BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING and SOCIETY Future Manufacturing: Bracing for and Embracing the Postpandemic Era Jennie S

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The BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY Future Manufacturing: Bracing for and Embracing the Postpandemic Era Jennie S. Hwang The Role of the Digital Thread for Security, Resilience, and Adaptability in Manufacturing Thomas R. Kurfess and Howard D. Grimes The Local Factory of the Future for Producing Individualized Products Yoram Koren Telefacturing: A New Manufacturing Paradigm for Worker Safety and Other Benefits Behrokh Khoshnevis Next-Generation IIoT: A Convergence of Technology Revolutions Barbara L. Goldstein and Kate A. Remley University Makerspaces and Manufacturing Collaboration: Lessons from the Pandemic James D. McGuffin-Cawley and Vincent Wilczynski Designing the Global Supply Chain in the New Normal Hau L. Lee A Case for Frugal Engineering and Related Manufacturing for Social Equity Ajay P. Malshe, Dereje Agonafer, Salil Bapat, and Jian Cao The mission of the National Academy of Engineering is to advance the well-being of the nation by promoting a vibrant engineering profession and by marshalling the expertise and insights of eminent engineers to provide independent advice to the federal government on matters involving engineering and technology. The BRIDGE

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING

Donald C. Winter, Chair John L. Anderson, President Corale L. Brierley, Vice President Carol K. Hall, Home Secretary James M. Tien, International Secretary Martin B. Sherwin, Treasurer Editor in Chief: Ronald M. Latanision Managing Editor: Cameron H. Fletcher Production Associate: Penelope Gibbs The Bridge (ISSN 0737-6278) is published quarterly by the National Acad emy of Engineering, 2101 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20418. Periodicals

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Mission Statement of The Bridge The Bridge publishes articles on engineering research, education, and practice; science and technology policy; and the interface between engineering and technology and society. The intent is to stimulate debate and dialogue both among members of the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and in the broader community of policymakers, educators, business leaders, and other interested individuals. The Bridge relies on its editor in chief, NAE members, and staff to identify potential issue topics and guest editors. Invited guest editors, who have expertise in a given issue’s theme, are asked to select authors and topics, and independent experts are enlisted to assess articles for publication. The quarterly has a distribution of about 7000, including NAE members, members of Congress, libraries, universities, and interested individuals all over the country and the world. Issues are freely accessible at www.nae.edu/TheBridge.

A complete copy of The Bridge is available in PDF format at www.nae.edu/TheBridge. Some of the articles in this issue are also available as HTML documents and may contain links to related sources of information, multimedia files, or other content. The Volume 51, Number 1 • Spring 2021 BRIDGE LINKING ENGINEERING AND SOCIETY

A Word from the NAE Chair 3 Linking Engineering and Society Donald C. Winter Guest Editor’s Note 5 Digitization to Transform Manufacturing Jennie S. Hwang

Features 7 Future Manufacturing: Bracing for and Embracing the Postpandemic Era Jennie S. Hwang “Never let a crisis go to waste.” What are the lessons from the pandemic crisis to benefit manufacturing? 14 The Role of the Digital Thread for Security, Resilience, and Adaptability in Manufacturing Thomas R. Kurfess and Howard D. Grimes The digital thread makes it possible to digitally verify products, deploy the latest technologies for manufacturing, and strengthen the workforce. 20 The Local Factory of the Future for Producing Individualized Products Yoram Koren Mass individualization factories will create local manufacturing jobs and novel research areas in manufacturing operations. 27 Telefacturing: A New Manufacturing Paradigm for Worker Safety and Other Benefits Behrokh Khoshnevis Telefacturing is based on telecontrol and telerobotics, and effectively utilizes most components of Industry 4.0. 33 Next-Generation IIoT: A Convergence of Technology Revolutions Barbara L. Goldstein and Kate A. Remley Through measurements and standards, NIST aims to facilitate the postpandemic adoption of efficient, secure, and decentralized technology for the industrial sector. 41 University Makerspaces and Manufacturing Collaboration: Lessons from the Pandemic James D. McGuffin-Cawley and Vincent Wilczynski Academic makerspaces can quickly create holistic complementary teams and execute complicated projects under significant time pressure. 48 Designing the Global Supply Chain in the New Normal Hau L. Lee Considerations for designing manufacturing supply chains to be resilient in the face of likely future disruptions. 54 A Case for Frugal Engineering and Related Manufacturing for Social Equity Ajay P. Malshe, Dereje Agonafer, Salil Bapat, and Jian Cao Urgent and continued work in frugal engineering and manufacturing is essential for addressing technosocioeconomic inequity in the United States. 63 ESR Column: What the Digital-Industrial Revolution Means for Manufacturing Companies’ Social Responsibility Marco Annunziata In the postpandemic environment, corporations should prioritize elements of social responsibility that are naturally aligned with corporate profitability. 67 Op-ed: Undergraduate Engineering Education: How Can We Do Better? Hancheng Huang and James C. Williams 69 An Interview with… Marty Cooper (NAE), Father of the Cell Phone

News and Notes 73 Class of 2021 Elected 79 NAE Newsmakers 82 Message from Vice President Corale L. Brierley 83 2020 Honor Roll of Donors 94 Calendar of Meetings and Events 94 In Memoriam 95 Invisible Bridges: Tinker, Taylor, Soldiering, Spy: Escaping Efficiency Traps

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an emy of Sciences to advise the nation on medical and health issues. Act of Congress, signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongov- Members are elected by their peers for distinguished contributions to ernmental institution to advise the nation on issues related to science medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president. and technology. Members are elected by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is president. The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objec- The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 tive analysis and advice to the nation and conduct other activities under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the to solve complex problems and inform public policy decisions. The practices of engineering to advising the nation. Members are elected Academies also encourage education and research, recognize out- by their peers for extraordinary contributions to engineering. Dr. John standing contributions to knowledge, and increase public understand- L. Anderson is president. ing in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, was established in 1970 under the charter of the National Acad- and Medicine at www.nationalacademies.org. A Word from the Chair Linking Engineering and Society

be further expanded and accelerated by developments in robotics and artificial intelligence, extending the domains impacted to the agricultural and manufacturing communities as well. As these impacts unfold, responses by private industry and various levels of government will need to keep pace. While private industry may be able to fund its responses through existing mechanisms, government- Donald C. Winter, funded efforts will need to accommodate the budgetary Chair, NAE implications and recognize the opportunity costs associated with new initiatives. Furthermore, the initiatives “Linking engineering and society” is both the tag line of both private industry and government will need the of The Bridge and, I believe, an appropriate title for this development of supportive public policy. column as I reflect on the role of the NAE at this time Public policy development is a complex process that of rapid societal change. is inherently political, not necessarily in the sense of Societal changes precipitated by technology are political parties but simply in reflecting multiple con- nothing new, dating back at least to the original stituencies that have diverse, and often conflicting, pri- Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and early 19th orities and agendas. As I noted in my remarks at the centuries. What is arguably new today is the pace of NAE annual meeting last October,1 the challenge of transformation. decision making constitutes a significant dilemma for While the first Industrial Revolution took decades to federal, state, and local governments as few politicians develop, today we are seeing exceedingly rapid changes have the formal training to fully comprehend the tech- in the ways we live, work, and care for the young and nical considerations that underlie these issues. old as we adapt to the covid-19 pandemic. Many of While individual aspects of societal change may be these societal changes have been enabled by recently analytically addressable, such changes are inherently developed technologies, particularly the internet. The parts of very complex systems. Norm Augustine addressed responses to the pandemic have accelerated the evo- the challenges of dealing with such problems in his epi- lution and adoption of many of the technologies that logue to the winter issue of The Bridge,2 noting the ambi- leverage the capabilities of the internet to communi- guities inherent in the identification of figures of merit cate. What had been a slow exploration of the use of for such complex systems and citing examples: “What is virtual gatherings to conduct business, educate, and the exchange rate between tons of carbon emitted into socialize has, in less than a year, become a commonly the atmosphere and its social cost? Is it appropriate to put accepted and defining element of society. millions of people out of work, many of them into pov- Furthermore, the impact of the wholesale adoption erty, in order to save thousands of lives in a pandemic?” of virtual meetings is already expanding well beyond While the National Academies have a well-earned the domain of the cyber community. Whether virtual reputation for providing independent, objective, and meetings ever totally obviate the need for brick-and- nonpartisan advice to government decision makers, the mortar offices, it is becoming evident that significant, policy issues stemming from the great societal changes permanent changes are coming to the role of such facili- we are just starting to see will put added emphasis on ties, the composition of the cities they are located in, and the nature of the supporting infrastructures. The 1 Remarks by NAE Chair. The Bridge 50(4):92–93. same is true of the academic community, from elemen- 2 Augustine NR. 2020. Toward an engineering 3.0. The Bridge tary school to university. These changes are likely to 50(4):79–82. The 4 BRIDGE the need to abide by the NRC’s exacting processes to reminded of a lesson I learned a number of years ago ensure that our advice continues to be recognized as about the delivery of assessments and advice to govern- independent, objective, and nonpartisan. At a time of ment officials. ADM (ret.) Bill Studeman taught me great partisan division in our nation, it is incumbent that the best way to get the confidence of politicians was upon us to rise above such matters and provide advice to first tell them both what you know and what you don’t that is above reproach. know and only then, tell them what you think. They As I have been ruminating about this challenge, I am were good words then, and they are good words now. Guest Editor’s Note Digitization to Transform Manufacturing

facturing spurs innovation, and innovation propels manufacturing. In the larger picture, manufacturing also makes incalculable contributions to technological development and deployment, the workforce, and the nation’s continued prosperity in the competitive global sphere.

In This Issue Jennie S. Hwang (NAE) is CEO of In the opening article I highlight the role of emerging H-Technologies Group. technologies in advancing the manufacturing ecosystem and the convergent trend of technologies. The article In the digital transformation era, a transcendent moment also includes strategic business questions to be consid- for US manufacturing on the global stage has arrived ered both to brace for challenges to the supply chain, with the confluence of the evolving Fourth Industrial workforce, and operations and to embrace opportunities Revolution (Industry 4.0), global geopolitical uncertain- that have emerged from the current mega-events. ties, and the coronavirus pandemic. It is appropriate to In the second article, Thomas Kurfess and Howard take stock of the future of US manufacturing. What will Grimes discuss manufacturing and supply chain eco- it take to garner competitive prowess and catalyze a vir- system innovations and the critical role of the digital tuous innovation-manufacturing cycle? thread in ensuring a secure, resilient, and adaptable This issue is dedicated to the future of manufactur- manufacturing ecosystem and enabling augmentation ing. A stellar slate of experts present diverse experiences of the human workforce. They explain the utility of the and perspectives from industry, a national laboratory, concepts of a “cyberphysical passport” and “born quali- and academia. Together the articles provide informative fied” for operational production, and offer a thought- coverage and holistic views on the future of advanced provoking comparison between ride-sharing and the manufacturing, leveraging new and emerging technolo- manufacturing and supply chain ecosystem. gies, desired infrastructure, innovative approaches, and In the next article, “The Local Factory of the Future a resilient supply chain to fortify US manufacturing for Producing Individualized Products,” Yoram Koren competitiveness in the coming years. showcases, with intriguing and creative illustrations, The lodestar for the future of manufacturing is the manufacturing system architecture that enables innovation. One of the most acclaimed engineers and the production of mass-individualized items, such as accomplished businessmen in the 20th century and the car interiors designed by the customer. He envisions author of a must-read book, Only the Paranoid Survive, that this capability and infrastructure will change the Andy Grove (2010), writes: “Startups are a wonder- landscape of the manufacturing industry, with signifi- ful thing…as technology goes from prototype to mass cant benefits for the economy and job market as well as production…this is the phase where companies scale consumer satisfaction. up. They work out design details, figure out how to Behrokh Khoshnevis then discusses “telefactur- make things affordably, build factories, and hire people ing” as a new manufacturing paradigm utilizing the by the thousands. Scaling is hard work but necessary to components of Industry 4.0 to enable offsite work in make innovation matter.” support of production. He outlines the advantages of Indeed, scaling up reveals products’ intricacies and telefacturing—for example, reduced risk of disease con- captures processes’ nuances, building invaluable know- tagion from worker proximity, fewer worker injuries how, knowledge, and innovative capacity. Manu- from accidents with equipment on the factory floor, The 6 BRIDGE elimination of time-consuming commutes—and the F. Kettering, an American inventor and accomplished continued technological and system-level advances engineer, conveyed it well: “My interest is in the future needed for success. because I am going to spend the rest of my life there.” Barbara Goldstein and Kate Remley focus on the For the future, national recognition of the impor- next-generation industrial internet of things (IIoT), tance of digitized manufacturing to the workforce, the describing a government research program related to job market, and the national economy and security— communication and sensing for wireless connectivity and their interrelations—is paramount. and IIoT technology. The research, at the US National What is the path forward for US manufacturing? Institute of Standards and Technology, is intended to Future manufacturing will hinge on the prompt and support modern manufacturing in achieving the speed effective adoption of frontier technologies; a well- and reliability required to perform in factory-floor oper- educated and cultivated workforce; government encour- ations, the harshest of radio-propagation environments. agement, support, and well-balanced regulations; and The sixth article illustrates the role of academic constant innovation and the implementation of inno- makerspaces in contributing to the future of manufac- vative ideas in a timely fashion. turing and discusses valuable lessons learned during the I hope this issue sparks thoughts and actions about pandemic. The authors, James McGuffin-Cawley and the role of future manufacturing to the engineering Vincent Wilczynski, include case studies with compel- community, workforce, ecosystem, competitiveness, ling accounts of several very effective joint ventures and ultimately the country’s prosperity from all walks of of university makerspaces, manufacturers, and regula- professionals and all levels of the government. tors. They conclude with opportunities for continued collaboration. Acknowledgments Hau Lee presents considerations for designing the My deepest gratitude goes to the authors for their global supply chain in the new normal after the pan- insightful and forward-thinking contributions and to demic. He discusses the relevance of end-to-end landed- Bridge managing editor Cameron Fletcher for tireless cost analysis and explains the importance of avoiding assistance throughout the process. It has been an abso- overreaction and of designing a resilient global supply lute delight to work with all the authors and the manag- chain characterized by agility, responsiveness, and a ing editor. capacity-ready platform. I also thank the following, who provided thought- The final article, by Ajay Malshe, Dereje Agonafer, ful input in assessing the drafts for accuracy, cover- Salil Bapat, and Jian Cao, illuminates the application age, and substantiation: Wayne Austad, John Birge, of frugal engineering for social innovations to deliver Rick Candell, Ken Case, Dianne Chong, Wally social equity. The authors present examples of frugally Hopp, Jonathan Hunt, Said Jahanmir, John Kitching, engineered social innovation around the world, and Raymond Rakhshani, Greg Reed, Chris Saldana, Steve make a compelling case for the need to apply such an Schmid, Susan Smyth, Ephraim Suhir, Chris Tang, and approach to address inequities in the United States. John White.

The Path Forward Reference As the global landscape continues to change, the Grove A. 2010. How to make an American job. Bloomberg future remains the most precious commodity. Charles Businessweek, Jul 5. “Never let a crisis go to waste.” What are the lessons from the pandemic crisis to benefit manufacturing?

Future Manufacturing: Bracing for and Embracing the Postpandemic Era

Jennie S. Hwang

As the world is entering the Fourth Industrial Revolution (dubbed Indus- try 4.0), one recurring question for manufacturing is what will be involved in terms of running a business and making products. The previous industrial revolution brought advances in electronics and information technology that enabled astounding economic prosperity and manufacturing automation. What does the Fourth Industrial Revolution entail? How will it affect the Jennie Hwang (NAE) is international standing of US manufacturing? CEO of H-Technologies Group. Impacts of Industry 4.0 and the Pandemic for Manufacturing One way to define Industry 4.0 is the integration of cyberphysical systems, cloud and edge technology, high-performance computing, the internet of things and internet of services, and their interoperability and interaction with humans in real time to maximize value creation. Industry 4.0 will leverage digital technologies, advanced artificial intelligence, and reliable wire-

less connectivity to advance autonomous, intelligent cyberphysical systems (Hwang 2016). One of the elegant fruits of Industry 4.0 is intelligent manufacturing, which is manifested in the smart factory infrastructure. Adding to this dynamic environment is the coronavirus pandemic, which has resulted in unprecedented disruptions in virtually every aspect of life. From a 30,000-foot view, global macroeconomics is facing gusty headwinds, bracing for impacts from social distancing, lockdowns, and economic slow- The 8 BRIDGE downs and shutdowns. Compounding these impacts, automation, autonomy, and cost efficiency. Advanced the world’s two largest economies—the United States manufacturing hinges on the development, deploy- and China—are butting heads on trade and geopolitical ment, and implementation of next-generation wireless disharmonies. technology (e.g., 5G and higher), the internet of things Against this formidable backdrop, what are the les- (IoT), advanced artificial intelligence (AI), and high- sons from the pandemic crisis to benefit future endeav- performance computing (cloud and edge). ors in industry? How should the manufacturing sector One challenge is the seamless incorporation and coor- respond? And what are the main issues to be tackled in dination of these foundational technologies. Another is the near and long term? management and protection from cyberrisks and quan- There will be a new normal in business and manu- tum attacks, an area that demands ongoing effort. It is facturing, just as in daily life. There is a saying, “Never essential to put the evolving technologies together to let a crisis go to waste.” For manufacturing, the current perform as a reliable cyberphysical system in the manu- crisis is expected to propel progress toward fulfilling facturing landscape. the potential of Industry 4.0. The pandemic has made Those challenges are an area of ongoing global com- the global manufacturing sector think more deeply and petition among scientists, engineers, companies, and work harder to meet the need for innovative ways to run countries. The ability to leverage technologies by inte- and monitor operations. grating them in timely, creative, and reliable ways will afford competitors the upper hand, leading to business success and economic rewards as well as the nation’s AI can identify competitive edge. Government investment and regulatory policies will play an important role. manufacturing quality issues AI and machine learning (ML) have become every- day terms, although their potential is not fully devel- in real time and spot faults oped. On one hand, there is exuberance about evolving on the production floor capabilities that promise to advance business and manufacturing. On the other, there is trepidation about faster than humans. unknown or possible unintended consequences. AI processes data through ML and deep learning neural networks by collecting data, analyzing information, This article examines five fronts that are deemed creating and training a model, and ultimately making essential to advanced manufacturing going forward: decisions based on real-time events. It is expected that the role of new and emerging technologies; revised next-generation AI will not only create a model based business strategies for outsourcing, with engineering as on learning from continually generated meaningful new the core; data-driven manufacturing operation; supply data but also advance that model through unsupervised chain strategy and management; and changes in work- learning to understand cause and effect (Toews 2020). force practices and skills. These five areas are expected For example, AI can identify manufacturing quality to dictate the global competitiveness of manufacturing. issues in real time and spot faults on the production floor The need to look forward with a new perspective was faster than humans through monitoring and machine- well captured by robot pioneer Seiuemon Inaba, who to-machine and human-to-machine communication, created the largest manufacturer of industrial robots in thanks to superconnectivity and speedy, low-latency, the world (Fanuc Corporation, a spin-off from Fujitsu high-capacity communication technology. Ltd.): “There is history behind technology, but for engi- As the future of the internet is expected to move neers, the past doesn’t exist. There is only creativity, to wireless, it will depend on next-generation wire- always looking to what is next” (Tsuneoka 2020). less technology, the gateway to IoT connectivity for greater levels of automation and autonomy. IoT sen- Role of New and Emerging Technologies sors embedded in products and machines provide infor- Industry 4.0 is expected to pull manufacturing into an mation about product performance during service life intelligence-directed and technology-centric smart fac- through data exchange between the production line tory infrastructure characterized by agility, flexibility, and the product. This is a great use case for advanced SPRING 2021 9

manufacturing, making tomorrow’s factories run faster, mentation of outsourcing in the late 1980s and early more economically, and with more agility, flexibility, 1990s (depending on how the starting point is defined). and autonomy. Gradually but steadily, manufacturing outsourcing The convergence of AI and IoT will create an intel- (on- or offshore) has spilled over to other sectors, from ligent network of devices that can gather and analyze pharmaceutical to consumer staples, as well as to other voluminous data—from raw materials, production operational functions, such as human resources and lines, finished products, warehouse activities, and cus- information technology management. With globaliza- tomer complaints—remotely in real time and translate tion, the scope of outsourcing has continued expand- the data into intelligence and actionable steps locally. ing and its capabilities have proliferated, so that it is an The IoT can also capture data on energy use, mainte- integral part of supply chain management and business nance records, workers’ safety, and other operational strategy. parameters. In addition, connected, intelligent machines can trigger maintenance processes autonomously. Data analytics can facilitate the detection of process inefficiencies In a competitive climate and thus reduce production costs and enhance product and with sound business quality. It is also possible to monitor how customers use the products, helping companies with customer service, justification, the outsourcing warranty management, and product design. Better use of evolving technologies to enable real- of certain functions time contextual understanding and monitoring of can be advantageous. the manufacturing operation and environment leads to smarter decisions. Smart factory infrastructure can improve manufacturing and autonomous on-demand Manufacturing outsourcing can offer a number of production. advantages in business aspects such as the following: To achieve these goals, one question to consider is, • economics (cost savings) What is needed to accelerate the adoption of new technologies—to effectively leverage AI, IoT, 5G, and bolt- • improvement in business focus on technologies and supply chains in a timely way to • operational efficiency achieve reliable manufacturing operations? • technological prowess Revised Business Strategies for Outsourcing • capital allocation The first order of business for manufacturers is to revis- it and strategize their business model, with particular • time to volume attention to the question of outsourcing—offshore vs. • speed to market onshore procurement. Simply put, this is about finding a better or more cost-effective way to have products made • geographical advantage or services rendered, freeing up resources and time for • proximity to customers essential or long-term mission-critical tasks. For the past 3 decades, technology-driven industries • risk shared or transferred among ecosystem participants have been characterized by fast-paced technological • streamlining (reduced complexity) of business. development, down-spiral pricing, and market globalization. They also have been the top drivers behind In the aggregate, these potential advantages offer manufacturing outsourcing. In a competitive climate tremendous appeal to a business, particularly in meet- and with sound business justification, the outsourcing ing immediate competitive needs. The benefits can be of certain functions can be advantageous and a smart vividly evident when a goal-oriented and well-thought- business move. out strategy is effectively executed. In the United States, it is reasonably fair to say that But caution is in order to ensure that technology- the electronics industry essentially pioneered the imple- based companies do not forgo core engineering com- The 10 BRIDGE petencies, including manufacturing technology, by thoroughly embraced and incorporated with or without outsourcing. outsourcing. It is always a strategic decision to take advantage of It is prudent and wise business practice for original the benefits of outsourcing without losing foundational equipment and original design manufacturers to con- knowledge and know-how. The decision requires assess- tinue acquiring and maintaining engineering strength ing core competencies and sorting out the functions or and know-how to ensure future readiness. Government products for outsourcing from those that need to stay can and should play a role in incentivizing and reinvigo- in-house. Even if the decision is made to outsource a rating the country’s manufacturing prowess. product or function, in-house engineering competencies are needed to pose the right questions in order to Data-Driven Manufacturing Operation select the right service provider to produce quality prod- Creativity propels technology, which in turn builds a new ucts as intended. To outsource a task is one thing; to paradigm. With human-machine teaming, for example, give up a core knowledge base is something else entirely. synergistic performance is achieved by integrating judgment-focused humans and prediction-focused AI agents. AI should be responsibly implemented to aug- To outsource a task ment human cognition and capabilities without causing ethical and social concerns—an ongoing challenge. is one thing; to give up One of the challenges of deploying technologies such as AI as reliable tools is the lack of sufficient relevant, a core knowledge base is bias-free, and accurate data. AI requires a vast amount something else entirely. of data to function as desired. Accordingly, preparing AI and edge computing to facilitate manufacturing operations by initiating a robust program to collect, clean, Outsourcing should be considered as a well-planned manage, prune, and use data is increasingly important. strategy, not as a relief tactic. And the strategy should Data tell the story! With privacy and security pre distinguish between a temporary lift and long-term busi- cautions, data capabilities for remotely monitoring ness enhancement. factories can provide a clearer view of operations, The following questions are important to address equipment performance, and maintenance, allowing when considering decisions about factory siting: the operation to speed up production, reduce waste, and avoid downtime by quickly identifying maintenance • Are factories logically, strategically, and preemptive- and production issues. Identification and extraction ly distributed in terms of geographical locations to of relevant data to feed into artificial intelligence can ensure reliable manufacturing operation? facilitate the prediction of production and supply chain • Is there a need for redundancy of factories? problems. Factories can shift from reactive analytics, reporting on what happened, to proactive analysis of • What are the critical criteria for redundant factories? what could happen and suggested actions, asking the A number of years ago, during a dinner meeting with right questions at the right time and solving problems Kazuo Inamori, founder and chair of Kyocera Corpora- in real time. For today’s factory and in preparation for tion, I asked about his view of outsourcing manufac- the future, figure 1 illustrates the IPC Connected Fac- turing. He replied candidly (paraphrased), “How can tory Exchange (CFX), enabling contextualized data an engineer not do manufacturing and an engineer- exchanges and machine-to-machine interactions to ing company not produce products!” I appreciated his help move manufacturers toward smart factories. sentiment. Manufacturing companies need to develop a thorough In a product development cycle—from innovative understanding of the available technologies that can be concept to technology development, manufacture of utilized to translate business objectives into business the product, and introduction of the product to the roadmaps for operational excellence to produce com- marketplace—each milestone is essential to the prod- petitive, reliable, and economical products that perform uct’s eventual success. The spirit and the principle in the intended marketplace in a timely fashion. The of manufacturing are part of a product and should be smart factory of the future is poised to run essentially SPRING 2021 11

IPC-2591 Connected Factory Exchange (CFX) Architecture IT/OT Network Developed by Industry for Industry M2M

Data Contextualization within IT/OT Network (options: MES, Routing Broker, Direct Networking) Real-time dashboards, historical data mining, data analytics, operational reporting, traceability, alarms, notifications, SPC reporting, machine programming, task flow management, manufacturing process definition, BOM importing, PN management, design data importing, work instructions, document repository, revision controls, operator interfaces, etc.

