited to these deep structures, of natural community, and through that understanding which both afford and justify environmental degrada- they established an educational process that was practi- tion, cultural domination, and the practices of “over- cal, ultimately ecological, and spiritual. In this way developed, overconsumptive, and overempowered they sought and found their life. (p. 113; as cited in Lowan, 2009, p. 47) first-world nations and their environmentally destruc- tive ontological, axiological, and epistemological Similar to curriculum, land is suffused with these systems” (p. 68; Tuck & McKenzie, 2015, p. 50). relationships and the practices and knowledges that Yet, Indigenous understandings of land predate grew out of those relationships. “Relationships to and have co-developed alongside and in spite of the land are familial, intimate, intergenerational, and deep structures of colonialist consciousness. Synthe- instructive” (Tuck et al., 2014, p. 9). As Manulani sizing the role of place and land in Indigenous Aluli Meyer (2008) wrote, philosophical frameworks, Vine Deloria Jr. (2001) argued, Land is our mother. This is not a metaphor. For the Native Hawaiians speaking of knowledge, land was the Power and place produce personality. This equation central theme that drew forth all others. You came from simply means that the universe is alive, but it also con- a place. You grew in a place and you had a relationship tains within it the very important suggestion that the with a place. This is an epistemological idea. . . . One universe is personal and, therefore, must be approached does not simply learn about land, we learn best from in a personal manner. . . . The personal nature of the land. (p. 219, italics original) 54. Indigenous Land and Decolonizing Curriculum–•–443

Meyer’s emphasis on the epistemological compo- those “truths” that have been proven over a long period nents of (Indigenous) relationships to land under- of time. As the Yupiaq people interact with nature, they scores the centrality of place in Indigenous knowledge carefully observe to find pattern or order where there systems and theories of learning. Sandra Styres, might otherwise appear to be chaos. (p. 88) Celia Haig-Brown, and Melissa Blimkie (2013), in explaining the idea of a “pedagogy of Land,” used As Tuck et al. (2014) noted, “Kawagley’s render- language similar to Cajete (1994) and Lowan (2009) ing of Yupiaq relations to land braids together the to argue that land refers not just to its material quality cosmological, pedagogical, pragmatic and spiritual” but to its “spiritual, emotional, and intellectual (p. 10). It is an articulation of land as curriculum. aspects” (p. 37). For those who are not Indigenous yet wish to Land can be considered a conduit of memory engage Indigenous constructions of land as (Brooks, 2008; Wilson, 2005), in that it “both curriculum, remembers life and its loss and serves itself as a mne- monic device that triggers the ethics of relationality Styres, Haig-Brown, and Blimkie (2013), Meyer (2008), with the sacred geographies that constitute Indige- Kawagley (2010), and others also warn against under- standings of Indigenous knowledge of land as static or nous peoples’ histories” (Byrd, 2011, p. 118; see also performable. Calderon (2014) emphasizes embracing Tuck & McKenzie, 2015, p. 50). protocols “that are mindful of how Indigenous knowl- For some Indigenous peoples, land is a language edge has been co-opted and omitted” (p. 6), including curriculum. Iñupiaq scholar Edna Ahgeak MacLean for example, expectations that Indigenous peoples lead (2010) spoke to how language reveals relationships discussions on place. This mindfulness of co-option also entails an acknowledgement that Indigenous identities to land and water: and knowledge are not static, and that non- Indigenous desires for performances of “ authentic” I ndigeneity are People use their language to organize their reality. Iñu- also problematic. (Tuck et al., 2014, p. 10) piaq and Yup’ik cultures are based on dependence on the land and sea. Hunting, and therefore a nomadic way of life has persisted. The sea and land that people depend on for their sustenance are almost totally devoid Project(s) of Decolonization and of landmarks. These languages have therefore devel- How They Differ From Other oped an elaborate set of demonstrative pronouns and Social Justice Efforts adverbs that are used to direct the listener’s attention quickly to the nature and location of an object. In place Many educators are interested in the promises and of landmarks, words serve as indicators about proxim- ity, visibility, or vertical position and implies whether possibilities of what is sometimes called a decoloniz- the object is inside or outside, moving or not moving, ing curriculum. Yet, as decolonizing curriculum long or short. For example, Inupiaq has at least 22 becomes more and more trendy, it is important to stems that are used to form demonstrative pronouns in address what is problematic about the superficial eight different cases and demonstrative adverbs in four adoption of “decolonization” as a descriptor for cases. American English has two demonstrative pro- nouns [this and that] (plural forms these and those), curriculum. Frantz Fanon (1963) wrote, with their respective adverbs here and there. (p. 49) Decolonization, which sets out to change the order of MacLean’s description of land as language cur- the world, is, obviously, a program of complete disor- riculum attends to the complexity of both Indigenous der. But it cannot come as a result of magical practices, languages and Indigenous understandings of land nor of a natural shock, nor of a friendly understanding. Decolonization, as we know, is a historical process: and place. that is to say it cannot be understood, it cannot become Land has been described as the first teacher intelligible nor clear to itself except in the exact mea- (Styres et al., 2013). Yup’ik scholar Angayuqaq Oscar sure that we can discern the movements which give it Kawagley (2010) wrote that for Yupiaq people land historical form and content. (p. 36) and nature are “metaphysic” and pedagogical: Applying Fanon’s insights to education and cur- It is through direct interaction with the environment riculum, it is important to note that decolonization is that the Yupiaq people learn. What they learn is medi- always specific and historical—it cannot be ated by the cultural cognitive map. The map consists of generalized or standardized. 444–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Another issue is how often the language of decol- When decolonization is superficially invoked, it onization is used without referring to the works and allows the built-in antagonisms of the settler colonial lives of Indigenous peoples (Tuck & Yang, 2012). triad to be dismissed or overlooked. “Decolonization within settler colonial nation-states is complicated At a conference on educational research, it is not uncom- because there is no spatial separation between empire, mon to hear speakers refer, almost casually, to the need settlement, and colony/colonized” (Tuck & McKen- to “decolonize our schools,” or use “decolonizing meth- zie, 2015, pp. 52–53). Using the term decolonization ods,” or, “decolonize student thinking.” Yet, we have as a metaphor allows people to avoid the aspects of it observed a startling number of these discussions make no mention of Indigenous peoples, our/their struggles for that are unsettling; as Tuck and Yang (2012) noted, the recognition of our/their sovereignty, or the contribu- Decolonization as metaphor allows people to equivo- tions of Indigenous intellectuals and activists to theories cate these contradictory decolonial desires because it and frameworks of decolonization. Further, there is often turns decolonization into an empty signifier to be filled little recognition given to the immediate context of set- by any track towards liberation. In reality, the tracks tler colonialism on the North American lands where walk all over land/people in settler contexts. Though the many of these conferences take place. (pp. 2–3) details are not fixed or agreed upon, in our view, decol- onization in the settler colonial context must involve the In these instances, decolonization is only a meta- repatriation of land simultaneous to the recognition of phor, because, as Tuck and McKenzie (2015) noted, how land and relations to land have always already been “the discourse of decolonization is epistemically differently understood and enacted; that is, all of the severed from the specific colonial contexts from land, and not just symbolically. This is precisely why which it emerges. The result is the use of ‘decoloni- decolonization is necessarily unsettling, especially across lines of solidarity. . . . Settler colonialism, and its zation,’ as a synonym for civil and human rights- decolonization, implicates and unsettles everyone. (p. 7) based social justice projects” (p. 52). These other forms of justice often seek greater inclusion, repre- Thus, theories of decolonization within curriculum sentation, or services from the settler colonial nation- and curriculum studies must be purposefully informed state. Decolonization, in contrast, wants the end of by Indigenous analyses of colonization and theoriza- the settler colonial nation-state, making this use of tions of unsettlement. Further, decolonizing curricula decolonization as a metaphor problematic. As Tuck in settler colonial contexts must always involve reca- and Yang (2012) noted, librations of human relationships to land. In the con- text of settler slave estates, decolonization must also [It is] a form of enclosure, dangerous in how it domesti- involve the abolition of slavery in all of its forms. cates decolonization. It is also a foreclosure, limiting in This chapter has drawn together different aspects of how it recapitulates dominant theories of social change. (W)e wanted to be sure to clarify that decolonization is the significance of land in curriculum, especially not a metaphor. When metaphor invades decolonization, Indigenous perspectives of land. Settler colonialism is it kills the very possibility of decolonization; it recenters designed to make land seem like a backdrop to human whiteness, it resettles theory, it extends innocence to the activity, as something not needing much reflection or settler, it entertains a settler future. Decolonize (a verb) action. Indigenous understandings of land as central to and decolonization (a noun) cannot easily be grafted human knowledge and learning have persisted during onto pre-existing discourses/frameworks, even if they are critical, even if they are anti-racist, even if they are invasion and serve as counterpoints to settler construc- justice frameworks. The easy absorption, adoption, and tions of place and property. Curriculum is one site in transposing of decolonization is yet another form of set- which the problems of settler colonial depictions of tler appropriation. When we write about decolonization, land can be addressed, but not if efforts toward “decol- we are not offering it as a metaphor; it is not an approxi- onization” are superficial. Decolonization in settler mation of other experiences of oppression. Decoloniza- tion is not a swappable term for other things we want to colonial contexts must redress the relations of the do to improve our societies and schools. Decolonization settler colonial triad and involve repatriation of doesn’t have a synonym. (p. 3) Indigenous land and abolition of slavery. 54. Indigenous Land and Decolonizing Curriculum–•–445

References and Further Readings Native Knowledge Network, Center for Cross- cultural Studies, University of Alaska. Bang, M., Curley, L., Kessel, A., Marin, A., Suzukovich, Lowan, G. (2009). Exploring place from an Aboriginal E., & Strack, G. (2014). Muskrat theories, tobacco in perspective: Considerations for outdoor and the streets, and living Chicago as Indigenous land. In environmental education. Canadian Journal of K. McCoy, E. Tuck, & M. McKenzie (Eds.), Special Environmental Education, 14, 42–58. issue on land education: Indigenous, postcolonial, MacLean, E. A. (2010). Culture and change for Inupiat and decolonizing perspectives on place and and Yu’pik People of Alaska. In R. Barnhardt & environmental education research. Environmental A. O. Kawagley (Eds.), Alaska Native education: Education Research, 20, 37–55. Views from within (pp. 41–58). Fairbanks, AK: Beadie, N., & Tolley, K. (Eds.). (2002). Chartered Alaska Native Knowledge Network Press, University schools: Two hundred years of independent of Alaska Fairbanks. academies in the United States, 1727–1925. McCoy, K. (2014). Manifesting destiny: A land education New York, NY: Routledge Falmer. analysis of settler colonialism in Jamestown, Brooks, L. (2008). The common pot: The recovery of Virginia, USA. Environmental Education Research, native space in the northeast. Minneapolis, MN: 20(1), 82–97. University of Minnesota Press. McKnight, D. (2003). Schooling, the Puritan imperative, Byrd, J. A. (2011). The transit of Empire: Indigenous and the molding of an American national identity: critiques of colonialism. Minneapolis, MN: Education’s “errand into the wilderness.” University of Minnesota Press. New York, NY: Routledge. Cajete, G. (Ed.). (1994). Look to the mountain: An Meyer, M. A. (2008). Hawaiian epistemology and the ecology of indigenous education. Durango, CO: triangulation of meaning. In K. Denzin, Y. S. Kivaki Press. Lincoln, & L. T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of critical Calderon, D. (2014). Speaking back to manifest destinies: and indigenous methodologies (pp. 217–232). A land education-based approach to critical Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. curriculum inquiry. In K. McCoy, E. Tuck, & Morgensen, S. L. (2011). The biopolitics of settler M. McKenzie (Eds.), Special issue on land colonialism: Right here, right now. Settler Colonial education: Indigenous, postcolonial, and Studies, 1(1), 52–76. decolonizing perspectives on place and Sakiestewa, G. M. (2010). Education beyond the mesas: environmental education research. Environmental Hopi students at Sherman Institute, 1902–1929. Education Research, 20(1), 24–36. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Deloria, V., Jr., & Wilcat, D. R. (2001). Power and Smith, J. (2011). Postcolonial Māori television? The dirty place: Indian education in America. Goldon, CO: politics of indigenous cultural production. Fulcrum Publishing. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, Donald, D. (2012). Forts, colonial frontier logics, and 25(5), 719–729. Aboriginal-Canadian relations: Imagining Styres, S., Haig-Brown, C., & Blimkie, M. (2013). decolonizing educational philosophies in Canadian Towards a pedagogy of land: The urban context. contexts. In A. Abdi (Ed.), Decolonizing Canadian Journal of Education, 36(2), 188–221. philosophies of education (pp. 91–111). Amsterdam, Tuck, E., & Gaztambide-Fernández, R. (2013). Netherlands: Sense. Curriculum, replacement, and settler futurity. Fallace, T. (2012). Recapitulation theory and the new Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 29(1), education: Race, culture, imperialism, and pedagogy, 72–89. 1894–1916. Curriculum Inquiry, 42(4), 510–533. Tuck, E., Guess, A., & Sultan, H. (2014, June 26). Not Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New York, nowhere: Collaborating on selfsame land. NY: Grove Press. Decolonization: Indigeneity, education & society. Grande, S. (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American Retrieved from http://decolonization.wordpress social and political thought. Oxford, UK: Rowman .com/2014/06/26/not-nowhere-collaborating- & Littlefield. on-selfsame-land/ Holliday, W. (n.d.). Hopi prisoners on the rock. National Tuck, E., & McKenzie, M. (2015). Place in research: Park Service. Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/ Theory, methodology, and methods. New York, NY: alca/historyculture/hopi-prisoners-on-the-rock.htm Routledge. Kawagley, A. O. (2010). Foreword. In R. Barnhardt & Tuck, E., McKenzie, M., & McCoy, K. (2014). Land A. O. Kawagley (Eds.), Alaska native education: education: Indigenous, postcolonial, and Views from within (pp. 1–5). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska decolonizing perspectives on place and 446–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

environmental education research. Environmental land education: Indigenous, postcolonial, and Education Research, 20(1), 1–23. decolonizing perspectives on place and Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2012). Decolonization is not environmental education research. Environmental a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education Education Research, 20(1), 59–69. and Society, 1(1), 1–40. Willinsky, J. (1998). The obscured and present meaning Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (2014a). Unbecoming claims: of race in science education. In D. A. Roberts & Pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research. L. Östman (Eds.), Problems of meaning in science Qualitative Inquiry, 20(6), 811–818. curriculum (pp. 73–85). New York, NY: Teachers Tuck, E., & Yang, K. W. (Eds.). (2014b). Youth College Press. resistance research and theories of change. Wilson, S. (2008). Research as ceremony: Indigenous New York, NY: Routledge. research methods. Blackpoint, NS, Canada: Veracini, L. (2011). Introducing settler colonial studies. Fernwood. Settler Colonial Studies, 1, 1–12. Retrieved from Winfield, A. G. (2007). Eugenics and education in http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ America: Institutionalized racism and the settlercolonialstudies/article/view/239 implications of history, ideology, and memory. Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black New York, NY: Peter Lang. education: Ideology and power in America, 1865– Wolfe, P. (1999). Settler colonialism and the 1954. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. transformation of anthropology: The politics and Whitehouse, H., Watkin, F. L., Sellwood, J., Barrett, poetics of an ethnographic event. New York, NY: J. M., & Chigeza, C. (2014). Sea country: Cassell. Navigating Indigenous and colonial ontologies in Wolfe, P. (2006). Settler colonialism and the elimination Australian environmental education. In K. McCoy, of the native. Journal of Genocide Research, 8(4), E. Tuck, & M. McKenzie (Eds.), Special issue on 387–409. 55

THE MULTICULTURAL, MULTILINGUAL, AND MULTIRACIAL MILIEU

SONIA JANIS University of Georgia

he curriculum milieu is no longer a monocul- and sometimes they are blatant. Such oppression tural, monolingual, or monoracial space. It is could be illuminated in the literature on “the achieve- Tdiverse, complex, and changing with individ- ment gap,” which is described by the U.S. Department uals, communities, peoples, and societies. Societies of Education as a significant difference in academic of people, who once had little or no regard for one achievement among a subgroup [i.e., gender, race, or another, now depend upon and interact with one socioeconomic status] in comparison to the highest another. Such forms of interdependence between achieving subgroup as measured by reading, writing, large-scale localities influence small-scale individu- and mathematics assessments (U.S. Department of als and communities, which in turn influence larger Education, n.d.). This achievement gap can be traced groups of peoples and societies. These forms of back to the 1970s by referring to the difference in interdependence and connections transform the school performance between White and non-White monocultural, monolingual, and monoracial milieu students. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 into a multicultural, multilingual and multiracial (NCLB) was aimed at measuring the performance milieu, which poses challenges to students, teachers, differences and making schools accountable for parents, leaders, policy makers, and educational ensuring all students performed well in school, no workers. This chapter addresses the complexities and matter what their racial, socioeconomic, or other diversities of such a multicultural, multilingual, and demographics are. It has been close to a half-century multiracial milieu. since research on the achievement gap between eth- nic and racial groups of students in school began. Similarly, it has been over a decade since the passage Contemporary Concerns of the NCLB legislation. Some argue that over the past few decades there has been marked movement Within the multicultural, multilingual, and multira- toward closing the achievement gap. Others believe cial milieu, historically marginalized individuals, that the NCLB legislation offered quantifiable evi- groups, and communities continue to experience all dence that the achievement gap existed pervasively forms of oppression. As oppressions persist, they and persistently across communities and schools in take on new forms. Sometimes the forms are subtle the United States. Whichever side of that argument

447 448–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

one is on or whichever way one theorizes the exis- 2004; Nieto, 2000; Nieto & Bode, 2011), culturally tence of the term achievement gap, the achievement relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1994/2009), gaps remain. Students who are ethnic and racial culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2000), teaching minorities in the United States are likely to be for social justice (e.g., Ayers, Hunt, & Quinn, 1998; achieving in schools below the levels of their White Ayers, Quinn, & Stovall, 2009), and antiracist peda- peers. gogy (Giroux, 1992). Within the same moments that Whether in schools or in teacher education pro- these claims are made, lessons, strategies, methods, grams at colleges and universities, educators in the curricula, and pedagogies are selected and imple- multiracial milieu are challenged with the “demo- mented in classrooms that offer no opportunities for graphic imperative” and “the disjunction between critical thinking, let alone liberation set forth in the sociocultural characteristics and previous experi- pedagogical praxis of Paulo Freire (1970). For exam- ences of typical” teachers and many P–12 students ple, if one claims to believe in the importance of (Lowenstein, 2009, p. 166). The large majority of the culturally relevant pedagogy, but insists on following teaching profession is White, middle- or upper-class the prescribed curriculum, cultural relevance is females teaching and learning with an increasingly inherently excluded from the curriculum in the vast diverse student population. The teaching profession majority of schools, because few schools have is monocultural, but the students who are being taught explicitly adopted curriculum that is culturally rele- by these teachers are increasingly multicultural, mul- vant. Unless liberatory pedagogies are intentionally tilingual, and multiracial (Howard, 1999/2006). included, the marginalizations, oppressions, subjuga- Well-intentioned educators (e.g., Grant & Sleeter, tions, and suppressions remain. Teachers could 2003; Kumashiro, 2000; Sleeter, 2005) call for anti- transform students’ curriculum experiences through oppressive work to elicit potentially transformative participatory actions that engender multicultural solutions for this dilemma (Lowenstein, 2009). So education, culturally responsive teaching, or antira- far, however, this work has failed to translate into cist pedagogy within their classrooms, schools, and higher achievement for students. Despite the efforts communities (He & Phillion, 2008). of policy makers, researchers, teachers, and activists, some groups of non-White students remain behind White students in academic performance. The Context monocultural teaching force continues to leave other people’s children (Delpit, 1995) behind. The multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial The achievement gap and the demographic imper- milieu is continually influenced by younger genera- ative, if coupled, reveal a significant concern in tions. Many generations of scholars, theorists, educa- terms of the multiracial milieu. Efforts to address this tors, and citizens have sought to understand and concern have made slight improvements and altera- value the complicated mix of cultures, languages, tions to the curriculum and the education of children and races (Anzaldúa, 1987; Banks, 1974). Younger and their teachers in this milieu. These minor move- generations are increasingly aware of the multiplici- ments are unrecognizable if one looks intently at how ties of these phenomena and their influence on cur- increasingly complicated the milieu continues to riculum and education (Reginald, Kina, Dariotis, & become. One result of these movements is an altered Fojas, 2014). They have recognized that they are liv- lexicon of words used among those with an interest ing in the multiple spaces filled with cultures, lan- in curriculum and education. Due to continuous guages, and races that were once deemed socially, changes in the milieu, the words educators use in culturally, or politically impossible. What would regard to students, curriculum, and learning about make these spaces impossible? In some societies, it culture, language, and race have transformed since is the governing bodies that prohibit multicultural, the 1970s. Educators refer to learned words and multilingual, and multiracial spaces to exist. Until phrases to claim allegiances to theories that are 1967 interracial marriages in the United States were intended to liberate children of disenfranchised illegal. It took the U.S. Supreme Court’s ruling in groups. Teachers have learned to claim to value Loving v. Virginia (1967) to legalize interracial mar- multicultural education (e.g., Banks & Banks, 1995, riage (Root, 1996). Close attention needs to be paid 55. Multicultural, Multilingual, and Multiracial Milieu–•–449

to multiracial milieu to understand how curriculum significant that the number of children identifying as and education influence and are influenced by indi- multiracial increased 50% between 2000 and 2010 viduals who identify with their heritages and to 4.2 million children, which means multiracial genealogies across two or more races. children are the fastest growing youth group in the The multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial country. At present, children are the segment of the milieu is well documented in the United Nations population identifying as multiracial most frequently. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s Today’s multiracial children, alongside their diverse 2009 World Report, where a section was specifically classmates and peers, are being exposed to and devoted to explaining how our world has moved potentially educated through curriculums in P–12 “from monolithic to multiple identities. . . . We schools. This phenomenon, one of increasing multi- increasingly define ourselves, as individuals and racial diversity, has implications for students, teach- societies, in terms of multiple identities” (p. 20). ers, parents, leaders, policy makers, and educational “Each individual exposed to this multiplicity of workers. potential identities lives or manages it differently” (p. 21). Some choose to embrace multiple identities, while others choose to identify poignantly with one. Theory Where, when, and how individuals choose to situate themselves on a spectrum of managing their hybrid The multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial identities is one consideration for educators. Another milieu can be understood from several theoretical consideration is a working awareness of the fluid frameworks. These include those associated with cultural dynamics of a society that has a rapidly critical race theory (e.g., Delgado, 1995; Delgado & growing number of individuals choosing to navigate Stefancic, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 2005; Ladson- their hybrid and multiracial identities. This prolifer- Billings & Tate, 1995), multiculturalism or multicul- ating choice to define and navigate these identities tural education (e.g., Banks & Banks, 1995, 2004; influences ways of knowing and being in the world Nieto, 2000; Nieto & Bode, 2011), multilingual the- among children and adults across communities. Cul- ory (Fitzgerald, 2003), Black feminist thought tural mixing is sometimes referred to as hybridity or (e.g., Collins, 2008; Davis, 1981), Chicana feminist “[comprising] syntheses of cultural forms or frag- theory (e.g., Arrendondo, Hurtako, Klahn, Najera- ments of diverse origin” (p. 22). A movement of Ramirez, & Zavella, 2003; Trujillo, 1998), queer individuals who collectively identified as racially theory (e.g., Sullivan, 2003; Turner, 2000), and criti- hybrid worked together to gain political recognition cal indigenous theory (e.g., Denzin, Lincoln, & in the United States (Winters, 2003). The movement Smith, 2008; Grande, 2004). Recently, “critical led to the addition of a mark-all-that-apply option mixed race studies” (Reginald et al., 2014), which “is when completing the racial identification section of the scholarship and research addressing the personal, the 2000 U.S. Census. Beginning in 2000, people social, and political implications of an individual living in the United States could list all of the racial coming from more than one racial group” (Shih & categories with which they identified. This move- Sanchez, 2009, p. 2), has emerged. There has been a ment of individuals with multiple racial identities growing amount of work in the field even though the was a type of participatory activism that created a work was often dispersed across such disciplines as more descriptive representation of how individuals psychology, sociology, education, and public policy racially identify themselves in the United States. prior to the formation of the Journal of Critical From that change in Census data collection, more Mixed Race Studies in 2014. Without space to accurate data on the number of individuals who explore the interdisciplinarity of multiracialism, the identify as multiracial is available. In 2000, capacity for expanding an understanding of multira- 6.8 million people in the United States, or 2.4% of cialism is often exclusive to individuals and the nation’s population, identified as having two or communities that are directly influenced by its grow- more racial identities. In 2010, nine million people ing significance. The field is cutting-edge and has reported more than one race, which was about 3% of begun to make intersections within and across the total population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). It is theories, methodologies, pedagogies, and research. 450–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