CFX Open-Source Data Layer; enables (a) M2M and (b) machine to IT/OT network connectivity

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M(n)

Machine to machine (M2M) communications: new equipment native CFX direct messaging or legacy equipment adapters Physical Equipment – Connected Machine to Machine / Assembly Line CFX M2M communication (any combination) CFX Machine to IT/OT network

FIGURE 1 Connected Factory Exchange (CFX) architecture developed by industry for industry. BOM = bill of materials; IT/OT = information technology/operations technology; M1… = machine 1…; MES = manufacturing execution system; PN = part number; SPC = statistical process control. Courtesy of IPC Association, Matt Kelly, chief technologist. autonomously without human intervention on the pro- data and material flows, enabling complete and con- duction floor, learning and adapting in real time with stant visibility of the supply chain. For example, IoT self-correcting and self-optimizing ability.1 devices can be outfitted at checkpoints in the distribu- In the manufacturing environment of the future pro- tion process to keep track of parts and products as they duction facilities and logistics systems will be synchro- are shipped from factory to warehouse and customer nized without the need for on-site human tasks. sites. Such real-time tracking enables the formulation of reliable inventory forecasts, timely reaction to unex- Supply Chain Strategy and Management pected changes in the production line, and avoidance In the postpandemic era, inventory and supply chain of unscheduled downtimes. management will be even more important for manu- What are the lessons learned from the pandemic cri- facturing efficiency and even a manufacturer’s viability. sis? I suggest several pragmatic questions that should be Plans must be developed to address immediate needs as addressed strategically and operationally: well as medium- and long-term strategies. • Is a reliable dependency of the chain of suppliers in In the long run, factories’ ability to keep track and place? control of inventory in terms of dollar value and days’ worth is crucial to a company’s bottom line. Doing well • What is the technology used to monitor the supply in this area reduces the likelihood of production outpac- chain? ing demand and avoids cash flow traps. • Is a risk management program in place? Using cyberphysical systems, supply chains can be fully integrated and automated. Such systems deployed • What is the risk mitigation plan and its order of priority? throughout the value chain generate the link between • Are policies and procedures to address risks and threats in place? 1 Another viable approach is to leverage the digital twin concept to create virtual counterparts of physical assets (Kube 2018) to • Do all strategic raw materials have alternate source(s), optimize data flows from design stage to process engineering to if justified? manufacturing to the customer. The 12 BRIDGE

• Do all mission-critical components have alternate Many in the workforce have cited the flexibility of source(s), if justified? off-site work as an advantage. One recent survey found that more than 75 percent of respondents would like • What is the desired level of visibility throughout the to continue working remotely at least occasionally, supply chain? and more than half want it to be their primary way of • What is the predictability of the supply chain? working after the pandemic crisis ends (Torry 2020). Asked what it is about remote work that has worked • Is there an adequate system in place to ensure internal well, respondents’ top three answers were no commute, and external cybersecurity to minimize cybersecurity- reduced meetings, and fewer distractions. In a separate related risks and disruptions to the supply chain? survey, 87 percent of workers wanted the ability to Weighing overseas (offshore) sources against domes- choose where, how, and when they worked, blending tic (onshore) sources in terms of quality, cost, delivery office-based and remote work (Reuters 2020). time, and in-time availability is a strategic as well as As wireless technology becomes more available and an operational imperative. Implementing newly avail- more reliable for required connectivity, so will innova- able technologies to minimize risk and optimize the tions in how people work to achieve maximum effi- efficiency of supply chain management is increasingly ciency and output, including in their work from home. a necessity. Going forward, a hybrid work model is most likely to be implemented throughout the companies and organiza- Changes in Workforce Practices and Skills tions, although the extent may vary depending on the The pandemic catalyzed remote work, and the required nature of the business and the organizational operation. social distancing has prompted the need for more sophis- With the massive amounts of data generated from dif- ticated ways to monitor factory operations, including ferent checkpoints, data management is crucial, includ- the farther and faster deployment of data management ing efforts to ensure data quality, accuracy, and security. and analytics. As the pandemic continues and social Over the next decade, a skilled and educated work- distancing remains advisable, near- and long-term force, bolstered by continuing education and training plans should be formulated and implemented to ensure programs—especially in data science, data engineer- workers’ safety and health while optimizing workforce ing, advanced computing, and system integration—will productivity and manufacturing efficiency. be essential to manufacturing competitiveness in the global landscape.

Concluding Remarks Remote work and I have been engaged for more than 3 decades in electronic hardware innovation and manufacturing, in both social distancing have hands-on and advisory capacities, for onshore and off- prompted the need for shore operations ranging from fledgling entrepreneurial businesses to robust enterprises operating on three con- more sophisticated ways to tinents. This firsthand experience has shaped my perspectives in manufacturing. monitor factory operations. The best way to prepare for tomorrow—and further unexpected crises—is to do today’s work well. Tech- nologies’ benefits for manufacturing are abundant, yet Unlike other industry sectors, manufacturing still challenges remain. The implementation of technologies depends on the physical presence, to some extent, of is not a one-time or one-size-fits-all decision. It calls for skilled and well-trained workers. But some functions continuing and targeted efforts. As Industry 4.0 strides can be performed remotely (e.g., through work from ahead, the adoption of new, evolving technologies is home). One of the advantages of remote work is the critical to a business’s viability and its effectiveness removal of geographical barriers in hiring, enabling in confronting the challenges resulting from the pan employers to seek the best-skilled workers regardless of demic, associated blows to the economy, and ongoing where that talent resides. Sino-US tensions and trade uncertainty. SPRING 2021 13

The pandemic crisis has created an unprecedented References opportunity to boost individual manufacturers’ compet- Hwang J. 2016. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry itive edge as well as the country’s global competitiveness 4.0): Intelligent manufacturing. SMT Magazine, July. in manufacturing. “Winners” will be those that work Kube G. 2018. How to use digital twins to disrupt manufactur- most effectively with emerging technologies and adapt ing. Digitalist, Apr 4. adroitly to the changing environment. The manufac- Reuters. 2020. Nearly nine of 10 workers want to keep work- turing workforce’s ability to adapt to change has been from-home option: Survey. Oct 14. tested and in many ways enhanced, and supply chain Toews R. 2020. The next generation of artificial intelligence. management is expected to be more resilient. Forbes, Oct 12. There is a rainbow after the storm. Crises can cre- Torry H. 2020. Many want to keep working from home. Wall ate opportunities to build a better normal, and that is Street Journal, May 28. certainly true now. Let’s brace for the challenges and Tsuneoka C. 2020. Japanese engineer transformed factories embrace the opportunities! with Fanuc robots. Wall Street Journal, Oct 17. The digital thread makes it possible to digitally verify products, deploy the latest technologies for manufacturing, and strengthen the workforce.

The Role of the Digital Thread for Security, Resilience, and Adaptability in Manufacturing

Thomas R. Kurfess and Howard D. Grimes

The manufacturing sector is dramatically evolving with recent technical and digital advances. Among these, the digital thread is revolutionizing manufacturing operations well beyond the historic downloading of programs Thomas Kurfess to computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools and the upload- ing of edited programs from CNC controllers. The digital thread is “the communication framework that enables a connected data flow and integrated view of the asset’s data throughout its lifecycle across traditionally siloed functional perspectives” (Leiva 2016). It is pervasive around the world and has changed the way society operates; for example, map apps are used to provide time-optimal directions to destina- tions using real-time traffic feedback. The digital thread makes it possible to digitally verify products, ensure that the latest technologies are deployed across the entire manufacturing ecosystem, and strengthen the workforce by making each individual more efficient and effective. These three foundational advanced manufacturing Howard Grimes concepts will ensure a next-generation secure, resilient, and adaptable man-

Thomas Kurfess (NAE) is chief manufacturing officer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Howard Grimes is chief executive officer of the Cybersecurity Manufacturing Innovation Institute and associate vice president for institutional initiatives at the University of Texas at San Antonio. SPRING 2021 15

ufacturing ecosystem and sustainably support current Secure Updates and future needs of society (Lynn et al. 2020). Manufacturing system updates happen in the same manner that computers or smartphones are updated: Digital Verification of Products: pushed to the equipment from the original vendor or “Born Qualified” and the Cyberphysical Passport third parties that support the various manufacturing sys- 1 The driver for “born qualified” manufacturing is to tems. This must be done in a secure fashion and signifi- change the qualification paradigm for low-volume, cant care must be taken to ensure that manufacturing high-value, and high-consequence parts that are essen- systems such as 3D printers, machine tools, or robots are tial for high-risk industries such as defense, energy, aero- not disabled or “bricked.” space, and health (Roach et al. 2018). As a complement to born qualified manufacturing, we introduce cyberphysical passports (CPPs) for advanced manufacturing. A CPP enables digital identification, tracking, and ver- A cyberphysical passport ification of parts and products in a uniform, hierarchical fashion with a framework that is extensible to a variety of enables digital identification, processes (mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic, etc.). tracking, and verification It is a mechanism to capture and digitize an encrypted and verifiable structure for physical parameters as well of parts and products. as embodied energy for every part and for aggregated products throughout the supply chain, and consequently provides a “root of trust” for the entire supply chain and Plug-and-play hardware will also be deployed for manufacturing process (Grimes et al. 2020). updating system hardware in much the same fashion Born qualified and CPPs are operationalized dur- as printers, speakers, or human-machine interfaces ing production with the use of a variety of sensors to are deployed on computers. Other means for deploy- ensure product quality and integrity. The CPP records ing updates include wireless communication such as and stores information from these sensors such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Zigbee. every motion of a machine tool, the type of tooling Open communication protocols such as MTConnect used for machining, energy consumption, and process and OPC UA (Open Platform Communications parameters. In short, the CPP records everything about Unified Architecture) are currently used to communi- the part and the process used to make it. cate between machines. The implementation of com- When the product arrives at its destination, it can munication systems in manufacturing operations must be considered born qualified and accepted based on its be done in a manner that is cybersecure to protect CPP. The receiver of the part knows that it is genuine against tampering with equipment and processes, and (not counterfeit), was made to specifications, and there to protect intellectual property stored and used on the was no tampering with the production process. The production systems (Lynn et al. 2018). CPP is a cornerstone of the secured supply chain. Consistency in Product Quality Deploying and Leveraging the Latest Technologies CPPs will capture and digitize information generated by The digital thread facilitates delivery of the latest tech- production systems that transmit data on process capa- nologies to the end user in the manufacturing supply bilities as well as product quality and integrity. Data chain, tightly and securely integrating the supply chain from production systems will also be used for global and supplying data on manufacturing operations. It can process improvement. be used to gather information on manufacturing opera- It is widely known, for example, that the 3D print- tions and systems as well as to drive and update these ing process has a substantial number of variables that systems. can generate inconsistency in part quality. Such incon- sistencies often manifest themselves in material char- 1 “Born qualified” refers to parts produced through metal addi- acteristics such as precipitates in the manufactured tive manufacturing that emerge from the print bed ready for component, residual stresses, and toughness. Many direct use, even in critical structures such as vehicles, airplanes, parameters can be adjusted in the 3D printing process, and power plants. The 16 BRIDGE each of which can slightly or significantly modify the and the machine supplier always has an updated model final characteristics of the product. using data directly from the machine. This scenario is beneficial to both parties. AI and ML Models If such machines are developed to be more open, Researchers have been successful in the implementa- then there is also the possibility that third-party models tion of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning and drivers could be employed to drive the machine, (ML) techniques for modeling the additive manufac- enabling the rapid deployment of new technology from turing process and optimizing multiple parameters a variety of research teams to the ecosystem. However, to achieve specified part characteristics. But these such a capability does raise concerns (e.g., intellectual parameters vary from system to system based on a vari- property, safety, and warranty) that must be considered. ety of machine, material, geometry, and environmental factors. Even a particular machine’s performance can Strengthening the Workforce vary over its lifespan. Thus, it is important for AI/ML Notwithstanding significant advances in automation models to be constantly updated, and digital thread data and AI, humans are and will remain a critical part of the are critical for developing accurate models. manufacturing ecosystem. In fact, technologies leverag- Accurate models have been generated for very spe- ing the digital thread in the manufacturing sector are cific machines, geometries, process parameters, and ideal for augmenting the human workforce. materials, and significant research is underway to transfer models from one machine, material, and geometry Automation in Product Inspection and Training configuration to others. Such an approach is not limited Some digital thread capabilities employ widely avail- to additive manufacturing but is applicable to subtrac- able technologies. For example, mobile phone cameras tive (e.g., machining), injection molding, chemical, (or low-cost USB/web cameras) can be used to visually biopharma, and many other manufacturing processes inspect parts, allowing the machine operator to concen- and operations (Ahuett and Kurfess 2018). trate on other duties. Such inspections can easily “pass” parts deemed acceptable and flag those that might have a quality issue. In an era of 6-sigma quality, this means An operator can use a that an operator is not inspecting thousands of parts but only the few that have a higher probability of not being smartphone to scan data acceptable, significantly reducing the cognitive load on the operator. that are correct, reducing Similarly, with radio frequency identification tags, QR codes, and bar codes, the operator can use a smart- potential error from manual phone to scan data that are correct, reducing potential keyboard inputs. error from manual keyboard inputs. Bluetooth-enabled manual metrology tools such as micrometers and calipers can also enable secure, traceable, and error-free product In addition, machine suppliers and end users can and process validation, enhancing the utility of the CPP. securely exchange model-generated data to develop and By monitoring the results of manual operations, addi- deploy new models. For example, a company producing tional training can be optimized for individual workers a powder bed 3D printer may use a proprietary model as necessary. For example, if an operator’s micrometer to ensure part quality. This model resides in the cloud readings have a significant quantified distribution (e.g., with the advantage of securing process information for standard deviation) a personalized training program can the machine users. be developed and suggested for the operator to improve At the same time, the data from the machine are skills related to micrometer repeatability. Such monitor- needed to optimize the model by the machine sup- ing does raise privacy issues that must be considered. plier, which receives production information from the machine’s sensors while the end user receives a CPP for Augmented, Virtual, and Extended Reality each part produced. Thus, the end user always has fully Augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and updated information about the machine’s capabilities extended reality (XR, which refers to all real and vir- SPRING 2021 17

tual environments generated by computer technology and wearables) will play a key role in strengthening and training the manufacturing workforce. Such devices can be a direct and intuitive means for input to human operators. In any production facility, safety glasses are required, and using AR goggles in place of safety glasses is an easy and relatively inexpensive proposition. These goggles may be used to verify that proper procedures are followed or to provide guidance to line workers. For example, for installing new inserts on machine tools the location of the insert can be easily identified and highlighted in the AR goggles. The appropriate tool can then be identified to replace the worn insert, and step-by-step instructions can be visually conveyed to the technician to ensure that she correctly and safely replaces the insert. Another use of AI/ML and AR is in augmenting the capacity of manufacturing system operators to reduce their cognitive load. Figure 1 illustrates the utility of AR goggles in quality assessment. The images were generated and processed by a smartphone camera, but they could also easily be executed in cloud operations. The original photos (A, C, E, G) show a machined part before and after surfacing. Image processing readily reveals whether the surfacing has been properly com- pleted (B, D) or not (F, H). AR goggles can be used to highlight irregularities for the operator, preventing the need to visually inspect each piece. While some processing is currently available on AR goggles, next- generation units will be able to locally process images for faster results. Simple image processing algorithms can determine that all the straight lines of the blank have been replaced by the concentric circles of the finished part. These ana- lytic techniques are relatively simple to implement and, by reducing the cognitive load on the operator, result in improved efficiency, quality, and job performance (Urbina et al. 2018).

Illustration: The Rideshare Market A comparison to the rideshare market demonstrates how the digital thread results in a manufacturing and supply chain ecosystem that is secure, resilient, and FIGURE 1 (A) Original image of saw-cut blank part before it is adaptable. There are three key elements to this com- loaded into a lathe for a facing operation. (B) Processed image parison: (1) connecting the customer to the supplier, highlighting straight lines on the blank from the sawing operation. (C) Original image of the part after the facing operation, (2) the born qualified concept, and (3) leveraging and which produces concentric circles on the surface. (D) Processed extending the capabilities of a well-trained workforce. image highlighting concentric circles. (E, G) Original image and A machine tool is the exemplar for this discussion, but close-up of improperly surfaced blank; (F, H) processed image it is applicable to a variety of manufacturing operations. and close-up highlighting irregularities of a part that must be refinished or discarded. The 18 BRIDGE

The first element, connecting the customer to the traffic conditions, so no potential exists for driver error supplier, is straightforward. A rideshare app connects regarding the route to the destination. The driver does an individual who requires a ride to a driver. The same not need to know the exact route or traffic patterns as is true for machine tools that are online. A service, the app supplies this information. perhaps the machine tool original equipment manu- The same is true for the machinist who receives facturer (OEM), that understands the capability and programs and parameters used in the manufacturing availability of the machine and its operator can connect process. AR is used to guide the machinist in setting the machine shop with potential customers. up and running the machine. Information supplied by the AR systems may come from AI or human experts depending on the scenario. This approach can also be used to train both the oper- A highly resilient and ator and the AI system. As the operator is setting up robust supply chain the machine, AR systems can explain the setup process, thereby educating the operator. AI/ML systems can also favors local suppliers learn when a human is the expert to provide guidance to the operator. Such an approach ensures that the opera- that can rapidly tor is continuously learning and that the AI/ML models are constantly capturing new content. This method is deliver qualified products commonly used by automotive companies to train their with minimal lead time. autopilot systems: ML algorithms constantly monitor both the vehicle’s sensor signals and the driver’s reactions to signals representing the environment around The second element, born qualified, is instantiated the vehicle (Parto et al. 2020). in the rideshare scenario by the map displayed on the rider’s smartphone. This map shows riders that they are Conclusions not being “taken for a ride” and that the driver is follow- The digital thread makes it possible to digitally verify ing a preset approach to the destination. Information products, ensure that the latest technologies are such as distance, time to destination, and cost is also deployed to the entire manufacturing ecosystem, and conveyed to the customer. Thus, the rideshare app pro- make workers more efficient and effective: vides transactional security for both drivers and riders. • The innovations described in this paper ensure that In manufacturing, the service can transmit the nec- each product is made according to specification and essary programming for the machine tool, the raw the production process is not maliciously manipu- materials (e.g., castings, bar stock, tooling), and the lated. The product is born qualified and validated by process parameters necessary to produce the part on its cyberphysical passport, which guarantees that it is the machine. Data from the machining process, as genuine and not counterfeit. well as any subsequent inspection, can confirm that the appropriate manufacturing protocols were followed • Manufacturing requests can be rapidly and securely and that the part meets all specifications. This informa- presented and fulfilled by a wide, vetted, and con- tion becomes an element of the product’s CPP. When tinuously updated supplier base. This base constitutes the final part is delivered to the customer, there is no a highly resilient and robust supply chain, favoring need to inspect it as its qualification is validated by its local suppliers that can rapidly deliver qualified prod- CPP. The service thus provides transactional security uct with minimal lead time. for the machine tool, the raw materials, and the process • Leveraging AR facilitates workforce augmentation parameters used to produce the part on a machine. and training, yielding a modernized staff with con- The third element, leveraging and extending the tinually updated skills. capabilities of a well-trained workforce, is represented by the map used by the driver in the rideshare example. • Data flowing to and from production operations ensure This map is an automatic feature and includes step-by- that digital twins of production processes and equip- step instructions that are modified in real time based on ment are fully up to date, and that process models and SPRING 2021 19

capabilities are available to the entire manufacturing tunities to a highly skilled and continuously upgraded enterprise, from large multinational corporations to workforce. small and medium-sized manufacturers. Acknowledgments Consider the need to rapidly produce complex com- The authors are grateful to Dongyan Xu and Gabriela modities, like respirators, and how the digital thread Ciocarlie for their very significant contributions to the enables a new approach. Rather than stockpiling the concepts behind the cyberphysical passport. This work entire respirator or its components, digital stockpiles was partially funded by the Department of Energy under of designs for metal machined components or injection contract DOE-EE0009046. This manuscript has been molds for plastic components can be generated, stored, authored in part by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract and constantly updated. When these components are DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the DOE. needed, they can be outsourced to local qualified and vetted job shops where they are born qualified and References rapidly delivered to the OEM. Ahuett H, Kurfess TR. 2018. A brief discussion on the trends Furthermore, if 1000 parts are needed in 24 hours, of habilitating technologies for Industry 4.0 and smart rather than one large facility producing all of them, manufacturing. Manufacturing Letters 15(B):60–63. 50 smaller local shops could each produce 20 parts, Grimes H, Kurfess TR, Ciocarlie GF, Xu D, Strama L. 2020. enabling a rapid turnaround. Such a supply chain also Pandemic adaptive supply chains: A future-proof approach. ensures a resilient production base because the loss of a SME, Jun 11. smaller shop (due to a disaster such as fire or flooding— Leiva C. 2016. What is the digital thread? iBASEt blog, Dec 23. or perhaps a pandemic outbreak) does not shut down Lynn R, Wescoat E, Han D, Kurfess TR. 2018. Embedded fog the entire supply chain. Components could be brought computing for high-frequency MTConnect data analytics. to assembly points where staff, perhaps not experts but Manufacturing Letters 15(B):135–38. enabled by AR, could do the final assembly and packing Lynn R, Helu M, Sati M, Tucker TM, Kurfess TR. 2020. of a product that is validated by its CPP and the CPPs The state of integrated computer-aided manufacturing/ of its components. computer numerical control systems: Prior developments The digital thread can be used to securely scale and and the path toward a smarter computer numerical con certify a variety of production sectors such as clean troller. ASTM Journal of Smart and Sustainable Manufac- energy, semiconductors, biomedical (e.g., vaccines), turing Systems 4(2):25–42. and energy-intensive industries. In addition, combining Parto M, Saldana C, Kurfess T. 2020. A novel three-layer the digital thread with the concepts of born qualified IoT architecture for shared, private, scalable, and real-time and the cyberphysical passport can secure production machine learning from ubiquitous cyber-physical systems. capabilities necessary for defense and national security. Procedia Manufacturing 48:959–67. The application space is boundless and ensures a Roach RA, Abdeljawad F, Argibay N, Allen K, Balch D, secure, modern, resilient, and state-of-the-art sup- Beghini L, Bishop J, Boyce B, Brown J, Burchard R, and ply chain. The digital thread also can democratize 33 others. 2018. Born Qualified Grand Challenge LDRD advanced manufacturing capabilities, favoring small, Final Report (SAND2018-11276). Albuquerque: Sandia local, and nimble operations that are inherently good National Laboratories. for the “mom and pop” shops that are the backbone Urbina P, Lynn R, Louhichi W, Parto M, Wescoat E, Kurfess of US manufacturing. It strengthens US manufactur- TR. 2018. Part data integration in the shop floor digital ing capabilities and global competitiveness, and affords twin: Mobile and cloud technologies to enable a manufac- significant opportunities for economic growth for small turing execution system. Journal of Manufacturing Systems and medium-sized manufacturers, directly benefiting 48(C):25–33. the middle class by providing high-paying job oppor- Mass individualization factories will create local manufacturing jobs and novel research areas in manufacturing operations.