The two prominently reoccurring themes in the similar patterns of identity construction for multira- cross-/inter-disciplinary multiracial studies are mul- cial individuals. Her study presented an ecological tiracial identity development and political issues that perspective describing five patterns of identity influence multiracial individuals. development for multiracial college students. Cross-/ Early works in the field of psychology that inter-disciplinary themes around multiracial identity addressed multiracial identity development were rife development emerged in the early to mid-2000s. The with negative innuendos and implications. A widely five patterns that Renn identified are inclusive of the referenced work by Everett Stonequist (1937) intro- four that Rockquemore and Brunsma proposed, as duced a multiracial identity development model well as the four that educational psychologist Kendra referred to as the “marginal man.” The model’s R. Wallace (2001) proposed. Renn’s five patterns are premise was that individuals who had multiple racial (1) student holds a monoracial identity; (2) student heritages were suffering psychologically. Joseph holds multiple monoracial identities, shifting accord- Teicher (1968) introduced another deficit model con- ing to the situation; (3) student holds a multiracial cluding that multiracial children were hospitalized identity; (4) student holds an extraracial identity by because they struggled with their multiple racial deconstructing race or opting out of identification identifications. The participants in Teicher’s study with U.S. racial categories; and (5) student holds were all psychiatric patients whom he used as a basis a situational identity, identifying differently in differ- for describing a model for multiracial identity ent contexts. Each of these works relied upon development. a cross-disciplinary approach while providing alter- There was a turn toward the positive experiences native models in comparison to past models that only of multiracial individuals in the field (e.g., Poston, proposed a marginal existence for multiracial people 1990; Root, 1990) who offered explanations, (Stonequist, 1937). classifications, levels, and resolutions associated Root reached beyond consideration for the iden- with a healthy multiracial identity development. tity development of racially mixed individuals into W. S. Carlos Poston offered five levels of multiracial the influence that political issues have on multiracial identity development, which specifically distin- people when she edited two anthologies (1992, 1996) guished multiracial from monoracial identity devel- on the multiracial experience. Her turn to policy was opment within the three middle levels. What was most evident with her inclusion of a new Bill of missing from Poston’s research was the recognition Rights—A Bill of Rights for Racially Mixed People. of societal racism that impacted the identity develop- This particular chapter lists 12 rights referenced ment of multiracial individuals. This omission was throughout the field of multiracial studies. reconciled in later works. Maria P. P. Root’s work mirrored minorities’ monoracial identity develop- I have the right . . . not to keep the races separate within ment in the early stages. She proposed that as multi- me . . . not to justify my ethnic legitimacy. I have the racial individuals reached the later stages, their right . . . to identify myself differently than strangers expect me to identify. I have the right . . . to change my identity alliances became somewhat tumultuous, identity over my lifetime—and more than once. (Root, entering what she called a “dual existence” (p. 200). 1996, p. 7) Nevertheless, the model that Root proposed included four positive reconciliations for multiracial identity The rights just outlined generated a point of refer- development, which was a needed development for ence across a spectrum of writings about the multi- understanding the multiracial experience. racial experience, whether in scholarly publications, Following Root’s (1990) research, sociologists as a part of public forums, within blogs, or as a part Kerry Ann Rockquemore and David Brunsma of website designed to connect individuals influenced (2002/2008) studied a large number of young adults by the increasingly multiracial milieu. Loretta I. with one Black parent and one White parent. Their Winters and Herman L. DeBose (2003) edited a research proposed four different ways that multira- later anthology that captured more recent research cials could identify: border, singular, protean, and in the field and bridged the multiracial identity transcendent. Around the same time, Kristen Renn development to the political issues that impact (2000, 2004) conducted research that concluded with multiracials. 55. Multicultural, Multilingual, and Multiracial Milieu–•–451

The political issues that influence the multiracial The countermultiracial movement model dis- milieu in the United States shifted dramatically agrees that adding a sixth racial category to census with the unanimous decision in the Supreme Court papers or any similar document is a step forward. case of Loving v. State of Virginia (1967). In 2000, They are in pursuit of antiracialism, in which people the issues shifted again with the inclusion of a are not identified by race or multirace. Adding the “mark-all-that-apply” category on the racial demo- multiracial category is seen as diminishing many graphic section of the census. The political issues civil rights gained by racially grounded political are realized within a multiracial movement that groups. The power and numbers in these historically consists of theorists, advocates, educators, and race-based political groups decrease in significance community members with diverse interests in the with the addition of multiracial groupings. Rainier political and social future of this ever-evolving Spencer (1999), a multiracial theorist who resonates group (or nongroup). The multiracial movement is with the ideals in the countermultiracial movement, not unified socially, ideologically, or politically, as discussed how historically oppressive and unreliable explored in the works of Heather M. Dalmage notions of multiracialism are toward the work of (2004) and Kimberly McClain DaCosta (2007). becoming a society without racism. Spencer (2006) Winters (2003) categorized the movement’s divi- criticized the quality of the arguments made by mul- sions into three models: (1) multiracial movement, tiracialists who are in favor of a sixth category to (2) countermultiracial movement, and (3) ethnic distinguish multiracial individuals from monoracial movement (p. 373). individuals on government documentation. Despite The multiracial movement model supported the his critique, Spencer (1999) recognized how multira- 1997 modification by the Office of Management and cial and antiracial ideologies could disrupt the U.S. Budget changing the federal standard for collection racial ordering of society by asking “how can mixed- of racial data to include a “mark-all-that-apply” sec- race or multiracial persons place themselves with tion. This is something this faction of the movement consistency and meaning within that system?” (p. 5). collaboratively fought to have added to federal docu- He argued that the biological construction of race is ments to ensure a problematic notion of racial accu- reemerging disguised as the social construction of racy in the census’ portrayal of racial demographics race. Race is a myth; therefore, multirace is a myth in the United States. Perceptions associated with according to Spencer (1999). The negative ramifica- racial accuracy are one of the impossible, complex, tions of racism in association with the belief in race nuanced notions that are theorized within critical will continue to plague multiracial individual and mixed-race studies (Daniel et al., 2014). Legislated monoracial individuals as long as the myth of race alterations to government policy often lead to unin- remains. Spencer believes it is time to begin prob- tended consequences. Nonetheless, the members of lematizing race categories altogether by moving this segment of the movement argue that such docu- away from classifications of people and promotes the mentation helps multiracial individuals to feel ideology that we are all members of the human race. included, but not marginalized, from the rest of soci- The ideologies that Spencer encourages around a ety that is being counted by race. Root is a multira- new racial order within mulitiracial milieu can be cial theorist who aligns her ideas with the multiracial furthered examined through works such as Jennifer movement. The ethnic movement model advocates L. Hochschild, Vesla M. Weaver, and Traci R. Burch’s for people to no longer identify themselves accord- (2012) book, Creating a New Racial Order. These ing to the mythical constructions of race. They would authors discussed how the individuals identifying as like people to identify themselves according to their multiracial and the multiracial movement have cre- ethnicities. Within this segment of the movement, it ated new spaces for younger generations to under- is believed that ethnic characterization would be stand and practice race. They argued that social, even more accurate and affirming than adding a mul- ideological, and political beliefs would benefit from tiracial category. American Indians, Hawaiians, and a reimagining in this multiracial milieu. Hispanics are often proponents of this movement There are educational theorists researching and that resists assimilation by “becoming White” writing with specific attention to the practical impli- (Winters, 2003, p. 377). cations of responding to the evolving multiracial 452–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

milieu. Gary R. Howard (1999/2006) proposed an inquiry is apparent. This type of inquiry into the in-depth, personalized journey into Whiteness for the daily functions of multiracial individuals remains a vast majority of classroom teachers who identify as strikingly significant way to portray the complicated White while teaching in multiracial schools. His and fluid nature of these individuals’ experiences belief in this “practitioner’s approach” (p. 101) to (Kwan & Speirs, 2004). Each narrative of this multi- understanding what it could mean to have a “trans- racial experience is unique, from the setting, time, formationalist white identity” (p. 110) is grounded in and place to the characters’ personalities and intricate his personal transformation. His personal experience relationships, from the multirace person’s upbring- is woven with reliable multicultural education theo- ing to his or her phenotypic racial characteristics. ries. He also inserted a serious recognition of the Multiracial studies are a form of “deliberative dis- dominant discourse that needs to be deconstructed to course” that lies beyond modern and postmodern authentically accomplish the changes he promotes. identity theories, potentially within a “transmodern” Bonnie M. Davis infused a professional development theory (Salgado, 2004, p. 34). Most of the multiracial model to present A Journey to Racial Literacy studies lie in between two or more theories. (2009). She referenced literature in the field of mul- “ Misceg-narrations” (a term created by Raquel tiracial studies and her own personal experiences Scherr Salgado, 2004) of the multiracial experiences with multiracial individuals in her family. The book are a potential form of discourse that is deliberative asks teachers to grapple with difficult questions while centered in a space “that moves” (p. 47). about race, their own identity, and their perceptions Misceg-narrations describe diverse and far-reaching of children. The work includes voices of students and narrative approaches to inquiry into multiracial parents while providing practical suggestions for experiences. For example, James McBride’s (1996) creating more inclusive spaces for multiracial stu- memoir details his experience in the 1960s, before dents in school. These works are limited in their multiracial studies was conceptualized. As SanSan application and ability to have a generalizable impact, Kwan and Kenneth Speirs (2004) said in the intro- much like some of the early psychological studies duction to their anthology, “[It] is only through the into multiracial identity development. Nonetheless, individual lived experiences of mixed-race people such resources are available to teachers, teacher edu- that we can understand the plural nature of multiraci- cators, and educational leaders with the intent to alities” (p. 4). Within the space of personalized plu- enhance an understanding of this multiracial milieu ralities, the rigid categorization of people based on among their faculties, students, colleagues, and the biological and/or social construction of race communities. diminishes. Narrative inquiries in the multiracial milieu, demonstrated as multiple modes of expres- sion, allow for the idiosyncrasies of distinct experi- Forms of Inquiry and Modes of Expression ences that cannot be repeated between siblings of the same parentage (Root, 1996). These narrative inqui- The multiracial milieu can be understood through ries take on modes of expression in the form of auto- such forms of inquiry as narrative inquiry, historical biography, biography, memoir, counternarrative, inquiry, phenomenological inquiry, and ethnographic anthology, and poetry. inquiry. There is a tendency for these forms of How can students, teachers, parents, leaders, pol- inquiry to overlap, intersect, and transform the tradi- icy makers, and educational workers understand the tional forms of inquiry. Narrative inquiry dominated multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial milieu the field of multiracial studies even before this theory when most educational situations are plagued by was named. Autobiographical, biographical, and his- homogeneity? The multiracial milieu is a space torical works about such individuals as Olaudah where individuals are no longer identified with one Equiano or Langston Hughes illuminate the com- race, but with two or more races; where groups are plexities of living in multiracial spaces early in the organizing according to social, political, and ideo- history of the United States. Even within this early logical beliefs about how race can be understood and example of inquiry in the multiracial milieu, an deconstructed to allow for more just understanding intersection between narrative inquiry and historical of individuals who comprise the human race; and 55. Multicultural, Multilingual, and Multiracial Milieu–•–453

where children, students, teachers, policy makers, another from historical oppressions and subjugations researchers, and educational workers work together, to reimagine, to create, and to foster a multicultural, not only in educational theory but also in classroom multilingual, and multiracial milieu for a better practice, to communicate, educate, and liberate one human condition for all.

References and Further Readings Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands/La frontera: The new The New Press. Mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Books. Denzin, N. K., Lincon, Y. S., & Smith, L. T. (Eds.). Arrendondo, G. F., Hurtado, A., Klahn, N., Najera- (2008). Handbook of critical and indigenous Ramirez, O., & Zavella, P. (2003). Chicana methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. feminisims: A critical reader. Durham, NC: Duke Fitzgerald, J. (2003). Multilingual reading theory. University Press. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 118–122. Ayers, W., Hunt, J. A., & Quinn, T. (Eds.). (1998). Freire, P. (1970/1996). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Teaching for social justice: A democracy and New York, NY: Continuum. education reader. New York, NY: Teachers College Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, Press. research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers Ayers, W., Quinn, T., & Stovall, D. (2009). Handbook of College Press. social justice in education. New York, NY: Giroux, H. A. (1992). Post-colonial ruptures and Routledge. democratic possibilities: Multiculturalism as Banks, J. A. (1974). Cultural pluralism and the schools. anti-racist pedagogy. Cultural Critique, 21, Educational Leadership, 32(3), 163–166. 5–39. Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A. M. (Eds.). (1995). Grande, S. (2004). Red pedagogy: Native American Handbook of research on multicultural education. social and political thought. Lanham, MD: New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Rowman & Littlefield. Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A. M. (Eds.). (2004). Grant, C., & Sleeter, C. (2003). Making choices for Handbook of research on multicultural education. multicultural education: Five approaches to race, San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. class, and gender. New York, NY: John Wiley & Collins, P. H. (2008). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, Sons. consciousness, and the politics of empowerment He, M. F., & Phillion, J. (2008). Personal~passionate~ (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. participatory inquiry: Research for social justice. DaCosta, K. M. (2007). Making multiracials: State, In M. F. He & J. Phillion (Eds.), Personal~passionate~ family and market in the redrawing of the color line. participatory inquiry into social justice in education Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. (pp. 1–21). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Dalmage, H. M. (2004). The politics of multiracialism: Publishing. Challenging racial thinking. Albany, NY: State Hochschild, J. L., Weaver, V. M., & Burch, T. R. (2012). University of New York Press. Creating a new racial order: How immigration, Daniel, G. R., Kina, L., Datiotis, W. M., & Fojas, C. multiracialism, genomics, and the young can remake (2014). Emerging paradigms in critical mixed race race in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University studies. Journal of Critical Mixed Race Studies, Press. 1(1), 6–64. Howard, G. R. (1999/2006). We can’t teach what we Davis, A. Y. (1981). Women, race, & class. New York, don’t know: White teachers, multiracial schools. NY: Random House. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Davis, B. M. (2009). The biracial and multiracial student Kumashiro, K. (2000). Toward a theory of anti- experiences: A journey to racial literacy. Thousand oppressive education. Review of Educational Oaks, CA: Sage. Research, 70(1), 25–53. Delgado, R. (Ed.). (1995). Critical race theory: Kwan, S., & Speirs, K. (2004). Introduction. The cutting edge. Philadelphia, PA: Temple In S. Kwan & K. Speirs (Eds.), Multiracial subjects: University Press. Mixing it up (pp. 1–10). Austin, TX: University of Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2011). Critical race theory: Texas Press. An introduction. New York, NY: New York Ladson-Billings, G. (1994/2009). The dreamkeepers. University Press. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 454–•–PART IV. MILIEU AS CURRICULUM

Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). The evolving role of critical Shih, M., & Sanchez, D. T. (2009). When race becomes race theory in educational scholarship. Race even more complex: Toward understanding the Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 115–119. landscape of multiracial identity and experiences. Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. (1995). Toward a critical Journal of Social Issues, 65, 1–11. race theory of education. Teachers College Record, Sleeter, C. E. (2005). How White teachers construct race. 97(1), 47–68. In C. McCarthy, W. Crichlow, G. Dimitriadis, & Lowenstein, K. L. (2009). The work of multicultural N. Dolby (Eds.), Race, identity and representation in teacher education: Reconceptualizing white teacher education (2nd ed., pp. 243–256). New York, NY: candidates as learners. Review of Educational Routledge. Research, 79(1), 163–196. Spencer, R. (1999). Spurious issues: Race and McBride, J. (1996). The color of water: A Black man’s multiracial identity politics in the United States. tribute to his White mother. New York, NY: Boulder, CO: Westview. Riverhead Books. Spencer, R. (2006). Challenging multiracial identity. Nieto, S. (2000). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. context of multicultural education. New York, NY: Stonequist, E. V. (1937). The marginal man: A study in Longman. personality and culture conflict. New York, NY: Nieto, S., & Bode, P. (2011). Affirming diversity: The Russell & Russell. sociopolitical context of multicultural education Sullivan, N. (2003). A critical introduction to queer (6th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. theory. New York, NY: New York University Poston, W. S. C. (1990). The biracial identity Press. development model: A needed addition. Journal of Teicher, J. D. (1968). Some observations on identity Counseling and Development, 69, 152–155. problems in children of Negro-White marriages. Renn, K. A. (2000). Patterns of situational identity The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 146, among biracial and multiracial college students. 249–256. Review of Higher Education, 23, 399–420. Trujillo, T. (Ed.). (1998). Living Chicana theory. Renn, K. A. (2004). Mixed race students in college: The Berkeley, CA: Third Woman Press. ecology of race, identity and community on campus. Turner, W. B. (Ed.). (2000). A genealogy of queer theory. Albany: State University of New York Press. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Rockquemore, K. A., & Brunsma, D. L. (2002/2008). U.S. Census Bureau. (2011, March 24). 2010 census Beyond Black: Biracial identity in America. Lanham, shows America’s diversity. Retrieved from http:// MD: Rowman & Littlefield. www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_ Root, M. P. P. (1990). Resolving “other” status: Identity census/cb11-cn125.html development of biracial individuals. Women and U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). Definitions. Therapy, 9, 185–205. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/race-top/district- Root, M. P. P. (Ed.). (1992). Racially mixed people in competition/definitions America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Wallace, K. R. (2001). Relative/outsider: The art and Root, M. P. P. (Ed.). (1996). The multiracial experience: politics of identity among mixed heritage students. Racial borders as the new frontier. Thousand Oaks, Westport, CT: Ablex. CA: Sage. Winters, L. I. (2003). The multiracial movement: Salgado, R. S. (2004). Misceg-narrations. In S. Kwan & Harmony and discord. In L. I. Winters & K. Speirs (Eds.), Multiracial subjects: Mixing it up H. I. DeBose (Eds.), New faces in a changing (pp. 31–70). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. America: Multiracial identity in the 21st century Sampson, F., Treves-Habar, J., & Milward, M. (Eds.). (pp. 373–379). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (2009). UNESCO World Report: Investing in Winters, L. I., & Debose, H. L. (Eds.). (2003). New faces cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue. Paris, in a changing America: Multiracial identity in the France: UNESCO Publishing. 21st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. POSTLUDE

e hope that one outcome from reading 1997; Giroux, Penna, & Pinar, 1981; Giroux & Purpel, the foregoing chapters is that you per- 1983; Gress & Purpel, 1988; Hass, 1987; Hollins, 1996; Wceive the great complexity of curriculum. Orlosky & Smith, 1978; Ornstein & Behar-Horenstein, We invite you to look at the contents of The SAGE 1994; Pinar, 1975; Short & Marconnit, 1968; Stern & Guide to Curriculum in Education as a beginning to Kysilka, 2008; Ulich, 1954). read some of the many references cited in each Realizing that too much curriculum revision has chapter and in sources you find in your own been ahistorical, or done without valuable historical explorations. perspectives, we urge you to find perspectives in As we conclude the guide, we reiterate some of such works (e.g., Connell, 1980; Cremin, 1961; the sources already mentioned and we provide addi- Davis, 1976; Franklin, 1986; Kliebard, 1986; tional ones. We suggest that you consult key refer- Kridel & Bullough Jr., 2007; Marshall, Sears, Allen, ence works (e.g., Banks & McGee Banks, 2004; Roberts, & Schubert, 2007; Miller, 2005; Pinar, Connelly, He, & Phillion, 2008; Denzin, Lincoln, & Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 1995; Schiro, 2008; Smith, 2008; Jackson, 1992; Knowles & Cole, 2008; Schubert & Lopez Schubert, 1980; Schubert, Lopez Kridel, 2010; Lewy, 1991; Lynn & Dixson, 2013; Schubert, Thomas, & Carroll, 2002; Seguel, 1966; Malewski, 2009; Rubin, 1977; Sandlin, Schultz, & Tanner & Tanner, 1990; Watkins, 2001; Willis, Burdick, 2010). Schubert, Bullough, Kridel, & Holton, 1993). We sincerely hope that you will read some of the It is valuable to explore writings on key questions that key synoptic texts that have brought new conceptual- augment understanding of what is worthwhile and for izations of the curriculum field and state of the art of whom it is worthwhile, the basic curriculum concern, curriculum studies in different eras (e.g., Alberty, and its relationship to the curricular common- 1947; Caswell & Campbell, 1935; Eisner, 1979; places (e.g., Aikin, 1942; Anyon, 1980; Apple, 1979; Marshall, Sears, Schubert, 2000; Marsh & Willis, Connelly & Clandinin, 1988; Counts, 1932; Doll, 2007; Null, 2011; Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & 1993; Freire, 1970; Giroux, 2000; Goodlad & Associ- Taubman, 1995; Schubert, 1986; Smith, Stanley, & ates, 1979; Greene, 1995; Grundy, 1987; Haggerson, Shores, 1950; Stratemeyer, Forkner, & McKim, 2000; Hansen, 2007; He, 2003, 2010; Henderson & 1947; Taba, 1962; Tanner & Tanner, 1975; Walker, Kesson, 2004; Hlebowitsh, 1993; hooks, 1994; 1989; Zais, 1976). Some of these books and the lists Hopkins, 1929; Huebner, 1966; Kincheloe & that follow have been published in several editions, Steinberg, 1995; Kumashiro, 2008; Leonard & Hilton, and we typically provide an early edition date with 2011; Macdonald, 1995; Miller, 1988, 1990; Molnar & hopes that you can search for more recent editions. Zahorik, 1977; Noddings, 2006; Paraskeva, 2011; We encourage you to review key collections of Pinar, 2004; Reid, 1999; Rugg, 1927; Schubert, 2009; some of the most influential articles preserved in Schultz, 2008; Short, 1991; Smith, Tyler, & Associates, books of readings (e.g., Alcorn & Linley, 1959; 1942; Spring, 2010; Takaki, 1993; Tyler, 1949; Bellack & Kliebard, 1978; Caswell & Campbell, 1937; Watkins, 1993, 2001, 2012; Westbury & Wilkof, Eisner & Vallance, 1974; Flinders & Thornton, 1978; Willinsky, 1998; Woodson, 1932).