The Local Factory of the Future for Producing Individualized Products

Yoram Koren

My vision for 21st century innovation in the manufacturing industry is the establishment of a new type of factory for producing individualized products for a single customer at an affordable price. Such factories will be located close to customers and designed for cost-effective, large-scale production of a variety of individual products. Two key technologies that enable the production of mass-individualized Yoram Koren (NAE) is products are 3D printing machines (Murr 2016) and the manufacturing sys- the James J. Duderstadt tem architecture (the way machines are both placed in the system and con- Distinguished University nected to each other; Koren and Shpitalni 2010). YoramProfessor Koren Emeritus of One type of individual product is the design of car interiors to fit a cus- Manufacturing and Paul tomer’s specific needs and preferences. Realizing this vision requires new G. Goebel Professor software that will enable an ordinary buyer to design the unique interior of Emeritus of Engineering her own car. at the University of Individual products will be manufactured in local factories because inter- Michigan, Ann Arbor. action with the buyer is an essential element in the success of this new indus- Photo credit: Alina Koren try. This contrasts with the globalization trend that started around 2000 in the manufacturing industry and facilitates the production of products in distant countries (Koren 2010). I believe that mass individualization factories will dramatically change the landscape of the manufacturing industry, establish many local manufacturing jobs, and create novel research areas in manufacturing operations. SPRING 2021 21

Historic Trends in Modern Manufacturing The history of modern manufacturing began around 1850, when the automobile industry started and cars were produced locally, one at a time, each for an individual buyer (figure 1). In 1913 Henry Ford’s moving assembly line was invented, which led to mass production, peaking in 1955, when only seven types of cars were produced by the Big Three in the United States. Mass customization was introduced around 1980, with more models and options offered by the manufacturer for selection by the individual customer. Now the trend is toward individualization (Clifton FIGURE 1 Product volume versus variety in four manufacturing paradigms over time: craft pro- 2018; Kanecko et al. 2017). duction, the prevailing approach until 1913 when Henry Ford introduced the assembly line; mass The internet and social production (1913–80), which lowered both cost and product variety (mass production peaked in networks are changing the 1955, when the Big Three US auto makers offered just seven models); mass customization (since roughly 1980); and, with the ramp-up in globalization at the turn of this century, individual pro- market, making it easy for duction, which will be initiated in the 2020s, thus returning to outfitting cars to the individual customers to come up with consumer’s needs but at low cost compared with craft production. new ideas and unique products (Jiang et al. 2016). As shown in figure 1, the societal shift from craft produc- products a day on the same production system with tion to mass production to mass customization and now the same part program. Mass individuali za tion—each individual production is coming full circle—but from product is different and requires another set of manu- market-of-one for the wealthy to market-of-one for the facturing operations (that each takes a different amount ordinary buyer. of time)—entails completely new mathematical chal- Table 1 summarizes the differences among three con- lenges in scheduling and in system operations. Another secutive paradigms: mass production, mass customiza challenge is that new interfaces are needed to allow tion, and mass individualization (Koren et al. 2015). With ordinary consumers to connect with the mass individu- mass production the factory scheduling is fixed—1000 alization factory of the future.

TABLE 1 Product type and customer’s role in three manufacturing paradigms Paradigm Product architecture Product type Customer’s role Mass production Unified Identical products Choose a product Mass customization Modular Product with options Choose an offered option Mass individualization Open architecture Buyer’s designed product Involved in his/her unique product design The 22 BRIDGE

a b

FIGURE 2 Two manufacturing system architectures of a factory for manufacturing mass individualized products. (a) Simultaneous production of four individual products through various manufacturing phases. A gantry brings parts from the conveyor to the machines in the cell and when a machine finishes the task, the gantry takes the part back to the conveyor, which moves the part to the next cell (e.g., from CNC milling to 3D printing), and so on to the finished product. (b) Diagram of the whole factory (100) organization and product progression. Materials enter on one side (130) and finished products emerge on the other side (132), transported through the system on a loop conveyor (120). Hexagons (102) represent manufacturing cells, each with 4–6 machines (e.g., milling machines, 3D printers, welding machines) or assembly stations (104). Cell controllers (134) are connected to a central controller that coordinates the traffic of all products. CNC = computer numerical control.

Mass Individualization Factories The system architecture determines the layout of I will elaborate on two types of mass individualization machines in the system and the way they are connected factories: to each other. (Upon finishing a machine’s sequence of operations, the connectivity between machines deter- 1. A factory that can produce numerous individual mines to which machines the item is transferred to products at affordable cost, thanks to manufacturing continue its production.) For a mass individualization system architectures that enable the simultaneous factory the manufacturing system should enable these production of a variety of market-of-one products. three features: 9 2. An assembly factory for building individualized vehicle interiors and other open architecture products 1. transfer of the product from any machine to any other (which comprise a fixed platform and modules that machine in the system, can be added and swapped; Koren et al. 2013) that 2. simultaneous production of several different individ- require manual assembly of components chosen by ualized products, and customers. 3. space reserved for the rapid addition of machines in the future. Mass Individualization Factory for Producing a For example, the factory system in figure 2a has Variety of Individual Products spots for four machines in every production stage, The mass individualization factory of the future that I with reserved spaces for adding two milling machines envision enables the manufacture of many individual- and one drilling machine in the future. The diagram is ized products (e.g., a decorative garden fountain, a small based on modified system architecture of the reconfigu- metal roof for an outside door, or an individual pros- rable manufacturing system (RMS) architecture (Koren thetic ordered by a hospital). 2010), which has been in use by Chrysler, Ford, and GM For this factory I propose two types of manufactur- since the turn of the century. It is an ideal framework to ing system architectures, depicted in figure 2 (Gu and deal with the “unpredictability of market requirements Koren 2018; Koren and Hill 2005). The system archi- and the frequent changes induced by technological tecture is the most critical factor in making the factory innovations. For this reason, firms are more and more responsive to market changes (e.g., type of products, addressing the need to be responsive at affordable cost” quantities) and thus economically successful. (Napoleone et al. 2018, p. 3815). SPRING 2021 23

In addition to a typical RMS architecture, figure 2a by third-party companies (the cloud in figure 3) that depicts a return conveyor (or a gantry), which allows the may design furniture or appliances to fit into the car, or transfer of a product from any stage to any other stage dog seats, or any other items that a customer may want. in the system, and integrates 3D printing machines (i.e., All options will have the defined mechanical and elec- additive manufacturing) (Rogge et al. 2017), computer- trical interfaces needed to attach to the chassis. ized numerical control (CNC) machines, and assembly The equivalent software example is in smartphones. stations in a single, coherent system whose operations Many individuals and companies invent applications are synchronized for the simultaneous manufacture of and phone buyers decide which apps to upload. four different products (shown with purple, green, red, Potential interest in (and the market for) individual blue lines). customer design of car interiors is enormous. There has Another system architecture for the mass individual- been substantial progress toward autonomous driving, ization factory is featured in figure 2b (Koren and Hill but the inside of the vehicle has not changed in 100 2005), which depicts eight manufacturing cells (102), years. The 1908 Ford Model T had a driver and passen- each with four to six manufacturing machines (e.g., ger in the front seats and three passengers in the back milling machines, 3D printers, welding machine; 104) seat; the typical car interior is the same today. or assembly stations with workers. The system comprises 45 machines and processes (e.g., assembly). A gantry or loop conveyor (120) connects all machines and assem- Every assembly station and bly stations. The fact that every assembly station and machine machine can be connected can be connected to any other maximizes the ability to produce simultaneously a variety of individualized to any other, maximizing products. In addition, it is easy to replace machines or the ability to produce controllers, which are integrated rapidly like plug-and- play modules. This system architecture is an enormous simultaneously a variety of advantage in a rapidly changing world in which new processes are invented quickly. individualized products. Cell controllers (134) for the manufacturing operations are connected to a central controller that coordinates the traffic of all products. Materials enter on one The challenge is to accommodate many individual side of the factory (130) and finished products emerge customers in the design of their car interior. The soft- on the other side (132). ware system illustrated in figure 3 could facilitate this. Figure 2 shows two options to connect a variety of Customers would select from a database of available inte- machines in a manufacturing system. Another emerg- rior components to design their dream car, possibly assist- ing option is to move parts between machines in the ed by cloud-based design algorithms (Wu et al. 2015); the system with autonomous mobile robots that use obstacle software would identify design conflicts (30 in figure 3). avoidance algorithms (Borenstein and Koren 1991) to The source of the drawing in figure 3 is a 2006 pat- avoid collisions with machines and workers. In com- ent application (Koren et al. 2006). Although it was plex systems this method will require a large floor space. abandoned, a search on this application shows that 34 Impediments to implementing cost-effective individual new US patents are based on it, including those of Ford production may include the need for coatings or post- Motor Co., Mazda, Boeing, Johnson Controls, IBM, and processing stages (e.g., for heat treatments). Lear Corp. But implementation of the concept of the individual Customer Design and Assembly of Vehicle Interior buyer’s design of a car interior raises a nontechnical Imagine that a car interior is an open space and every challenge: Buyers are confused by too many choices individual buyer can design it according to his or her (Iyengar and Kamenica 2010). When the car interior individual needs and preferences, subject to safety con- design concept is realized, a new profession will prob- straints (Koren 2005). Buyers will use software to select ably emerge: designers of car interiors who assist buyers from internet hardware modules designed and produced with their choices. The 24 BRIDGE

FIGURE 3 Schematic of a software system facilitates the customer’s (10) interior design of a vehicle and automatically identifies design conflicts (30). Adapted from Koren et al. (2006).

Assembly of Open Architecture Products • a hospital bed to which mechanical and electrical The auto interior design method may be generalized components and devices can be added to accommo- to a broader category of open architecture products date a patient’s medical or physical condition (OAPs; Koren et al. 2013) (also called open platform • an office chair designed to allow the addition of products), comprising a fixed platform with defined accessories that fit the buyer’s desire and needs mechanical and electrical interfaces. The OAP platform enables the addition of a variety of modules that • a refrigerator interior with interfaces for components may be designed and produced by different manufac- such as special shelves or a rotary platform that facili- turing companies, as long as the modules are designed tates finding things with the mechanical and electrical interfaces defined • a machine tool designed to add a variety of machin- by the platform manufacturer to allow their easy ing and milling heads for different applications. and safe integration. Customers choose their desired modules. The assembly of automobile interiors and OAPs must The integration of a variety of hardware modules be done in local factories because close interaction with in a platform, using the method depicted in figure 3, buyers on product design and specifications is essential. adapts the product functionality to the user’s specific Challenges needs and preference. A major challenge is the development of OAP design software for use by nonprofessional As manufacturing practice moves toward individualized customer-designers. products, customers will place their orders and factories Following are examples of open architecture products: will have to convert them for implementation. Software

10 SPRING 2021 25

needs to be developed to help customers turn their ideas Conclusions into digital models for factory production. Mass individualization shifts the product design focus Algorithms will schedule the production of each from a large manufacturer to the individual buyer and individual product, while the system is simultaneously multiple companies that invent and offer personalized producing a variety of individual products. Optimal modules to suit customer needs and tastes. scheduling should maintain the maximum number of I predict that 10 years from now the norm will be machines busy nearly continuously even as each product that the customer sends requirements to a local factory needs a different processing time on several machines. It that produces individualized products for delivery in a will be a challenge to build software that schedules dif- timely manner. Manufacturing enterprises will intro- ferent individual orders while optimizing system opera- duce consumer products with open platform hardware tions. Artificial intelligence will have a major role in that will facilitate the integration of mechanical and such scheduling in the production system. AI software electromechanical modules. The number of options in can group similar products for production so that the certain individualized products (such as auto interiors) system is synchronized to optimize efficiency. This syn- will depend on the creativity and ingenuity of both the chronization will require digital twin models (Rosen et customer and the companies that produce modules for 1 al. 2015). integration in the product. The discussion and figures in this paper effectively Economic Impacts of Local Factories for illustrate the concept of individualized products and Individualized Products suggest practical implementations of manufacturing Factories for individual production and shops for auto systems to produce them. The emergence of many small interior assembly cannot be located offshore because in innovative companies will sustain continuous steady most cases direct communication between the customer growth in the manufacturing sector and boost the and the factory will be needed to avoid misunderstand- economy. ings. Local factories will also reduce the time from order to delivery—buyers will want their customized product References as soon as possible, not in 3 months from an overseas Borenstein J, Koren Y. 1991. The vector field histogram: Fast producer. Establishing many such factories will create obstacle avoidance of mobile robots. IEEE Transactions on numerous local manufacturing jobs and greatly benefit Robotics and Automation 7(3):278–88. local economies. More broadly, with traditional manu- Clifton L. 2018. The factory of the future. Siemens Magazine. facturing, when it “bids farewell [through offshoring], Gu X, Koren Y. 2018. Manufacturing system architecture engineering and production know-how depart as well, for cost-effective mass-individualization. Manufacturing and innovation activities eventually follow. We can Letters 16:44–48. trace how this happened in the US” (Kota et al. 2018). Iyengar SS, Kamenica E. 2010. Choice proliferation, simplic- In contrast, with individualized production, technolo- ity seeking, and asset allocation. Journal of Public Econom- gies and practices will remain in the United States. ics 94(7-8):530–39. The experience of strong economies around the Jiang P, Lang J, Ding K, Gu P, Koren Y. 2016. Social manufac- world shows that a nation needs both R&D and manu- turing as a sustainable paradigm for mass-individualization. facturing activities to maintain a healthy 21st century Proceedings, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: industrial ecosystem. Journal of Engineering Manufacture 230(10):1961–68. I hope the US government will find ways to support Kanecko K, Kishita Y, Umeda Y. 2017. In pursuit of personal- US industry in developing mass individualization facto- ization design. Procedia CIRP 61:93–97. ries, and that agencies will encourage the US research Koren Y. 2005. Reconfigurable manufacturing and beyond. community to develop the science base for the emerging 3rd Internatl Conf on Reconfigurable Manufacturing, May mass-individualization paradigm. 10, Ann Arbor MI. Koren Y. 2010. The Global Manufacturing Revolution: Product-Process-Business Integration and Reconfigurable 1 In 2001 my colleagues and I tested the first prototype of the Systems. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons. digital twins on our manufacturing system at the University of Koren Y, Hill R. 2005. Integrated reconfigurable manufactur- Michigan’s NSF-sponsored Engineering Research Center for ing system. US patent #6,920,973. Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems. The 26 BRIDGE

Koren Y, Shpitalni M. 2010. Design of reconfigurable man- Wu D, Rosen DW, Wang L, Schaefer D. 2015. Cloud-based ufacturing systems. Journal of Manufacturing Systems design and manufacturing: A new paradigm in digital 29(4):130–41. manufacturing and design innovations. Computer-Aided Koren Y, Barhak J, Pasek Z. 2006. Method and apparatus for Design 59:1–14. re-configurable vehicle interior design. US patent application 20070156540A1, filed Jan 5. Dedication Koren Y, Hu J, Gu P, Shpitalni M. 2013. Open-architecture This paper is dedicated to the memory of my daughter, products. CIRP Annals 62(2):719–29. Esther (Asi) Koren, who passed away at age 49 in our Koren Y, Shpitalni M, Gu P, Hu SJ. 2015. Product design for house on October 28, 2020, a couple of days after I mass-individualization. Procedia CIRP 35:64–71. finished the draft of this paper. She had cancer. Asi Kota S, Talbot-Zom J, Mahoney T. 2018. How the US can established and managed the Ana House to help many rebuild its capacity to innovate. Harvard Business Review, girls who experienced difficulties in their life. Oct 23. Murr LE. 2016. Frontiers of 3D printing/additive manufacturing: From human organs to aircraft fabrication. Journal of Materials Science & Technology 32(10):987–95. Napoleone A, Pozzetti A, Macchi M. 2018. Framework to manage reconfigurability in manufacturing. International Journal of Production Research 56(11):3815–37. Rogge MP, Menke MA, Hoyle W. 2017. 3D printing for low- resource settings. The Bridge 47(3):37–45. Rosen R, von Wichert G, Lo G, Bettenhausen KD. 2015. About the importance of autonomy and digital twins for the future of manufacturing. IFAC PapersOnLine 48(3):567–72. Telefacturing is based on telecontrol and telerobotics, and effectively utilizes most components of Industry 4.0.

Telefacturing: A New Manufacturing Paradigm for Worker Safety and Other Benefits

Behrokh Khoshnevis

The US manufacturing sector, which employs about 13 million workers (Weston 2019), has been hit hard by the covid-19 pandemic in part because most jobs entail physical activities (e.g., fabrication, assembly, testing, packaging, material handling) that cannot be done remotely. Worker proximity in closed spaces greatly facilitates contagion. The extensive disruptions call for fundamental changes to ensure post Behrokh Khoshnevis pandemic survival and promote growth in many human endeavors, includ- (NAE) is the Louise ing manufacturing. This article introduces a new manufacturing paradigm L. Dunn Distinguished that is in perfect conformance with the principles of the emerging 4th Indus- Professor of Engineering trial Revolution, to offer the manufacturing sector effective approaches for at the University of dealing with pandemic conditions as well as many other challenges. Southern California and According to a survey conducted in March 2020 by the National Associa- CEO of Contour Crafting tion of Manufacturers (NAM 2020) about 80 percent of US manufacturing Corporation. companies expected that the pandemic would have a considerable financial impact on their business, and 53 percent expected that their operations would also be impacted by the pandemic. Unfortunately, these bleak expec- tations became a certainty. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2020 the manufacturing sector lost 1.3 million jobs by the month of May (BLS 2020). Some major manufacturing companies temporarily closed their facilities and laid off a portion of their employees, and the prospect of bank- ruptcy for others is quite real. The 28 BRIDGE

Historical Perspective Because of the reduced workforce, efficiency had to The history of human social and technological evolu- increase through innovative methods and technolo- tion has repeatedly shown that, much as in evolutionary gies, which led to the emergence, primarily in cities, of biology, major disruptions in human societies lead to lucrative businesses based on craftsmanship, signaling the emergence of new social structures and norms as the dawn of the industrial age. Peasants, seeking alter- well as new sociotechnical paradigms. Given the sever- natives to serfdom, were attracted to these prosperous ity of the disruptions caused by the covid-19 pandemic industrial activities and sites. in almost all aspects of life around the world, the emer- In these and other ways the plague rocked the foun- gence of new social norms and new sociotechnical sys- dation of the medieval world and marked the beginning tems should be expected in the coming years. of the end of feudalism. Europe was reborn and became a center of culture, science, and technology for the next Lessons from the Medieval Plague few centuries. In 1347 the bubonic plague reached Europe and in just Although no pandemic is expected to be as devas- 4 years claimed the lives of about 40 percent of the tating as the plague in medieval Europe, the history is population (Lienhard 2003). Outbreaks continued for still relevant, as demonstrated by the significant impacts decades and by the time it receded nearly a century of covid-19 on the world’s complex sociotechnical and later Europe had lost three-quarters of its populace to economical ecosystems in just a few months. the so-called Black Death—the greatest calamity that Lessons from Modern History humanity has faced in known history. Disruptive technological evolutions since the mid-1800s have had major impacts on how goods were produced and services rendered, and how the related work was done. Major disruptions can They are referred to as industrial revolutions because their impacts were not incremental but monumental. lead to the emergence The Fourth Industrial Revolution is bringing together manufacturing and supply chain operations with recent of new social structures advances in digital technologies, including cloud com- and norms as well as new puting, artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics,, machine learning, augmented reality, the internet of sociotechnical paradigms. things (IoT), simulation/digital twin, and additive manufacturing (AM)/3D printing. Together these can provide a holistic and interconnected environment for What ensued in the wake of this deadly pandemic was manufacturing operations as well as functions related to not all doom and gloom, however. The plague spared supply chains and customers. many wealthy survivors, but left far too few workers for A New Manufacturing Paradigm: Telefacturing their ventures, so labor became much more valuable. Demand for higher wages soared, and even minutes Simple tasks have already been automated in most spent on work were counted. Accurate time keeping American manufacturing plants, and further automa- became important, and innovations in clockwork rose, tion is recommended (e.g., Okorie et al. 2020; PWC as did the use of timepieces. 2020) to reduce the spread of covid-19 by decreasing Because 14th century medicine had failed to save worker density. But additional automation will mean victims of the plague, medical practice took a radi- further layoffs. cally different direction, away from often superstitious Furthermore, more complex manufacturing tasks still treatments toward objective experimentation and rely on human intelligence and dexterity. Automation the creation of practical, and more effective, medical of such operations is an expensive proposition that knowledge. Attention to general knowledge also grew, requires major investment in hardware and more skilled books were written, and the invention of the printing (i.e., higher-paid) workers to maintain them. press in 1440 enabled the rapid distribution and growth Recent developments, collectively known as Industry of the emerging knowledge and information. 4.0, can be used to create other modes of automation SPRING 2021 29

that allow manufacturing workers to safely perform their is only in the realm of the human mind and is likely tasks from a remote location such as their home office to remain so for the foreseeable future. or a dedicated neighborhood hub. The latter would be • Augmented reality can be used to train new remote outfitted with the necessary equipment and software workers by superimposing on their computer screen and connected to the manufacturing facility through a instructions, pictures, and video that relate to the high-speed broadband network. The hub can also serve physical scene in the factory. as a place for some social contact for those who do not like the isolation of working at home. • AM/3D printing machines may be used for certain Telefacturing is based on telecontrol and telerobotics, fabrication operations. Because they are almost and effectively utilizes most components of Industry 4.0 totally autonomous and do not require intermit- (Siebel 2019). It benefits from the current state of the art tent operator engagement for activities such as tool in virtual and augmented reality, remote sensing (using change, they are ideal for teleoperation. Many com- 2D and 3D vision systems, and various noncontact and mercial AM machines can be easily operated through tactile sensing technologies), haptics systems, remote the internet. actuation mechanisms, and enabling algorithmic, computing, and telecommunication networks based on 5G Advantages of Telefacturing technology. Following are examples of the use of Indus- Telefacturing will bring human intelligence and dex- try 4.0 components in telefacturing: terous mechanical manipulation abilities to factories to operate machines and to assist robots, all without • Telerobots and machinery in a telefacturing setting requiring the presence of humans. There are numerous would be equipped with a multitude of sensors and advantages to this proposed approach, including assur- possibly several actuators all connected to an IoT ance of human safety, reduced asset damage, lower real module dedicated to the robot/machine and with estate and other costs, enhanced sustainability, elimina- computing and storage capabilities. tion of worker transportation, flexible work hours, the • The operation of the system in real time could gen- possibility for workers to work concurrently at multiple erate massive amounts of data; the quantity would factories, and job opportunities for the disabled, the depend on the number of pieces of equipment, elderly, and others (Khoshnevis 2015. ongoing operations, and frequency of sensory data collection. Processing of the data would be partly performed by the IoT modules, which collectively form a computation/storage cloud, possibly in addition to a Remote workers would be public cloud commissioned by the company. relieved from managing • AI-based analysis of the generated big data may be used for applications such as worker performance operational details and evaluation and adaptive schedule optimization. simply send communications • Machine learning software using deep learning algo- (e.g., in natural language) rithms can learn from the operator to perform seg- ments of operations autonomously. The remote to the machine. worker would thus be relieved from managing details of operations and need only to send gestures and other forms of communication (e.g., in natural lan- Safety guage) to the machine. For example, after comple- Aside from workers who contract an illness in congested tion of a segment of a task the remote robot, having manufacturing workspaces, over half a million occupa- learned to pick up a certain tool, would do so without tional injuries occur annually in the US manufactur- needing an operator command. This arrangement ing sector, with annual costs of about $20 billion (NSC would eventually leave to the operator only the tasks 2019). Telefacturing can nearly eliminate on-the-job that require human intelligence and creativity (e.g., disease contraction and occupational injuries by elimi- addressing an unpredicted event). Creative thinking nating worker exposure to these risks. The 30 BRIDGE

Asset Damage Prevention primarily uses fossil fuel and as such creates significant When humans work directly with machines, accidents amounts of harmful emissions that are threatening resulting from their errors can cause not only injuries but the planet. Telefacturing can dramatically improve the also significant economic loss due to damaged machin- environment by substantially reducing the number of ery, tools, work pieces, and products. With teleoperation cars on the road. workers do not interact directly with the machinery. Elimination of Worker Commutes In addition, intelligent fail-safe systems for collision avoidance and other impact reduction measures can Worker transportation between home and factory, often be effected through software to prevent machines from during rush hour, is costly, takes a toll on workers’ time, following accidental operator gestures and orders that energy, and productivity, and presents accident risks. violate allowable machine motions and actions. Carpooling, public transit, and use of a company shuttle service expose workers to a higher risk of contracting Reduced Costs for Factory Real Estate, Energy, and contagious diseases. Operation Commuting can also indirectly have an important Telefacturing facilities need not be located in or near real cost for companies, which may be compelled to cities. They can be located on inexpensive land in hire local workers although nonlocal candidates may be remote areas, preferably near an electric grid and with more suitable. Transportation costs deter some potential easy highway and/or railroad access. employees from taking jobs that would require them to spend a significant portion of their income and time on their commute.

Telefacturing can Flexible Work Hours and Location dramatically improve Workers who do not have to be on site at certain times could choose their own work hours as allowed and speci- the environment by fied by a computerized schedule posted on a secure internet site. In addition, the convenience of working from substantially reducing the home or at a nearby teleoperation hub, which could be number of cars on the road situated in an office building with a more comfortable and less imposing environment than that of a typical during rush hour. factory, should give workers a liberating feeling and job satisfaction that enhance their physical and psychologi- Furthermore, a teleoperated factory does not require cal health, and hence their efficiency and productivity. accommodation of basic human needs such as lighting, Possibility of Working for Multiple Factories air conditioning, food services (which are subject to regulatory control and require their own staffing), and Telefacturing workers could operate in freelance mode restroom facilities. Collectively, these can amount to and for multiple factories. Once they complete their sizable savings in operating and overhead costs. assigned job at one factory, they could do an internet Telefacturing sites would still need to accommodate search on dedicated sites about available jobs requir- engineers and technicians to service and repair machining their specific expertise at factories elsewhere, even ery, but those employees would be far fewer than opera- around the world. This would be advantageous as well for tional workers. manufacturers operating in sites with limited local availability of needed skills. Certification and authentication Sustainability and Reduced Environmental Impacts would assure factory management about the quality and Less consumption of energy and resources will reduce reliability of remote workers. A web-based system would environmental impacts. Telefacturing is also a more keep track of comments and ratings for each worker per sustainable approach primarily because of its conserva- job performed; similarly, workers could rate employers. tion of the energy that would otherwise be consumed The web-based systems to support this option could in transportation of numerous people on a daily basis become a telefacturing internet business (TIB) with (as discussed below). Transportation, at least currently, great potential for success. SPRING 2021 31

New Job Opportunities for Disadvantaged Workers that are important in human-machine interactions. By eliminating long commutes and by providing These could include scale, weight, required accuracy, force amplification through remote control devices, required execution speed, limit on operator response telefacturing is ideal for those who have difficulty mov- time, limit on system latency, workcell visibility and ing around or performing heavy tasks that require strong audibility, and workcell design and robot work enve- muscle power. It would provide employment opportuni- lope relationship. ties for people who may otherwise be unemployed and Hierarchy of Implementation at risk of poverty, including the disabled and the elderly (the latter population is growing rapidly as life expec- Related practices in remotely controlled activities and tancy steadily increases). missions such as space travel and exploration, telesur- Telefacturing can also provide employment opportu- gery, and drone control should be studied to identify nities for others, such as those who do not have a car or applicable approaches for at least some candidate tasks access to transit to get to a workplace, or women who in manufacturing. have been categorically denied the kind of work that requires “muscle power.” Telefacturing is ideal for Laboratory-Based Education The extension of telefacturing technologies to those who have difficulty laboratory-based education would both facilitate offsite moving around or learning and enhance safety. During the pandemic most schools and universities resorted to online teaching, performing heavy tasks. which in many respects has been very effective and of course safe. However, courses that depend on laboratory experiments suffered because of the indirect execution Obviously, operator tasks that involve turning of experiments by lab technicians or teaching assistants machines on or off, setting control knobs and valves, instead of the students themselves, or in many cases the watching for critical conditions to take such actions, complete elimination of the lab component. and the like are the simplest and least expensive tasks With telefacturing technologies it will be possible to be done through telefacturing, because they generally for students to perform their own lab experiments and can be done by mere electronic or electromechanical observe the results from a remote location without modules (e.g., relays, sensors) and do not require the the pandemic-associated risks of close proximity with addition of expensive hardware such as robots. Opera- others. Furthermore, as I have known over the years of tions such as measurement, quality control, and packag- cases of exposure to harmful chemicals, explosions, and ing could also easily be done through telefacturing. other mishaps, the remote approach will eliminate the Next are tasks that can be performed with relatively hazards of certain lab experiments that may be unsafe inexpensive robots; such tasks include picking randomly (occasionally even fatal). arriving objects from a conveyor and placing them in selected bins or packages, for example. Separation Essential Related R&D Activities of recyclable objects from trash passing on conveyor Research and development are needed to advance sev- belt, which is usually performed by human operators eral fields and set the stage for successful implementa- and is often not hygienic, may be done by operators at tion of telefacturing. home who simply click on the recyclable object that they see on their monitor. Control of material handling Characterization and Classification of and storage/retrieval operations may be done through Manufacturing Activities remotely driven forklifts and other equipment. For selected manufacturing domains (e.g., machining The next and more challenging class of tasks would of mechanical parts, casting and foundry, electronics), require more accuracy, analogous to telesurgery. These activities such as fabrication, assembly, testing and qual- include small mechanical assembly such as that involved ity control, material handling and storage, and packag- in electronics components on custom-designed, low- ing should be characterized with respect to the metrics batch-size circuit boards. Mechanical component The 32 BRIDGE machining and larger-scale module assembly may be ups to embark on the creation of specialized telerobotics more challenging tasks but certainly feasible. systems. A possible starting point is the development of less expensive systems for handling simple manufactur- Simulation Studies ing jobs such as remotely controllable pick-and-place Human operators are good at first-degree prediction, but and inspection robots, material handling robots, and their ability to control in a timely manner diminishes storage/retrieval machines. rapidly with higher-order prediction. Realistic simula- With progress in the areas discussed above, tion tools should be developed for machine operator telefacturing can be the way of the future for manufactur- training, much as flight simulators are used to train ing, offering advantages in worker safety, environmental pilots without risking the pilot or the plane. Sites offer- sustainability, productivity and efficiency, employment ing simulated training are another new business oppor- opportunities, and cost and time management. tunity. Special training sites, preferably at telefacturing hubs, may be equipped with remote control, haptic References feedback devices, and advanced graphics (e.g., using BLS [US Bureau of Labor Statistics]. 2020. Payroll employ- virtual reality) to train the workforce for new jobs. ment down 20.5 million in April 2020. Economics Daily, May 12. Management System Design Khoshnevis B. 2015. Telefacturing – A paradigm for the 21st Many aspects of management—including training, century. Industrial Engineer 47(11). supervision, reward system, enterprise resource planning, Lienhard JH. 2003. The Engines of Our Ingenuity: An Engi- operations planning, scheduling, and control—could neer Looks at Technology and Culture. New York: Oxford be streamlined and made more adaptive and effective University Press. with telefacturing. Each of these management functions NAM [National Association of Manufacturers]. 2020. should be analyzed and new management systems devel- Coronavirus outbreak special survey, February/March. oped for implementation of the telefacturing paradigm. NSC [National Safety Council]. 2019. Injury facts: Work overview – Work safety introduction. Online at https:// Conclusion injuryfacts.nsc.org/work/work-overview/work-safety- In areas other than manufacturing, telerobotics with introduction. real-time sensory feedback are currently in use. These Okorie O, Subramoniam R, Charnley F, Patsavellas J, include drones in various applications such as emer- Widdifield D, Salonitis K. 2020. Manufacturing in the gency medical services, land and building surveys, agri- time of COVID-19: An assessment of barriers and enablers. culture, and search and rescue. Another application IEEE Engineering Management Review 48(3):167–75. that has shown impressive progress is telesurgery, which PWC [PricewaterhouseCoopers]. 2020. COVID-19: What it can make a physician’s service available in remote loca- means for industrial manufacturing. tions. Finally, advanced applications of telerobotics are Siebel T. 2019. Digital Transformation. New York: Rosetta in space projects such as on-orbit satellite servicing or Books. rover mission control on the moon and Mars. Weston B. 2019. How small manufacturing businesses drive For manufacturing, telefacturing offers an opportunity the US economy. SCORE.org, May 19. for both established robotics companies and future start- Through measurements and standards, NIST aims to facilitate the postpandemic adoption of efficient, secure, and decentralized technology for the industrial sector.

Next-Generation IIoT: A Convergence of Technology Revolutions

Barbara L. Goldstein and Kate A. Remley

The pandemic forced many on a personal journey of digital transformation akin to that required of industry and much of the workforce. People had to come to terms with the fact that the usual ways of doing business could Barbara Goldstein not simply be continued.

From Digitization to Digitalization to Digital Transformation The shift from an office to a home environment required successful digitization— having automation tools in place and the necessary information in a digital format compatible with those tools. This transformation is parallel to manufacturers reaping the benefits of the Third Industrial Revolution, when manual tasks were automated with computers and robotics. After digital readiness comes connection—in the home and to the broader world—and the ability to transmit and interpret data as they flow from system to system, location to location. This is comparable to progressing from the third to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which added connectivity to Kate Remley the robotics and infrastructure of a stand-alone factory.

Barbara Goldstein is associate director of the Physical Measurement Laboratory and Kate Remley is leader of the Metrology for Wireless Systems Project, both at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The 34 BRIDGE

Just as individuals are relearning how to work in a cations, such as asset and supply chain management. geographically dispersed but interconnected world, in Moving forward, particularly in the postpandemic this era of digitalization manufacturers are reshaping world, the manufacturing sector is looking to decentral- their business models to automate supply and logistics ize decisions, implement remote monitoring of physical by directly linking inventory and logistics systems processes, and enable manufacturing tools to communi- across the supply chain, to automate equipment repair cate and cooperate with each other in real time. and maintenance through interconnected vendor/ High reliability will be critical in such machine-to- manufacturer systems, and to gather information machine (M2M) real-time manufacturing processes. directly from products in the field to adapt and acceler- Low-cost, low-profile sensors and actuators operating ate the development of the next generation of offerings. accurately at high speeds will allow decentralization as machines talk to each other, monitoring their status and taking themselves offline before damage can occur. The manufacturing sector The development of reliable wireless M2M communications in a highly reflective, dynamically chang- is looking to decentralize ing factory floor environment is also a key enabler of IIoT, motivating system designers to investigate new decisions and enable wireless technologies such as adaptive millimeter-wave (mmWave) networks that can reconfigure on the fly manufacturing tools to and reliably transfer large amounts of data over wide communicate and cooperate bandwidths. Testing and verifying the performance of adaptive in real time. networks in an over-the-air (OTA) condition is not a trivial undertaking and is the focus of much research at NIST. As humans are removed from the decision- The next step, digital transformation, the hallmark making loop, it is essential that machines draw on accu- of Industry 4.0, has no playbook. It is a system-level rate and always available information. restructuring that evolves once machine-to-machine automation can be trusted not only to inform work- Trends in Sensing ers but to run operations. Postpandemic manufactur- Sensors bridge the physical and digital worlds, feeding ing will likely build on these goals by capitalizing on information about the former to the automation tools decentralized systems that allow flexible and recon- that industry increasingly trusts to not only monitor and figurable factory floors, and by leveraging low-cost yet diagnose but predict and act—at speeds that don’t allow accurate internet of things (IoT)–based technologies to for human oversight. maximize productivity and efficiency. All are important Sensors must be reliable reporters of conditions on for economic recovery and will allow small and midsize the ground, so that digital twins are faithful mimics of a factories to better compete in the global marketplace. factory environment, machine-driven controls respond Here we describe some of the research underway at the to real conditions, and equipment self-diagnoses are National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) based on accurate information. NIST is addressing this to support manufacturing in the postpandemic world. need through the NIST on a Chip (NOAC) program,1 which is developing quantum-based sensors that are fit- The Factory of the Future to-function and reliable in the field without needing The pandemic made it even more urgent that manufac- calibration, and can be trusted to give either the right turers accelerate their journey from digitization to full answer or no answer at all. digital transformation—not just adopting automation The sensors being developed in the NOAC program tools but learning how to leverage them into new ways draw their intrinsic accuracy from fundamental proper- of doing business. ties of nature, such as the fact that a cesium atom can Over the past decade or so, the manufacturing sector be counted on to always vibrate at a known frequency— has embraced the use of wireless industrial internet of otherwise it wouldn’t be cesium. In fact, the entire Inter- things (IIoT) technologies for factory enterprise appli- 1 https://www.nist.gov/noac SPRING 2021 35

national System of Units (SI, or metric system) was redefined in 2019 to be based only on such fundamental properties, making obsolete the last physical artifact, a platinum-iridium cylinder (stored in a vault outside Paris) that was by definition equal to 1 kilogram no matter what it really weighed. This recent sweeping redefinition of the metric system created new opportunities for sensing, unleashing a wave of innovation that is just beginning to enable creative ways for in situ sensors to draw on nature and their operating environment to ensure that they provide SI-traceable, reliable measurements. The NOAC program is shrinking the precision mea- FIGURE 1 The heart of a second-generation chip-scale atomic clock, next to a coffee bean for size reference. Photo credit: surement technology that is currently available only at Matthew Hummon, NIST. national metrology institutes like NIST into a suite of sensors that can be embedded directly in equipment or deployed on a factory floor. The following sections describe a few of the nearly two dozen sensors being developed in the program.

Chip-Scale Atomic Clocks Precision timekeeping is fundamental to applications in communications, financial transactions, aviation, and GPS. The first chip-scale atomic clock was created by NIST in 2004. It laid the foundation for the NOAC FIGURE 2 Close-up of a photonic thermometer prototype, program by showing that it’s possible to shrink a lab- showing the top of a chip-based temperature sensor. The chip full of complex equipment, which previously required a is about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide. Photo credit: Curt Suplee, NIST. team of highly trained staff to operate, to a device the size of a grain of rice (NIST 2004)! Electric-Field Sensors Chip-scale clocks are now commercially available, and NIST is working on the next generation of them Advanced manufacturing takes place in electronically that will operate at optical frequencies (Newman et al. noisy environments and it’s critical to characterize both 2019; NIST 2019). These more sensitive clocks have unintended electromagnetic emissions and intentional at their heart a vapor cell the size of a coffee bean communication signals sent wirelessly in a dynamic (figure 1). The clocks could be invaluable in manu- environment. The best commercial instruments are facturing synchronization for robot-to-robot commu- accurate to only within 10 percent. nications, monitoring of machine tool life, and overall To address this need, NIST has prototyped a funda- factory efficiency, among other applications. mentally new type of sensor (figure 3) based on Rydberg atoms, which, because of the highly excited state of Photonic Thermometers their outermost electron, are extremely sensitive to The current “gold standard” for temperature is the plati- electric fields (Holloway et al. 2014). These prototype num resistance thermometer, which is fragile and vul- sensors have been shown to outperform current sensors nerable to humidity, requires expensive calibrations, and in both sensitivity and accuracy (good to about 4 per- is difficult to miniaturize. NIST is developing a replace- cent), never need to be calibrated, and have the poten- ment (figure 2) based on the relationship between tem- tial to be shrunk to a chip-scale package. perature and the optical properties of materials, leading Wanted: Fast, Reliable Wireless Connectivity to a sensor that will be inexpensive, small, portable, and for Harsh Radio-Propagation Environments robust, with applications to manufacturing process control and instrumentation, among many others.2 Automation-driven factories rely on not only a steady stream of accurate sensor information but also uninter- 2 https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/photonic-thermometry rupted and unambiguous connectivity. The growing The 36 BRIDGE

order of 1–5 ms. However, no wireless standard or technology can yet provide the sub-ms latencies that will be needed for power electronics systems control and other applications that are highly constrained by latency, especially in intraworkcell and intramachine wireless use cases (table 1; Candell and Kashef 2017; Candell et al. 2018). This is because current industrial wireless technologies were, generally, designed for the process manufacturing industry, where sensing and control can FIGURE 3 Fiber-coupled vapor cell for quantum-based e-field successfully happen on the order of seconds. For future measurements using Rydberg atoms. Photo credit: NIST. discrete manufacturing applications, events between sensors and monitors/controls must be communicated within milliseconds or less. trend toward augmenting or replacing wired connections Manufacturers have indicated that decentralized with wireless channels comports with the postpandemic wireless would be a flexible and robust means of manu- need for decentralization and M2M communications. facturing communication for use in intraworkcell and Why Wireless intramachine cases if latencies can be reduced (Candell et al. 2018). For example, for a programmable logic On the factory floor, wireless connectivity offers many controller (PLC) to provide feedback to an industrial benefits over wired solutions, such as the elimination machine based on sensor data, latencies significantly of costly cabling, mobility, configuration flexibility, and less than the typical PLC scan cycles of 10 ms would be improved efficiency in operations (Lee et al. 2020; Liu required. How much less would depend on the number et al. 2019). Wireless connections can also be used in of stations and the multiple-access scheme used. Ideally, otherwise impractical locations; for example, low-power communication links of 100 sensors would provide monitoring devices can eliminate the difficulties inher- ultrareliable factory floor operation. Until resolved ent in physically routing cables (Ferreira et al. 2013). technologically, these gaps will affect manufacturers’ The relatively low cost and flexibility of wireless tech- ability to trust the viability of decentralized wireless nology infrastructure are especially important for small IIoT networks. and midsize factories (Candell et al. 2018). There is thus great interest in developing robust wire- Much of the focus on wireless connectivity for IIoT less technology that addresses the unique requirements technology relates to its deployment in workcell-sized of sensor communications, latency, reliability, and flex- environments. A workcell typically consists of a single ibility in IIoT applications. However, the industrial or a few machines. While the size of factories varies workcell environment is one of the most challenging for considerably, the size of a workcell is typically on the wireless system deployment because of the high reflec- order of 10 m or less per side (Lee et al. 2020). A focus tivity (including the potential for three-dimensional on requirements for the workcell rather than for the reflections) and dynamically changing conditions entire factory provides a better picture of user require- (including intermittent blockage of a channel due to ments (Candell et al. 2019). Basic assumptions for moving elements such as robotic arms or autonomous user requirements in workcells might include (i) no vehicles). Understanding the range of potential chan- more than one communication system failure every nel impairments is essential for developing robust hard- 1000 years; (ii) individual transmissions that are inde- ware and network protocols, and is a topic of current pendent, allowing multiple traffic channels to coexist; research. and (iii) a single wireless link used in certain scenarios The coupling of advanced analytics (such as channel involving multiple sensors/regulators (Lee et al. 2020). estimation) and statistically based channel modeling with Recent wireless standards are aimed at providing reli- accurate real-time assessment will allow the development ability and latency to meet requirements at the workcell of wireless hardware that can make use of multiple redun- level for the discrete manufacturing sector. For example, dant channels, each with the potential for ultrawideband IEEE 802.11ax3 provides simulated latencies on the capacity. Current NIST research uses machine learning to identify and replicate key electromagnetic features of 3 https://www.ieee802.org/11/Reports/tgax_update.htm SPRING 2021 37

TABLE 1 Current wireless standards (Candell and Kashef 2017; Candell et al. 2018) do not address the needs of workcell communications, which are highlighted in the red (“job-based”), black (“safety”), and blue (“tracking”) boxes. BLOS = beyond line of sight; CSMA = carrier-sense multiple access; LOS = line of sight; RFID = radio frequency identification; TDMA = time-division multiple access; VLBR WAN = very low bit rate wide area networks. industrial wireless channels for repeatable, laboratory- In our research at NIST we use a synthetic aperture– based testing, which we describe next. based channel measurement system to characterize the 3D spatial-temporal characteristics of the industrial Characterizing the Environment in Space and Time propagation channel, coupled with machine learning As mentioned, one of the foundational building blocks techniques to identify the most typical and prominent for developing spatial-temporal models of the industrial features in the environment, as described in the next environment is verified channel-propagation measure- subsection. ments. Such measurements are often carried out in representative environments to study important channel Assessing OTA Wireless Device Performance features such as path loss, reflectivity (or multipath), in the Workcell coherence time (how quickly a channel dynamically Wireless devices with integrated antennas, such as most changes), and spatial characteristics such as the angle IoT devices, require OTA verification of performance. of arrival (AoA) of direct and reflected signals. Several Certification bodies have developed rigorous tests for research groups are collecting such data in factory envi- cell phones and some work has been done on IoT device ronments to facilitate standards development and hard- characterization (CTIA 2020). However, much of this ware design. work is focused on whether the device meets radiated

2 The 38 BRIDGE

create a repeatable, noninvasive dynamic OTA testbed utilizing innovative quantum field probes. The NIST OTA testbed will expose an IIoT device to a repeatable, dynamically changing environment to assess its ability to reconfigure adaptively to changing channel conditions by use of machine learning (Kashef et al. 2021). As an additional benefit for IIoT designers, our measured datasets and models of the dynamically changing channels will be made available for users (a) to design and train their AI-based adaptive network hardware. The concept is illustrated in figure 4. The measured static and dynamic reflective characteristics of the factory floor environment (figure 4a) are extracted, as described above. The channel conditions are then rep- licated in a lab-based test chamber by placing reflective and electromagnetic wave–absorbing material in (b) the appropriate locations. This process is facilitated by machine learning. Once configured, the chamber characteristics are verified through measurement. The large, metallic bodies of conventional channel IIoT sounders perturb the environment in which they operate and are their most important and fundamental accuracy limitation in physically small environments. To address this limitation, NIST is creating minimally reflective (c) quantum field probes to characterize the time-evolving channels in the chamber, leveraging the NOAC Rydberg FIGURE 4 (a) The factory floor workcell contains static and atom–based probe. An array of the NOAC probes is dynamic wireless channel conditions that are emulated in the IIoT over-the-air testbed shown in (b). A noninvasive quantum needed to accurately measure the timing and AoA of sig- probe array verifies the channel characteristics. In (c), an IIoT nals incident on an IIoT device by sampling the ambient device is placed on the rotating platform and exposed to the fields at multiple spatial locations in the test chamber known channel conditions. through the use of synthetic aperture techniques. The important features of this test setup include the power and receiver sensitivity limits in nonreflective, accuracy of the workcell channels that it recreates, “isotropic” environments, where signals are incident on including the traceable characterization of these chan- the device from all angles equally. Newly released stan- nels with the use of a low-invasiveness probe, and the dards focus on creating specific channel conditions to wide range of channels that can be created. test multiple antenna devices, such as cell phones with Challenges multiple antennas (3GPP4). To support the millisecond timescales needed for There are many technical challenges remaining to adaptive mmWave IIoT, OTA tests must evolve to mature the technologies needed for a reliable, scalable emulate 3D spatial channel characteristics such as the factory infrastructure. Along with those in communica- timing and AoA of reflected signals. As such, NIST is tions and sensing, outlined above, other challenges to applying a wide range of expertise in wireless commu- achieving digital transformation include security, cul- nications, manufacturing, and artificial intelligence to ture, and competition.