455 456–•–Postlude

Along with the chapters in this guide, the works How can the lore of educators (parents, teachers, mentioned here will provide you with greater where- educational leaders, policy makers) and students withal to reflect on and respond to the multitude of themselves contribute to insight about matters curriculum issues and concerns depicted by the fol- mentioned in these questions? lowing questions, which are variations on questions How can we focus more broadly on education, seeing derived from reflections on Curriculum Books: The schooling as one of several educative forces that First Hundred Years (Schubert, Lopez Schubert, create us and our sense of identity? Thomas, & Carroll, 2002, pp. 525–526): How can we better understand intended, taught, null, hidden, and learned or embodied dimensions of What’s worthwhile? curricula in schools and outside-of-school venues What’s worth knowing, experiencing, doing, needing, (e.g., in homes, families, marriages, friendships, being, becoming, overcoming, sharing, and churches, communities, gangs, peer groups, contributing? radio, television, movies, computers, video, videogames, popular print, sports, stores, clubs, What can be done to increase meaning, goodness, and dance studios, music, art, hobbies, jobs, and more)? happiness in lives of students—in all our lives? How can we empathically understand each other’s What prevents focus on this in schooling and in other autobiographies and aspirations as curricula? forms of education? How can we build curricula on strengths of all engaged How does the nexus of power (corporate, military, with it in ways that revitalize faith in the goodness governmental, religious, media) that strives for of human potential? empire prevent progressive educational practices? As you consider these never-ending questions and How can alternative forms of inquiry and modes of look into the Resource Guide at the end of this expression counter hegemonic practices? volume, we hope you will reconnoiter with others How do class, race, gender, ability, health, membership, through whatever spheres of curriculum you traverse age, appearance, place, belief, ethnicity, sexual to cultivate curricular experiences for next genera- orientation, status, nationality, reputation, and other tions to thrive in a world of greater freedom and factors influence education and other opportunities? beauty, integrity and justice, peace and possibility.

References and Recommended Readings Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum development . New York, NY: American Book Company. Aikin, W. M. (1942). The story of the Eight Year Study. Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (Eds.). (1937). New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Readings in curriculum development. New York, Alberty, H. (1947). Reorganizing the high school NY: American Book Company. curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. Connell, W. F. (1980). A history of education in the Alcorn, M. D., & Linley, J. M. (Eds.). (1959). Issues in twentieth century world. New York, NY: Teachers curriculum development. Yonkers-on-the Hudson, College Press. NY: World Book Company. Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum planners. New York, NY: Teachers curriculum of work. Journal of Education, 162(1), College Press. 67–92. Connelly, F. M., He, M. F., & Phillion, J. A. (2008). Apple, M. W. (1979/2004). Ideology and curriculum. Handbook of curriculum and instruction. Thousand New York, NY: Routledge. Oaks, CA: Sage. Banks, J. A., & McGee Banks, C. A. (2004). Handbook Counts, G. S. (1932). Dare the school build a new social of research on multicultural education (2nd ed.). order? New York, NY: John Day. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Cremin, L. (1961). The transformation of the school. Bellack, A. A., & Kliebard, H. (Eds.). (1978). New York, NY: Knopf. Curriculum and evaluation. Berkeley, CA: Davis, O. L. (Ed.). (1976). Perspectives on McCutchan. curriculum development: 1776–1976. Postlude–•–457

Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and learning beyond schooling (pp. 469–482). Curriculum Development. New York, NY: Routledge. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S., & Smith, L. T. (Eds.). Henderson, J. G., & Kesson, K. (2004). Curriculum (2008). Handbook of critical and indigenous wisdom. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hlebowitsh, P. S. (1993). Radical curriculum theory Doll, W. E., Jr. (1993). A post-modern perspective on reconsidered. New York, NY: Teachers College curriculum. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Press. Hollins, E. R. (Ed.). (1996). Transforming curriculum for Eisner, E. W. (1979/1985/1994). The educational a culturally diverse society. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence imagination: On the design and evaluation of Erlbaum. educational programs. New York, NY: Macmillan. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education Eisner, E. W., & Vallance, E. (Eds.). (1974). Conflicting as the practice of freedom. New York, NY: conceptions of curriculum. Berkeley, CA: Routledge. McCutchan. Hopkins, L. T. (1929). Curriculum principles and Flinders, D. J., & Thornton, S. J. (Eds.). practices. New York, NY: Benjamin H. (1997/2005/2009). The curriculum studies reader. Sandborn. New York, NY: Routledge. Huebner, D. (1966). Curricular language and classroom Franklin, B. M. (1986). Building the American meanings. In J. Macdonald & R. Leeper (Eds.), community. London, UK: Falmer. Language and meaning (pp. 8–26). Washington, Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum NY: Continuum. Development. Giroux, H. A. (2000). Stealing innocence: Corporate Jackson, P. W. (Ed.). (1992). Handbook of research on culture’s war on children. New York, NY: Palgrave. curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. Giroux, H. A., & Purpel, D. (Eds.). (1983). The hidden Jardine, D. (1998). To dwell with a boundless heart. curriculum and moral education. Berkeley, CA: New York, NY: Peter Lang. McCutchan. Kincheloe, J. L., & Steinberg, S. R. (Eds.). (1995). Giroux, H. A., Penna, A. N., & Pinar, W. F. (Eds.). Thirteen questions: Reframing education’s (1981). Curriculum and instruction: Alternatives in conversation. New York, NY: Peter Lang. education. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan. Kliebard, H. M. (1986/1993/2004). The struggle for the Goodlad, J. I., & Associates. (1979). Curriculum inquiry. American curriculum: 1893–1958. New York, NY: New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Routledge. Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination. San Knowles, J. G., & Cole, A. L. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. of the arts in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Gress, H. A., & Purpel, D. E. (Eds.). (1983). Curriculum: CA: Sage. An introduction to the field. Berkeley, CA: Kridel, C. (Ed.). (2010). Encyclopedia of curriculum McCutchan. studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: Product or praxis. Kridel, C., & Bullough, R. V., Jr. (2007). Stories of the New York, NY: Falmer. Eight Year Study and rethinking schooling in Haggerson, N. (2000). Expanding curriculum research America. Albany, NY: State University of New York and understanding: A mythopoetic perspective. Press. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Kumashiro, K. K. (2008). The seduction of common Hansen, D. T. (Ed.). (2007). Ethical visions of education: sense: How the right has framed the debate on Philosophies in practice. New York, NY: Teachers America’s schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press in association with the Boston College Press. Research Center for the 21st Century. Leonard, T., & Hilton, P. M. (2010). Fundamental Hass, G. (Ed.). (1987). Curriculum planning: A new curriculum questions. In C. Kridel (Ed.), approach. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Encyclopedia of curriculum studies (pp. 953–970). He, M. F. (2003). A river forever flowing: Cross-cultural Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. lives and identities in the multicultural landscape. Lewy, A. (Ed.). (1991). The international encyclopedia Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishers. of curriculum. Oxford, UK: Pergamon. He, M. F. (2010). Exile pedagogy: Teaching in-between. Lynn, M., & Dixson, A. D. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of In J. A. Sandlin, B. D. Schultz, & J. Burdick (Eds.), critical race theory in education. New York, NY: Handbook of public pedagogy: Education and Routledge. 458–•–Postlude

Macdonald, B. J. (Ed.). (1995). Theory as a prayerful Rugg, H. O. (1927). Foundations of curriculum making act: The collected essays of James B. Macdonald. (Twenty-sixth yearbook of the National Society for New York, NY: Lang. the Study of Education. Part II). Bloomington, IL: Malewski, E. (Ed.). (2009). Curriculum studies Public School Publishing Company. handbook: The next moment. New York, NY: Sandlin, J. A., Schultz, B. D., & Burdick, J. (Eds.). Routledge. (2010). Handbook of public pedagogy: Education Marsh, C., & Willis, G. (2007). Curriculum: Alternative and learning beyond schooling. New York, NY: approaches: Ongoing issues. Columbus, OH: Pearson. Routledge. Marshall, J. D., Sears, J. T., Allen, L., Roberts, P., & Schiro, M. S. (2008). Curriculum theory: Conflicting Schubert, W. H. (2007). Turning points in visions and enduring concerns. Thousand Oaks, curriculum: A contemporary curriculum memoir CA: Sage. (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. Schubert, W. H. (1986/1997). Curriculum: Perspective, Marshall, J. D., Sears, J. T., & Schubert, W. H. (2000). paradigm, and possibility. New York, NY: Turning points in curriculum: A contemporary Macmillan. curriculum memoir (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Schubert, W. H. (2008). Curriculum inquiry. Prentice Hall. In F. M. Connelly, M. F. He, & J. Phillion (Eds.), Miller, J. L. (1990). Creating spaces and finding voices. Handbook of curriculum and instruction Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miller, J. L. (2005). Sounds of silence breaking. Schubert, W. H. (2009). Love, justice, and education: New York, NY: Peter Lang. John Dewey and the Utopions. Charlotte, NC: Miller, J. P. (1988). The holistic curriculum. Toronto, ON, Information Age Publishing. Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Schubert, W. H., & Lopez Schubert, A. L. (1980). Press. Curriculum books: The first eighty years. Lanham, Molnar, A., & Zahorik, J. (Eds.). (1977). Curriculum MD: University Press of America. theory. Washington, DC: Association for Schubert, W. H., Lopez Schubert, A. L., Thomas, T. P., & Supervision and Curriculum Development. Carroll, W. M. (2002). Curriculum books. New York, Noddings, N. (2006). Critical lessons: What our schools NY: Peter Lang. should teach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Schultz, B. D. (2008). Spectacular things happen along University Press. the way: Stories from an urban classroom. Null, W. (2011). Curriculum: From theory to practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Seguel, M. L. (1966). The curriculum field: Its formative Orlosky, D., & Smith, B. O. (Eds.). (1978). Curriculum years. New York, NY: Teachers College. development: Insights and issues. Chicago, IL: Short, E. C. (Ed.). (1991). Forms of curriculum inquiry. Rand McNally. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Ornstein, A. C., & Behar-Horenstein, L. S. (Eds.). Short, E. C., & Marconnit, D. G. (Eds.). (1968). (1994/1999). Contemporary issues in curriculum. Contemporary thought in public school curriculum. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Dubuque, IA: William C Brown. Paraskeva, J. M. (2011). Conflicts in curriculum theory: Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. O., & Shores, J. H. (1950). Challenging hegemonic epistemologies. New York, Fundamentals of curriculum development. NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Yonkers-on-the-Hudson, NY: World Book. Pinar, W. F. (Ed.). (1975). Curriculum theorizing: Smith, E. R., Tyler, R. W., & Associates. (1942). The reconceptualists. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan. Appraising and recording student progress. Pinar, W. F. (2004). What is curriculum theory? New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Spencer, H. (1861). Education: Intellectual, moral, and Pinar, W. F., Reynolds, W. M., Slattery, P., & Taubman, P. physical. New York, NY: D. Appleton & Company. M. (1995). Understanding curriculum. New York, Spring, J. (2004). How educational ideologies are NY: Peter Lang. shaping global society: Intergovernmental Reid, W. A. (1999). Curriculum as institution and organizations, NGOs, and the decline of the practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. nation-state. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rubin, L. (Ed.). (1977). Curriculum handbook: Spring, J. (2010). Deculturalization and the struggle The disciplines, current movements, instrumental for equality: A brief history of the education of methodology, administration, and theory. Boston, dominated cultures in the United States. New York, MA: Allyn & Bacon. NY: McGraw-Hill. Postlude–•–459

Steinberg, S. R., & Kincheloe, J. L. (Eds.). (2004). Ulich, R. (Ed.). (1947/1954). Three thousand years of 19 urban questions: Teaching in the city. New York, educational wisdom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard NY: Peter Lang. University Press. Stern, B. S., & Kysilka, M. L. (Eds.). (2008). Walker, D. F. (1989). Fundamentals of curriculum. Contemporary readings in curriculum. Thousand San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, & Jovanovich. Oaks, CA: Sage. Watkins, W. H. (2001). The White architects of Black Stratemeyer, F. B., Forkner, H. L., & McKim, M. G. education. New York, NY: Teachers College (1947). Developing a curriculum for modern living. Press. New York, NY: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Watkins, W. H. (Ed.). (2012). The assault on public College, Columbia University. education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and Westbury, I., & Wilkof, N. (Eds.). (1989). Science, practice. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, & World. curriculum, and liberal education: Essays of Joseph Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of Schwab. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. multicultural America. Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Willinsky, J. (1998). Learning to divide the world: Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1975/1980/1995/2006). Education at empire’s end. Minneapolis, MN: Curriculum development. New York, NY: University of Minnesota Press. Macmillan. Willis, G. H., Schubert, W. H., Bullough, R., Jr., Tanner, D., & Tanner, L.N. (1990). History of the school Kridel, C., & Holton, J. (Eds.). (1993). The curriculum. New York, NY: Macmillan. American curriculum. Westport, CT: Greenwood Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and Press. instruction. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Witherell, C., & Noddings, N. (Eds.). (1991). Stories Press. lives tell: Narrative and dialogue in education. Tyler, R. W. (1977). Desirable content for a curriculum New York, NY: Teachers College Press. development syllabus today. In A. Molnar & Woodson, C. G. (1933). The mis-education of the Negro. J. Zahorik (Eds.), Curriculum theory (pp. 36–44). Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum: Principles and Curriculum Development. foundations. New York, NY: Thomas Y. Crowell.

RESOURCE GUIDE

Organizations With Conferences Journals

American Association for Teaching and Curriculum American Educational Research Journal, aer.sagepub.com (AATC): aatchome.org American Journal of Education, www.press.uchicago American Association for the Advancement of .edu/ucp/journals/journal/aje.html Curriculum Studies (AAACS): www.aaacs.org Anthropology & Education Quarterly, onlinelibrary American Educational Research Association (AERA): .wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN% www.aera.net 291548-1492 AERA Division B (Curriculum Studies): www.aera.net/ Critical Inquiry, criticalinquiry.uchicago.edu DivisionB/CurriculumStudies(B)/tabid/11087/ Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, aatchome.org/ Default.aspx journal-information AERA Special Interest Group on Critical Issues in Curriculum Inquiry, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ Curriculum and Cultural Studies: www.aera.net/ journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291467-873X tabid/11093/first/a/last/g/default.aspx The Curriculum Journal (British), www.tandfonline.com/ American Educational Studies Association (AESA): toc/rcjo20/current#.VO0c-3zF_0E www.educationalstudies.org Curriculum Perspectives (Australian), www.acsa.edu.au/ Association for Supervision and Curriculum pages/page33.asp Development: www.ascd.org Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, Bergamo Conference on Curriculum Theory and www.tandfonline.com/toc/hdim20/current# Classroom Practice: www.jctonline.org/conference .VO0O0XzF_0E Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies: www.csse- Educational Forum, www.kdp.org/publications/ scee.ca/cacs theeducationalforum/ Curriculum and Pedagogy Group (C & P): www Educational Leadership, www.ascd.org/publications/ .curriculumandpedagogy.org educational-leadership.aspx International Association for the Advancement of Educational Researcher, edr.sagepub.com Curriculum Studies (IAACS): www.jctonline.org/ Educational Studies, www.tandfonline.com/toc/ceds20/ iaacs-conference current#.VO0KP3zF_0E The John Dewey Society: www.johndeweysociety.org Educational Theory, education.illinois.edu/ Kappa Delta Pi (KDP): www.kdp.org educational-theory National Association for Multicultural Education Harvard Educational Review, hepg.org/her-home/home (NAME): nameorg.org History of Education Quarterly, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ Phi Delta Kappa (PDK): pdkintl.org journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291748-5959 Society for the Study of Curriculum History (SSCH): International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, ssch.cehd.tamu.edu libjournal.uncg.edu/index.php/ijcp Society of Professors of Education (SPE): International Journal of Education & the Arts, societyofprofessorsofeducation.com www.ijea.org World Council for Curriculum and Instruction (WCCI): International Journal of Progressive Education, wcci-international.org inased.org/ijpe.htm

461 462–•–Resource Guide

JCT: Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, journal.jctonline Multicultural Education, www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/ .org/index.php/jct/index educatrs/presrvce/pe3lk1.htm Journal of Aesthetic Education, www.press.uillinois.edu/ Multicultural Perspectives, www.tandfonline.com/toc/ journals/jae.html hmcp20/current#.VO0PpHzF_0E Journal of Asian and African Studies, jas.sagepub.com Phenomenology + Pedagogy (archives), ejournals Journal of Black Studies, jbs.sagepub.com .library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pandp/issue/ Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, www.tandfonline archive .com/toc/ujcp20/current#.VO0MrnzF_0E Professing Education, profed.brocku.ca Journal of Curriculum and Supervision (archives), Progressive Education [no longer published] www.ascd.org/publications/jcs/summer2005/toc.aspx Review of Educational Research, rer.sagepub.com Journal of Curriculum Studies, www.tandfonline.com/ Social Frontier (archives), www.tcrecord.org/frontiers toc/tcus20/current#.VO0OHHzF_0E The Sophist’s Bane, societyofprofessorsofeducation.com Journal of Education, www.bu.edu/journalofeducation Teachers College Record, www.tcrecord.org The Journal of Educational Foundations, intraweb. Teaching Education, www.tandfonline.com/toc/cted20/ stockton.edu/eyos/page.cfm?siteID=144&pageID=9 current#.VO0S-3zF_0E The Journal of Negro Education, www.journalnegroed.org Theory Into Practice, www.tandfonline.com/loi/htip20# Journal of Teacher Education, jte.sagepub.com .VO0TInzF_0E Journal of Thought, journalofthought.com Urban Education, uex.sagepub.com

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Asher, N. (2007). Made in the (multicultural) U.S.A.: Barone, T. (2000). Aesthetics, politics, and educational Unpacking tensions of race, culture, gender, and inquiry: Essays and examples. New York, NY: sexuality in education. Educational Researcher, Peter Lang. 36(2), 65–73. Barone, T., & Eisner, E. (2012). Arts based research. Atkinson, P. (2001). Handbook of ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. London, UK: Sage. Baszile, D. T. (2009). In Ellisonian eyes: What is Au, K. H. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural curriculum theory? In E. Malewski (Ed.), settings. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace & Curriculum studies—the next moment: Exploring Company. post-reconceptualization (pp. 483–495). New York, Au, W. (2009). Unequal by design: High-stakes testing NY: Routledge. and the standardization of inequality. New York, Baszile, D. T. (2011). The riot in my soul—Part I: NY: Routledge. A critical rant on race, rage, and the limits of formal Au, W. (2012). Critical curriculum studies: Education, education on these matters. In E. Malewski & conciousness, and the politics of knowing. N. Jaramillo (Eds.), Epistemologies of ignorance in New York, NY: Routledge. education (pp. 244–267). Charlotte, NC: Information Ayers, R., & Ayers, W. (2011). Teaching the taboo: Age Publishing. Courage and imagination in the classroom. Bateson, M. C. (1989). Composing a life. New York, New York, NY: Teachers College Press. NY: The Atlantic Monthly Press. Ayers, W. (2004). Teaching the personal and the Bateson, M. C. (1994). Peripheral visions: Learning political: Essays on hope and justice. New York, along the way. New York, NY: HarperCollins. NY: Teachers College Press. Behar, R. (1996). The vulnerable observer: Anthropology Ayers, W. (2004). Teaching toward freedom: Moral that breaks your heart. Boston, MA: Beacon. commitment and ethical action in the classroom. Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Boston, MA: Beacon. Tarule, J. M. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: Ayers, W. (2010). To teach: The journey of a teacher The development of self, voice, and mind. New York, (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College NY: Basic Books. Press. Bell, D. (1992). Faces at the bottom of the well: The Ayers, W., Hunt, J. A., & Quinn, T. (Eds.). (1998). permanence of racism. New York, NY: Basic Books. Teaching for social justice: A democracy and Bellack, A. A., & Kliebard, H. (Eds.). (1978). education reader. New York, NY: Teachers College Curriculum and evaluation. Berkeley, CA: Press. McCutchan. Ayers, W., Quinn, T., & Stovall, D. (2009). Handbook of Bennett, A., & Kahn-Harris, K. (2004). After subculture: social justice in education. New York, NY: Critical studies in contemporary youth culture. New Routledge. York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Ayers, W. C., & Miller, J. L. (Eds.). (1998). A light in Berlin, I., Favreau, M., Brundage, W. F., & Miller, S. F. dark times: Maxine Greene and the unfinished (1998). Remembering slavery: African Americans conversation. New York, NY: Teachers College talk about their personal experiences of slavery and Press. freedom. New York, NY: The New Press. Baker, R. S. (2006). Paradoxes of desegregation: African Bernal, D. D. (1998). Using a Chicana feminist American struggles for educational equity in epistemology in educational research. Harvard Charleston, South Carolina, 1926–1972. Charleston, Educational Review, 68, 555–582. SC: University of South Carolina. Best, A. L. (2007). Representing youth: Methodological Baker-Fletcher, K. (1998). Sisters of dust, sisters of spirit: issues in critical youth studies. New York, NY: Womanist wordings on god and creation. New York University Press. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. Bamberg, M. (2004). Considering counternarratives. New York, NY: Routledge. In M. Bamberg & M. Andrews (Eds.), Considering Boal, A. (1985). Theatre of the oppressed. New York, counter-narratives: Narrating, resisting, making NY: Theatre Communication Group. sense (pp. 351–371). Philadelphia, PA: John Boal, A. (2006). The aesthetics of the oppressed. Benjamins Publishing. New York, NY: Routledge. Banks, J. A., & McGee Banks, C. A. (Eds.). (2004). Boggs, G. (2012). The next American revolution: Handbook of research on multicultural education. Sustainable activism for the twenty-first century. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 464–•–Resource Guide

Boggs, J. (2009/1963). The American revolution: Pages (E. Mendieta & J. VanAntwerpen, Eds.; Afterword from a negro worker’s notebook. New York, NY: by C. Calhoun). New York, NY: Columbia University Monthly Review Press. Press. Boggs, J., & Lee Boggs, G. (2008/1974). Revolution and Callejo-Pérez, D., Fain, S., & Slater, J. (2004). Pedagogy evolution in the twentieth century. New York, NY: of place: Seeing space as cultural education. Monthly Review Press. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Bolden, T. (2004). Afro-blue: Improvisations in African Cameron, J. (2012). Canaries reflect on the mine: American poetry and culture. Urbana and Chicago, Dropouts’ stories of schooling. Charlotte, NC: IL: University of Illinois Press. Information Age Publishing. Bond, H. M. (1934). The education of the Negro in the Cannon, K. G. (1988). Black womanist ethics. Atlanta, American social order. New York, NY: GA: Scholars Press. Prentice Hall. Cannon, K. G. (1996). Katie’s cannon: Womanism and Botelho, M. J., & Rudman, M. K. (2009). Critical the soul of the Black community. New York, NY: multicultural analysis of children’s literature: Continuum. Mirrors, windows, and doors. New York, NY: Carger, C. (1996). Of borders and dreams: Routledge. Mexican-American experience of urban education. Bowers, C. A. (2001). Educating for eco-justice and New York, NY: Teachers College Press. community. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Carger, C. L. (2009). Dreams deferred: Dropping out Press. and struggling forward (Vol. 2). Charlotte, NC: Brake, M. (1985). Comparative youth culture: The Information Age Publishing. sociology of youth cultures and youth subcultures in Carr, D. (1986). Time, narrative, and history. America, Britain and Canada. Boston, MA: Bloomington, IN: Indiana University. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Casemore, B. (2008). The autobiographical demand of Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008). “Yakkity yak” and “talking place: Curriculum inquiry in the American South. back”: An examination of sites of survivance in New York, NY: Peter Lang. Indigenous knowledge. In M. Villegas, S. R. Casey, K. (1993). I answer with my life: Life histories of Neugebauer, & K. R. Venegas (Eds.), Indigenous women teachers working for social change. knowledge and education: Sites of struggle, strength, New York, NY: Routledge. and survivance (pp. 339–346). Cambridge, MA: Cash, W. J. (1941). The mind of the south. New York, Harvard Education Press. NY: Vintage Books. Brilliant, R. (1984). Visual narratives: Storytelling in Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum Etruscan and Roman art. Ithaca, NY: Cornell development. New York, NY: American Book University Press. Company. Brock, R. (2005). Sista talk: The personal and the Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (Eds.). (1937). pedagogical. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Readings in curriculum development. New York, Brown, F. P. (1999). Performing the word: African NY: American Book Company. American poetry as vernacular culture. New Chan, E. (2007). Student experiences of a culturally- Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. sensitive curriculum: Ethnic identity development Brown, K. D. (1995). Teaching womanist theology. amid conflicting stories to live by. Journal of In C. A. Sanders (Ed.), Living in the intersection: Curriculum Studies, 39(2), 177–194. Womanism and Afrocentrism in theology. Chan, E., & Schlein, C. (2010). Understanding social Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. justice and equity through students’ stories: Brundage, W. F. (2005). The southern past: A clash of Individual, familial, social, and cultural race and memory. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap interpretations. Journal of the International Society Press of Harvard University Press. for Teacher Education, 14(2), 35–42. Buras, K. L., Randels, J., Salaam, K., & Student at the Chen, K.-H. (Ed.). (1998). Trajectories: Center. (2010). Pedagogy, policy, and the privatized Intre-Asia cultural studies. New York, NY: city: Stories of dispossession and defiance from New Routledge. Orleans. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. subversion of identity. London, UK: Rutledge. Chomsky, N. (2000). Chomsky on mis-education Butler, J., Habermas, J., Taylor, C., & West, C. (2011). (D. Macedo, Ed.). New York, NY: Rowman & The power of religion in the public sphere Littlefield. Resource Guide–•–465

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INDEX

Academic rationalism, 82 Black teachers in urban schools, 215–222 Accountability, 38–39, 55, 154, 183, 201–202 books and children’s literature of, 269, 270 control and surveillance in, 186 Brown v. Board of Education and, 22, 269 No Child Left Behind Act and, 64, 98, 128, 186, 251 changing curriculum goals and, 98 “no pass, no promotion” regulations, 201 civil rights movement and, 262, 269, 361 privatization and, 290 currere of, 120 teacher education and, 201–202 Freedom Schools and, 237, 332 testing and, 201–202 slavery and, 121, 306, 307, 394 See also Common Core State Standards Souls of Black Folk, The, 59, 307 Accrediting bodies, for teacher education, 201 standards-based reforms, impacts of, 64 Achievement gap, 210, 447–448 stereotypes and, 121–122 Act Your Age!: A Cultural Construction of Adolescence violence witnessed by, 408 (Lesko), 385 What African American Parents Want Educators to Know, Action research, 17, 140 329–330 Active learning, 242, 264 See also Black education; entries beginning with Black Activists, teachers as, 160–164 Africana Womanism (Hudson-Weems), 362–363 characteristics and definition of, 161 Against Common Sense (Kumashiro), 162 contemporary concerns and contexts for, 160–161 Agee, J., 216 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 162–163 Agency, 337, 338, 371 narratives on, 162 Ahmed, S., 371 resources for, 162 Aikenhead, G., 31 theory of, 161–162 Ain’t I a Womanist Too? (Coleman), 363 Activity theory, 92 Alberts, J., 157 Actor-network theory, 92 Alberty, H., 14, 96 Adams, H., 59 Alim, H. S., 211, 265 Addams, J., 155, 236, 292, 295, 296, 332 Alliance for Excellent Education, 260 Additive schooling, 265, 329 Almond, L., 73 Additive Schooling in Subtractive Times (Bartlett and Alridge, D., 306 Garcia), 265 Alternative school milieu, 391–399 Adler, R. P., 338 contemporary concerns about, 392–394 Adolescence (Hall), 384, 386 context of, 394–396 Adolescents. See Youth cultural milieu definitions, 391–392 Adorno, T., 138, 178 democracy and, 397–398 Advertising, 146–147 deschooling, 392 Aesthetics, 131–132 diverse populations and, 393, 396 African Americans, 260 feminist critique of, 393–394, 396 Black English, 66, 100, 262 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 396–397 Black female subjectivity, 123–124 homeschooling, 391 Black feminism, 122–124 nonschool curriculum, 394, 396

487 488–•–Index

number of children involved in, 392 theory on, 49–50 religion and, 395–396 vocationalism and, 49 schools as deculturalizing institutions, 394 “what is art?” 46–47 socioeconomically disadvantaged communities and, 393 Arts-and-crafts, 49 theory of alternatives, 396 Arts-based research, 204–205, 238 unschooling, 391–392, 392 Asante, S., 278 Althusser, L., 165, 166, 385 Asian Americans, 260, 269 Amanti, C., 235 books and literature of, 269, 270 American Association for Colleges of Teach Education, 198 immigrant populations and, 250, 254, 323 American Educational Research Association, 198 model minority myth and, 254–255 Anderson, J., 397 population statistics for, 113 Anderson, J. D., 305–306 stereotypes of, 122, 254–255 Ann Arbor Black English Case (1979), 262 Askov Schools, 296 Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (Hofstadter), 106 Assault rifles, 376 Anyon, J., 178, 194, 322 Assessment, 38–39 Anzaldúa, G., 120, 124, 126 authentic, 193 Appadurai, A., 136, 434 skill-based, 55 Appelbaum, P., 30 See also Testing Apperceptive mass, 236 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Apple, M. W., 14, 17, 59, 92, 178, 191, 238, 368 Development, 198 APRAIS (The Alliance to Prevent Restraint, Aversive Authentic assessment, 193 Interventions and Seclusion), 281 Authoritarianism, 106, 192 Apthecker, H., 306 Autism, narrative of, 282 Archibald, J., 331 Autobiography, 103, 106–108, 157, 205, 323, 397 Archival inquiry, 314 critical race/feminist, 119–126 Arenot, H., 178 in the field, 108–109 Aristotle, xxvi, xxvii immigrants and, 253 Armstrong, S., 306 multicultural, 110–118 Armstrong Manual Training School, 308 theories of, 106–107 Art as Experience (Dewey), 294 types of, 107–108 Art of the Personal Essay, The (Lopate), 162 See also Currere Arts, 45–52, 131–132 Axtelle, G., 14 aesthetics and, 50 Ayers, R., 162 alive-arts vs. dead signs curricula, 46, 47, 48, 50–51 Ayers, W., 58, 157, 162, 191, 203, 204, 238, 323 “anti-art” artists, 50 apprenticeship model of, 48 Baer, M., 11 Art as Experience (Dewey), 46, 49 Baggs, A., 282 Arts and the Creation of Mind, The, 49–50 Bagley, W. C., 3–5, 6, 8–9 arts of eclectic, xxvii Baglieri, S., 282 arts-based education, 131–132 Bain, L. L., 75 contemporary concerns in, 46–48 Baker, A., 269 context of subject matters of, 48–49 Baker, B., 140 dead signs curricula, 45–46, 47, 51 Baker, P. B., 64–65 discipline-based art education (DBAE), 48–49, 51 Bakhtin, M., 292, 294, 296 disciplines included in, 45 Balester, V., 265 Education for Socially Engaged Art (Helguera), 51 Bandura, A., 92 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 50–51 Banking education, 225, 237, 284–285 living arts/practices, 45 Banks, J., 62, 111, 116 postmodern concepts and, 50 Barone, T., 413 self-expression and, 48–49 Barthe, R., 421 STEM curricula and (STEAM), 47, 49 Bartlett, O., 238, 265 student-centered curriculum, 47–48, 51 Bashing of teachers. See Teacher bashing and deskilling subject matters of, 45–52 Baszile, D. T., 115, 116, 360 Index–•–489

Baugh, J., 265 Bishop, R. S., 271 Bauman, Z., 296 Bitzer, D., 88 Beane, J. A., 14, 17, 96, 97, 99, 238 Black Americans. See African Americans; entries beginning Beauboeuf-LaFontant, T., 211, 363 with Black Bell, C. C., 408 Black biography, 312 Bell, D., 126 Black Boy (Wright), 107 Belland, J., 93 Black education, 303–310 Benedict, R., 209 Cooper, A. J., and, 307–308 Benne, K., 14 current perspectives on, 309–310 Bennett, C., 67 Du Bois, W. E. B., and, 306–307 Bennett, W., 286 early days to freedom, 305–306 Beowulf, 409–410 giants in, 306–309 Berger, R., 193–194 historical milieu of, 303–310 Berliner, D., 179 Kemet (ancient Egyptian) education, 303–304 Berman, J., 144 Woodson, C. G., and, 308–309 Berman, L. M., 2, 129 Black English, 66, 100, 262 Bernstein, B., 187 Black families, parenting styles in, 322 Bernstein, L., 130 Black female subjectivity, 123–124 Berry, W., 393, 425–426 Black female teachers, 209–210 Betz, J., 296 Black feminism, 122–124, 330, 358–366, 449 Bhattacharya, K., 435 See also Womanist/Black feminist milieu Bhutan, happiness in, 437 Black Feminist Thought (Collins), 122, 362 Bias, 63, 125 Black History Month, 309 Biculturality, 411 Black teachers in urban schools, 215–222 Biddle, B., 179 contemporary concerns for, 217–218 Biesta, G. J. J., 377 context of, 218–219 Bilingual-bicultural analysis, 296, 297 culturally relevant curriculum and, 219–220 Bilingual Education Act, 64, 262 declining number of teachers, 217 Bilingualism, 64, 265 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 220–221 Biliteracy, 22 need for research on, 221 Bill of Rights for Racially Mixed People, A (Root), 450 teacher preparation and, 217–218 Binary oppositions, 271, 420 theory on, 219–220 Binet, A., 185 understanding of students by, 218 Biographical milieu, 311–314, 317 undervaluation and disrespect of, 218 biographer’s relation to the subject, 314 Black Teachers on Teaching (Foster), 221 biographer’s voice, 313 Black Women Organized for Action, 361 contemporary concerns and issues in, 313–314 Blanchett, W., 278 context and modes of expression for, 311 Blanton, L. P., 282 forms of inquiry for, 311 Blogs and bloggers, 324 intellectual biography, 312 Bloom, A., 135 life history writing, 312 Blount, J., 354 memoir biography, 312 Boaz, F., 209 narrative biography, 312 Bobbitt, J. F., 15–16, 17, 155, 185, 242, 418 portrayal of the subject’s character, 313 Bode, B., 13–14, 96 research accuracy and, 313–314 Bode, P., 111 scholarly chronicle, 312 Boggs, G. L., 126 theoretical perspectives on, 311–313 Bonilla-Silva, E., 420 See also Autobiography; Documentary milieu Bonnett, M., 93 Biographical research, 311–313 Bonser, F., 15 Biographical works, 59, 253, 311–313 Bourdieu, P., 66, 286, 329 Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies Bowers, C., 92 (CCCS), 385 Bowers, C. A., 425, 426–427 Bishop, A. J., 30 Brantlinger, E., 370 490–•–Index

Bricolage, 435 Capitalism, 165–166, 167, 169–170, 374, 433, 434 Briggs, A., 143 competitive milieu and, 344 Brock, R., 360, 364 democracy and, 170 Bronx High School, 246 globalization and, 169, 433 Brown, A., 387 neoliberal, 169–170, 374–375 Brown, J. J., 338 Career and life skills, 335 Brown, J. S., 92 Carger, C., 238, 254 Brown, K. D., 213 Carini, P., 193 Brown, M., 320 Carnegie, A., 185 Brown v. Board of Education, 22, 262, 269 Carnegie Foundation, 320, 337 Browning the curriculum, 416–423 Carr, P. R., 379 artificial boundaries and, 420 Carruthers, J. H., 304 citation practices and, 421 Casemore, B., 108 critical race theory and, 420–421 Caucus of Rank and File Educators (CORE), 355–356 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 421–422 CCBC (Cooperative Children’s Book Center), 269, 270 historical hindsight in, 417–418 Centrie, C., 65 meanings and concepts in, 416–417 Chambers, C., 106 object of, 419 Chan, E., 156, 157, 254 oppression, matrix of, 420–421 Charter schools, 186, 289, 353, 379–380 racism, persistence of, 418–419, 422 vouchers and, 376 settler colonization, logic of, 419–420 Charters, W. W., 16 theoretical approaches to, 419–421 Chattel slavery, 440 unsettlement and, 416 Chicago Grassroots Curriculum Project, 333 White supremacy, logic and effects of, 417–420, 421, 422 Chicagoland Researchers and Advocates for Transformative womanist/Black feminist studies and, 359–360, 364 Education (CReATE), 323, 324 Bruner, J., 24 Chicana feminist theory, 449 Brunsma, D. L., 450 Chicano movement, 262 Buber, M., 58 Child and the Curriculum, The (Dewey), 236 Buendia, E., 65 Child-centered theory, 243, 332 Bullough, R. V., Jr., 179, 238 Child development, theory of, 32 Bullying, 279, 352 Childhood obesity, 71, 72, 74, 75 cyber-bullying, 409 Children of the Rainbow curriculum, 353 Bunker, D., 73 Children’s House (Casa dei Bambini), 332 Burbules, N., 93 Children’s literature. See Multicultural children’s literature Burch, T. R., 451 Chilisa, B., 331, 435 Burke, P., 143 Chinard, G., 58 Bush, G. W., 286 Chomsky, N., 144 Business model of education, 155, 288–289 Cicero, 305 Citation practices, 421 Cage, M., 50 Citizenship Cai, M., 270, 271, 272 promotion through social studies, 36, 37–38, 39–40, 41 Cajete, G., 442 STEM curriculum and, 27, 28, 33–34 Caldecott Honor award, 270 See also Democracy; Global citizenship Call From the Stranger on a Journey Home, The (Wang), City University of New York (CUNY), 262 157, 403 Civil Rights Acts, 262 Campbell, D. T., 187 Civil rights movement, 262, 269, 319, 361, 396 Campbell’s Law, 187 Clandinin, D. J., 108, 156, 157, 323 Camus, A., 57 Clark, S., 237 Canada Class, socioeconomic. See Socioeconomic class milieu colonialism and, 417 Class, The (film), 180 immigration to, 250 Classical (Greek and Roman) education, 304–305 Inuit people, health issues of, 428 Classroom curriculum, 79 Cannon, K., 363 Clementi, T., 352 Index–•–491

Climate change, 295, 424–425 scripted curriculum and, 184, 186, 243 Clinton, H., 352 social studies and, 38–39 Cobb, C., 237 standardization and, 183–189, 261 Coevalness, 388–389 STEM and, 27–28 Cognitive transfer, 185 teacher deskilling and, 176–177 Cohen, A., 385 teacher preparedness for diversity, 63–64 Cohen, C., 351 See also Standardization; Standards; Testing Cold War, 74, 82, 156, 319, 379 Common faith, xxvi Cole, M., 21 Common schools, 290–291, 395 Coleman, J., 328 Commonplaces, xxv–xxvii, 9, 232 Coleman, M., 363 subject matter as, 2, 3 Collaboration, 226–228 teachers as, 153–154 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning Commons, the, 427 (CASEL), 408 Commons-oriented thinking, 429 Collins, A., 336, 337 Communal well-being, 165–173 Collins, P. H., 329, 330, 362 Community, 162, 195, 328, 433 Colonialism, 165–166, 168–172, 416, 439–446 community-based organizations, 332 aims and structures of, 440–441 community-based violence, 408 antiblackness of, 440 community involvement, 326–334, 327–330, 332 assumptions underlying schooling, 417 constructions of, 433 browning of curriculum and, 416–423 funds of knowledge of, 329, 331 colonial-capitalist society, 166 global, transnational, and local curriculum and, 432–438 colonization of educational systems, 120–121 parental, familial, and communal milieu, 326–334 colonization of the Americas, 168 school-community connectivity, 327 context of teaching and, 171 school policies for, 327–328, 332–333 continuing effects of, 168, 169–170 Competition, 344–347 core beliefs of, 442 capitalism and, 344 decolonial pedagogy and, 171, 172 competitive economy, 83, 147, 174, 183, 200 decolonial philosophy and, 168 dissatisfaction and, 346–347 decolonialization and, 110, 111, 238, 443–444 emphasis on, 344 decolonizing curriculum and, 252, 416–423, 439–446 globalization and, 33, 49, 147, 174, 200, 261 decolonizing of one’s mind, 120, 121, 125 humanistic alternatives to, 344–350 persistence of, 422 for jobs, 368 postcolonial theory and, 112 in sports, 73 settler colonization, logic of, 419–420 standardization and, 178, 186 See also Browning the curriculum; Indigenous land and stress and, 346 decolonizing curriculum violence and, 346, 348 Colored Womens’ Young Women’s Christian Association, Complicated conversation, 105, 107 307–308 Computer-assisted instruction (CAI), 88 Coltrane, J., 225 Computer use in schools, 88–89 Combahee River Collective, 361 Computing science, 87–95 Commodification, 294, 297, 345, 387 curriculum of, 90–91 of students, combating, 284–291 Condon, D., 244 Common Core State Standards (CCSS), 8–9, 16, 96, Configurable culture, 145 176–177, 422 Confucius, 57, 292, 293 adoption by states of, 201 Connelly, M., 108, 156, 157, 323, 331 deficiencies in, 97–98, 184 Connoisseurship, 129, 131 funding and, 142, 201 Constructivism, 32–33, 92, 157, 285–286 high-stakes accountability and, 142 Continuity in action, 12–13 vs. living core, 97 Continuum of services, 279 media literacy and, 142, 143 Cooper, A. J., 307–308 reasons for, 127, 142, 176 Cooper, G., 307 required achievements for, 98 Cooperative Children’s Book Center (CCBC), 269, 270 492–•–Index