Security 4 3rd Generation Partnership Project, Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network. Study on channel model for fre- IoT and IIoT security is complex, with vulnerabilities quencies from 0.5 to 100 GHz (Release 16), 3GPP TR 38.901 in the middle layers of the technology stack, between V16.1.0 (2019-12). Available at https://www.3gpp.org/. SPRING 2021 39

applications and hardware, across communication technology to increase competitive activities in the channels, and in communication protocols (Friedman industrial sector. By addressing some of the measure- and Goldstein 2019). The security challenge is one of ment-related gaps and supporting standards develop- risk management, and the following factors need to be ment for new wireless technology, industry can move considered and are active areas of NIST research (Lee forward with greater confidence as new technology et al. 2020): becomes available. Through measurements and standards, NIST’s goal • identification and authentication control is to facilitate the postpandemic adoption of efficient, • use control secure, and decentralized technology for the industrial sector. • system integrity • data confidentiality References Atkinson RD. 2020. The state of US advanced tech indus- • restricted data flow try competitiveness and what to do. Presentation to NIST, • timely response to events Oct 19. Available at https://www.nist.gov/system/files/ documents/2020/10/19/3.%20Rob%20Atkinson_VCAT_ • resource availability. NIST.pdf. Bucy M, Finlayson A, Kelly G, Moye C. 2016. The “how” of Culture transformation. New York: McKinsey & Company. Embracing new technology—such as self-calibrating Candell R, Kashef M. 2017. Industrial wireless: Problem space, quantum-based sensors—requires a cultural shift. success considerations, technologies, and future direction. Measurement assurance is based on an international Resilience Week, Sep 18–22, Wilmington DE. system of intercomparisons, accreditation, and assess- Candell R, Hany MT, Lee KB, Liu Y, Quimby JT, Remley ment. Quantum-based sensors can short-circuit this CA. 2018. NIST Guide to Industrial Wireless Systems labor-intensive foundation, but only if the global com- Deployments. Advanced Manufacturing Series 300-4. munity trusts it. Gaithersburg MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Competition Candell R, Kashef M, Liu Y, Foufou S. 2019. A SysML The United States has been slow to realize Industry 4.0. representation of the wireless factory work cell. Interna- Despite the potential offered by digital transformation, tional Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology initiatives fail with alarming frequency—a 2016 study by 104:119–40. McKinsey showed that 70 percent fail outright (Bucy et CTIA. 2020. Certification: Test Plan for Wireless Large- al. 2016), and Forbes placed this number as high as 84 per- Form-Factor Device Over-the-Air Performance, v. 2.0. cent (Rogers 2016). These false starts may be explained Washington. Online at https://ctiacertification.org/ as the tribulations of early adopters. They may also reflect test-plans/. a market failure to institutionalize the infrastructure Ferreira P, Reyes V, Mestre J. 2013. A web-based integration needed to realize the benefits of digital transformation. procedure for the development of reconfigurable robotic While US industry is grappling with its slow climb work-cells. International Journal of Advanced Robotic to success, other countries are investing. According to Systems 10(7):295. the Information Technology and Innovation Founda- Friedman J, Goldstein B. 2019. iNEMI Roadmap, Industrial tion, other countries are making Industry 4.0 policies a Internet of Things chapter. Available for purchase from priority by launching “pilot fabs” for smart manufactur- iNEMI (https://www.inemi.org/inemi-2019-roadmap). ing, documenting digitalization use cases (Germany has Holloway CL, Gordon JA, Jefferts S, Schwarzkopf A, identified over 300), and providing financial support to Anderson DA, Miller SA, Thaicharoen N, Raithel G. industry (Atkinson 2020). 2014. Broadband Rydberg atom-based electric-field probe: From self-calibrated measurements to sub-wavelength Conclusion imaging. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation In this brief overview, we have highlighted ways NIST 62(12):6169–82. is working to facilitate a cultural shift in the use of new The 40 BRIDGE

Kashef M, Vouras P, Jones R, Candell R, Remley KA. 2021. Newman ZL, Maurice V, Drake T, Stone JR, Briles TC, Temporal exemplar channels in high-multipath environ- Spencer DT, Fredrick C, Li Q, Westly D, Ilic BR, and 12 ments. Submitted for IEEE International Conf on Acoustics, others. 2019. Architecture for the photonic integration of Speech, and Signal Processing, Jun 6–11, Toronto. an optical atomic clock. Optica 6(5):680–85. Lee KB, Candell R, Bernhard H-P, Pang Z, Val I. 2020. Reli- NIST [National Institute of Standards and Technology]. able, high-performance wireless systems for factory auto- 2004. NIST unveils chip-scale atomic clock. NIST News, mation. Internal Report 8317. Gaithersburg MD: National Aug 27. Gaithersburg MD. Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST. 2019. NIST team demonstrates heart of next- Liu Y, Kashef M, Lee KB, Benmohamed L, Candell R. 2019. generation chip-scale atomic clock. NIST News, May 17. Wireless network design for emerging IIoT applications: Gaithersburg MD. Reference framework and use cases. Proceedings of the Rogers B. 2016. Why 84% of companies fail at digital trans- IEEE 107(6):1166–92. formation. Forbes, Jan 7. Academic makerspaces can quickly create holistic complementary teams and execute complicated projects under significant time pressure.

University Makerspaces and Manufacturing Collaboration: Lessons from the Pandemic

James D. McGuffin-Cawley and Vincent Wilczynski

The role of universities in addressing the needs of the manufacturing sector has been substantially evolving in the past decade because of macro trends and associated policy changes. Notably, the classic combination of James McGuffin-Cawley lecture and laboratory courses has been augmented by open-ended exploration and hands-on skill development in university makerspaces. Disruptions associated with the covid-19 pandemic have required new adaptations. The pandemic not only suspended existing practices but demanded that institutions assume new roles. University makerspace staff and resources were directed to support efforts related to research, design, manufacturing, and testing solutions. Such responses were possible because of the availability of academic talent in the technical operations required to make precise and complex articles and devices. There is broad, if informal, recognition that things will not return to the state that existed before the pandemic, so reflecting on lessons learned and considering appropriate actions for the future is warranted. Vincent Wilczynski

James McGuffin-Cawley is the Arthur S. Holden Professor of Engineering and faculty director, Sears think[box], in the Case School of Engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Vincent Wilczynski is the James S. Tyler Director of the Center for Engineering Innovation and Design in the School of Engineering & Applied Science at Yale University. The 42 BRIDGE

$%"$"# $ %$# #$$ "% $ $"!" !"$# $ # $# "& #

$%"$"# " " '( ! $$# $"!" !"$# % $%" & $# "& #

FIGURE 1 Expressions of making (a) and engineering (b).

Academic makerspaces can be leveraged and modi- Rosenbaum and Hartmann 2017; Wilczynski et al. fied to strengthen the relationship between manufac- 2017). turers and higher education in new ways. Experience The purpose of academic makerspaces is not specifi- suggests rich opportunities to guide universities in pre- cally aligned with that of manufacturing. Manufacturing paring students for a manufacturing career and, through engineering represents only half of the discipline-specif- research and technology transfer, to assist manufacturers ic skill development in typical academic makerspaces in making effective use of newer technologies and sci- (Wigner et al. 2016), where exploration of design is a entific results. key facet (Wilczynski et al. 2017) and the reintroduction of prototyping and fabricating has been identified as an Differences between Making and opportunity to link engineering skills to the humanities Manufacturing (Nieusma and Malazita 2016). In makerspaces partici- Making and manufacturing are distinct but complemen- pants learn and refine skills (such as design, fabrication, tary and involve similar skills. Both are advanced by testing) to develop prototypes and single-user artifacts. creativity and inventiveness. Making advances an idea Makerspaces also provide a comfortable and safe envi- into a prototype and manufacturing advances a proto- ronment and a support system for the complete novice type into a product. to acquire confidence while developing manufacturing- The technical unit operations are the same, but relevant technical skills. making typically involves small production volumes, To illustrate the distinction between making and whereas manufacturing spans production volumes from manufacturing, it is helpful to consider two expressions single digits to millions of parts (Kalpakjian and Schmid inspired by those developed by Harms and colleagues 2020). And making as an enterprise is distinct from (2004) in their analysis of the field of engineering manufacturing as a profession. Fully half of Americans (figure 1). self-identify as makers (Lou and Peek 2016); less than The first expression (figure 1a) represents the general 10 percent have manufacturing employment (Helper et process of transforming raw materials to effect a goal— al. 2012). that is, making something. It includes invention, proto- Academic makerspaces are conceptually connected to typing, design of experiments, and artistic expression, the long-recognized value of both experimentation and as well as manufacturing. From this perspective, making experience in learning (Kolb 2015). As a well-defined is a form of thinking and creativity that complements entity, they are traced to the MIT Fab Lab program that abstract conceptualization and reflective observation, grew out of Neil Gershenfeld’s course “How to Make while demonstrating both how to work within con- (Almost) Anything” (Gershenfeld 2005). They now straints and how to leverage and synthesize knowledge. involve a network of alumni, regional manufacturers, In addition, as a general practice, the making com- material suppliers, and a broad array of users, with estab- munity facilitates people working together and commu lished processes to accept external inquiries. During the nicating so that needs and desires get translated into last decade (Barrett et al. 2015; Lou and Peek 2016) designs that can be realized. All of these facets help they have moved from being unusual to expected, and develop attributes sought by employers, including there has been serious study of the role and impact of critical thinking and problem solving, communication academic and other makerspaces (Hilton et al. 2018; skills, teamwork, and collaborative skills. SPRING 2021 43

In making, the focus is on the characteristics of 1. Cultivate a positive perception of manufacturing $%"$"# $ %$# #$$ "% $ the product. Cost, time, and reproducibility are 2. Promote education and skills development for $"!" !"$# $ # $# "& # factors, but not prime considerations. In contrast, societal wellbeing implicit in manufacturing is an awareness of the 3. Develop effective policies to support global business primacy of economics, the need for documentation initiatives to ensure repeatability, scalability, tolerances, risk 4. Strengthen and expand infrastructures to enable $%"$"# " '( " ! $$# management, conformance to standards, through- future-oriented manufacturing $"!" !"$# % $%" & $# "& # put, and capitalization of facilities, among other 5. Encourage ecosystems for manufacturing innovation factors. Manufacturing supported by comprehen- worldwide sive engineering (figure 1b) offers societal benefit 6. Create attractive workplaces for all through widely available affordable devices that offer 7. Design and produce socially oriented products high performance and highly reliable operation. 8. Assist small and medium-sized enterprises with digi- The scale of mass manufacturing is not remotely tal transformation approached in the context of making. For example, 9. Explore the real value of data-driven cognitive annual light vehicle production is more than 90 million manufacturing worldwide (with a single popular model approaching or 10. Promote resource efficiency and country-specific exceeding 0.75M units). Similarly, smartphone produc- environmental policies tion exceeds 1.4 billion per year, and an astonishing One important response to the need for manufac- 200 billion aluminum cans are produced each year. turing-relevant research is a network of 15 institutes Furthermore, the extremely low tolerance of risk asso- designated Manufacturing USA1 (Molnar 2018). Its ciated with manufactured goods is generally not a guid- goals include facilitation of the transition of innova- ing criterion in the context of making. Even with small tive technologies into scalable, cost-effective, and production volumes, compliance with design specifica- high-performing domestic manufacturing capabilities, tions and industry standards is paramount with manu- and acceleration of the development of an advanced facturing, but typically not in the context of making, manufacturing workforce. In 2018 Manufacturing USA which is often done on a best-effort basis. Scaling up to supported nearly 500 research and development projects production levels safely is a challenge for all industries and more than 200,000 students in associated STEM (e.g., Fernandes et al. 2019; Reisman 1993; Ward et al. activities. In addition to its 244 government, govern- 2012), and the fact that it is so frequently accomplished ment lab, and not-for-profit members, the public-private is a testament to the professionalism and dedication of partnership includes 474 universities, colleges, and com- those involved. munity colleges, and 1129 companies (371 large and 858 Manufacturing enterprises that connect with univer- small manufacturers). Manufacturing USA has also been sities have much to offer academic makerspaces in terms singled out for NSF support (Wang 2016). of reliability testing methods, case studies of solutions to seemingly intractable problems, dealing with constraints, strategies for decision making, and prioritiza- tion methods. Making advances an International Support for Academic-Industry idea into a prototype and Collaboration The World Manufacturing Forum was established in manufacturing advances a 2018 as a collaboration of commercial enterprises, the prototype into a product. academic sector, and associations with the mission of generating and diffusing a manufacturing culture around the world and goals of economic equity and sustainable These developments set the stage for covid-19- development. Its report on the future of manufacturing motivated collaborations between manufacturers and includes ten short- and long-term recommendations, academic makerspaces. many of them relevant to university-based initiatives (Taisch et al. 2018): 1 https://www.manufacturingusa.com/institutes The 44 BRIDGE

Covid-19 and Important Contributions of testing/certification, packaging, and distribution—all Academic Makerspaces areas beyond their normal expertise. The distinction In March 2020 most US institutions of higher edu between making and manufacturing became immedi- cation abruptly shifted from in-person on-campus ately apparent. The PPE need, for example, was simply instruction to remote learning, affecting as many as too large for makerspaces to address (e.g., Westervelt 14 million students (Hess 2020). One consequence 2020). Impact required leveraging existing and new was that user facilities such as academic makerspaces relationships among makerspaces, regional healthcare suddenly had excess capacity and assumed new roles. providers, and manufacturers. A number of them reconfigured to support their insti- Often, makerspaces served as a conduit to medical tutional mission, producing parts to support distance professionals, with industry, making, and manufactur- learning—such as classroom models and demonstration ing professionals working together in ad hoc teams components—and projects, courses, and laboratories. to create solutions. Makerspace employees served as Even while responding to these new demands, there was liaison or interpreter between clinical engineers and still often excess capacity. professional peers in manufacturing. This role illustrates a potentially important and transformative partnership that could be continued after the pandemic. In other cases, makerspaces (and university research The pandemic required labs) fulfilled a quality assurance function in the manu leveraging existing and facturing process when medical technology or PPE required performance verification. Makerspaces pivoted new relationships among to create tests, evaluation systems, and processes to validate material that lacked external certification, makerspaces, regional such as respirators, surgical masks, and ventilator com- healthcare providers, ponents. However, while these are standard operations for manufacturing industries, they are not commonly and manufacturers. a component of makerspace operations, and the role of regulatory agency oversight for PPE and medical They were also able to respond to the pandemic technology was perhaps underrecognized early on. directly, in partnership with the manufacturing commu- Nevertheless, makerspace staff took care to ensure that nity, by addressing needs, challenges, and opportunities potentially unsafe equipment was not introduced into related to the following realities: the community. This represents another opportunity for manufacturers to work together with universities. • The existing supply chain was unable to meet the dramatic increase in demand for personal protective Illustrative Case Studies equipment (PPE). To illustrate makerspace responses to the pandemic, we • Traditional demand for many manufactured goods briefly review three case studies. suffered a sudden drop, creating excess capacity. Academic Makers Collaborate to Produce • Supply chains, particularly those that drew on inter- Face Shields national suppliers, became rapidly depleted in raw At Case Western Reserve University (CWRU), the materials. limited availability of face shields was an early priority • Standard operating procedures for entities that rely in the pandemic. The shields have three components: on close-proximity interactions with broad swaths of headband, clear face shield, and rubber strap. An open- the population (e.g., health care, hospitality, and edu- source design for a 3D-printed face shield was available cation) changed fundamentally—and these changes (Prusa 2020), but the cycle time for production in the appear to be becoming institutionalized. maker community was daunting. The components can be produced in a makerspace The early stages of the pandemic placed makerspaces using a combination of fused deposition for the head- in a surrogate manufacturing position, suddenly faced band and laser cutting for the clear face shield and with challenges associated with inventory, supply chain, SPRING 2021 45

rubber strap, but the cycle times are long relative to There are many other examples at CWRU and manufacturing operations: The cycle time to make 48 other universities. The lesson here is that the academic rubber straps using a laser cutter was about 48 min- makerspace community quickly created holistic com utes (60 sec each), whereas the same quantity could be plementary teams and executed complicated projects manufactured by die cutting on a sheet-fed clicker die under significant time pressure. in about 1.5 minutes total (1.9 sec each). And to make It will be valuable to incorporate this type of rapid two clear face shields using a laser cutter would take response into standard operating procedures for aca- about 1 minute (30 sec each), whereas they could be demic makerspaces. Successfully confronting the chal- manufactured by die cutting on a roll-fed clicker die in lenge of true manufacturing, rather than prototyping, about 5 seconds total (2.5 sec each). creates an experience base for universities to leverage The largest time sink was for producing the headband. in future partnerships with industrial firms. Making two headbands on an industrial 3D printer would take about 40 minutes (20 min each), whereas Creation of Rapid Testing Capacity for Respirators they could be manufactured by injection molding on a In another example, quality assurance principles com- 2-cavity mold in about 8 seconds (4 sec each). In this monly associated with manufacturing were applied at a example, making entailed a production rate of 3 units university makerspace to ensure that PPE met specified per hour whereas manufacturing yielded 900 units per standards. hour. Multiple cavities and other standard techniques The pandemic rapidly stressed the PPE supply chain enabled more than a doubling of throughput using com- in the Northeast United States, prompting hospitals to mon manufacturing methods. reach out beyond their normal vendors. For respirators, A team was formed with two universities, three manu- donated supplies and material from potential vendors facturers, and an industrial design firm (CWRU 2020).2 were not always certified (by the National Institute A faculty member at one university designed injection for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH) as N95 molding tooling. The academic makerspace staff at the respirators. In the absence of this certification, hospitals second university prototyped and validated adjustments needed methods to evaluate respirator quality. to the original designs for molding and die cutting in consultation with the industrial designer and academics with relevant expertise. Manufacturing and logistics were handled by the companies. Makerspace staff designed It took less than 2 weeks to progress from idea to the start of production. The collaboration resulted in and implemented a local 150,000 face shields manufactured and delivered within respirator testing station 30 days—where no supply chain had existed. Collabora- tion with a local manufacturing extension partnership based on NIOSH extended the impact to the scale of mass manufacturing (MAGNET 2020). testing guidelines. The critical takeaway is that if CWRU had tried to make face shields using only its own prototyping equipment it would have failed. The fact that the university’s At Yale University a team was formed in late March technically trained people reached out and formed 2020 to address this issue, with physicians and supply partnerships allowed a nontraditional set of small chain logisticians from the hospital, researchers and manufacturing firms to produce face shields at rates design staff at the university’s makerspace (Yale Center comparable to those of large vertically integrated firms for Engineering Innovation and Design), and faculty. (e.g., 100,000/week by Ford in Troy, MI). The CWRU With expertise in design, electronics, fabrication, and example shows that universities are gaining expe- testing, makerspace staff served as the conduit between rience in real manufacturing and thereby developing the medical and research communities to quickly design experience that can foster better university-industry and implement a local respirator testing station based partnerships. on NIOSH testing guidelines. Components for the testing station were manufactured on site. 2 White Label Face Shields, https://whitelabelfaceshields.com/ The 46 BRIDGE