Cooperative learning, 280 Critical mixed race studies, 449–450 Cooperative schooling, 348 Critical pedagogy, 170–171, 251, 260 Cope, H., 15 Critical race/feminist currere. See Race/feminist currere Copernicus, 131 Critical race methodology, 254 Copyright, 316–317 Critical race theory (CRT), 65–66, 123, 188, 237–238, 251, CORE (Caucus of Rank and File Educators), 355–356 331, 449 Core curriculum, 14, 15, 96, 97 in browning the curriculum, 420–421 vs. living core, 97 counternarrative and, 420 living core and, 97–101 Latino (LatCrit), 420 Core Knowledge project, 286 tribal (TribCrit), 420 Core standards. See Common Core State Standards Critical thinking, 162, 170, 195, 287 Coretta Scott King Award, 270 Crosland, K., 65 Corporate-military-governmental milieu, 374–382 Cross-cultural education, 111, 251 assault rifle sales and, 376 Cross-cultural literature, 271 concentration of power by, 374–375 Crouch, J. L., 408 contemporary concerns in, 376–378 Crozier, G., 368 contexts for, 378–379 Cruising Utopia (Muñoz), 355 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 380 Crummell, A., 308 immigrant students’ experiences and, 251 Cruse, H., 120 impact on education, 375–378 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 144 militaristic products for schools, 376 Cultivating Humanity (Nussbaum), 58 military recruiters, 376 Cultural authenticity, 271 military spending, 375 Cultural capital, 30–31, 66, 259, 286, 322, 329–330 neoliberal policies and, 374–375, 379 Cultural competence, 191–192, 220, 322 privatization and, 375–376, 377, 379 Cultural deficit model, 322 results of challenging, 377 Cultural difference theory, 209 test preparation materials and, 376 Cultural epoch theory, 12 theory on, 379–380 Cultural identity, 112, 115, 116, 271 war, pervasiveness of, 378 Cultural knowledge/values, transmission of, 6, 99–100, 191 Correlated-subject design, 80 Cultural mismatches, 208, 243, 250, 251, 252 Côté, J. E., 66 Cultural modeling, 264 Co-teaching, 280 Cultural reproduction, 56, 83, 85 Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation, 201, 287 Cultural studies, popular culture and, 139 Council on Interracial Books for Children, 269, 272 Cultural synchronization, 207, 208 Counternarratives, 243, 264, 420 Cultural workers, teachers as, 190–197 Counterstorytelling, 123, 254, 331 contemporary concerns for, 190–191 Counts, G. S., 204 current challenges for, 191–192 Courage to Teach, The (Palmer), 157 forms of inquiry and, 193–195 CReATE, 323, 324 humility and, 192, 193 Creating a New Racial Order (Burch), 451 testing and assessment and, 193 Creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile learning, Culturally and linguistically diverse students, 259–267 292–299 assets-based approach for, 263 contemporary concerns and contexts, 294–295 bilingualism, 262, 265 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 295–297 centering in schools and curricula, 259–261, 264–265 historical background on, 292–293 civil and voting rights and, 262 Creativity competitiveness in global marketplace, 261 imagination and, 128, 129 contemporary concerns on, 260–261 improvisation and, 223–230 context of, 261–262 Cremin, L., 238 cultural capital of, 259 Critical curriculum theory, 78, 82 debates and decisions about, 262 Critical humanizing sociocultural knowledge, 213 ecological perspective on, 263–264 Critical literacy research, 254 ethnic groups included in, 260 Critical media literacy. See Media literacy forms of inquiry about, 264–265 Index–•–493

learning theories on, 263–264 youth cultural milieu, 252, 253, 383–390 marginalization, 261 See also Language, culture, identity, and power; Popular modes of expression about, 265 culture primary language other than English, 260 Culture-epochs theory, 242 questions for, concerning education, 261 Cummins, J., 67 sociocultural perspective on, 263 Currere, 103–126 theory on, 262–264 autobiographies in the field, 108–109 Culturally congruent curriculum, 207, 252 autobiography, methods in, 103, 107, 122 Culturally contested pedagogy, 251, 254 autobiography, theories of, 106–107 Culturally diverse students, 259–267 autobiography, types of, 107–108 Culturally relevant pedagogy, 170, 207–214, 219, 238, bracketing in, 115–116 409, 448 as complicated conversation, 105, 107 Black teachers and, 219–220 critical race/feminist currere, 113, 115–116, 119–126 contemporary concerns in, 210–212 definition of, xxv, 103, 114 historical movements in, 209–210 dialectical content of, 104–105 immigrant students and, 251 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 116, modes of inquiry and forms of expression in, 212–213 124–125 students’ experiences and, 243 four steps of, 104, 105, 114, 119 theories on, 208 as lived experience, 103, 105–106, 114–115 of value for all students, 210 of marginality, 113–114, 116, 123 See also Culturally values-driven curriculum multicultural, 110–118 Culturally relevant teaching, 207, 238 personal transformation through, 110–111 Culturally responsive teaching, 64–65, 207, 208, 238, 251, psychic arrest and, 105 264, 448 regressive moment in, 104, 124 Culturally synchronous teaching, 207, 208 as response to authoritarianism and conformism, 106 Culturally values-driven curriculum, 407–415 self-knowledge and, 103–104, 105–106, 106–107, 110, community-based violence and, 408 114, 119–120, 122 contemporary concerns and contexts.408-9 as subject matter, 103–118 instructional vibrancy and, 409–410 theories of, 106–107, 114–116, 122–124 literacy skills and, 410–411 Curriculum modes of expression and forms of inquiry in, 412–413 aspects of, xxv restoring connection through, 411–412 books and readings on, 455 theoretical perspectives for, 409–412 browning of, 359–360, 364, 416–423 transformative learning and, 412–413 as cause and effect, 324 visual stimuli, use of, 410 classroom curriculum, 79 Culture, 61–69, 158, 209, 270 “collection type,” 80 biculturality, 411 commodification of students by, 284–291 as context for curriculum, 82–84, 235 content and context of, xxiii-xxvi, 79, 244, 247 counter narratives on, 243 critical curriculum theory, 78, 82 cultural bias, 63 cultural politics of, 285–286 culturally responsive teaching, 64–65, 208, 238, 448 disciplines-based, 79–80, 82, 156 diversity in, 62, 64 diversity in, 156 economics and, 170 experience-based, 11–18 gaps between home and school, 253, 254, 322 explicit, 215 immigrant students and, 252 forms of, 215 interculturality, 171 functions of, 83–84 multicultural milieu, 447–454 geography and, 402–404, 405 multicultural perspectives, 61–69, 111, 170, 251 hidden, xxv, 190, 344 popular culture, 134–141, 407–415 as humanizing and dehumanizing, 284–285, 348–350 of poverty, 209 implicit, 215 role in teaching other people’s children, 322 importance of, xxiii sociocultural theory, 65–66 integrated, 81, 88, 96–97 teachers as cultural workers, 190–197 key questions about, xxiii–xxiv, 56, 57, 84, 285, 455–456 494–•–Index

limitations due to standards movement, 64, 78, 155, 166, Curriculum theory, 122 176–177, 184, 243 Cushman, K., 246 lived, 138, 139, 211 Cyber-bullying, 409 living, 158, 235–236 Cygnaeus, U., 12 milieu as, xxv–xxvi, 301–454 neoliberalism and, 288–291 da Silva, D. F., 417 null, 215, 353 DaCosta, K. M., 451 organization and sequencing in, 78–86 Dalmage, H. M., 451 out-of-school, xxv, 394, 428–429 Dantley, M. E., 161 as pedagogy, 244, 247 Danza, Tony, 158 planned, vs. taught and learned, 153 Darling-Hammond, L., 286 policy curriculum, 79 Darwin, Charles, 6, 7, 119, 384, 417 policy milieu and, 319–325 Davis, A., 125 positivism and, 286–288, 349 Davis, B. M., 452 practical vision for, 156, 237 Davis, O. L., 215 privatization and, 288–290, 295, 309 Davison, C., 67 process-driven vs. product-driven, 2, 55 De Garmo, C., 12 programmatic curriculum, 79 de Hostos, E. M., 422 question of “What is worthwhile?” xxiii–xxvi, 53, 56, 57, DeBose, H. L., 450 58, 60, 321, 456 Decolonial pedagogy, 171, 172 relevance of, 194, 207–214, 216, 234, 409 Decolonialization, 110, 111, 238, 443–444 scripted, 184, 186, 243 Decolonizing curriculum, 252, 416–423, 439–446 students as, 231–299 See also Browning the curriculum; Indigenous land and students’ experiences as, 241–248 decolonizing curriculum synoptic texts on, 455 Decolonizing methodologies, 252, 254, 444 for teacher education, 198–206 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, 250 teachers as, xxv–xxvi, 151–230, 152, 153–159 Deficit model, 322, 328 technology as, 335–338 Dehumanizing force of curriculum, 283–284, 349 Curriculum Books: The First Hundred Years Deleuze, G., 50 (Schubert et al.), 456 Delgago-Gaiton, C., 333 Curriculum development. See Curriculum making Deloria, V., Jr., 442 Curriculum guide Delpit, L., 162, 218, 323, 393, 411 conceptual framework for, xxv–xxviii Democracy, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13–14 functions of, xxiii capitalism and, 170 Curriculum imagination. See Imagination democratic curricula, 8, 98, 99, 242 Curriculum making, xxvii, 78–86, 242–243 democratic decision making in schools, 194–195, 238 child-centered framework for, 243 democratic living, 12, 122 contexts and domains in, 79 democratic schools, 17 developmental framework for, 242–243 Dewey and, 312 frameworks for, 242–243 education for, 190, 191, 192 organization and sequencing of subject matters, 78–86 promotion through social studies, 36, 38, 39–40, 41 progressives vs. traditionalists on, 236 Democracy and Education (Dewey), 12 scientific framework for, 242 Demographic imperative, 448 standards movement and testing, effect on, 78 Demographics, changing, 113, 155, 244, 249–250, 295, 433 students and, 235–237 Dennison, G., 17, 179, 237, 238 teachers and, 153, 156, 247 Derrida, J., 50 theory on, 235–237 Deschooling, 392 as transdisciplinary, 129 See also Alternative school milieu See also Organization and sequencing Desire-based research, 254 Curriculum mapping, 403 Deskilling of teachers. See Teacher bashing and deskilling Curriculum of Imagination in an Era of Standardization, Developing and Documenting the Curriculum A (Lake), 129 (Armstrong), 80 Curriculum, The (Bobbitt), 155 Developing nations (so-called), 167, 169 Index–•–495

Devil in the White City (Larson), 412 person-centered approach to, 276 Dewantara, K., 292 presuming competence for students with, 280 Dewey, A. C., 236 Response to Intervention and, 175–176 Dewey, E., 17, 57–58 special education teachers for, 280 Dewey, J., xxvi, 4, 12–13, 14, 16, 17, 46, 49, 51, 55–56, staffing and service provision for, 280 57–58, 81, 96, 98, 99, 100, 106, 128, 129, 131, 132, students and, 176, 202, 276–283 155, 170, 177, 193, 204, 236, 238, 239, 242, 251, 292, teacher education and, 280 294, 296, 321, 323, 395, 396, 397, 417, 426, 433 theory on, 281–282 books about, 312–313 Disciplines-based curriculum, 79–80, 82, 156 Dialogue, in education, 13, 14, 170–171, 285, 296 Disney (Walt), 137, 140 Digiovanni, L. W., 64–65 Diversity, 62, 63, 155, 156, 202–203, 259–267 Digital age and media, 94, 142–149 Black teachers and, 215 e-books, 273 culturally and linguistically diverse students, See also Media literacy 259–267, 327 Digital divide, 338–340 in curriculum, 156 Digital literacy skills, 335 experiences of diverse groups, 210 Digital technology and computing science, 23, 87–95 funds of knowledge and, 244, 260, 322 computer-assisted instruction (CAI), 88 globalization as threat to, 425 computing science curriculum, 87, 90–91, 94 increase in, 111, 112, 113, 191, 247, 249–250, 433 contemporary concerns about, 89–91 multicultural issues and, 111–112 contexts of, 88–89 participation and, 191 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 93 social studies curriculum, redefining for, 37–38, 40 hidden curriculum in (coding), 89, 91, 94 subject matter organization and, 84 history of, 88–89 teacher preparedness for, 63–64, 192, 202 information and communication technology (ICT), 87, 88, of teachers, 191, 202, 215–216 90, 93–94, 336, 338 in urban classrooms, 235 integration of, 91, 93–94 See also Culturally and linguistically diverse students posthuman concept and, 93–94 Doctrine of disciplinarily, 82 theory of, 91–93 Documentary milieu, 314–317 using vs. understanding, 89, 90 aesthetic interpretations and, 314–315 See also Technological milieu archival access and, 316 Dillard, C., 124 archival inquiry and, 314 Dillard, J. L., 265 authenticity and, 315 Dimitriadis, G., 139, 140, 413 contemporary concerns and issues in, 316–317 Disability(ies), 176, 202, 276–283 context, forms of inquiry, and modes of expression in, classroom organization and climate and, 279 314–315 contemporary concerns about, 277–281 copyright and, 316–317 continuum of services and, 279 credibility and, 315 curriculum and, 279 criteria for appraising documents in, 315 differing views of, 276–277 documentary research and, 314–315 disability studies perspective, 276–277 meaning and, 315–316 educational issues in, 278–280 representativeness and, 315 environment, interactions with, 277 significance of materials in, 317 forms of in inquiry and modes of expression, 282 theoretical perspectives on, 315–316 identities, multiple, 276, 278–279 See also Biographical milieu inclusive education and, 278–281 Doll, M. A., 108 inclusive education, challenges to, 281 Douglass, Frederick, 101, 309 language and labeling issues for, 277 Doumbia, F., 65 mainstreaming, 278 Downs, B., 223, 225 medical model for, 276 Dozens, the, 360 overrepresentation issues and, 277–278 Dream Act, 250, 356 pedagogy and, 280 Dreamkeepers Successful Teachers of African American people-first language for, 277 Studies (Ladson-Billings), 221 496–•–Index

Dropouts, 244, 407 financial bailout programs, 375, 379 income potential of, 260 new economy, 368 Du Bois, W. E. B., 59, 125, 296, 306–307, 308, 395, 396, TARP and, 375 422, 425 U.S. economy, 368 on the color line, 420 Ecopedagogy, 427–428 educational thought of, 306–307 Edel, P., 313, 314 Souls of Black Folk, The, 59, 307 Edgerton, S. H., 107, 122, 123 Duchamp, M., 50 Edmundson, J., 295, 425, 428 Duncan-Andrade, J., 413 EdTPA, 188, 201, 287 Dunn, A. W., 39 Educating for an Ecologically Sustainable Culture (Bowers), Durkheim, É., 292 426–427 Dyson, A., 138 Education Black, historical milieu of, 303–310 Easton, L., 244 business model of, 155, 288–289 Easton-Brooks, D., 217 capitalism and, 165–166, 167, 169–170, 433 East–West learning, 293–94 colonization of, 120, 168–170 Ebonics, 262, 411 commercialization of, by private providers, 169 Ecojustice, 295 cross-cultural, 111, 251 Ecological milieu, 424–431 as a cultural intervention, 190 anti-ecological curriculum and, 427 factory model of, 185–186 contemporary concerns about, 424–425 goals of, 160, 170, 190–191, 234 contexts of, 425–426 as holistic process, 344 definition of, 424 inclusive, 278–281 ecological cultural analysis and, 428 multicultural, 111–113, 170, 447–454 ecopedagogy and, 427–428 political goals of, 160, 170, 190, 191 environmentally focused schools and, 429 professionalism and, 200–201 forms of inquiry in, 428 public education for the public good, 191, 192 green consumerism and, 428 purposes of, 6–8, 82, 160, 190–191, 195, 242, 285 land ethic and, 427 scientific management and, 185, 287 modes of expression of, 428–429 social education system, 165–166 new localism and, 427 See also Educational reform; Pedagogy No Child Left Inside movement and, 429 Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical (Spencer), 57 race and land, relationship of, 425–426 Education and Emergent Man (Bagley), 6 theory of, 426–428 Education deficit, 210 Ecological perspective on learning, 263–264 Education for Socially Engaged Art (Helguera), 51 Ecology, 424 Education of John Dewey, The (Martin), 312 climate change and, 295, 424–425 Education Research in the Public Interest (Ladson-Billings as context for education, 235 and Tate), 162 of language, 263, 264 Educational confusion, 57, 96, 297 Economic capital, 329 Educational policy. See Policy makers; Policy milieu Economic demands of society, teachers and, 166 Educational reform, xxiii, 13, 17, 36, 82, 186, 286, 290 Economic goal of education, 160 activism and, 160 Economic inequalities, 368, 369–370, 371 business of, 289 Economics critiques of, 174 capitalist systems of, 165–166, 167, 169–170, 374 high-stakes testing and, 183 as context for education, 235, 328, 329 privatization and economics in, 309–310 culture and, 170 standards and accountability and, 38, 42 financial crisis and bailouts, 368, 375, 379 technology-rich schooling and, 135 globalization and, 114, 135–136, 235, 425 vouchers and, 376 neoliberalism and, 285, 374–375 Educational Thought of W.E.B. Du Bois (Alridge), school failures and, 194 306–307 Economy Egypt (ancient), Kemet education in, 303–304 competitive, 83, 147, 174, 183, 200 Eight-Year Study, 100 financescape, 434 Einstein, A., 130, 147 Index–•–497

Eisner, E. W., 49–50, 129, 131, 215, 223, 226, 400, 413 Ethnographic studies, 21–22, 67, 193, 254 Eksner, H. J., 265 of hip-hop culture, 413 Elbaz, F., 59 of popular culture, 138–139, 140 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 201 of youth cultural milieu, 385, 387–388 Eli Broad Foundation, 377 Ethnoscape, 434 Elite students/education, 370 Evaluation of teachers. See Teacher evaluation Ellington, Duke, 229 Evans, J., 72 Ellison, R., 58 Evans, R., 39 Ellsworth, E., 51 Evolution, 6 Ellul, J., 324 Experience(s) Embodied curriculum, xxv Dewey on, 11, 12–13, 17, 131, 153, 242 Emerging Self, The (Hopkins), 58, 426 of diverse groups, 210 Emotional disturbances, children with, 408–409 of immigrant students, 249–258 Emotional integrity, 227–228 lived experience, 103, 105–106, 114–115, 211, 238, 411 Emotions, 371–372 Living in the Future Project, 245 socio-emotional development, 408 Madison 2020 Project, 245 Empire, 404 of students, 79–80, 80–81, 82, 98, 170 Empowerment of students, 191, 194, 242 of students, as curriculum, 236, 241–248, 411 Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies (Kridel), xxiv of students, current focus on, 243–244 Enforcement, education as, 294–295 of students, theory on, 242–243 Eng, B., 157 subject matter as, 11–18 Engineering, 28 of teachers, 153 See also Science, technology, engineering, and TSE Project, 241–242, 245–246 mathematics (STEM) What Kids Can Do Project, 246 English language Experience and Nature (Dewey), 131 Black English, 66, 100, 262 Experience-based curriculum, 11–18 English as a second language, 252 contemporary concerns in, 16–17 English-only movement, 62, 64, 262 directed/designed experience, 14–16, 17 primary language other than English, 260 motivation and, 11 proficiency in, 64, 252 orientations to, 12–16 Standard vs. Black English, 66 technology and, 337 Title III (English Language Acquisition), 64 Experience-based learning, 14 English language learners (ELLs), 38, 42, 63, 65, Explicit curriculum, 215 202, 251 performance on standardized tests, 251 Fabrication, 383 support for, 251 Facebook, 136, 144, 146, 147, 324, 384, 408 teacher preparedness for, 63 Facer, K., 338 English speaker of other languages (ESOL), 241, 244 Factory production model of education, 185–186 Enlightenment, 57, 58 Fadel, C., 335, 336 Ennis, C. D., 75 Falling in Love with Chris and Greg, 356 Environment. See Ecological milieu; Milieu Families Environmentally focused schools, 429 definition of, 326 Equiano, O., 452 social capital of, 329 Equity See also Parental, familial, and communal milieu equity pedagogy, 264 Fanon, F., 421, 443 teacher education and, 202–203 Feminism, 111 See also Diversity; Inequality; Social justice Black feminism, 122–124, 330, 358–366, 449 Erasmus, D., 57 Chicana feminist theory, 449 Essay tests, 185 critical feminist currere, 119–126 Essentialist philosophy of subject matter, 3 critique of alternative schooling options, 393–394, 396 Esteva, G., 392, 396, 397 critique of high-stakes testing, 187–188 Ethics. See Moral and spiritual milieu feminist autobiography, 108, 113 Ethnic identity, 67, 235 feminist biography, 312 Ethnic studies, ban on, 434 gender stereotypes and, 121–122 498–•–Index

gendered division of labor in teaching, 178 Garrison, D. R., 341 parental and communal milieu and, 330 Garrison, J., 295, 296 popular culture, gendered experience of, 138–139 Garvey, M., 308 poststructural feminist theory, 112 Gates, Bill, 49, 176, 198, 321, 323 White cultural background of, 362 Gatto, J. T., 397 See also Womanist/Black feminist milieu Gaudelli, W., 402 Field trips, 395 Gay, G., 62, 213 Financescape, 434 Gay milieu. See Gender, sexuality, and queer milieu Finnish Lessons (Sahlberg), 437 Gaztambide-Fernández, R., 418 Fiore, Q., 144 Gee, J. P., 22, 23, 61 Fires in the Bathroom (Cushman), 246 Gender Fires in the Mind (Cushman), 246 critical feminist currere, 119–126 Fiske, J., 139 and division of labor in teaching, 178 Flaunt It! (Quinn and Meiners), 162, 163 issues with high-stakes testing, 187–188 Fleury, S., 296 popular culture, experiences of, 138–139 Flinders, D., 400 roles, 67 Flintoff, A., 72 science and math issues concerning, 27, 30, 31 Florian, L., 282 spaces set aside for groups, 65 Forkner, H. L., 16 stereotypes, 121–122 Forms of inquiry. See Inquiry, forms of teaching as gendered work, 216 Foster, M., 209, 216, 218, 221 See also Feminism; Womanist/Black feminist milieu Foucault, M., 99, 119, 139, 179, 187 Gender, sexuality, and queer milieu, 351–357 Foundations of Curriculum Making (Whipple), 236 contemporary concerns, 352–353 Foxfire Magazine, 100 context of, 353–354 Frankenberg, E., 63 curriculum and, 353–355 Frankfort School, 138, 178 forms of inquiry and modes of expression for, 355–356 Fraser, J., 218 heteronationalism, 354 Freedman, D., 51 heteronormativity, 353 Freedom Schools, 237, 332 LGBTQ, 351, 352–353, 355, 356 Freedom Writers (film), 179 normal, and failure at, 354–355 Freire, P., 14, 62, 99, 131, 148, 156–157, 178, 191, 192, 204, power relationships and, 352 225, 237, 238, 284–285, 291, 293, 294, 296, 411–412, queerness, meanings and usages of, 351–352 417, 427, 448 suicides and violence and, 352–353 Friesen, N., 93 theory of, 354–355 Froebel, F., 12, 15, 99, 292 Genre-based study, 272–273 Fromm, E., 237 Geographical milieu, 400–406 Funding, 66, 155, 328 critical geography and, 400–402, 404 No Child Left Behind Act and, 128, 142 curriculum as geography, 403–404, 405 standards and, 71, 128, 142, 183, 201 curriculum mapping and, 403 Funds of knowledge, 23–24, 62, 66, 235, 238, 244, 260 geography as curriculum, 402–403, 405 approach, 264 globalization and, 404–405 dark funds, 24 identity and, 401 form of inquiry, 264 place and, 401, 402 home and community knowledge as, 329, 331 politics of location and, 403 student diversity and, 24, 66, 244, 260, 322 power and, 401 Furtak, E. M., 30 space and, 400–401, 402 Geography, 235, 238 Gaming and game-based learning, 23, 337 critical geography, 400–402, 404 Gandhi, M., 292, 296, 348 low-performing schools on standardized tests and, 251 Gangs, 385 See also Colonialism Gaps, sensing, 129–131 Gettysburg Address, 239 Garcia, O., 238, 265 Gibson, R., 217 Garoian, C. R., 51 Giddings, P., 361 Index–•–499

Gillette, M., 330 role in educational privatization, 379 Gillis, J. R., 387 See also Corporate-military-governmental milieu Giroux, H., 140, 148, 155, 178, 285, 386 Governmentality, 179 Gitlin, A., 65 Graffiti, 24, 46, 48, 140 Gladwell, M., 129–130 Grafstein, A., 339 Glass, G., 179 Gramsci, A., 178, 385 Global citizenship, 294 Grande, S., 419, 442 mobility of populations, 192 Grange, J., 296 preparation for, 195 Great learning, the, 292–299 social studies and, 37, 41 Greeks, ancient, 57, 304–305 STEM and, 27, 28, 33–34 classical education of, 304–305 Global, transnational, and local curriculum, 432–438 Green consumerism, 428 capitalism and, 433, 434 Greene, M., 50, 58, 129, 131–132, 294, 296 construction of community in, 433 Greenwood, D., 427 contemporary concerns about, 433–434 Gregory, D., 402 diversity and, 433 Grimké, F. J., 308 forms of inquiry into, 435 Grossman, E., 297 implications for policy and practice, 436–437 Grow Your Own Teachers Illinois, 330, 333 modes of expression about, 435–436 Gruenewald, D., 402–403, 427 “scapes,” variety of types of, 434 Grumet, M., 45, 59, 103–104, 108, 323 theory on, 434 Grundtvig, N. F. S., 292, 296 Globalization Guattari, F., 50 as context for education, 168–170, 235, 320 Gude, O., 48, 50 differing views on, 235 Guess, A., 440–441 economics of, 114, 135–136, 235, 425 Guillory, N., 360 geographical milieu and, 404–405 Gustavson, L., 140 global marketplace, comparisons and, 320 Gutek, G. L., 305 global marketplace, competitiveness in, 33, 49, 147, 174, Gutenberg’s printing press, 20 200, 261 global “war on teachers,” 434 Hacker, J. J., 368 global youthscape, 384, 387 Halberstam, J., 354 humanities and, 56 Haley, M., 354 immigrant students’ experiences and, 251 Half Nelson (film), 180 language programs and, 64, 67 Hall, G. Stanley, 4, 12, 242–243, 384, 386 pedagogy and, 168–170 Hall, S., 271, 272, 285, 421 popular culture and, 135–137, 140 Halverson, R., 336, 337 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Hammerberg, D. D., 99 (STEM) and, 27, 28, 29, 33–34 Hampton model of industrial education, 306 social class and multicultural issues and, 114 Hands-on teaching/learning, 12, 193–194 social studies and, 37, 41, 42 Hanh, T. N., 436 technology and, 335 Hansen, D. T., 198, 294, 296 as threat to diversity, 425 Harap, H., 15 Goddard, H., 185 Haraway, D., 93 Goffman, E., 345 Hardenberg, G. P. F. F. von, 225 Goldberg, N., 227 Hardt, M., 404 Gonzalez, N., 235, 238, 329 Harlem Children’s Zone Promise Academy, 332 Goodson, I. F., 108 Harris, W. T., 3–4, 5–6, 7–9 Goody, J., 21 Harvey, D., 169, 379, 402 Gore, A., 424 Hasebe-Ludt, E., 106 Goulah, J., 293, 296 Hatano, K., 296 Government He, M. F., xxviii, 59, 156, 157, 192, 238, 293, education and, 374–382 296, 331 financial bailout programs of, 375, 379 autobiography of, 108 500–•–Index