The team created a test station to evaluate the effi- However, there is a serious gap in manufacturing- ciency and flow impedance of uncertified respirators. relevant higher education. A technical staff mem- Performance tests documented the system’s accuracy ber of the national laboratory subsequently argued and precision, and the results were verified using inde- that “those capabilities should have existed outside a pendent measurement devices. national laboratory.”3 Academic makerspaces can—and should—be used to build the bridge between making and manufacturing, developing the capacity to quickly get to a prototype while considering safety, the role of Many university makerspaces design on ease of production, cost-effective decision have space to jointly making, and other factors and constraints. host outreach events with Opportunities The large number and broad distribution of academic manufacturing firms. makerspaces create opportunities for collaborative work to support manufacturing and benefit society, consistent with the recommendations of the World Manufacturing At the height of the pandemic’s spring wave, respira- Forum. Aspects of university infrastructure are also well tors arrived daily for testing, and the results on each aligned with the mission and goals of the Manufacturing mask’s fit, efficiency, and flow impedance were provided USA institutes and their supporting federal agencies, within 24 hours. The method was published to enable the needs and desires of manufacturing firms and com- others to develop local respirator testing platforms panies, and priorities of regional, state, and federal (Schilling et al. 2020). government. And the pandemic reemphasized both the benefits of and need for collaboration in a highly visible An Academic-Industry-Federal Lab Collaboration and compelling way. Another collaboration that included production of face Many university makerspaces serve the public and shields underscores the distinction of making versus may have space that can be used for outreach events manufacturing in terms of production rates and raises held jointly with manufacturing firms. Doing so avoids other important points as well. This was a three-way challenges associated with an industrial setting, such partnership of the federal Manufacturing Demonstra- as safety or noise concerns, the need to disrupt regular tion Facility at Oak Ridge National Laboratory; the production, and the possibility of technology leakage. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, involving a faculty University-hosted events can also show both what member in advanced composites and manufacturing types of educational programs lead to different career innovation; and a global manufacturer of medical sup- options and clever and impactful work that can inspire plies (ORNL 2020). a wider community. A well-run makerspace reflects an The manufacturer, seeking to produce face shields, attractive and appealing workplace that welcomes the recognized the need for a new type of mold to increase involvement of others. By cultivating entrepreneurial production rates but did not have the time to fully activities, academic makerspaces become natural hosts research potential solutions. It collaborated with the or cosponsors of events and may inspire collaboration university for design knowledge and the federal labora- and even curricular reforms that introduce engineering tory for unique additive manufacturing technology to and other students to policy, supply chain (including produce the new mold. The manufacturer began pro- resource efficiency), financing, and risk analysis. duction with a manual approach, then added automa- Finally, university makerspaces and engineering pro- tion technology to increase production rates—more grams are in a very strong position to explore design than 40,000/day—and reduce unit cost. for manufacturing. This can be fostered by engaging This example demonstrates the value of federal invest- and collaborating with students and community groups ment, state investment, and the establishment and focused on socially oriented products. maintenance of public-private and academic-private sector relationships to synthesize their complementary 3 Scott Smith, group leader, Machining and Machine Tool knowledge to achieve rapid high-impact redeployment. Research, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, in personal conversation with JDMC, Feb 4, 2021. SPRING 2021 47

Academic makerspaces are inherently collaborative Lou N, Peek K. 2016. By the numbers: The rise of the makerspaces that can demonstrate the action of business, in space. Popular Science 288(2):88. this case manufacturing, as an agent of world benefit. MAGNET [Ohio Manufacturing Extension Partnership]. As evidenced by covid-19 partnerships, collaborations 2020. Making a powerful pivot to save lives. Apr 9. between the manufacturing and making communities Molnar MF. 2018. Manufacturing USA Annual Report, FY accelerate progress in both domains. 2017. Advanced Manufacturing Series (NIST AMS)-600- 3. Gaithersburg MD: NIST. Acknowledgments Nieusma D, Malazita JD. 2016. “Making” a bridge: Critical The authors are grateful for the critical review of the making as synthesized engineering/humanistic inquiry. original draft by Steve Schmid of the University of Paper 16105, Proceedings, ASEE Conf & Exposition, North Carolina at Charlotte, and both Scott Smith and Jun 26–29, New Orleans. Lonnie Love of Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Their ORNL [Oak Ridge National Laboratory]. 2020. Advanced critique and suggestions led us to sharpen our arguments manufacturing innovation helps industry in COVID-19 and emphasize important points. fight. May 4. Prusa J. 2020. 3D printed face shields for medics and profes- References sionals. Prague: Prusa Research. Barrett TW, Pizzico M, Levy BD, Nagel RL, Linsey JS, Talley Reisman HB. 1993. Problems in scale-up of biotechnology KG, Forest CR, Newstetter WC. 2015. A review of univer- production processes. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology sity maker spaces. ASEE Annual Conf & Exposition, Jun 13(3):195–253. 14–17, Seattle. Rosenbaum LF, Hartmann B. 2017. Where be dragons? Chart- CWRU [Case Western Reserve University]. 2020. Case West- ing the known (and not so known) areas of research on aca- ern Reserve University teams with Nottingham Spirk, demic makerspaces. Paper 033, 2nd Internatl Symposium Penn State Behrend to create COVID-19 face shields. The on Academic Makerspaces, Sep 24–27, Cleveland. Daily, Mar 31. Schilling K, Gentner DR, Wilen L, Medina A, Buehler C, Fernandes DF, Majidi C, Tavakoli M. 2019. Digitally printed Perez-Lorenzo LJ, Godri Pollitt KJ, Bergemann R, Bernardo stretchable electronics: A review. Journal of Materials N, Peccia J, and 2 others. 2020. An accessible method for Chemistry 7(45):14035–68. screening aerosol filtration identifies poor-performing com- Gershenfeld NA. 2005. Fab: The Coming Revolution on Your mercial masks and respirators. Journal of Exposure Science Desktop—From Personal Computers to Personal Fabrica- and Environmental Epidemiology. tion. New York: Basic Books. Taisch, M, Arena DN, Gorobtcova P, Kiritsis D, Luglietti R, Harms AA, Baetz BW, Volti RR. 2004. Engineering in Time: May G, Morin TR, Wuest T. 2018. The 2018 World Manu- The Systematics of Engineering History and Its Contempo- facturing Forum Report: Recommendations for the Future rary Context. London: Imperial College Press. of Manufacturing. Milan: World Manufacturing Foundation. Helper S, Krueger T, Wial H. 2012. Locating American Wang G. 2016. Dear Colleague Letter: Advanced Manufactur- Manufacturing: Trends in the Geography of Production. ing Research to Address Basic Research Enabling Innova- Washington: Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings. tion at Manufacturing USA Institutes. NSF 17-030, Nov 18. Hess A. 2020. How coronavirus dramatically changed college Ward MJ, Halliday ST, Foden J. 2012. A readiness level for over 14 million students. CNBC, Mar 26. approach to manufacturing technology development in Hilton EC, Forest CR, Linsey JS. 2018. Slaying dragons: the aerospace sector: An industrial approach. Proceedings, An empirical look at the impact of academic maker- Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of spaces. Paper 01, 3rd Internatl Symposium on Academic Engineering Manufacture 226(3):547–52. Makerspaces, Aug 3–5, Palo Alto. Westervelt E. 2020. Can the US crowdsource its way out of a Kalpakjian S, Schmid S. 2020. Automation of manufacturing mask shortage? No, but it still helps. NPR, Mar 25. processes and operations, chap 37, section 37.2.1 in: Manu- Wigner A, Lande M, Jordan SS. 2016. How can maker skills fit facturing Engineering and Technology, 8th ed. New York: in with accreditation demands for undergraduate engineer- Pearson. ing programs? ASEE Annual Conf and Exposition, Jun 26, Kolb DA. 2015. Experiential Learning: Experience as the New Orleans. Source of Learning and Development, 2nd ed. New York: Wilczynski V, Wigner A, Lande M, Jordan S. 2017. The value Pearson Education. of higher education academic makerspaces for accreditation and beyond. Planning for Higher Education 46(1):32–40. Considerations for designing manufacturing supply chains to be resilient in the face of likely future disruptions.

Designing the Global Supply Chain in the New Normal

Hau L. Lee

The year 2020 was one of turbulence and unprecedented challenges. Global companies had already been redesigning their supply chains in response to escalating trade frictions, threats of higher tariffs, and increasing protectionism from governments in many countries, but the covid-19 pandemic presented even more complex issues as disruptions resulted in major shifts in both demand and supply. Hau Lee (NAE) is the The need for shifts will persist as the new normal is likely to involve Thoma Professor of increasingly frequent disruptions—other pandemics, earthquakes, floods, Operations, Information, hurricanes, trade disputes, perhaps even human-made disasters. In addition, and Technology in the globalization is expected to yield highly unpredictable opportunities that Graduate School of will require prompt action to meet customer needs and demands. This article Business at Stanford focuses on the design of the supply chain in this new environment. University. Supply Chain Weaknesses Exposed by the Pandemic When the pandemic hit different parts of the world, there were soon shortages of products because of offshored production, primarily to China (“the world’s factory”). The pandemic exposed the risk of having a single source: when that source was disrupted, the company’s supply chain quickly broke. The massive breakdown in supply chains has also been attributed to excessively lean processes in practice: “just-in-time” operational processes hold very little buffer inventory to protect against unexpected disturbances. SPRING 2021 49

Cost considerations also reduced capacity levels to the • What is the role of total (landed) and other costs in minimum. changing a supply chain design? A number of remedies have been suggested. In the • To what extent are trade agreements and customs United States the most common is to address the risk of duties a determining factor in the design of a supply overreliance on China as the manufacturing base. Com- chain? panies have been advised to diversify their supply bases, either instead of or in addition to China (the latter is • What are the factors to consider in reshoring produc- referred to as the “China Plus One” strategy). tion or pursuing a combination strategy, with both Coupled with the diversification strategy is the push off- and reshoring? And how should diversified supply for more domestic or regional supply chains to safeguard bases be used differently? against future shocks, as managing a disruption at a far- • What is the best way to balance the trade-off between away site is much more difficult than at a nearby one. cost efficiency and redundancy to ensure flexibility in Because being too lean in the supply chain is risky, the face of supply chain disruptions? some redundancies in the form of buffer inventory or capacity are appropriate. Of course, greater lead time and flexibility in production processes through automa- Assessment of Total Landed Costs tion and labor upskilling are always helpful. One of the pitfalls in redesigning the supply chain Implementation of these recommendations could either by moving a factory to a new location—domestic lead to increased investments in digital technologies, or offshored—or diversifying to multiple locations is an reshoring, dual sourcing, more inventory stockpiling, incomplete landed-cost analysis. and extra idle capacity. Shih (2020) provides an excel- The total landed cost is the end-to-end cost from lent overview of the risks and potential ways forward. sourcing point to product delivery, covering transport of the raw materials for production through multiple Factors to Consider in Supply Chain Design intermediate points to reach the demand destination. Protecting supply chains against disruptions by adding The cost should also account for the riskiness of disrup- redundancies such as increased buffer inventory and tions and other vulnerabilities throughout the process. additional capacity can be costly. The inefficiencies introduced could lead to the loss of competitiveness. Companies that once maintained ample inventory and Every supply chain redesign extra capacity were pressured to reduce the buffers for cost efficiency when no major disruption occurred and involves potential changes they were left with excess inventory. Such oscillation creates nervousness in the system and hurts the long- in sourcing costs, processing term health of the supply chain. costs, and logistics costs. For security reasons, a certain level of domestic supply chain with redundancy for essential products is desirable. But it may not be feasible or it may be too costly Every supply chain redesign involves potential to develop a complete, domestic, vertical supply chain changes in the sourcing costs of the raw materials, for some products, even in resource-rich countries. And processing costs at the site, and logistics costs to get a disaster in the home country may completely disrupt products to the destination points. The logistics costs the domestic supply chain. So a diversified global sup- include customs duties and freight. These are the obvi- ply chain is likely to be more resilient than a totally ous components of the total landed costs, but there are domestic one. many other components (e.g., inventory, border delays, A survey of executives of global companies found quality, and risks of regulatory or code of conduct vio- that supply chain design requires more than simply lations) that require consideration. Careful evaluation following one best practice principle (Cohen et al. may reveal that a new supply source is not as attractive 2018). It is a balancing act among multiple objec- as it first appeared. tives and risks and requires careful consideration of the Operations research models have been developed for following questions: such evaluation. For example, one analysis of network The 50 BRIDGE design based on landed-cost components considered cost of such a closure or discontinuation of a relation- taxes, local government incentives, customs duties, ship should be factored into the total landed cost. One local content requirements, and transfer prices (shown may have to think twice if that cost is prohibitive. in the mathematical programming model described in Cohen and Lee 1989). Customs Duties, Trade Agreements, and Less obvious, but critically important, are the costs “Product DNA” associated with crossing borders—what the World Bank The calculation of customs duties as part of the total calls “cross-border logistics frictions” (Hausman et al. landed cost may not be simple. It depends on the bill of 2005, p. 1). In addition to customs duties, these are the material for the product (i.e., the components and sub- costs and time involved in getting products through assembly of the product) and the location of the manu- borders, such as loading and unloading from shipping facture of the components, subassemblies, and final vessels, documentation requirements, waiting for inspec- assembly, all of which are often governed by various tions, and delays incurred at port facilities. One item bilateral and regional trade agreements. Whether a final singled out by the World Bank as a significant source of product can be labeled as made in a particular country delay is the number of signatures—ranging from a few to depends on its content, or “DNA”—its structure and 48—required by the receiving government. Such logis- the origins of its components. All of these factors deter- tics frictions can be a major impediment to the attrac- mine the customs rate for products entering a country. tiveness of trade between countries (Hausman et al. There has been a proliferation of trade agreements 2014) and are part of the total landed cost. in the past few decades—from three in 1970 to more than 300 in 20201—that specify rules, including customs duty rates, for trade in specific products between The costs of noncompliance two or more countries. The rules may allow duty-free treatment or reduced duties if certain requirements are and breaches— met. The agreements may have expiration dates, with options to renew or modify rates and terms. and of monitoring to For these reasons trade agreements may affect supply reduce or prevent them— chain design decisions. For example, the US shoe company Crocs retained its manufacturing plant in Canada are part of the to make products for export to Israel, taking advantage of the zero duty rate stipulated in the trade agreement total landed cost. between Canada and Israel (Hoyt 2007). The Logan car made by Renault also illustrates the impact of trade agreements on supply chain deci- When setting up supply sources in emerging and sions (Lee and Silverman 2008). Intended primarily developing economies—for example, for Central for markets in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and America to serve the North American markets, North North Africa, the Logan was originally built entirely in Africa or Eastern Europe to serve the European Union, Romania. But the country quickly ran out of capacity or Southeast Asia to be part of a diversified strategy to when the car became unexpectedly popular in Western reduce reliance on China—it is important to account Europe. After Romania’s EU accession in 2007, parts pro- for the risk of problems or violations in sustainability duced there qualified as European parts, so, to get duty- in new supply sources. The costs of noncompliance free shipping, Renault took advantage of the complex set and breaches—and of monitoring to reduce or prevent of trade agreements between Romania and Morocco and them—are part of the total landed cost. between Morocco and the European Union. Instead of Finally, another component often missed is the cost investing in the facility and manufacturing processes for of exit. A new production site may turn out not to be a the whole car in Morocco, Renault arranged to ship the permanent one. Changes in market demands, technolo- core kit of parts from Romania to Morocco and used gies, economic or geopolitical conditions, or trade rela- the factory in Morocco for the final assembly of the vehi- tionships may result in the need to redesign the network cle. With enough of the value of the parts imported, the and to close a site or abandon the supply source. The 1 World Trade Organization, http://rtais.wto.org/UI/charts.aspx# SPRING 2021 51

Logan assembled in Morocco could satisfy the rules of TABLE 1 Mixed sourcing strategies origin to achieve a duty-free rate for the finished vehicle Flexible source Cost-efficient source shipped to Europe, saving 10 percent duty. Volume-based Variable volume Stable volume In the United States in 2019, as import tariffs on Product-based Risky, essential Stable, nonessential bicycles made in China increased and threatened to go up even higher, some bicycle companies were able to Time-based Ramp-up & end of life Mature phase switch to make bike frames in Cambodia while continu- Process-based Critical, postponement Generic ing to buy about half the components from producers in China (Singh 2019). The finished bicycles from apparel or standard consumer electronics, or noncrit- Cambodia could enter the US tariff-free, designated as ical products); or risky, uncertain demand (e.g., for made in Cambodia as long as 35 percent of the costs fashion apparel or advanced electronics, or essential were derived from that country. products such as those critical for national security). Optimizing Mixed Sourcing for Cost Efficiency • With a time-based strategy the cost-efficient source and Flexibility is used for products at their mature phase, when When companies use a dual or multisourcing strat- demand tends to be more stable and predictable; the egy, they need to take into account the characteristics, flexible source is used in the ramp-up or end-of-life strengths, and weaknesses of each site. phase, when demand is more volatile. Broadly speaking, sites can be classified as “cost- • Finally, a process-based strategy recognizes that the efficient” or “flexible” (this is a crude classification but initial stage of the production process tends to be is used here to illustrate the idea). Cost-efficient sites more standardized, for building generic core engines, provide a low cost for production or procurement, but for example; later, in the customization or post may be less flexible and require longer lead times. Flex- ponement stage, products are customized or differen- ible sites tend to have better engineering support and tiated into options or distinct products. The earlier capabilities to enable quick responses, but higher costs. standardization stage has more stable, predictable Offshored manufacturing sites in very low cost coun- demand, while the customization stage involves tries may be viewed as cost-efficient sites, and onshore greater demand uncertainties. Hence, the cost- (domestic) or nearshore (regional) sites as flexible sites. efficient source is better suited for the initial stage, A combination of these types may be effective. and the flexible source better for the customization As an example of mixed sourcing, Hewlett-Packard or postponement stage. used a cost-efficient site to produce at a fixed volume and a flexible site to produce variable volume in response to fluctuating and uncertain market demands Balancing Cost Efficiency and Redundancy: (Olavson et al. 2010). The company thus enjoyed the Capacity Building and Agility benefits of both. Besides a resilient supply chain design, best practice There are other ways to use multiple sites based on calls for reexamining the need for buffer inventory and the characteristics of the sites and the products. Within buffer capacity. With the increasing uncertainties of a company, the needs of multiple products at various the new normal, two additional capabilities are needed: stages of the lifecycle and the manufacturing processes quick capacity building and agile configuration of the involved are different. The different product needs and supply network. manufacturing processes must be matched with the sites When the pandemic hit in early 2020, Taiwan was that have the right characteristics. This is the basis of able to respond quickly to make personal protective supply chain strategy alignment (Lee 2002). Different equipment (PPE) not because it had domestic verti- strategies are shown in table 1. cal supply chains of PPE or a large buffer inventory of the products. Instead, Taiwan has the know-how of • A volume-based mixed strategy addresses the need to the machining industry, which was leveraged to make accommodate both fixed and variable volume. PPE production equipment (Fang and Li 2020). This • A product-based strategy depends on the nature of highlights the importance of having the knowledge demand for the product: stable demand (e.g., for basic and capability to build capacity when needed, instead The 52 BRIDGE

IP exchanges and control, An agile configuration platform requires a network of User- prototype, manufacturing process multiple modules (figure 1). The technology exchange specification, feasibility test Technology interaction exchange module allows designers and IP holders to collaborate design on new product design, do rapid prototyping, perform Market demand feasibility tests, and design for manufacturability. With assessment, supplier capability assessment, the user-interaction design module, potential users design for manufacturing test the product, provide feedback, and give an early indication of market acceptance. The sourcing and Sourcing and Logistics configuration module facilitates identification of the configuration Delivery coordination, channel management development, lead time component, subassembly, and final assembly partners in management, service and repair the supply network for building the product, and the logistics management module engages the right players FIGURE 1 Agile configuration platform for new products. IP = for channel development, order fulfillment, and after- intellectual property. sales service and repair. of maintaining costly extra capacity or inventory just Conclusion in case. Global supply chain design in the new, postpandemic Companies must strengthen their ability to create normal requires a full understanding of total landed new capacities as needed. The know-how involved costs, integration of product design, alignment of the in manufacturing process technologies is critical and characteristics of production sites with product DNA should not be outsourced or offshored. When compa- and trade restrictions, and, finally, the ability to build nies diversify their manufacturing footprint, they should capacity and reconfigure supply networks quickly. locate some sites in a region with a capacity-building ecosystem. This was the machine-building ecosystem References that Taiwan used. Cohen MA, Lee HL. 1989. Resource deployment analysis of A disruption like covid-19 could lead to an instant global manufacturing and distribution networks. Journal of need for products that did not even exist before. Social Manufacturing and Operations Management 2(2):81–104. media and fast-changing fashion trends can also rapidly Cohen MA, Cui S, Ernst E, Huchzermeier A, Kouvelis P, create opportunities for new products. Companies need Lee H, Matsuo H, Steuber M, Tsay A. 2018. OM Forum— to have the capability to configure a new supply net- Benchmarking global production sourcing decisions: work on the fly. Such a network is not just about sup- Where and why firms offshore and reshore. Manufacturing pliers of materials and final assembly, but about quickly and Service Operations Management 20(3):389–402. connecting designers, intellectual property (IP) owners, Fang TF, Li L. 2020. Taiwan’s “hidden champions” help prototype builders, market testers, and new sales and coronavirus fightback. Nikkei Asian Review, Apr 24. logistics channels. Hausman W, Lee HL, Subramanian U. 2005. Global Logistics A digitally connected platform is effective for agile Indicators, Supply Chain Metrics, and Bilateral Trade configuration. Haier, which owns GE Appliances, Patterns. Policy Research Working Paper 3773. Washington: has achieved such agility with a digital platform, World Bank. COSMOplat (Xie and Li 2020), that connects the enti- Hausman W, Lee HL, Subramanian U. 2014. The impact of ties involved in design, market test, and production of logistics performance on trade. Production and Operations industrial appliances for new product generation and Management 22(2):236–56. launch. This is how the company was able to create a Hoyt D. 2007. Crocs: Revolutionizing an industry supply mobile isolation ward for hospitals in China during the chain model for competitive advantage. Stanford Gradu- worst of the pandemic. The country was in lockdown ate School of Business Case GS57. at the time of the Chinese New Year, and there was a Lee H. 2002. Aligning supply chain strategies with product need for mobile isolation wards that could be moved uncertainties. California Management Review 44(3):105–19. from hospital to hospital as patient loads shifted. This Lee H, Silverman A. 2008. Renault’s Logan car: Managing was not an existing product, and so the supply network customs duties for a global product. Stanford Graduate did not exist. Haier’s digital platform made it possible to School of Business Case GS62. design and build the product in 2 weeks. SPRING 2021 53

Olavson T, Lee H, DeNyse G. 2010. A portfolio approach to Xie Y, Li Y. 2020. Research on Haier COSMOPlat promoting supply chain design. Supply Chain Management Review industry upstream and downstream collaboration and cross- 15(4):20–27. border integration. IEEE 7th Internatl Conf on Industrial Shih WC. 2020. Global supply chains in a post-pandemic Engineering and Applications, Apr 16–21, Bangkok. world. Harvard Business Review 98(5):82–89. Singh RK. 2019. How US bike companies are steering around Trump’s China tariffs. Reuters Business News, Feb 25. Urgent and continued work in frugal engineering and manufacturing is essential for addressing technosocioeconomic inequity in the United States. A Case for Frugal Engineering and Related Manufacturing for Social Equity

Ajay P. Malshe, Dereje Agonafer, Salil Bapat, and Jian Cao

Ajay Malshe Dereje Agonafer Salil Bapat Jian Cao

Traditionally, problems arising from lack of access to basic human needs such as food insecurity, affordable health care are thought of as global problems only pertinent to developing and underdeveloped countries. However, these problems silently exist and are growing in developed countries such as the United States. These problems are driven by the equity gaps put to

Ajay Malshe (NAE) is the R. Eugene and Susie E. Goodson Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Purdue University. Dereje Agonafer (NAE) is the Presidential Distinguished Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at the University of Texas at Arlington. Salil Bapat is a postdoctoral researcher in mechanical engineering at Purdue. Jian Cao is the Cardiss Collins Professor of Mechanical Engineering and director of the Northwestern Initiative for Manufacturing Science and Innovation at Northwestern University. The following also contributed to this article: Stacey Connaughton, Samuel Graham, Ben Jones, Shreyes Melkote, Monsuru Ramoni, Arvind Raman, Devesh Ranjan, Joseph Sinfield, John Sutherland, and Yuehwern Yih. SPRING 2021 55

the forefront and further BOX 1 Disparities in access to basic human needs in urban and magnified by the covid-19 rural areas of the United States pandemic. This paper is presented in two parts. The 22.5% of African-American households are food insecure in urban areas, first part unfolds the clear double the national averagea equity gaps in access to basic human needs in America. In Rural communities (15-20% of US population) have worse healthcare the second part, we propose facilities than their urban and suburban counterparts, have fewer and illustrate the potential doctors, are uninsured, and travel long distances for health careb of frugal engineering and manufacturing approaches Native American communities are 19 times more likely than white to address these equity gaps. households to lack indoor plumbingc Further, the paper also highlights the importance of convergence among science, 79% of urbanites have access to home broadband, only 63% of d engineering, education, pol- Americans in rural areas have access to broadband icy, economics, community a https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/social-determinants-health/interventions-resources/food-insecurity engagement, and businesses b https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/health-disparities-affect-millions-rural-us-communities for understanding and devel- c http://uswateralliance.org/sites/uswateralliance.org/files/Closing the Water Access Gap in the United States_DIGITAL.pdf d https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/31/digital-gap-between-rural-and-nonrural-america-persists/ oping affordable and accessible solutions for the complex problem of inequity in urban and exacerbated by the covid-19 pandemic (Malshe and rural deserts in the United States. Through the and Bapat 2020). The US technosocioeconomic divide review of successful and representative frugal social obstructs upward social mobility necessary for eradicat- innovations around the world, we identify key attributes ing, for example, generational poverty (Malshe and of frugal engineering and manufacturing approach to Bapat 2020; Peterson and Mann 2020). guide social innovation for equity. Traditionally, the question of inequity is largely A recent study shows that since 1975 over $47 tril- addressed by social scientists, lawyers, and economists lion in wealth in the United States has been transferred and seldom by those in science, technology, engineer- from the poor and middle classes to the top 1 percent ing, and math (STEM) fields, despite the potential (Hanauer and Rolf 2020). Especially, during 10 months for technological innovations to address this problem. of the pandemic, “America’s billionaires have grown Beyond the need for more uniform digital connectiv- $1.1 trillion richer when 8 million Americans fell into ity (Tsatsou 2011), the broader role of scientific and the poverty of the final six months of 2020. The poverty technological innovations in addressing the problem of rate climbed 2.4% in the second half, nearly double the inequity in basic human needs has not been sufficiently largest annual increase in poverty since 1960, when some explored, especially via working with communities in groups have suffered more than others” (Egan 2021). need. Concurrently, since 1975 the population in urban and As evident, the complex problem of inequity is at the rural areas has increased significantly in America and intersection of multiple disciplines and could be under- other industrialized nations. Historically disadvantaged stood effectively as a convergent problem. According to groups in these regions are disproportionately affected the recent report of the Academies convergence of the by equity gaps, lacking in basic needs such as access to life sciences with fields including physical, chemical, nutritious food, clean water, internet connectivity for mathematical, computational, engineering, and social education, and basic health care (box 1). Technological sciences is a key strategy to tackle complex challenges advances remain unaffordable and inaccessible to many, and achieve new and innovative solutions (NRC 2014). given average US earnings of $34,000/capita in 2019.1 What is needed is a convergent approach that leverages Inaccessibility to basic needs has been further exposed the work of all stakeholders connected to this inequity gap including, for example, STEM scientists and engi- 1 US Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States (https://www. census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/INC910219#INC910218) neers, social scientists, and policymakers. The 56 BRIDGE

At the same time, there are examples of effectively place throughout the world. Although fundamental implemented social innovations across the world address- STEM knowledge and technology are available to address ing basic human needs, and they can enhance social challenges rooted in inequity, numerous barriers prevent equity through conscious and convergent efforts by sci- this know-how from benefiting those in need. entists, engineers, social scientists, and policy researchers. To identify hidden gaps that impede development, “Social innovations (SIs) are defined as new solutions the Purdue Innovation Science Laboratory conducted (products, services, models, markets, processes, etc.) that a comprehensive success factor analysis (Sinfield et simultaneously meet a social need (more effectively than al. 2020), comprising a systematic literature review existing solutions) and lead to new or improved capa- and automated data mining of sources (peer-reviewed bilities and relationships and better use of assets and articles, grey literature, case studies, and social media resources” (Caulier-Grice et al. 2012, p. 42 ). content). Analysis of over a dozen complex challenges around the world—from potable water availability in the Dominican Republic to food security in Uganda and small business opportunities in Southeast Asia— Technosocioeconomically revealed common barriers that drive inequity. constrained communities The analysis showed that populations around the globe are consistently marginalized by barriers associ- can benefit significantly ated with skill, wealth, physical/social access, time, behavior, attitude, and/or belief; in many cases, several from frugal scientific and of these barriers are present simultaneously (Sinfield et technological innovations. al. 2020). Additional large-scale literature and perspective mining, focused within the United States, performed to examine, for example, means to address poverty in Frugal engineering is characterized by at least an order urban settings, and drive adoption of new energy solu- of magnitude reduction in the use of resources—time, tions, reinforced the very same patterns. Thus, the bar- capital, space—for invention, innovation, and imple- riers that isolate and disenfranchise populations are mentation to address a specific problem. For example, a not unique—and are present in the United States as prestigious Rolex Award–winning innovation, the Zeer much as outside the nation. Overcoming these systemic pot-in-a-pot, provides refrigeration without electricity barriers that break the cause-effect chain of social equity in the very hot climate of Nigeria (Rolex.org 2000). will be a critical focus of any effort to achieve equal Without proper refrigeration, fresh produce spoils access to the resources that address fundamental needs. quickly and hampers the earning ability of farmers. The innovator, Mohammed Bah Abba, a potter by profes- Looking Inward: Gaps in Affordability and sion, realized evaporative cooling through porous clay Access to Meet Basic Human Needs in the pots for refrigeration. The solution benefited the local United States community by helping farmers extend the shelf life of Table 1 lists illustrative facts to highlight the inequities their produce, using local know-how (pottery) to create and challenges across urban and rural desert commu- jobs, and providing fresh produce for consumers. The nities in the United States with representative exam- following sections present the equity gaps present in the ples from Atlanta, Chicago, rural Indiana, and Navajo United States, a review of successful social innovations Nation. Such information is critical for identifying ways around the world followed by the proposed frugal engi- to achieve equity through accessible and affordable neering and manufacturing model that could be applied frugal innovations discussed later in this article. for social equity. Health Inequity in Urban Atlanta Traditional Viewpoint: Looking Outward in the There is considerable evidence across different US pop- World for Gaps ulation groups (see table 1A) of health disparities, many For decades, the United States STEM community has stemming from factors related to social, economic, and been engaged in addressing inequity across the globe, as physical conditions prevalent in these groups (NASEM challenges rooted in inequity are unfortunately common 2017; ODPHP 2020). SPRING 2021 57

TABLE 1 Health, water, food, and connectivity for education in United States urban and rural areas: Existing inequities and impacts of the covid-19 pandemic

Urban - Atlanta • Racial and ethnic minorities are affected disproportionately by obesity and associated chronic diseases such (A) as hypertension, diabetes, and coronary heart disease (CDC 2020). Health • The prevalence of chronic health risk factors among nonwhite and Hispanic Americans may be a contributing factor to the higher covid-19 death rates in these groups, especially for those under 65 years of age, although further studies are needed to establish a definitive correlation (Wortham et al. 2020).

Urban - Chicago .• In Ford Heights (25 miles south of downtown Chicago), nearly half of the households fall below the federal poverty line, and more than 90% of residents are Black. (B) • Structural inequities and floods cause financial loss ($2B, 2007–14), psychosocial damage, and impaired Water health (CNT 2014, 2015; Winters et al. 2015). .• Drinking water in those low-income areas costs 3x more than in lakeside affluent communities (Gregory et al. 2017). Families often need to choose between essential needs (e.g., water, food, electricity) and cannot afford flood protection.

Rural - Indiana • Residents of rural Indiana experience food insecurity at rates similar to those in urban centers. • Before the covid-19 pandemic, “child food insecurity rates ranged from 21.0% in Grant County [rural/ (C) mixed] to 11.9% in Hamilton County [urban],” despite downward trends in rural counties over the last Food several years (Silverman 2020). • As of 2017, 20.3% of children in rural Switzerland County, Indiana, were food insecure (Feeding America 2017) and 13% of the food insecure children were likely ineligible for federal nutrition programs because of their household incomes. Because of covid-19, analysts warn that Switzerland County could go from 15.6% to 21.5% of the overall food insecure population (Feeding America 2020).

Tribal land - Navajo Nation • Significant disparities in educational outcomes existed for Native American students before the covid-19 (D) pandemic—only 61% of New Mexico’s Native American students graduated with a high school diploma within 4 years (Kena et al. 2015). Connectivity for education • Public school systems experienced a decline in reading scores among 11th grade Native American students (McFarland et al. 2019) before covid-19 school closures. • School closures and the lack of access to online educational resources have the potential to widen the gap and exacerbate educational disparities between Native American students and their peers.

A characteristic attribute of affected population Water Inequity in Urban Chicago groups is that they are technosocioeconomically Chicago, commonly considered a fortunate city, a city constrained and lack access to affordable and quality by the American Great Lakes accounting for 21 per- health care. Consequently, these communities can cent of the Earth’s surface freshwater,2 shows significant benefit significantly from frugal scientific and techno- equity gaps as evidenced by the data presented in logical innovations. For example, noninvasive wear- table 1(B). In Chicago, undersized infrastructure creates able internet of things (IoT)–enabled wireless sensors flooding vulnerability in many low-income communi- manufactured at scale and at low cost can help bridge ties on the South Side, like Ford Heights. healthcare access gaps in these communities. Recent In July 2019 Northwestern University, Argonne advances in printed flexible electronics and nano National Laboratory, the University of Chicago, and manufacturing are making such low-cost innovations possible (Kwon et al. 2020). 2 The World’s Fresh Water Sources | The 71 Percent (https:// www.the71percent.org/the-worlds-fresh-water-sources) The 58 BRIDGE the Illinois Center for Urban Resilience and Environ- Hindi (2019) argues, food insecurity needs to be thought mental Sustainability hosted a workshop on Sustainable of as a systemic problem. Communities, health policy Urban Systems with an emphasis on the Chicago region experts, and scientists/engineers must work together to with support from the National Science Foundation. A advance technological and data-driven recommenda- major challenge identified at the workshop is to enable tions designed to address this pressing social issue. community groups to benefit directly from research projects (Miller and Dunn 2019), a challenge that we Inequity in Connectivity for Education on Tribal Lands believe can be met through social innovation and frugal The covid-19 pandemic has posed a serious threat to engineering and manufacturing, and by working with educational outcomes for Native American students, the community in need. who already struggled with inequality in internet connectivity (table 1D). This is particularly problematic as Food Inequity in Rural Indiana the country gears up for the 5G network, while many Food insecurity is a complex issue, intricately tied to mul- parts of the United States have little or no internet con- tiple, interdependent factors, including socioeconomic nectivity for basic education. status and race. Its impacts may be particularly signifi- Distance learning requires internet availability for cant for children. And as the covid-19 pandemic has students to stream online classes or download suggested revealed, public health crises and accompanying jolts material. The lack of internet to stream online classes to the ecosystem (e.g., sudden unemployment) can aug- or download suggested material leaves Native American ment food insecurity even more as depicted by the data students at a major deficit, exacerbating preexisting presented in table 1(C). When schools closed because disparities in educational attainment. This also means of the pandemic, a primary source of food-insecure chil- that students lack hands-on learning accompanied by dren’s healthy meals was also closed, compounding the real-time student-teacher interaction, a crucial compo- existing challenge. nent to effective learning. Activities to augment distance learning such as virtual visits to zoos, museums, aquariums, NASA education resources, and other STEM centers are also not accessible to students. A key to envisioning effective The frugal innovation approach, as presented in the technological SIs is to first next section, is thus critical to ensure that the technological advances remain affordable and accessible understand the particular to the communities in need. Instead of modifying the existing technology for higher performance, converging problem and its complexities the available expertise and infrastructure to ensure its relevant to a accessibility to deserts such as Navajo Nation will be a crucial social innovation step. specific community. Social Innovations, Frugal Engineering, and Manufacturing Those who are food insecure in rural Indiana often In contrast to the tech innovations average citizens live in a food desert—meaning they lack access to cannot access and/or afford (Malshe and Bapat 2020), healthful and affordable food because they don’t have SIs can address basic human needs using frugal tech- adequate transportation or enough money (or both)— nologies and provide affordable access and equity to and/or are in lower socioeconomic strata. Adding to underprivileged people. Frugal engineering and manu- these complications, the food insecure in food deserts facturing methods and innovations enable simplicity, rely on volunteers who are aging to bring them food affordability, effectiveness, accessibility, sustainabil- (Carriere and Ayres 2013). Now is the time to design ity, and scalability of timely societal interventions to and conduct sound, convergent research on the com- address challenges such as those described above. We plex, interconnected relationships among technosocio review seven representative SIs (summarized in table 2) economic, cultural, geographic (urban/rural), public from across the world to understand key attributes of health, and other variables related to food insecurity. As frugal engineering and manufacturing relevant for their SPRING 2021 59

TABLE 2 Representative international examples of frugally engineered social innovation and their attributes

Innovation Water filters Energy for Zeer, Pot-in- Grameen Fog Purdue Low-cost and (Hussam et al. lighting: pot (Rolex. Bank harvesting Improved sanitary pads innovator- 2008); Abul “Liter-of-light” org 2000); (NobelPrize. nets (Trevino Crop Storage (Venema servant leader Hussam (https:// Mohammed org); 2020); Abel (https:// 2014); A. literoflight. Bah Abba Muhammad Cruz picsnetwork. Muruganantham org/); Illac Yunus org) Diaz Location- Water Provide Refrigeration Access to Address water Food storage Sanitation specific purification energy to keep food capital for scarcity in to prevent awareness targeted to address (lighting) to fresh in the women, for arid regions damage due and personal problem/ arsenic electricity- desert heat in job creation of Peru to insects in hygiene in rural area of contamination scarce Nigeria in rural Western and India basic human in rural community Bangladesh Central Africa need Bangladesh in the urban Philippines Science and Composite- Water-filled Evaporative Cooperative Maximization Insecticide- Development engineering iron matrix recycled cooling community- of surface free, hermetic of easy-to-use solution: and sand plastic soda achieved owned area to sealing manufacturing approach filters arsenic, bottles without banking, with promote through setup for and charcoal/ mounted electricity financing via condensation multilayered cost-effective integration sand filters on roofs through microloans and water plastic bags sanitary pad residual iron to collect/ porous clay without capture by production and other refract pots requiring design impurities sunlight collateral for indoor lighting Community Point-of-use Communities Created jobs Household Synergy A farmer Self-help groups engagement water filtration taught how for potters, entrepreneurs between community- for women’s system to use locally taking increased community research employment reduces the sourced advantage of access and and local partnership through local need for recyclable local know- employment government; enables microproduction women to material to how by minimal point-of-need factories travel long create a supporting carbon use and distances to plastic light local footprint continuous collect water bulb businesses improvement of the product Price of $40 per filter $1 per bottle $1–2 per pot N/A, no- About $100 $150 annual <$0.20 per integrated usable for up profit/no-loss per net saving per sanitary pad; solution for to 5 years model household $1000 for effectiveness machine Effective Scalable and Integrated Reduced Avoided Access to Low-cost Better hygiene impact sustainable plastic waste food waste exploitation water for method of practices of the solution management by extending from loan domestic and storing grains; adopted by innovation impacting to over half the shelf life sharks agricultural >1.75 mil many women in on about 1 a million of produce use PICS bags rural India population million people people for farmers have been and families sold in West and Central Africa World-class NAE Grainger Asia Pacific Rolex Award Nobel Peace Multiple APLU award Govt. of India recognition award (2007) Social (2000) Prize (2006) awards for exemplary Padma Shri Innovation design (2020) award (2016) and more The 60 BRIDGE successful implementation and analyze the potential of ties and are well recognized for their success and are an SI frugal engineering and manufacturing model to presented through the lens of the above-discussed address inequities in the United States. factors of emphasis. They also benefit from an inno- A key to envisioning effective technological SIs is vator’s approach to servant leadership as discussed by to first understand the particular problem and its com- James Hunter (1998). In most cases, the innovators are plexities relevant to a specific community and then to immersed in the community and have experienced the address it using simple yet effective science and engi- problem first-hand while understanding the value of a neering solutions that can be readily adopted and imple- simple solution. They have a better understanding of mented in the community. It is also important for a solution that is “implementable” and “acceptable” community members who experience inequity to be to the community in need through a compassionate actively involved in the SI process to help develop the approach to bring the necessary change. Based on this solution and ensure its dissemination and continuous understanding, the frugal social innovations as proposed improvement. in this paper must be developed with the community as Unlike traditional academic STEM research for opposed to forcing them on the community. The pro- exploring and publishing new frontiers of science and posed convergent approach must also include the com- engineering, the emphasis of SI is on cost effectiveness, munity itself to ensure that an effective and acceptable which can be achieved through frugal engineering and solution is developed. manufacturing approaches such as components-off-the- Critical analysis of the representative SIs reported in shelf and assembly-based manufacturing. Also, open table 2 provides a sound foundation to develop a frugal innovation methods (not proprietary and/or patent- engineering and manufacturing model for social equity protected) ensure wider social effectiveness of the solu- in the United States. The key metrics and attributes of tion instead of the highest technological efficiency. the model are shown in figure 1. The examples in table 2 highlight specific areas of In the United States, SIs using frugal innovation basic human need in resource-constrained communi- and manufacturing approaches are essential to address

(a) (b) Attributes of social innovations • Simplicity in Frugal innovation under resource constraints science and (reduction by 100X in cost of innovation to engineering achieve intended purpose) approach for ease • Open source intellectual property for wide access Maximum of implementation • Use of locally Innovation led by social innovator and effectiveness of accessible entrepreneur as “servant” leaders immersed in the innovation materials and the community as opposed to expertise for • maximum Frugal Impact is on more than 10,000 people in sustainability efficiency engineering disadvantaged communities across the world, providing means for equity model for • Impacts are in the areas of food, water, successful employment, shelter, education, and energy Participation Frugal • Negligible carbon footprint from citizens social manufacturing experiencing • Innovations driven by communities for innovations (assembly-driven inequity for communities and COTS, community-driven • components-off- Participation in innovation process science and servant leadership the-shelf) engineering, policy, economics, and other STEM model Open innovation – nonproprietary and non-STEM fields and unprotected • Rapidly scalable (reduction by 10X in time to approach for accomplish intended purpose) wider accessibility • Simple, elegant, and robust • Accessible to “haves” and “have-nots”

FIGURE 1 Attributes of frugal engineeringFigure and 3 manufacturing The attributes model of fora frugal social innovation.engineering model SPRING 2021 61

a variety of problems concerning the equity gaps. For References example, in Los Angeles, rapid covid-19 test strips were Carriere D, Ayres J. 2013. Food insecurity in rural Indiana developed with participation from scientists and engi- (EC-773-W). West Lafayette: Purdue University Coopera- neers and the support of the political system. The strips tive Extension Service. could be manufactured at a fraction (5–10 percent) Caulier-Grice J, Davies A, Patrick R, Norman W. 2012. Social of the standard PCR test cost and could dramatically Innovation Overview: A deliverable of the project “The increase virus detection, according to the LA mayor theoretical, empirical and policy foundations for building (LAist 2020). Similar efforts are also used in developing social innovation in Europe” (TEPSIE), European Com- low-cost ventilators and personal protective equipment. mission. London: The Young Foundation. This solution relies on a components-off-the-shelf and CDC [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]. 2020. assembly approach which utilizes components that can Adult obesity causes & consequences. Atlanta. Online at be locally manufactured and readily available (Parmelee https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/causes.html. 2020). This aspect is especially pertinent in light of CNT [Center for Neighborhood Technology]. 2014. The the covid-19 pandemic, where relying on large manu- Prevalence and Cost of Urban Flooding: A Case Study of facturers and global supply chains caused significant Cook County, IL. Chicago. challenges. CNT. 2015. Phase One Report: RainReady Chatham. Urgent and continued work in frugal engineering and Chicago. manufacturing is essential for addressing technosocio- Egan M. 2021. America’s billionaires have grown $1.1 trillion economic inequity in the United States. richer during the pandemic. CNN Business, Jan 26. Feeding America. 2017. Map the Meal Gap: Child hunger & Summary and Convergence poverty in Indiana. Chicago. Technosocioeconomic inequity is technology-driven at Feeding America. 2020. The Impact of the Coronavirus on the convergence of basic human needs including water, Food Insecurity in 2020. Chicago. food, internet connectivity for education, and afford- Gregory T, Reyes C, O’Connell PM, Caputo A. 2017. Same able health care. This inequity exists across growing lake, unequal rates: Why our water rates are surging—and urban and rural deserts in the United States. As a con- why black and poor suburbs pay more. Chicago Tribune, vergent problem, the potential solutions must involve Oct 25. a convergence of talents from science, engineering, Hanauer N, Rolf DM. 2020. The top 1% of Americans have education, economics, policy, community engagement, taken $50 trillion from the bottom 90%—and that’s made businesses, and more. the US less secure. Time, Sep 14. The model of frugal innovations along with manu- Hindi M. 2019. Food insecurity in Indiana: Are food assis- facturing is executed using key characteristics includ- tance programs helping? ArcGIS StoryMaps, Oct 28. ing implementation of simple science and engineering Online at https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/129934068 fundamentals for easy and speedy implementation, use 45843658f0570fc66c9464d. of locally accessible materials and expertise for develop- Hunter JC. 1998. The Servant: A Simple Story about the ment and sustainability, frugal manufacturing processes True Essence of Leadership. New York: Crown. largely driven by the assembly of components-off-the- Hussam A, Ahamed S, Munir AKM. 2008. Arsenic filters for shelf, an open innovation platform for broad societal groundwater in Bangladesh: Toward a sustainable solution. participation including members of underprivileged The Bridge 38(3):14–23. communities, and innovations driven by maximum Kena G, Musu-Gillette L, Robinson J, Wang X, Rathbun A, effectiveness rather than perfect efficiency. Frugal inno- Zhang J, Wilkinson-Flicker S, Barmer A, Velez ED. 2015. vations have been effectively implemented by innova- The Condition of Education 2015 (NCES 2015-144). tors working with and for communities following the Washington: National Center for Education Statistics. attributes of the servant leadership approach. These Kwon Y-T, Kim Y-S, Kwon S, Mahmood M, Lim H-R, Park technosocial innovations are shown to bridge social S-W, Kang S-O, Choi JJ, Herbert R, Jang YC, and 1 other. inequity gaps globally and could be a potent model 2020. All-printed nanomembrane wireless bioelectronics for addressing technosocioeconomic inequity in the using a biocompatible solderable graphene for multimodal United States. human-machine interfaces. Nature Communications 11(1):3450. The 62 BRIDGE

LAist. 2020. Los Angeles spearheads new research on low Rolex.org. 2000. Mohammed Bah Abba: Cool food in the cost, at-home COVID-19 testing, with same day results. desert. Rolex Awards for Enterprise. Aug 12. Roller Z. 2019. Closing the Water Access Gap in the United Malshe AP, Bapat S. 2020. Quo vadimus: Humanism, going States: A National Action Plan. Washington: US Water beyond the boundaries of capitalism and socialism. Smart Alliance. and Sustainable Manufacturing Systems 4(3):338–40. Silverman T. 2020. Hunger is a growing concern for Hoosier McFarland J, Hussar B, Zhang J, Wang X, Wang K, Hein children, Sep 14. Indianapolis: Indiana Youth Institute. S, Diliberti M, Cataldi EF, Mann FB, Barmer A. 2019. Sinfield JV, Sheth A, Kotian RR. 2020. Framing the The Condition of Education 2019 (NCES 2019-144). intractable: Comprehensive success factor analysis for Washington: National Center for Education Statistics. grand challenges. Sustainable Futures 2:100037. Miller WM, Dunn JB. 2019. Sustainable Urban Systems: Pre- Trevino MT. 2020. The ethereal art of fog-catching. BBC dictive, Interconnected, Resilient, and Evolving. SUSPIRE Future, Feb 23. Workshop, Jul 16–17, Chicago. Available at https://www. Tsatsou P. 2011. Digital divides revisited: What is new about engineeringsustainability.northwestern.edu/documents/ divides and their research? Media, Culture & Society suspire_final_report_9.30.20191.pdf#schedule. 33(2):317–31. NASEM [National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Venema V. 2014. The Indian sanitary pad revolutionary. BBC Medicine]. 2017. Communities in Action: Pathways to News, Mar 4. Health Equity. Washington: National Academies Press. Warshaw R. 2017. Health disparities affect millions in rural NRC [National Research Council]. 2014. Convergence: US communities. AAMC News, Oct 31. Facilitating Transdisciplinary Integration of Life Sciences, Winters BA, Angel J, Ballerine C, Byard J, Flegel A, Gambill Physical Sciences, Engineering, and Beyond. Washington: D, Jenkins E, McConkey S, Markus M, Bender BA, and National Academies Press. 1 other. 2015. Report for the Urban Flooding Aware- ODPHP [Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promo- ness Act. Springfield: Illinois Department of Natural tion]. 2020. Food insecurity. Washington. Resources. Parmelee G. 2020. Global pandemic sparks low-cost innova- Wortham JM, Lee JT, Althomsons S, Latash J, Davidson tion. Georgia Tech news, Jul 10. A, Guerra K, Murray K, McGibbon E, Pichardo C, Perrin A. 2019. Digital gap between rural and nonrural Toro B, and 52 others. 2020. Characteristics of persons America persists. Pew Research Center, May 31. who died with COVID-19: United States, February 12– Peterson DM, Mann CL. 2020. Closing the Racial Inequality May 18, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Gaps: The Economic Cost of Black Inequality in the US. 69(28):923–29. New York: Citigroup. In the postpandemic environment, corporations should prioritize elements of social responsibility that are naturally aligned with corporate profitability.