Health issues, 294 ethnographic study of, 413 PE and, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76 immigrant students and, 251, 252, 253 Heath, S. B., 21–22 instructional vibrancy and, 409–410 Hebdige, D., 139, 385 modes of expression and forms of inquiry in, 412–413 Hegel, 413 Rhizome of Blackness: A Critical Ethnography of Hip-Hop Hegel, F., 236 Culture, 297 Helguera, P., 51 vocabulary and expressions, 410–411 Hellison, D., 73, 75, 76 See also Culturally values-driven curriculum Henle, M., 130–131 Hirsch, E. D., 127, 286 Henningsen, H., 296 Historical milieu, 303–310 Henry, A., 215, 218 Historicizing of Knowledge (Brown), 387 Henry, F., 75 History, 36, 37–38, 39, 40, 54 Herbart, J., 12, 236, 238, 292, 293, 395 See also Humanities; Social studies Herbartians, 12 Hlynka, D., 93 Heritage Language Initiative, The, 262 Hochschild, J. L., 451 Herman, E., 144 Hoechsmann, M., 143, 148 Hern, M., 397 Hofstadter, R., 106, 198 Herndon, J., 237 Hofstede, G., 392 Heschel, A., 344 Holistic curriculum. See Integrated, holistic, and core Hickman, L., 296 subject matters Hidden curriculum, xxv, 190, 344 Holler If You Hear Me (Michie), 157, 162 High-stakes testing, 183–189 Hollingshead, A. B., 385 Campbell’s Law and, 187 Holt, J., 96, 179, 237, 238, 392, 395 contemporary concerns about, 183–185, 201 Home knowledge, 329, 331 contemporary use of, 186 Homeless people, 369 contexts for, 185–186 Homer, 304–305 curriculum focus on tested subjects, 184, 187 Homeschooling, 391, 392 curriculum limitations due to, 64, 184, 187 religious values and, 395–396 edTPA and, 188, 201 See also Alternative school milieu forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 188–189 Homeschooling Our Children, Unschooling Ourselves Meeting the Challenge of High-Stakes Testing, 201 (McKee), 397 mixed approaches, qualitative measures in, 188–189 Homosexual milieu. See Gender, sexuality, and queer milieu peer effects in test scores, 185 Hong, S., 333 race and gender issues with, 187–188 Hooks, b., 216, 221, 425 scripted curriculum and, 184, 186, 243 Hoose, P., 194 socioeconomic issues with, 187 Hopkins, L. T., 14, 58, 96, 99, 237, 238, 426 subjectivity in grading, 185 Horkheimer, M., 138 teacher evaluation and, 183–189, 202 Hornberger, N. H., 264 teaching to the test, 187 Horton, M., 17 test scores, validity questions about, 184–185, 187, Howard, G., 112 234–235 Howard, G. R., 452 theories on, 186–188 Howard, T., 213 See also Standardized testing; Testing Hudson-Weems, C., 362–363 Hill, D., 360 Huebner, D. E., 225 Hill, M. L., 140, 409, 413 Hughes, L., 452 Hill Collins, P., 120, 122–123, 218 Hull House, 332 Hilliard, A., III, 411 Humanistic Foundations of Education (Weinberg), 59 Hilliard, A. G., 303–304 Humanities, 53–60 Hilton, P. M., 236 contemporary concerns in, 54–56 Hinchey, P. H., 161, 322 context of, 56–57 Hip hop, 137, 139, 140, 211, 407–415 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 59 culturally values-driven curriculum and, 407–415 political issues and, 56–57 curriculum base and examples of, 409–413 pragmatic considerations and, 54–55 Index–•–501

purposes and functions of, 53, 55, 58, 59–60 sensing gaps and, 129–131 question of what is worthwhile, 53, 56, 57, 58, 60 standardization and, 127, 128, 129 self-knowledge and, 57, 60 Immigrant students’ experiences, 249–258 skills and, 54–55 absence of perspectives in curriculum, 254 standards and assessments and, 55–56 acculturation, decisions in, 253 subjects included in, 53, 59 anti-immigrant sentiments, 253 theoretical perspectives on, 57–58 contemporary concerns for, 250–251 Humanity context, 249–250 human dignity and rights and, 349 cultural gaps between home and school, 253, 254, 322 humanistic perspective of curriculum, 417–418 cultural mismatch/incongruity, 250, 251, 252, 255 humanistic philosophy of subject matter, 3, 7 culture and, 252, 253 humanity and humane relationships, 195, 213, 239, English language learners, 251 291, 293 English proficiency and, 251, 254 humanizing force of curriculum, 283–284, 344–350 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 253–255 posthuman age/perspective, 90, 92, 93–94, 418, 422 globalization and, 251 Humility, 192, 193 identities of, 252–253 Hunt, J. A., 162 integration issues for, 250 Hurricane Katrina, 42, 289, 410 language and, 251, 252, 254 Hutchon, K., 92 language, culture, identity, and power context for, 251–253 living between two worlds, 254, 255 I and Thou (Buber), 58 marginalization of, 251, 253, 254, 255 I Learn From Children (Pratt), 237 poverty and, 253 I Won’t Learn From You (Kohl), 162 power issues for, 253 Ibrahim, A., 297 prejudice and exclusion encountered by, 251, 253 Identity, 61–69, 166–167 segregation and, 253 cultural, 112, 115, 116, 271 standardized testing and, 251 diversity in, 62 tensions among, 252–253, 254 geography and, 401 theory on, 251–253 identity capital, 66 Immigrants, 249–258 identity development, 67 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, 250 identity development, multiracial, 450 Dream Act and, 250, 356 of immigrant students, 252–253 ESL programs for, 65 national, 165, 166–167 increasing diversity and, 249–250 See also Language, culture, identity, and power Inner World of the Immigrant Child, The, 130 Ideologies, curriculum and, 81–82, 165–166 integration of, 192, 242, 250 Ideoscape, 434 social studies and, 38, 39, 42 Igoa, C., 130 struggles and hardships of, 250–251, 253 Ikeda, D., 13, 292, 294, 296 undocumented, 250–251, 356 Iliad (Homer), 304–305 Implicit curriculum, 215 Illich, I., 392, 395, 397 Improvisation, 223–230 Imagination, 127–133, 172 adaptive experience and, 226 arts-based education and metaphor and, 131–132 as art, 224–225 connoisseurship and, 129, 131 challenges and complexities of, 228–229 context for, 128 collaborative skills for, 226–228 continuous questioning and, 132 deep conceptual understanding and, 226 creativity and, 128, 129 definition/description of, 224–225 curriculum imagination as subject matter, 128–129, 132 imagination and, 225, 228 forms of inquiry in, 129–131 integrated knowledge and, 226 importance for students, 194 manifestations of, 225–228 improvisation and, 225, 228 unexpected, taking advantage of, 223, 225 as joining parts, 127–128 as uninhibited exploration, 225 perception and, 129, 132 In loco parentis, 193 popular culture and, 136 In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens (Walker), 358 502–•–Index

Inclusive education, 278–281 in creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile learning, challenges to, 281 295–297 classroom organization and climate for, 279 on culturally and linguistically diverse students, 264–265 curriculum for, 279 in culturally relevant pedagogy, 212–213 natural proportions for, 279 in culturally values-driven curriculum, 412–413 pedagogy for, 280 in digital technology and computing science, 93 staffing and service provision for, 280 in disability(ies), 282 teacher education for, 280 in documentary milieu, 314–315 Inconvenient Truth, An (Gore), 424 in ecological milieu, 428 Indigenous cultures funds of knowledge, 264 books and literature of, 269, 270 in gender, sexuality, and queer milieu, 355–356 critical indigenous theory, 449 in global, transnational, and local curriculum, 435 erasure and assimilation of, 439, 441–442 in high-stakes testing, 188–189 indigenous methodologies and, 254, 435 in humanities, 59 indigenous research and, 331 on immigrant students’ experiences, 253–255 knowledge of, 331–332, 419 on inspiring teachers, 193–195 land and, 419–420, 439–446 in integrated, holistic subject matters, 100–101 literacy and, 21, 25 in language, culture, identity, and power, 67 resistance from, 439 in media systems/literacy, 144–148 settler colonization, effects of, 419–420 in multicultural children’s literature, 272–273 storytelling and, 252, 254 in multicultural currere, 116 tribal critical race theory (TribCrit), 420 in multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial milieu, Indigenous land and decolonizing curriculum, 439–446 452–453 aims and structure of settler colonialism, 440–441 on parents and community as curriculum, 330–332 chattel slavery and, 440 participatory, 332 decolonization projects, 443–444 personal essays and, 162–163 indigenous erasure and assimilation, 441–442 personal~passionate~participatory, 193, 251, 254 land as curriculum, 442–443 philosophical mode, 323 See also Colonialism; and entries beginning with in physical education, 75–76 decolonial in policy milieu, 323–324 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 176, 408 in popular culture, 140 Inequality, 139 practical, xxvii capitalism and, 166 in race/feminist currere, 124–125 in childhoods, 322–323 reader-response mode for, 55–56 economic, 368, 369–370, 371 in sciences, 29–30, 33–34 popular culture as reinforcing, 139, 140 sensing gaps, imagination and, 129–131 in schools and societies, 169, 183, 190, 191, 202, in social studies, 41–42 208, 290, 378 in socioeconomic class milieu, 370–372 schools as perpetuating, 187–188, 190, 195, 202, on students as curriculum, 238 208, 290, 344 on students’ experiences, 244–246 standardization and, 99 on teacher bashing and deskilling, 179–180 teacher education and, 202–203 in teacher education, 204–205 teachers as counteracting, 190, 194, 195 in teacher evaluation, 188–189 Information and communication technology (ICT), 87, 88, on teachers and pedagogy, 171–172 90, 93–94, 336, 338 on teachers as activists, 162–163 Inner World of the Immigrant Child, The (Igoa), 130 on teachers as cultural workers, 193–195 Inquiry, forms of, 17 on teachers as curriculum, 156–158 in alternative school milieu, 396–397 in womanist/Black feminist milieu, 363–364 in arts, 50–51, 131–132 in youth cultural milieu, 387–388 in biographical milieu, 311 Inspiration of teachers, 193–195 on Black teachers as curriculum texts, 220–221 Institutional context, 79 in browning the curriculum, 421–422 Instructional context, 79 in corporate-military-governmental milieu, 380 InTASC, 287 Index–•–503

Integrated curriculum, 81, 88, 96–97 Jones, T. J., 39 Integrated ecological whole, classrooms as, 319 Jones, V. L., 269 Integrated, holistic, and core subject matters, 96–102 Jordan, J., 100, 124 changing curriculum and, 98, 101 Journey to Racial Literacy, A (Davis), 452 Common Core Standards and, 97–98 Joyce, J., 60 contemporary concerns in, 97 Jupp, J., 112 context of, 97–98 Justice. See Ecojustice; Social justice issues democratic principles and, 98, 99 emphasis on interaction in, 100 Kahn, R., 425, 428 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 100–101 Kant, I., 50, 294 living core curriculum, 97–101 Katie’s Canon (Cannon), 363 personal level and, 99 Kawagley, A. O., 443 social level and, 99–100 Kelley, W., 140 standards and questions in, 98 Kellner, D., 143, 148 theory in, 98–100 Kemet (ancient Egypt), education in, 303–304 Integration: Its Meaning and Application (Hopkins), 426 Kendall, P. M., 313 Integration, of schools, 396 Kerschensteiner, G., 15 Intellectual biography, 312 Kierkegaard, S., 57 Intended curriculum, xxv Kilpatrick, W. H., 3–4, 5, 6, 7, 8–9, 15, 101, 243 Interaction, 13 project method of, 7, 15, 17 Intercultural Education Movement, 209 Kincheloe, J., 106, 107, 403, 435 Interculturality, 171, 172 King, Lawrence “Larry,” 352 Interdependences, 2 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 270 International Monetary Fund, 167 Kinget, G. M., 58 Internet, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 384 Kirk, C., 76 Interracial marriage, 448, 451 Kirkland, D. E., 388 Interviews, 59 Kleifgen, J., 265 Inuit people, health issues of, 428 Kliebard, H., 242 Invisibility, overcoming, 348–350 Knowledge, 285–288, 419 Invisible Man (Ellison), 58 as commodity, 290 IQ tests, 185 holistic, 332 Iron Man character, 137–138 home knowledge, 329, 331 Irvine, J. J., 209, 212–213, 216, 218 indigenous, 331–332, 419 Islam, Covering Islam (Said), 139 See also Funds of knowledge Itard, J., 15 Koehler, M. J., 92, 340 It’s Our World, Too! (Hoose), 194 Kohl, H., 96, 100, 162, 179, 237, 238, 395 Kouppanou, A., 93 Jackson, P. W., 131, 312 Kovach, M., 331 James, D., 368 Kozol, J., 179, 237, 238, 323, 392–393, 397, 398 James, H., 313 Kray, C., 58 James, W., 58, 129 Kridel, C., xxiv, 238 Japanese American Curriculum Project, 269 KRS-One, 411, 412 Jardine, D. W., 319 Kubey, R., 144 Jenkins, E. J., 408 Kumaravadivelu, B., 296 Jenkins, H., 140, 145 Kumashiro, K., 162 Jewett, A. E., 75 Kwan, S., 452 Jewett, L. M., 108 John Dewey and American Democracy (Westbrook), 312 Labeling, 277 John Dewey and the High Tide of American Liberalism Laboratory School at Teachers College, Columbia (Ryan), 312 University, 237 John Dewey and the Philosopher’s Task (Jackson), 312 Laboratory schools, 12, 17, 81, 236, 237 Johnston, C., 144 Ladson-Billings, G., 63, 65, 162, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, Jonassen, D. H., 88, 92 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 413 504–•–Index

Lagemann, E., 180 theoretical perspectives on, 65–66 Lake, R. L., 296 welcoming and unwelcoming contexts, 64–65 Land, 439–446 Western/Eurocentric dominance in, 62, 63, 66, conservation of, 429 120–121, 166 indigenous, as curriculum, 442–443 Lao American students, 436 indigenous cultures and, 419–420, 442 Lareau, A., 322 land ethic, 427 Larrick, N., 269 as language, 443 Larson, E., 412 memory and, 443 Lasswell, H., 323 race and, 425–426 Last Child in the Woods (Louv), 429 relationships to, 442–443 Lather, P., 372 settler colonization and, 419–420 Latin America See also Ecological milieu; Indigenous land and immigrants from, 249 decolonizing curriculum pedagogy in, 167, 168, 171 Landscapes of Learning (Greene), 58 Latino/as, 40, 209, 238, 260 Language, 61–69, 235 books and literature, 269, 270 bilingualism, 64, 262, 265 Chicana feminist theory, 449 critical language education, 252 critical race theory (LatCrit), 420 cultural identity and, 61 marginalization of, 260, 295 diversity in, 62 mothering of, 330 ecology of, 263, 264 stereotypes of, 261 English-only movement, 62, 64, 259, 262 violence witnessed by, 408 heritage language maintenance, 252 Latour, B., 32–33 immigrant students and, 251, 252, 254 Lau v. Nichols, 262 linguistic empires, 64 Lave, J., 92 linguistic imperialism, 66 Leadership for Social Justice (Marshall), 162 linguistically diverse students, 259–267 Learned curriculum, xxv multilingualism, 61, 64, 65 Learner-centered ideology, 82 social interaction and, 263 Lee, C., 413 social justice and, 66 Lee, Spike, 42 sociocultural perspective and, 263, 264 Lee, Stacey, 323 Students’ Right to Their Own Language resolution, 262 Lefebvre, H., 402 theoretical perspectives on, 65–66 Leggo, C., 106 See also English language Leistyna, P., 388 Language Across Difference (Paris), 265 Leonard, T., 236 Language, culture, identity, and power, 61–69, 78 Leopold, A., 429 coloniality of power, 168, 169–170, 171 Lesko, N., 384, 385 culturally responsive teaching, 64–65 Lessing, A., 100 deficiencies vs. assets in, 62 Letter writing, 59 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 67 Levine, A., 200 global context and, 64, 67 Levine, C. G., 66 identity development, 67 Lewis, O., 209 immigrant students and, 251–253 Lewis, T. E., 380 integration into curriculum, 62 LGBTQ, 351, 352–353, 355, 356 interconnections within, 252 Li, G., 67, 254 language and cultural identity and, 61 Li, X., 116 multicultural education and, 63, 64–65, 67 Liberal arts. See Humanities overview of issues in, 61–62 Liberty for All (Salgado), 356 as sites of struggle in education, 62–64 Life history research, 253, 311 social justice and, 66 Life history writing, 312, 363 sociocultural theory, 65–66 Life-based literary narrative, 254 standards movement and, 64 Lifelong learning, 337 teacher preparedness for diversity, 63–64 Lil’ Kim, 407, 412 Index–•–505

Lil Wayne, 407, 410, 412 Loving v. State of Virginia, 448, 451 Lincoln, A., 239, 309 Lowan, G., 442 Linguistic capital, 66 Lucero, J., 48 Linguistic imperialism, 66 Lupinacci, J., 295, 425, 428 Linguistically diverse students, 259–267, 327 Lutz, C., 371 See also Culturally and linguistically diverse students Lynd, H., 385 Linguistics, 54 Lynd, R., 385 multilingual milieu, 447–454 Linton, S., 282 MacDonald, J., 417 Literacy, 19–26 Machiavelli, 413 biliteracy, 22 MacLean, E. A., 443 critical literacies, 263 Madison 2020 Project, 245 cultural, 61–62 Mager, R. F., 16 defining, 20–25, 65 Mainstreaming, 278 digital technologies and, 23, 335 Maira, S., 387 diversity and, 61–63 Makiguchi, T., 13, 57, 293–294, 296 English-only policy and, 62, 259, 262 Malaguzzi, L., 293, 332 funds of knowledge and, 23–24, 62, 66, 264 Malcolm X, 125 hip hop curriculum and, 410–411 Mandates, 103, 142, 156, 251, 261, 319, 376 historical context for, 19–20 teacher education and, 201 ideological models of, 22–24 for testing, 186 indigenous cultures and, 21, 25 Mann, H., 97, 394–395, 417 media literacy, 135, 142–149 Manning, L., 282 multicultural children’s literature and, 268–275 Manufacturing Consent (Herman), 144 multiple literacies, 21–22, 65, 263 Marable, M., 306 narrative inquiry and, 24 Marcuse, H., 178 potential, 63 Marginalization, 447 reading and writing and, 20–21 of culturally and linguistically diverse students, 261 in science and mathematics, 27, 29 of immigrant students, 251, 253, 254, 255 social practice and, 21–22, 263 of minority groups, 260, 262 social studies and, 38 Marinoff, L., 294 sociocritical, 251 Mark-all-that-apply category, 449, 451 technological, 23, 335, 336, 338 Marshall, C., 162 theoretical perspectives on, 65–66 Martin, J., 312 Lived curriculum, 138, 139, 211 Martin, J. V., 116 Lived experiences, 103, 105–106, 114–115, 211, 238, 411 Martinek, T., 76 Living core curriculum, 97–101 Martusewicz, R., 295, 425, 428 See also Integrated, holistic, and core subject matters Marx/Marxism, 119, 138, 139, 178, 187, 237, 385, 386 Living curriculum, 158, 235–236 Massey, D., 402 Living in the Future Project, 245 Mathematics Local curriculum, 432–438 numeracy and literacy, 27, 29 locality, 434 See also Science, technology, engineering, and Localism, new, 427 mathematics (STEM) Locke, A., 209 McCarthy, C., 62 Locke, L., 72 McChesney, R. W., 146 Loewen, J. W., 42 McCoy, K., 441 Long Quiet Highway, The (Goldberg), 227 McCulloch, G., 315 Lopate, P., 162, 163 McCutcheon, G., 215 Lopez, A. L., 397 McEneaney, E., 83 Lorde, A., 124, 361 McInerney, Brandon, 352 Louv, R., 429 McKee, A., 397 Love, Justice, and Education: John Dewey and the Utopians McKenzie, M., 440, 441, 442, 444 (Schubert), 58, 313 McKeon, Richard, xxvi 506–•–Index

McKim, M. G., 16 competitive, humanistic alternatives to, 344–350 McLaren, P., 148, 375–376, 435 corporate-military-governmental milieu, 374–382 McLuhan, E., 92 as curriculum, xxv–xxvi, 301–454 McLuhan, M., 92, 143, 144 deschooling, homeschooling, and unschooling, 391–399 McMurry, C., 12 ecological milieu, 424–431 McMurry, F., 12 gender, sexuality, and queer milieu, 351–357 McRobbie, A., 385 geographical milieu, 400–406 Means, R., 126 global, transnational, and local curriculum, 432–438 Media historical milieu, 303–310 codes and conventions of, 144 indigenous land and decolonizing curriculum, 439–446 coverage of Middle East and Islam, 139 moral and spiritual milieu, 344–350 media theory, 92 multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial milieu, as the message, 144 447–454 popular culture and, 134–135 parental, familial, and communal milieu, 326–334 Media literacy, 135, 142–149 policy milieu, 319–325 advertising and, 146–147 popular cultural milieu, 407–415 in context, 143–144 socioeconomic class milieu, 367–373 current state of, 143–144 technological milieu, 335–343 curriculum and pedagogy for, 148 womanist/Black feminist milieu, 358–366 digital media and technologies and, 142–143 youth cultural milieu, 383–390 forms of inquiry and modes of representation in, 144–148 See also specific milieu Internet and, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146 Military, 374–382 network vs. networked media systems and, 144 budget/spending, 375 networking platforms and, 144–147 impact on education, 375–376 politics and, 143–144, 146 militaristic products for schools, 376 skills and, 142, 143 military recruiters in schools, 376 standards movement and, 142, 143 neoliberal policies and, 375 theory of, 144 war, pervasiveness of, 378 Mediascape, 434 See also Corporate-military-governmental milieu Meeting the Challenge of High-Stakes Testing (Sloan), 201 Millennial generation, 20, 23 Meiners, E., 162, 163 Miller, J., 107, 108, 323 Memoir biography, 312 Mills, C. W., 161 Merit pay, 186 Milner, H. R., IV, 221 Meritocracy, 368–369 Minha, T. T., 124 Mertens, D., 435 Minorities, 62, 63, 65, 202 Meta-ideologizing, 421 ban on ethnic studies, 434 Metal detectors, 376 culturally relevant pedagogy and, 170, 207–214 Metaphor, 131–132, 157, 268, 273 currere and, 115–116 Metz, M. H., 323 curriculum funding and, 66 Mexican Americans, 262, 269, 332–333 educational capacities of, 209 Chicano movement, 262 high-stakes testing, effects on, 64 Mexican American Studies (MAS), 167 increase in, 111, 112, 113, 433 See also Latino/as marginalization of, 260, 262 Meyer, J. W., 83 model minority myth, 254–255 Meyer, M. A., 442–443 participation of, 191 Michie, G., 14, 157, 162, 238 school dropout rates for, 244, 407 Milam, J. L., 199 spaces set aside for, 65 Milieu, xxv–xxvi, 301–454 See also Language, culture, identity, and power; about: meanings and aspects, 302 Multicultural education alternative school milieu, 391–399 Misceg-narrations, 452 biographical and documentary milieu, 311–318 Mis-Education of the Negro, The (Woodson), 309 Black education, historical milieu of, 303–310 Mishra, P., 92, 340 browning the curriculum, 416–423 Mismatches, 208, 243, 250, 251, 252 Index–•–507

Model minority myth, 254–255 countermultiracial movement model for, 451 Modeling, 191 critical mixed race studies and, 449–450 cultural modeling, 264 demographic imperative and, 448 Modes of Thought (Whitehead), 58 ethnic movement model for, 373, 451 Moffett, J., 128 forms in inquiry and modes of expression in, 452–453 Mohanty, C., 124 government and, 448 Moll, L., 235 multiracial identity development and, 450 Montesssori, M., 14–15, 237, 238, 292–293, 296, 323, 332 multiracial movement model for, 451 Mooney, J., 282 number of multiracial people in the US, 449 Moral and spiritual milieu, 344–350 political issues in, 451 affirmation and meaning in, 350 practical implications of, 451–452 competition, emphasis on, 344–350 theory on, 449–452 curriculum as transformative, 347–350 Multicultural perspectives, 61–69, 193 dissatisfaction and, 346–347 immigrants’ experiences and, 251 identity and, 345–346 multicultural education, 63, 64–65, 67 inequality, schools as reproducing, 344 in social studies, 38, 40 invisibility, overcoming, 348–350 Multilingual milieu, 447–454 stress and, 346 Multilingualism, 61, 64, 65, 449 tikkun olam concept, 344, 347, 348, 349–350 Multiracial identity development, 450 violence and, 346, 348 Multiracial milieu, 447–454 Moral Principles of Education (Dewey), 177 Muñoz, José, 355 Morell, E., 413 Myers, W. D., 270 Morgensen, S. L., 440 Morris, M., 108, 216 NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) Morrison, K. A., 211 Technological and Engineering Literacy Framework, Motivation, 11, 246 336, 338 Multicultural children’s literature, 268–275 Narrative inquiry, 24, 59, 67, 157, 193, 238 author awards for, 270 critical race, 254 calls for source material in, 269–270 cross-cultural, 253, 254 civil rights movement and, 269 multicultural, 253, 254 contexts of, 269–270 in multiracial milieu, 452 cultural authenticity in, 271 in parental, familial, and communal milieu, 331 definition of, 268 in teacher education, 204, 205 digital technologies and, 273 Narrative/Biographical inquiry, 388 groups represented in, 269, 270 Narratives modes of representation in, 273 counternarratives, 243, 264, 420 practices of inquiry,, 272–273 misceg-narrations, 452 publishers of, 269–270 multicultural, 251 theories, definitions, and discourses of, 270–272 narrative biography, 311, 312 Multicultural currere, 110–118 of teachers, 162, 237, 238–239, 437 contemporary concerns in, 111–112 Nash, J., 124 context of, 113–114 Nation at Risk, A (report), 8, 17, 70, 154, 200, 379, 422 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 116 teacher blaming after, 174, 177, 200 Multicultural education, 111–113, 170, 447–454 Nation building, 166–167 vs. cross-cultural education, 111 National Black Feminist Organization, 361 history and context of, 115 National Center for Teacher Quality, 179 teacher education for, 111–112 National Conference on Third World Women and Multicultural literature, 270–271 Violence, 361 Multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial milieu, 447–454 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 38, 40 achievement gap and, 447–448 National Council on the Accreditation of Teacher Bill of Rights for Racially Mixed People, A, 450 Education, 201 contemporary concerns in, 447–448 National Education Policy Center, 323 context of, 448–449 National identity, 165, 166–167 508–•–Index

National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE), 236 Obesity, 71, 72, 74, 75 Native Americans, 260, 394 Occupy Movement, 321 books and literature of, 269, 270 Odyssey, The (Homer), 305 impacts of standards-based reforms, 64 Oliva, M., 162 social and political thought of, 252 On Being Human (Kinget), 58 stereotypes, books on, 269 Ong, W. J., 20–21 storytelling, 252 Online degree programs, 294 See also Indigenous cultures Open admissions policy (CUNY), 262 Ndimande, B., 435 Opportunity gap, 210 Negri, A., 404 Oppression, 361, 362, 447 Negro History Bulletin, 309 matrix of, 420–421 Negro World, 308 Oral cultures, 20–21 Neill, A. S., 237, 238, 321, 323, 391, 397 Oral history, 253, 397 Neoliberal capitalism, 169–170, 374–375 Orellana, M. F., 265 Neoliberalism, 285, 288–291, 294, 374–375, 379 Organization and sequencing of subject matters, 78–86 Nespor, J., 403 academic disciplines orientation, 79–80 Networked media systems, 144 approaches to, 80–81 New Literacy Studies (NLS), 22 broad-field design for, 80 New Orleans chronological approach for, 80 Hurricane Katrina and, 42, 289, 410 classroom curriculum and, 79 Public Schools in, 289 collection type curriculum and, 80 New Priorities in Curriculum (Berman), 2 contexts and domains in, 79 New Teacher Project, The, 198 correlated-subject design for, 80 Newbery Medal, 270 definitions of organization and sequencing, 79 Ngo, B., 435–436 of disciplines-based curriculum, 79–80, 82 Nieto, S., 62, 111, 194 fused-subject design for, 80 Nietzsche, F., 413 ideologies and, 81–82 No Child Left Behind Act, 8, 38, 70, 74, 154, 243, 286, 422 integrated type curriculum and, 81 accountability and, 64, 98, 128, 186, 251 orientations and approaches to, 79–82 achievement gap and, 447 part-to-whole approach for, 80 curriculum changes and, 186 programmatic curriculum and, 79 inclusive education and, 281 purposes of schooling, 82 mandates of, 103, 142, 251, 261, 376 questions and forms of inquiry on, 84 on parental involvement, 328 sequencing across grade levels, 80 penalties from, 286 social and economic needs orientation, 79–80 Reading First program and, 175 social/political issues and, 79–80, 82–84 school funding and, 128, 142 students’ interest, experience, and development and, No Child Left Inside movement, 429 79–80, 80–81 “No pass, no promotion” regulations, 201 thematic approach for, 80 Noblit, G. W., 371 whole-to-part approach for, 80 Noddings, N., 294 Ortiz, F., 297 Nonschool curriculum, 394, 396 O’Sullivan, E., 295 Normal schools, 199 Other mothering, 218, 329, 330 Northland College, 429 Other people’s children, 162, 238, 322, 448 Null curriculum, xxv, 215, 353 Other People’s Children (Delpit), 162 Nussbaum, M., 58, 294 Other/otherness, 271, 282, 355 NYCoRE, 356 Our Future, Our Teachers (report), 200, 202 NYQueer, 356 Outcome-based education (OBE), 16 Outside curriculum, xxv, 394, 428–429 Oakland Ebonics debate, 262 Oyate, 269 Obama, B., 286, 352 Dream Act of, 250, 356 Pacific Islander Americans, 260 on importance of teachers, 199 Paley, V. G., 157, 162 Race to the Top program of, 8, 98, 103, 155, 286, 287, 376 Palmer, P., 153, 157 Index–•–509

Pang, V. O., 217 ideologies and, 165–166 Papert, S., 88, 92 imaginative, 172 Parallel literature, 271 intercultural, 171, 172 Parental, familial, and communal milieu, 326–334 politics and, 166–168 access to schools/education processes, 327–328 practical position (praxis) on, 237, 238, 284, 448 community-based organizations and, 332, 333 problem-posing, 225, 237, 284–285 community involvement and, 327–330, 332 progressive, 170, 236 contemporary concerns, 327–328 reciprocal, 172 context of, 328 social education system, 165–166 definition of families, 326 standardization and, 166–168 economic, cultural, and political capital and, 329–330 transformative, 143, 194, 211, 347–350 feminist theory and, 330 for well-being, 165–173, 192, 195 forms of inquiry on, 330–332 Pedagogy of Freedom (Freire), 156–157 funds of knowledge and, 329, 330 Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire), 427 home knowledge and, 329, 331 Peer effects in test scores, 185 local knowledge and, 330 Peer teaching, 280 modes of expression on, 332–333 Pelosi, N., 352 parental involvement and, 327–328, 330, 332 Perception, 129, 132 school-community connectivity and, 327 Performing Identity/Performing Culture (Dimitriadis), 139 school policies for parents and community, 327–328, Performing Pedagogy (Garoian), 51 332–333 Perry, R. B., 58 theory of, 328–330 Perry, T., 411 Parental role of teachers, 193, 195 Personal essay, 162–163 Paris, D., 211, 265 Personal~passionate~participatory inquiry, 193, 251, 254 Park, R., 209 Pestalozzi, J. H., 130, 292, 293, 295, 321 Parker, F. W., 12, 292, 293 Petchauer, E., 409 Parker, L. K., 411 Petrarch, 57 Parks, R., 262 Pharr, S., 351 Participation in education, 191, 337 Phenomenology, 17, 93, 114–115, 116, 140, 238, 387–388 Participative learning, 337 Phillion, J., 157, 331 Participatory culture, 135, 137, 139–140, 145 Phillips, L., 361–362 Participatory inquiry, 332 Philosophical mode of inquiry, 323 Partnership for 21st Century Skills, The, 16 Philosophy, 54 Pask, G., 88 Physical education, 70–77 Patterson, T., 402 contemporary concerns in, 72–74 Paul, D. G., 360 content of, 72–73 Payne, R., 369 contextual forces in, 74–75 Pearson, 320 forms of inquiry in, 75–76 Pedagogy, 165–173 history of (U.S.), 71–72 banking, 237, 284–285 ineffectiveness, concerns about, 72 capitalism and, 165–166, 167, 169–170 innovation in, 73–74 critical, 170–171, 251, 260 marginalization of, 70–71, 72, 74 culturally contested, 251, 254 models of, 71–72, 73–74, 76 culturally relevant, 170, 207–214, 219, 238, 243, 251, 448 multi-activity model of, 71–72 culturally values-driven, 407–415 obesity and health issues, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76 curriculum as, 244, 247 outcomes and standards in, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76 decolonial, 171, 172 theory in, 75 definition of, 166, 167 valuation of, 70–71, 74 ecological, 172, 427–428 Piaget, J., 32, 88 ecopedagogy, 427–428 Pinar, W. F., 40, 59, 103–105, 106, 107, 108, 122, 157, 203, forms of inquiry for, 171–172 215, 323, 403, 417 global context for, 168–170 Pinnegar, S., 179 globalization and, 168–169 PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment), 27, ideals and goals for, 165, 167–168 33, 320 510–•–Index

Plato, 119, 153, 296, 377 globalization and, 135–137, 140 Plato, Not Prozac (Marinoff), 294 hip hop and, 137, 139, 140, 407–415 PLATO system, 88 as lived curriculum, 138, 139 Play, value of, 127, 194 media and, 134–135 Pledge of Allegiance, 378 production and participation in, 135, 137, 139–140 Plutarch, 305 superheroes in, 137–138 Policy curriculum, 79 technology and, 134–137 Policy makers, xxiv, 8, 53, 55, 152, 154 theory of, 138–140 concerns about global competitiveness, 261 See also Culturally values-driven curriculum; Hip hop standardization and, 55, 103, 106, 143, 166 Porfilio, B. J., 379 Policy milieu, 319–325 Positivism, 187, 286–288, 349 autobiographical texts and, 323 Posthuman age/perspective, 90, 92, 93–94, 418, 422 class structure, poverty, and inequities and, 322 Postman, N., 144 conflicts in, 320 Postmodernism, 41, 50, 380, 386 contemporary concerns about, 319–320 grassroots, 396 context and linkages in, 321 Poston, W. S. C., 450 corporations and, 320, 323 Poverty, 290 curriculum as cause and effect, 324 culture of, 209 decision makers in, 319–320, 323 education level and, 260 definitions in, 324 students in, 216, 253 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 323–324 See also Socioeconomic class milieu globalization and, 320 Power, 61–69, 120–121 mandates and standardization and, 319–320 binary oppositions and, 271 market forces and, 320 coloniality of, 168, 169–170, 171 needs and knowledge gaps and, 320 immigrant students’ experiences and, 253 policy centers and, 323–324 race and, 120–121, 122, 123 policy elites and, 320 teacher activism and, 161 policy-practice gap and, 320 See also Language, culture, identity, and power responses to diversity and, 321–322 Poyntz, S., 143, 148 role of culture in teaching and, 322 Practical inquiry, xxvi–xxvii, 433 theory of, 321–323 Prakash, M. S., 392, 396, 397 Political issues Prashad, V., 434 humanities and, 56–57 Pratt, C., 96, 237, 238 in organizing and sequencing subject matters, 82–84 Pratt, M. L., 436 Political science, 53–54 Pratt, R. H., 417, 436 See also Humanities Prensky, M., 89 Politics, 166–167, 170, 187 Pressey, S. L., 88 as context for education, 165–167, 235 Prison: school-to-prison pipeline, 290 media literacy and, 143–144 Privatization, 174, 288–290, 295, 309, 377, 379 political goal of education, 160, 170, 190, 191 Problem-based learning (PBL), 15, 16 politically relevant pedagogy, 211 Problem-posing pedagogy, 225, 237, 284–285 of standardized testing, 186 Problem solving, 11–14, 337 See also Capitalism; Globalization Process-oriented subject matter, 2, 55 Politics of Politeness, The (Ross), 364 Professionalism (of teachers), 200–201 Popkewitz, T., 383 Programmatic curriculum, 79 Popular cultural milieu, 407–415 Progressive pedagogy/philosophy, 170, 236, 395, 396, 397 Popular culture, 134–141, 407–415 “Project Method, The” (Kilpatrick), 7, 15, 17 contemporary concerns in, 135–136 Promise Neighborhoods program, 332 context for, 136–138 Proposition 227 (California), 262 as destabilizing force, 135 Provenzo, E., 306 ethnographic studies of, 138–139, 140 Prozac Nation (Wurtzel), 294 films as, 136, 137–138 Psychic arrest, 105 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 140 Psychoanalysis, 114, 237 Index–•–511

Psychology, 129, 385, 450 stereotypes and, 121–122 Puerto Ricans, 269 theory of, 122–124 Pugach, M. C., 282 See also Currere Punishing aspects, 290–291 Race to the Top, 8, 98, 103, 155, 286, 287, 376 Pura Belpré Award, 270 Racism, 107, 191, 202, 260, 269, 295, 361 Purpel, D., 344, 348, 350 Brown v. Board of Education decision, 22, 262, 269 Purposes of schooling, 6–8, 82 civil rights movement and, 262, 319, 361 color-blind racism, 420 Qualitative Evaluation: Concepts and Cases in Curriculum current day violence and, 320 Criticism (Willis), 59 Freedom Schools and, 237, 332 Queer Art of Failure (Halberstam), 354 immigrants and, 251, 253 Queer milieu, 351–357, 449 persistence of, 418–419, 422 autobiography and, 114 racial superiority theories and, 418 criminalization and, 353 school integration and, 396 fear of the queer, 353 segregation and desegregation and, 216, 253, 290, 396 LGBTQ, 351, 352–353, 355, 356 systemic roots of, 65–66, 202 queerness, meanings and usages of, 351–352 White supremacist logic and, 417–420, 421, 422, 426 suicides and violence, 352–353 Radical constructivism, 32 See also Gender, sexuality, and queer milieu Radical equality concept, 30 Quijano, A., 168 Radical Teacher, 356 Quinn, T., 162, 163 Radway, J., 139 Quintilian, 155, 305 Rancière, J., 50, 296 Randall, M., 73 Race, 62, 271 Rasmussen, D., 428 artificial boundaries and, 420 Raup, B., 14 Bill of Rights for Racially Mixed People, A, 450 Ravitch, D., 8, 286, 324 binary oppositions in, 271, 420 Raymond, S., 351 browning the curriculum, 359–360, 364, 416–423 Reading and writing, 20–21 context for, 121–122 Reading engagement, 175 critical race currere, 113, 115–116, 119–126 Reading First program, 175 critical race theory, 65–66, 123, 188, 237–238, 251, 331, Reading in a Participatory Culture (Jenkins and Kelley), 140 420–421, 449 Reagan, R., 379 decolonizing of one’s mind, 120, 121, 125 Reay, D., 368 interracial marriage, 448, 451 Received curriculum, xxv issues with high-stakes testing, 188 Reflections From the Heart of Educational Inquiry (Willis land and, 425–426 and Schubert), 59 mark-all-that-apply census option, 449, 451 Regan, T., 426 multiracial identity development, 450 Regio Emilia schools, 332 multiracial milieu, 447–454 Reid, W., 215 oppression and, 361, 420–421 Rein, W., 12 power and, 120–121, 122, 123 Relevance of education slavery and, 121 culturally relevant pedagogy, 170, 207–214, 219, 238, social studies curriculum and, 37–38, 42 409, 448 stereotypes of, 121–122 politically relevant pedagogy, 211 violent surroundings and, 408 for students, 194, 207–214, 216, 234, 243, 409 See also Multicultural, multilingual, and multiracial Religious studies, 363 milieu; Racism Religious values, homeschooling and, 395–396 Race/feminist currere, 113, 115–116, 119–126 (Re)-membering, 124, 125 Black feminism and, 122–124 Renn, K. A., 450 contemporary concerns in, 120–121 Resistance Through Rituals (Hall and Jefferson), 385 context, 121–122 Response to Intervention (RtI), 175–176 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 124–125 Rethinking Schools, 437 (re)-membering in, 124, 125 Rhodes, J., 253 512–•–Index

Rice, J. M., 180 Scibner, S., 21 Robeson, P., 228 Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), Rogers, J., 367 27–35, 243 Role release, 280 arts added to (STEAM), 47, 49 Rollins, C., 269 constructivist learning and, 32–33 Rollyson, C., 312 contemporary concerns in, 29–31 Romans, classical education of, 304–305 context for, 31–32 Romanticism, 3, 12 as curricular category, 27–29 Romeo + Juliet (film), 134 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 33–34 Root, M. P. P., 450 gender issues, 27, 30, 31 Rosenblatt, L., 55–56 global citizenship and knowledge in, 27, 28, 33–34 Ross, S. N., 364 inquiry in, 29–30 Rousmaniere, K., 354 international testing programs in, 27, 33, 320 Rousseau, J.-J., 57, 99, 237, 238, 321, 323, 417 purposes of curriculum in, 29, 31–32, 34 RTT, 379 radical equality concept and, 30 Rugg, H. O., 15, 39, 99, 236 relevance of curriculum and, 31 Ryan, A., 312 revamping of curriculum in, 319 Ryerseon, E., 417 scientific literacy and, 29 social justice issues and, 29, 30–31 SAGE Handbook of Curriculum and Instruction, The student attitudes and engagement and, 28, 30–31, 33 (Connelly, He, and Phillion), xxiv theoretical perspectives on, 32–33 Sahlberg, P., 437 video, use in, 33 Said, E., 139 Scientific management, 185, 287 Saldaña, R., Jr., 270 Scientific method, 170 Salgado, J., 356 Scott, J. P., 315, 316 Salgado, R. S., 452 Scraton, S., 72 Saltman, K. J., 376, 377 Scripted curriculum, 184, 186, 243 Sand County Almanac, A (Bowers), 427 Second language learning, 22, 38 Sandford, R., 338 Segregation, 216, 290 Sandoval, C., 124, 421, 422 Brown v. Board of Education decision, 22, 262, 269 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 20 of immigrants, 253 Sartre, J.-P., 57 Seguin, E., 15 SAT Bronx, 246 “Self and Others” (Pinar), 103–104 Savage, D., 352 Self-actualization, 75, 122, 124, 125, 295 Savage Inequalities (Kozol), 323 Self-alienation, 7–8 Sawyer, R. K., 223, 226 Self-knowledge, 57, 60, 97, 99 Saxe, D. W., 39 currere and, 103–104, 105–106, 106–107, 110, 114, 116, Schlein, C., 156, 157 119–120, 122 Schmidt, S., 402 Self-realization, 129 Schmookler, A. B., 147 Sequencing of subject matter, 78–86 Scholarly chronicle, 312 orientations and approaches to, 79–82 Schomburg, A. A., 308 See also Organization and sequencing Schonmann, S., 224 Settlement houses, 332 School of Rock (film), 180 Settler colonization, 419–420, 439–446 School-to-prison pipeline, 290 See also Colonialism Schools of Tomorrow (Dewey and Dewey), 17, 57–58 Sexual orientation, 38 Schubert, W. H., xxvii, xxviii, 14, 41, 53, 56, 58, 61, 106, See also Gender, sexuality, and queer milieu 157, 295, 313, 316–317, 323, 397 Shakespeare, W., 134 Schultz, B., xxviii, 14, 61, 96, 98, 157, 194, 238 Shakur, Tupac. See 2Pac Schwab, J. J., xxv, xxvi–xxvii, 3, 4, 9, 153, 156, 226, 237, Shannon, P., 271, 272 238, 251, 302, 400, 433, 436 Share, J., 143, 148 Schwarz, G., 157 Sharma, N., 296 Schweitzer, A., 296 Shem-Tov, N., 223, 229 Index–•–513

Shields, R., 405 Social education system, 165–166 Short, E. C., 98 Social efficiency, 82, 243 Short Bus, The: A Journey Beyond Normal (Mooney), 282 Social goal of education, 160 Shujaa, M., 396 Social justice issues, 29, 30–31, 66, 191, 238 Shulman, L. S., 4, 92 capitalism and pedagogy and, 166–168, 169–170 Shumaker, A., 15 critical race/feminist currere and, 120–121, 125 Siddle-Walker, V., 216, 221 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 162–163 Siedentop, D., 73 narratives on, 162 Siegel-Hawley, G., 63 social studies and, 37–38, 39–40, 41, 42 Siemen, G., 92 students as activists for, 194 Silences in the classroom, 227 teachers as activists for, 160–164 Simone, N., 125 teachers as cultural workers and, 191, 194 Singh, N. K., 64 teaching for social justice, 162, 195, 448 Sinnreich, A., 145 Social media/networking, 136, 144–146, 384, 408 Sins Invalid, 356 Social reconstruction, 82, 243 Sista Talk (Brock), 364 Social reproduction, 56, 72, 83, 85, 165, 178 Sisters in the Wilderness (Williams), 363 Social studies, 36–44 Skill-based assessments, 55 accountability, assessment, and standards and, 38–39 Skills, 16–17, 54–55, 83 citizenship promotion through, 36, 37–38, 39–40, 41 career and life, 335 Common Core State Standards and, 38–39 Common Core State Standards and, 142, 243 contemporary concerns in, 37–39, 40 deskilling of teachers, 154, 174–182 context and history of, 39–40 digital literacy, 335 curriculum standards for, 37 for improvisation, 226–228 definition of, 36 for inclusive democratic participation, 192 diversity and social issues, 37–38 learning and innovation, 335 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 41–42 for media literacy, 143 global issues and, 37, 41, 42 of students, technology-related, 341 immigrants and English language learners, 38, 39, 42 of teachers, technology-related, 340–341 literacy and, 38 for 21st century, 335–36, 338 multicultural perspective in, 38, 40 See also Literacy National Council for the Social Studies and, 38, 40 Skinner, B. F., 88 patriotism and, 40, 41 Skovsmose, O., 30 public debate on, 40 Slattery, P., 400 purposes of, 36, 39–40, 41 Slavery, 121, 306, 307, 394 reconceptualization of curriculum in, 37–38, 39–40, 41, 42 chattel slavery, 440 scholarly research in, 36–37, 41–42 Sleeter, C., 156 social justice issues and, 37–38, 39–40, 41, 42 Sloan, K., 201 subject matter and curriculum in, 36–44 Slumdog Millionaire (film), 136 supplementary materials for, 40 Smith, A., 421 Teaching the Levees project, 42 Smith, B. O., 14, 97, 99 theory on, 40–41 Smith, D. G., 93 traditionalists vs. nontraditionalists, 41 Smith, G., 427 Societal context, 79 Smith, J., 354 Socio-emotional development, 408 Smith, L. T., 435 Sociocritical literacy, 251 Smith, M., 101 Sociocultural theory, 65–66, 263, 264 Smitherman, G., 265 Socioeconomic class milieu, 367–373 Snedden, D., 185 academic achievement and, 370–372 Sobe, N. W., 384 contemporary concerns in, 368 Social capital, 322, 329, 330 context for, 368–369 Social class. See Socioeconomic class milieu economic inequality and, 368, 369–370, 371 Social context, 82–84 elites and, 369–370 Social differentiation, 168–170 emotions and, 371–372 514–•–Index

forms of inquiry and modes of expression on, 370–372 teaching to the test, practice of, 184, 187 lack of debate about, 369, 370 validity questions about test scores, 184–185, 234–235 lack of fluidity and, 369–370 See also Teacher evaluation; Testing meritocracy, belief in, 368–369 Standards, 8–9, 16, 96, 176–177 mobility, belief in, 369 accountability and, 38–39, 64, 154, 186 new economy, 368 curriculum limitations due to, 64, 78, 155, 166, 176–177, shifting landscapes in, 368–369 184, 243 U.S. economy, 368 curriculum of imagination and, 127, 128, 129 Socioeconomic deprivation, 253 humanities and, 55–56 Sociogeny, 421 impacts on curriculum and teaching, 64, 176–177, 186 Socrates, 50, 54, 57 impacts on minorities and multicultural education, 64, 67 Soep, E., 387, 388 school funding and, 71, 128, 142, 183, 201 Soja, E. W., 402 scripted curriculum and, 184, 186, 243 Soka education, 13, 293–294 social studies and, 37, 38–39 Solórzano, D., 331, 436 See also Common Core State Standards Souls of Black Folk, The (Du Bois), 59, 307 Standpoint theory, 420 Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 262, 361 Start Where You Are but Don’t Stay There (Milner), 221 Spanish language, 22, 295 Steele, C., 411 Special education teachers, 280 Steinberg, S., 435 Spectacular Things Happen Along the Way (Schultz), 157 Steiner, R., 58, 237, 238, 296 Spencer, H., xxiv, 46, 57, 58, 60, 321, 384, 417 STEM. See Science, technology, engineering, and Spencer, R., 451 mathematics Spiritual milieu. See Moral and spiritual milieu Stenhouse, L., 156 Spivak, G., 120, 421 Stereotypes Spolin, V., 223 books on, 269 Spring, J., 396 racial and gender, 121–122, 362 Springgay, S., 51 of youth, 387 Sprit murder, 121 Stiegler, B., 91 Sputnik era, 82, 106, 156, 177, 243, 319 Stillman, J., 156 Standardization, 154, 261, 377, 419, 422 Storytelling, 59, 252, 254, 265, 330, 436 call for moratorium on, 171 counterstorytelling, 123, 254, 331 competitiveness and, 178, 186 Storywork, 331 in conflict with changing realities, 243–244 Stovall, D., 162, 413 cultural homogenization and, 158 Stratemeyer, F. B., 16 pedagogy and, 166–168 Street, B. V., 21, 22 scripted curriculum and, 184, 186, 243 Stuchul, D., 392 teachers and, 154 Student lore, 238 Standardized testing, 105, 128, 154, 183–189, 417 Students, 231–299 Campbell’s Law and, 187 asking, rather than telling, 247 contemporary use of, 186 assessments of, 193 contexts for, 185–186 creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile living and, curriculum focus on tested subjects, 184, 186, 187 292–299 deficiencies of, 106, 184 as critical citizens, not commodities, 284–291 equality issues and, 183–184 cultural competence of, 191–192 impacts of, theories on, 186–188 culturally and linguistically diverse, 259–267 language learners and immigrants and, 251 as curriculum, xxv–xxvi, 232, 233–240 mandates for, 103, 261, 376 as curriculum, contemporary concerns for, 234–235 peer effects in test scores, 185 as curriculum, context of, 235 penalties for low-performing schools, 251 as curriculum, forms of inquiry, 238 reasons for, 183 as curriculum, modes of expression, 238–239 scripted curriculum and, 184, 186, 243 as curriculum, theory of, 235–238 subjectivity in grading and, 185 disability and, 176, 202, 276–283 teacher evaluation through, 155, 183–189, 201–202 diversity among, 113, 191, 247, 259–267 Index–•–515

dropout rates, 244, 407 popular culture as, 134–141 dropouts, income potential of, 260 process-oriented, 2, 55 with emotional disturbances, 408–409 professionalized, 4–5 empowerment of, 191, 194, 242 purposes of, 6–8 engagement of, 244, 247, 264 of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, experiences of, as curriculum, 236, 241–248, 411 27–35 experiences of, curriculum decisions and, 79–80, 80–81, of social studies, 36–44 82, 98, 170 technology and, 338–339 experiences of, forms of inquiry and expression in, Subtractive schooling, 238, 264, 265, 329, 333 244–246 Subtractive Schooling (Valenzuela), 329 experiences of, theory on, 242–243 Suicides, bullying and, 352 freedom to choose subject matter, 5, 7 Sultan, H., 440–441 funds of knowledge of, 23–24, 62, 66, 235, 238, 244, Summerhill School, 237, 238 260, 322 Sunnyside Environmental School, 429 imagination and play, importance of, 194 Superheroes, 137–138 immigrant students, experiences of, 249–258 Suspension, overuse of, 377 inclusive education and, 278–281 Swanson, D. M., 30 Living in the Future Project, 245 Sweller, J., 92 Madison 2020 Project, 245 Synoptic texts, 455 mainstreaming of, 278 multicultural children’s literature and, 268–275 Taba, H., 14 questions on place in curriculum, 236 Takaki, R., 42 reduction to numbers, due to testing/assessment, 193 Taliaferro-Baszile, D., 115, 116, 360 relevance of curriculum for, 194, 207–214, 216, 234, Talkin Black Talk (Alim and Baugh), 265 243, 409 Tao, X., 292, 296 skills-based assessments and, 55 TASH, 281 What Kids Can Do Project, 246 Tate, W. F., 162 whole/holistic view of, 190–191, 193, 384–391 Taubman, P. M., 200 Students’ Right to Their Own Language resolution, 262 Taught curriculum, xxv Studying Urban Youth Culture (Dimitriadis and Weis), 140 Taylor, F., 185 Subculture: The Meaning of Style (Hebdige), 139 Taylor, H., 404 Subject matter, xxv, 1–149 Taylorism, 185–186 aims and purposes of, 3–10 Teach for America (TFA), 177–178, 198 in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, 304–305 Teachers, xxv–xxvi, 151–230 of arts, 45–52 as a commonplace, 153–154 contemporary trends and, 8–9 as activists, 160–164 currere as, 103–109 attrition of, 155, 175, 217 as curriculum, 2 Black teachers in urban schools, 215–222 curriculum imagination as, 127–133 changing demographics and, 155 digital technology and computing science, 87–95 context of teacher as curriculum, 154–155 as experience, 11–18 criticism of, 154–155, 174, 199, 200 forms of inquiry and, 17 of cultural background differing from community, 327, of humanities, 53–60 329–330 integrated, holistic, and core, 96–102 as cultural workers, 190–197 of language, culture, identity, and power, 61–69 culturally relevant pedagogy and, 207–214 literacy and, 19–26 as curriculum, 152, 153–159 as means or end, 4–6 as curriculum discoverers, 155 media literacy and, 142–149 curriculum-shaping by, 153, 154 multicultural currere as, 110–118 deskilling of, 154, 174–182 organization and sequencing of, 78–86. See also devaluing of, 154, 155 Organization and sequencing diverse populations and, 64–65, 155, 156, 192, philosophies on, 3–10 202–203, 433 of physical education, 70–77 diversity among, 191, 202, 215–216, 433 516–•–Index

diversity, teacher preparedness for, 63–64, 192 equity and diversity and, 202–203 experiences of, 153 focus on content and, 200 films about, 157, 179–180 good teacher, concept of, 199 forms of inquiry and modes of expression for, 156–158 Grow Your Own Teachers Illinois, 330, 333 good teacher, concept of, 199 history of, 199 heroic portrayals of, 179–180 for inclusive education, 280 humility and, 192, 193 inquire and modes of expression in, 204–205 importance of, Obama’s statement on, 199 multicultural issues and, 111–112 as improvisational artists, 223–230 normal schools and, 199 inspiration of, 193–195 professional societies and, 198 interactions of teachers and students’ experiences, 157 professionalism and, 200–201 as knowers, 157–158 reeducation, 111–112 merit pay for, 186 relevancy and, 199 as model of curriculum in action, 155 Teach for America (TFA) program, 177–178 modeling by, 191 tests for entry to credentialing programs, 183 multicultural currere and, 110–111 theory and practice, 203–204 narratives by, 162, 237, 238–239, 437 Teacher evaluation, 183–189 parental role of (in loco parentis), 193, 195 accuracy of using test scores for, 184–185, 187 pay, student testing and, 201–202 contemporary concerns in, 183–185 and pedagogy for communal well-being, 165–173 contemporary use of standardized tests in, 186 progressive tradition for, 170 contexts for standardized testing in, 185–186 race, class, and gender issues for, 152 edTPA, 188, 201 as researchers, 157 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, responsibilities of, 155 188–189 “right to work” states/conditions for, 353 high-stakes testing and, 183–189 roles of, 154, 155, 190–191, 192, 215, 338 merit pay and, 186 as service providers, 377 mixed approaches to, 189 special/important, remembering, 153 performance assessments in, 188 standardization policies and, 154 qualitative methods for, 188–189 student empowerment by, 191, 194 skills-based student assessments and, 55 subcategories of, influences of, 152 theories on, 186–188 technology and, 338, 340–341 through test scores, 155, 174, 183, 201–202 theory of teacher as curriculum, 155–156 value-added measurement (VAM) and, 183, 184–185, views of, 154, 200, 377 186, 188 Teacher bashing and deskilling, 154, 174–182 video of teaching, 188 Common Core State Standards and, 176–177 Teacher lore, 157, 163, 238 contemporary deskilling, 175–177 Teacher performance. See Teacher evaluation dubious promotion of, 179 Teachers’ unions, 178, 353 feminist theory and, 178 Teacher–student relationships, 194, 212 forms of inquiry and modes of expression in, 179–180 Teaching governmentality and, 179 co-teaching, 280 Reading First program and, 175 culturally relevant teaching, 207–214, 238 Response to Intervention program and, 175–176 culturally responsive teaching, 64–65, 207, 208, 238, 251, teacher bashing in context, 177–178 264, 448 test scores and, 174 peer teaching, 280 theories on, 178–179 teach against the grain, 195 Teacher education, 4, 198–206 teach critical thinking, 195 accountability and, 201–202 teach for social justice, 195 accrediting bodies and, 201 teach in-between, 195 Black teachers in preparation, 217–218 teach the taboo, 162, 195 certification programs, 177–178 teach to transgress, 162, 195, 221 contemporary concerns in, 199–203 teach toward freedom, 58, 162, 195 debates about, 198–199 teaching community, 162, 195 Index–•–517

Teaching Community (hooks), 162 international, in STEM, 27, 33, 320 Teaching Critical Thinking (hooks), 162 international test score comparisons, 174, 320 Teaching for Social Justice (Hunt and Quinn), 162, 195 IQ tests, 185 Teaching the Levees project, 42 mandated, 186, 261 Teaching the Personal and the Political (Ayers), 162 passing tests, 8–9 Teaching the Taboo (Ayers and Ayers), 162, 195 peer effects in test scores, 185 Teaching to Transgress (hooks), 162, 195, 221 standardized testing, 103, 105, 154, 183–189 Teaching Toward Democracy (Ayers et al.), 162 standardized testing, deficiencies of, 106 Teaching Toward Freedom (Ayers), 58, 162, 195, 238 subjectivity in grading, 185 Team approach, 11–12 teacher evaluation through, 155, 174, 183, 201–202 Technological literacy, 23, 335, 336, 338 test preparation materials, 376 Technological milieu, 335–343 used in teacher evaluation, 155, 174, 183–189, 201–202 contemporary concerns in, 340–341 validity of test scores, 184–185, 234–235 context and, 339–341 See also High stakes testing; Standardized testing digital divide, 338–340 Thayer-Beacon, B., 295–296 integration and, 339 Their Highest Potential (Siddle-Walker), 221 interactions with curriculum, 335, 338–340, 342 Third-Wave Womanist Religious Thought (Coleman), 363 interactions with subject matters, 338–339 36 Children (Kohl), 100 interactions with teachers, 338 Thompson, G. L., 329–330 NAEP Framework, 336, 338 Thorndike, E. L., 180, 418 participation and, 337 Thornton, S. J., 402 participative learning, 337 Thorpe, R., 73 personalization of curriculum and, 337 Thrasher, F., 385 research inquiries in, 342 Through Students’ Eyes (TSE), 241–242, 245–246 student-centered pedagogy and, 337 Tibet, 441 students’ capacities and, 341 Tikkun olam, 344, 347, 348, 349–350 teachers, role of, 338 Tillman, L. C., 161, 216 teachers’ capacities and skill, 340–341 TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science technology as content, 335–336 Study), 27, 28, 30 technology as context, 337–338 To Dwell With a Boundless Heart (Jardine), 319 technology as curriculum, 335–338 To Teach: The Journey of a Teacher (Ayers), 157, 162 technology as tool, 336–337 Toda, J., 13, 292 TPACK (knowledge and skills), 340 Tolstoy, L., 292 Technology, 27–35 Toward a New Common School Movement (De Lissovoy, access to, 340 Means, and Saltman), 290–291 amount of change in 1909, 177 Toward a Poor Curriculum (Pinar and Grumet), 103, as curriculum, 335–338 105, 108 digital technology, 23, 87–95 Toward a Theory of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy media landscape and popular culture, 135–136 (Ladson-Billings), 211 milieu for, 335–343 Townes, E. M., 363 See also Science, technology, engineering, and Toynbee, A., 296 mathematics TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge), 340 Technoscape, 434 Training of the mind, 5–6 Television, 134–135 Transformation, personal, 110–111 network system and, 144 Transformational change, 160–161, 425 Tester, K., 296 Transformative pedagogy, 143, 194, 211, 323, 347–350 Testing culturally values-driven curriculum and, 412–413 accountability and, 154, 155, 186 Translating the Curriculum (Edgerton), 122 contemporary concerns about, 183–185, 201 Translation, 297 curriculum focus on tested subjects, 184, 187 Transnational curriculum, 238, 432–438 for entry to teacher credentialing programs, 183 policy milieu and, 321 essay tests, 185 Tribal critical race theory (TribCrit), 420 historical context for (U.S.), 185–186 Trilling, B., 335, 336 518–•–Index

Tröhler, D., 295 Vouchers, 376 Troubling in My Soul, A (Townes), 363 Vygotsky, L., 32, 92, 236, 292 Truth, S., 422 TSE Project, 245–246 Waiting for Superman (film), 353 Tu, W., 292, 295, 296 Waldorf School, 58, 236–237 Tubman, H., 361 Walker, A., 124, 358, 361, 363 Tuck, E., 388, 418, 439, 440–441, 442, 443, 444 Walkerdine, V., 30 Tucson, Arizona, ban on ethnic studies in, 434 Wallace, K. R., 450 2Pac, 407, 409–410, 412–413 Walsh, C., 171 Turkle, S., 92 Wang, H., 157, 403 2009 World Report, 449 War, pervasiveness of, 378 Tyler, R. W., xxvii, 41, 55 Ward, L. F., 242 Tyler Rationale, xxviii Washington, B. T., 309, 425 Washington, I., 218 Understanding Curriculum (Pinar et al.), 105 Watkins, W. H., 295, 306, 397 Undocuqueer Project, 356 Watt, I., 21 Unequal Childhoods (Lareau), 322 Weaver, J. A., 93 Unions, 354 Weaver, V. M., 451 teachers’ unions, 178, 353 Web (World Wide Web), 146–147 United Negro Improvement Association, 269 Weinberg, C., 59 University of Chicago Laboratory School, 12, 81, 236 Weis, L., 65, 140 Unschooling, 391–392 Weiser, M., 93 See also Alternative school milieu Weitzner, D., 144 Unsettlement, 416 Well-being, pedagogy for, 165–173, 192, 195 Urban contexts, 218–219 See also Pedagogy Black teachers in urban schools, 215–222 Wells, I. B., 125, 422 community and family involvement in schools, 328 Westbrook, R. B., 312 language in, 265 Western/Eurocentric dominance, 62, 63, 66, 120–121, 166 urban characteristic, 219 What African American Parents Want Educators to Know urban classrooms, diversity in, 235 (Thompson), 329–330 urban emergent, 219 What Is Curriculum Theory? (Pinar), 105, 122 urban intensive, 218–219 What Keeps Teachers Going? (Nieto), 194 Utopian societies, 14, 58, 98 What Kids Can Do (WKCD) Project, 246 Wheatley, P., 308 Vaidhyanathan, S., 147 When the Levees Broke (film), 42 Valenzuela, A., 238, 265, 329, 332–333 White, P. B., 422 Valero, P., 30 White supremacy, logic and impacts of, 417–420, 421, Vallance, E., 59 422, 426 Value-added measurement (VAM), 183, 184–185, White Teacher (Paley), 162 186, 188 Whitehead, A. N., 58, 204, 292 Van Manen, M., 17 Whitestream, 419 Vargas, C., 356 Whitlock, R. U., 108 Vasquez, J., 218 Whyte, W. F., 385 Villegas, A. M., 213 Willett, W., 96 Villenas, S. A., 330 Williams, D. S., 363 Violence, 295, 346, 348, 408 Williams, P., 126 community-based, 408 Willis, G., 59 gender- and sexuality-based, 352–353 Willis, P., 178, 385 witnessed by racial groups, 408 Windows of the soul, 6 Vizenor, G., 422 Wineburg, S., 40 Vlieghe, J., 93 Winnemucca, S., 422 Vocationalism, 49 Winters, L. I., 450, 451 Voting rights legislation, 262 Womanist Reader, The (Phillips), 361–362 Index–•–519

Womanist/Black feminist milieu, 358–366, 449 Yang, K. W., 388, 439, 440, 444 activism and resistance, 361, 362 Yerkes, R., 185 Africana womanism, 362–363 Yosso, T., 331, 436 challenging the status quo, 360–361 Youmans, G., 356 color purple and, 358 Young, E. F., 236, 354 constituent elements of, 358, 363 Young, M. F., 83 contemporary concerns in, 360–361 Youth and History (Gillis), 387 context of, 361–362 Youth cultural milieu, 383–390 curriculum topic of, 359–360 applied inquiry and, 388 forms of inquiry and modes of expression, 363–364 coevalness and, 388–389 healing and wholeness and, 363 commodification of youth, 387 new thinking about curriculum and pedagogy, 360–361 contemporary concerns in, 383 oppression, challenging, 361, 362 fabrication and, 383 religious studies and, 363 forms in inquiry and modes of expression in, 387–388 terms used in, 358–359 gangs and, 385 theories of, 362–363 global youthscape, 384, 387 understanding curriculum through, 360 historical inquiry and, 387 understanding students through, 360 identities and, 383 Walker, Alice, and, 358, 361, 363 immigrant students and, 252, 253 Women’s rights movement, 361 meanings and context for, 383, 384–386 See also Feminism narrative/biographical inquiry and, 388 Wood, R. M., 88 phenomenological/ethnographic inquiry and, 387–388 Woodson, C. G., 96, 120, 204, 308–309, 395, 396, 422 popular culture and, 386 Woolf, V., 54, 59 school culture and, 384 World Bank, 167, 169 stereotypes and, 387 World literature, 270–271 storm and stress period, 384–385 Worthwhile learning, 292–299, 321 subcultural groups in, 385 See also Creative, associated, joyful, and worthwhile learning theory on, 386–387 Worthwhile topics for curricula, xxiii–xxvi, 53, 56, 57, 58, See also Hip-hop; Popular culture 60, 321, 456 Youth participatory action research (YPAR), 244, 388 Wright, E. O., 367 Wright, H. K., 370 Zentella, A. C., 265 Wright, R., 107 Zinn, H., 40, 42 Wright Brothers, 131 Zion, S. D., 278 Writing, invention and systems of, 19–20, 25 Zone of proximal development, 236 Wurtzel, E., 294 Zuckerberg, M., 146 Wynters, S., 124 Zumwalt, K., 400