Engineering and Social Responsibility What the Digital-Industrial Revolution Means for Manufacturing Companies’ Social Responsibility

Marco Annunziata

The digital-industrial revolution, called Industry 4.0, has begun to effect a major transformation of work and daily life: how production is organized; new skills required in the workforce; the interaction between humans and machines, as robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) make continuous strides; and what new products are possible and what they can do (e.g., self-driving vehicles, delivery drones), including their impacts on the environment. Marco Annunziata is The influences of Industry 4.0 on society promise to be at least as profound cofounder and CEO as those of the original Industrial Revolution. It is therefore not surprising of Annunziata + Desai that this technological revolution has triggered calls to reassess the ethical Advisors. and social responsibility aspects of manufacturing and other industries. It also compounds concerns about issues such as climate change and income inequality. Many of these issues have been exacerbated by a confluence of factors in addition to accelerating technological change: deepening globalization, a growing world population, and the push by emerging markets to achieve higher living standards. Studies have assessed the impacts of these factors on employment and wages in specific industries or geographical areas. Some have focused on the effects of innovation such as robotics (Acemoglu and Restrepo 2020); others have documented adverse impacts of globalization, especially competition from China (Autor et al. 2016). The covid-19 pandemic has exacerbated many of these trends and created a greater sense of urgency. Across the world, lockdowns to contain contagion The 64 BRIDGE

caused sharp recessions and major job losses, with the Human Capital attendant economic stress. They also exacerbated The first priority is to invest in human capital, stepping inequalities, as some jobs could be performed remotely up company efforts to maintain and upgrade the skills of while others could not, the sectors most severely their workforce and investing in technologies that can affected (e.g., hospitality) tend to employ a larger share augment workers’ capabilities and allow them to learn of lower-skill workers, and the shift to home schooling faster on the job. has proved much more challenging for children from Studies have shown for some time that innovation is lower-income households and for some groups of adults, having a very asymmetric impact on the demand for dif- especially women (Rothwell and Desai 2020 find that ferent job skills (Autor et al. 2003), and debate on the “labor force participation rates are 12 percentage points skills gap has gained increasing prominence, although lower for adults with children in distance learning com- the academic literature has not yet produced convinc- pared to in-person schooling”). ing evidence of such a gap (Cappelli 2015 argues against it, for example). The difficulty in settling the issue lies partly in the challenge of agreeing on clear definitions Better alignment of of skills and in the tendency to confuse skills with academic credentials. skill supply and demand But the anecdotal evidence emerging from industry is clear: more and more industries are struggling to find could help reduce qualified workers, especially as large cohorts of expe- income inequality. rienced employees retire. Many industrial companies need to replenish their pool of traditional factory- floor skills, while augmenting it with digital skills that can help workers become conversant with the new Manufacturing companies have been accused of con- digital-industrial technologies. Portable and wearable tributing to these problems by focusing exclusively on skill-augmenting technologies can help accelerate short-term shareholder-value maximization, and they upskilling and productivity (Abraham and Annunziata face mounting pressure to rethink their social respon- 2017), as can connected-worker technology platforms sibility. How can manufacturing companies best help (Annunziata 2020). society surmount these challenges? Accelerating innovation drives faster change in the mix of skills required to succeed in the labor market. Social Responsibility Priorities for This change has exposed the inadequacies of tradi- Manufacturing Companies tional education systems, and requires a shift to lifelong Profitability learning that calls for a much greater involvement by corporations—providing more in-house training oppor- Profitability is a necessary precondition for survival in tunities, allowing workers greater flexibility to pursue the market economy. A corporation’s most basic social upskilling and retraining outside the workplace, and responsibility, therefore, is to remain profitable and collaborating more closely with education institutions viable so that it can continue to contribute to economic in the design of curricula and internships (see, e.g., growth and job creation. Corporate bankruptcies can Mathó et al. 2019). cause recessions and unemployment and in extreme Providing the right skills and helping people main- cases impair the stability of the financial system and/ tain and upgrade them throughout their careers will or require governments to come to companies’ rescue, play a crucial role in securing high employment levels putting taxpayer money at stake. Manufacturing com- and providing more people access to better job oppor- panies should therefore aim first and foremost to remain tunities and faster increases in incomes; and by better profitable. aligning skill supply and demand it could help reduce In the postpandemic environment, corporations income inequality. This represents an extremely impor- should prioritize specific elements of social responsibility tant social responsibility that industrial corporations de that are naturally aligned with corporate profitability facto shoulder; tackling it would also help them raise and where their actions can have the greatest impact. efficiency, productivity, and profitability. SPRING 2021 65

Cybersecurity ment encompasses the current debate on ethical AI and As digital-industrial technologies become more wide- dystopian fears of AI eventually developing an agenda of spread with the advancement of smart electricity grids, its own. Of more immediate importance are risks related smart homes, smart cities, and smart factories, cyber to the physical interaction of workers and robots in the security risks will increase commensurately. Attacks workplace or the possible malfunction of AI algorithms. on critical infrastructure could cripple cities and entire Manufacturing companies have a primary social respon- economic systems, undermine human safety in work- sibility to anticipate, monitor, and minimize these risks places, in urban environments, and on roads, and cause as they deploy new technologies both in their own oper- environmental disasters. ations and in their relations with customers. Governments are developing extensive cybersecurity Principles for Establishing a Purpose beyond policies, but the responsibility for ensuring the security Profit of new technologies starts with the manufacturing corporations that produce and deploy them. By ensuring It is legitimate and may be desirable for manufactur- the cybersecurity of their products, services, and sys- ing and other companies to take on additional social tems, manufacturing corporations can protect economic responsibilities beyond investing in human capital and resilience as well as human and environmental safety. cybersecurity. The choice could be guided by the specific At the same time, cybersecurity is crucial to the reli- sector that the company operates in (e.g., environmental ability and attractiveness of the products and solutions responsibility for companies in the plastics industry) or that manufacturers sell, as well as the resilience of their by sensitivity to broader social issues such as opportuni- own operations. This is an important social responsibil- ties for women and minorities, or immigration. ity that corporations are well positioned to take on and that is naturally aligned with their economic interests. The responsibility for AI and Robotics AI and robotics play increasingly important roles in ensuring the security of manufacturing companies, a trend that is destined to new technologies starts continue and deepen. Yet these technologies carry new risks and potential unintended consequences. This with the manufacturing is especially evident in the case of AI, which in some cases operates like a black box, in the sense that its own corporations that produce developers are unable to fully explain why it reaches certain conclusions or decisions. and deploy them. One of the key advantages of AI is its speed of reaction. This can be extremely valuable in the indus- A properly defined purpose beyond profit can ben- trial context and will enable massive efficiency gains in efit companies’ performance and bottom lines through contexts such as smart factories and smart cities, par several channels: it can improve their ability to attract ticularly with more extensive recourse to machine-to- and retain talent, bolster employees’ motivation and machine interactions and transactions. productivity, and in some cases underpin customer But to take full advantage of it, humans will be left loyalty and sales. A recent analysis finds that “firms out of the loop. Powered by AI, robots will act with exhibiting both high purpose and clarity have system- an increasing degree of autonomy. Manufacturing com- atically higher future accounting and stock market per- panies must understand and anticipate the risks and formance” (Gartenberg et al. 2019). potential undesired outcomes. These could include To adopt a corporate purpose beyond profit maximi- worker injuries, product and system failures, economic zation, manufacturing companies should follow three disruptions, and consequent damage to the public’s con- basic principles that can help them define their corpo- fidence in these technologies, which in turn would slow rate social responsibility in ways that are transparent, adoption and limit benefits. actionable, measurable, and accountable—including in At a high level the issue of risks and potential terms of profitability. This in turn would provide better unintended consequences of AI and robotics deploy- information for consumers, employees, and institu The 66 BRIDGE tional and individual investors to base their decisions It likely makes sense for manufacturing companies on whether to invest in a company, buy its products, or to primarily focus on the areas where they can have join its workforce. the greatest impact and that are most closely aligned with their profitability—investment in human capital, Transparency cybersecurity, safe deployment of cutting-edge technol- This principle calls for the company to articulate what ogies. They can then choose to take on additional goals; additional goal(s) it wants to pursue and why, spell- these will vary depending on a company’s industry, loca- ing out whether and under what conditions the pur- tion, and the particular sensitivities and priorities of its suit of these goals might conflict with profitability and board, management, and workforce. All goals should be how the conflict will be resolved. All of this should be transparently identified and communicated, mapped clearly formulated in a purpose statement or “governing to objective metrics for tracking and disclosing prog- objective” (Mauboussin and Rappaport 2015) formally ress, and accompanied by incentive mechanisms that approved by the company’s board of directors and trans- make management, employees, and the company itself parently communicated to the entire workforce. accountable for advancing the goals.

Measurability References Well-specified metrics must be established to assess how Abraham M, Annunziata M. 2017. Augmented reality is well the stated goals are being met. This is an extremely already improving worker performance. Harvard Business important part of the exercise. The metrics should be Review, Mar 13. objectively verifiable, preferably validated by a third Acemoglu D, Restrepo P. 2020. Robots and jobs: Evidence party (in much the same way that financial accounts from US labor markets. Journal of Political Economy of publicly listed corporations are audited by external 128(6):2188–244. agencies). And it should be made explicit why they are Annunziata M. 2020. Parsable’s connected worker technol- considered the right metrics to assess the company’s ogy: The human-centric manufacturing revolution. Forbes, impact on the stated goals. Dec 18. Autor D, Levy F, Murnane RJ. 2003. The skill content of Accountability recent technological change: An empirical exploration. To make sure that all managers and employees act in Quarterly Journal of Economics 116(4). pursuit of the stated goals, the company needs to put Autor D, Dorn D, Hanson GH. 2016. The China shock: in place the appropriate incentives and ensure internal Learning from labor market adjustment to large changes in accountability. Performance evaluations, promotion cri- trade. Annual Review of Economics 8:205–40. teria, and compensation policies should reflect, among Cappelli P. 2015. Skill gaps, skill shortages and skill mis other factors, the extent to which managers and employ- matches. Industrial and Labor Relations Review ees pursue the stated goals and how well they succeed. 68(2):251–90. The board of directors should hold the CEO and the Gartenberg C, Prat A, Serafeim G. 2019. Corporate pur- rest of the executive team similarly accountable. The pose and financial performance. Organization Science company should also establish external accountability by 30(1):1–18. regularly publishing selected metrics that demonstrate Mauboussin M, Rappaport A. 2015. Transparent corporate its progress toward achievement of the stated goals. objectives: A win-win for investors and the companies they invest in. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance 27(2):28– Conclusion 33. The digital-industrial revolution is changing the role Mathó J, Christon A, Annunziata M. 2019. Opportunity of manufacturing companies in the economy and in for Higher Education in the Era of the Talent Economy. society. This change provides an opportunity for com- London: Pearson. panies to rethink their social responsibility and respond Rothwell J, Desai S. 2020. How misinformation is distort- proactively to societal concerns. Any broadening of cor- ing covid policies and behaviors. Washington: Brookings porate social responsibility should be undertaken in a Institution. rigorous, pragmatic, and transparent manner. Op-ed Undergraduate Engineering Education: How Can We Do Better?

Hanchen Huang is dean of the College of Engineering and the Lupe Murchison Foundation Chair at the University of North Texas, where Jim Williams (NAE) is a distinguished research professor in the Materials Science and Engineering Department. Hanchen Huang Jim Williams

As research assumes an increasingly central role in the 1. reduction of on-campus time to earn a bachelor’s research-active engineering schools across the country, degree in engineering, we argue for an alternate and complementary curricu- 2. reduction of the net cost to earn this degree, and lum pathway for students who plan to work as practicing 3. inclusion of a significant amount of experiential engineers with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. The coursework in the curriculum to better prepare gradu- research-active path is important not only for students ates for the workforce. but also for faculty because it helps keep them tech Creating an additional educational pathway that nically current. accomplishes these things represents a significant The closest thing to such a pathway is available at deviation from the traditional curricula in place today. four schools that have a formal cooperative education What we propose is intended to complement the tradi- program: Drexel University, University of Cincinnati, tional research-active curriculum, not supplant it, and Rochester Institute of Technology, and Northeastern would still be consistent with accreditation (ABET) University. These schools do an excellent job of educat- requirements. ing “job-ready” graduates, but out-of-state public school We believe that the second pathway not only is possi- tuition or private school tuition can be a deterrent for ble but also would be beneficial and therefore of interest prospective students. Students at these institutions to a significant fraction of undergraduate students. The earn money during their cooperative education, and following points summarize our thoughts on how the this helps, but the “coop” periods also require the use of proposed approach would address the three areas above. summer time for full curriculum coverage. Against this background the following question seems appropriate: 1. The freshman engineering curricula at all schools are “Is it time for some innovation in undergraduate engi- more similar than different, essentially providing the neering education?” We say “Yes!” tools—calculus, physics, chemistry, economics, and, The reality today is that changes in educating stu- for some majors, biology—to grasp the concepts cen- dents in the post-covid-19 era have introduced possi- tral to engineering. Online teaching is appropriate for bilities for innovation in engineering education—and these subjects, its effectiveness is constantly improv- the following three areas are ripe for innovation: ing, and, because of the pandemic, it has become pervasive. Why, then, can’t these subjects be taught The authors thank Gordon England (NAE) for his useful com- this way while students also work as technicians? Learn- ments and encouragement as we drafted this piece. The 68 BRIDGE

ing some of these subjects online, on their own time, And the companies will have an idea of how the while working full-time will enable students to spend interns would perform as full-time employees. This less time on campus to complete a degree program. translates into higher retention numbers, which is After all, many technicians are hired straight out of good for both parties. high school; why not hire high school graduates who We have briefly described an alternate approach to also are academically strong enough to go to college? undergraduate engineering education. Clearly the first Some of these students opt out of college for financial year as technicians and virtual students would not be reasons that are unrelated to their ability to succeed easy, but it is already true that a not insignificant fraction academically. Those who work as technicians become of highly qualified high school graduates who enroll in a “known quantities” as potential future coop interns traditional engineering program find it too challenging for the companies that initially hired them. and transfer out of engineering in the second or third 2. A second benefit of this approach is that first-year year. Those hopeful, capable students are thus lost to students hired as technicians will be paid while work- the engineering workforce. Such losses are not helpful ing and taking their virtual courses. These earnings to the country’s technically intensive industrial sector. will help cover the cost of their tuition and course Finally, we do not propose a complete transformation materials during on-campus time. Not only do these of engineering education to this new model. Rather, we students benefit directly but the hiring companies suggest that this new pathway may be attractive to stu- have a larger pool of qualified potential employees dents who are interested in engineering because of its to choose from, since it includes those who otherwise role in successful product-making companies. might not have gone to college because of financial This path will not be for everyone, but neither is the concerns. Taking some courses virtually during work current, traditional path, especially those who enter will further cut costs, since online courses cost less. college thinking that they will go on to graduate school. 3. After students spend their first year working as tech- We believe a two-track system will create better oppor- nicians and taking classes virtually, they will be more tunities and better outcomes for young folks who like attractive candidates as interns, positioning them to the idea of engineering but have little basis for under- gain relevant work experience, learn what engineer- standing it in any detail. ing work is like, and contribute in the workplace. An Interview with . . . Martin Cooper, “Father of the Cell Phone”

MARTY COOPER: From my earliest memories, I knew I was going to be an engineer. As a child, whenever I saw a gadget, say an alarm clock, I took it apart—and of course was unsuccessful in putting it back together. But you can’t win everything. Even today I take things apart, and my track record has improved since the alarm clock! I went to a technical high school where every semester they had me assigned to a different shop—wood shop, print shop, forge, foundry…. Having that practical experience turned out to be invaluable in my career. GM: I enjoyed reading the advance copy of your recently published memoir, Cutting the Cord: The Cell Phone Has Transformed Humanity (Rosetta Books). There’s treasured history in it but there’s also philosophy, commerce, economics, and globalization. You’re tackling at least 10 or 15 different threads about the “brick” you originally invented. Could you take us through some historical aspects of the wireless communications industry, and touch on what was the thinking behind the engineering of mobility and portability as chief design attributes? NAE member Martin Cooper is widely celebrated as the “father of the cell phone.” He was an inaugural member MR. COOPER: The essence of the creation of a portable of the Wireless Hall of Fame (2000) and is a recipient of phone was stimulated by the Bell System. Claude the IEEE Centennial Medal (1984), the Marconi Prize Shannon established the basis of data transmission and (2013), and the NAE’s Draper Prize (2013), among others. Bell Labs proposed a system where communications In a special virtual event on February 3, 2021, he was among large numbers of people could be achieved with a interviewed by Guru Madhavan, Norman R. Augustine limited amount of radio spectrum without the hindrance Senior Scholar and senior director of NAE programs. of the copper wire. It was an excellent idea. The flaw in An edited version of the conversation follows. their proposal was that their solution was the car telephone as an extension to the wired network. We had GURU MADHAVAN (GM): It’s an honor to share been trapped in our homes or our offices by that copper this virtual stage with the wizard of the wireless, Marty wire, and we’re now going to be trapped in our cars? That Cooper. Living through the coronavirus pandemic, didn’t make any sense to us at Motorola because we had thanks to Marty’s invention we find connectivity and already observed in our portable two-way radio business meaning. I am tempted to compare Marty’s work, which that a true portable device gives people the freedom to has in a large part enabled the information revolution, communicate everywhere, not just when they’re in a car. to that of James Watt, whose engines powered the That freedom ended up being extraordinarily valuable. It Industrial Revolution. allowed people to collaborate. And that understanding We are really honored to have you with us, Marty. Let’s drove Motorola to take on Bell, the biggest company in start briefly with why and how you became an engineer. the world by every measure at the time. The 70 BRIDGE

Marty Cooper holds up an exact model of the original cell phone.

The Bell System, of course, was proposing that the Fortunately, the FCC made the right decisions. The wireless approach be a monopoly. They wanted to be United States ended up with a competitive industry, the only provider. Had they prevailed, they would have and from the beginning, cell systems were built to built a system that would work for car telephones but not accommodate portables. Today, most of the people in handheld phones. Their study even predicted that the the world use portable phones. worldwide demand would be a million car telephones. GM: One can imagine an individual lifting 2000 pounds Fortunately, they did not prevail. and ending up in the Guinness Book of World Records, Motorola spent $100 million—which for a company but you did so with your 2½-pound prototype. of Motorola’s size was a ton of money—fighting the Bell These days, a phone is more than a phone. How do System. And that was the genesis of the portable tele- you look at the transformation into a smartphone cul- phone vision. I decided that the only way we were going ture, not merely as an engineer who laid the foundation to really persuade people that this was the right way to for this work but also as a consumer yourself? go was to show them what a real portable phone looked like and let them hold it in their hands. I have one here. MR. COOPER: Well, the flaw in the Bell System This is an exact model of the original phone. You can thinking was to think that this was a phone. They had see it wasn’t exactly small. a vision of this thing as an extension of what they’d The model that we built in 1973 was huge by mod- been doing for 100 years since Alexander Graham Bell. ern standards, but it was “handheld.” And then, because They didn’t realize the broader potential. The tradi- in those primitive times there were no large-scale tional landline phone was a device that people used to integrated circuits, the engineers had to put about a talk from one place to another. The portable phone was thousand parts into it. And all one could do was talk— an entirely different concept allowing person-to-person the internet, the computer, and the digital camera did communications. People had the freedom to be truly not exist. The phone ended up weighing about a kilo, mobile. People are naturally mobile. The telephone 2½ pounds. A battery life for 25 minutes of talking was wire was a constraint, and eliminating that constraint not a problem since holding up 2½ pounds for 25 min- required portability. utes is not a very easy thing to do. That was the genesis But calling this a phone and using the word “cell” of the portable phone. is a misfit—clearly a bunch of techies came up with SPRING 2021 71

that name, not marketing people. The Germans and A real cell phone. A Japanese and other countries have it right. In Japan and personal, portable, in Germany, they call this the “handy,” which is a lot handheld cell phone!” more appropriate than a “cell” phone. There was silence on the other end of the GM: I was born in India. There’s been so much written line. I think he got the about how cell phones have transformed the economy message. To this day, of the subcontinent and many other emerging nations. Joel doesn’t recall that Even the concept of nations “leapfrogging” has been phone call and I guess I made possible by your work, more than any other tech- don’t blame him! nology that I’m familiar with. How do you process this extraordinary growth? GM: Can you talk about the Motorola MR. COOPER: Well, first, we could never have antici- culture and leadership pated the idea of putting a supercomputer in a handheld during that time? device, because there weren’t even large-scale integrated Marty Cooper demonstrating the new portable phone on 6th circuits then. But it didn’t take a genius to figure out MR. COOPER: Join- Avenue in New York, April 3, that when we gave people—whether they were police ing Motorola in 1954, 1973. officers or airline people—when we gave them this after I got out of the portable, they could manage their resources better. They Navy, was the luckiest were more efficient. And once they had this device, thing in my life. Motorola’s founder, Paul Galvin, left a they couldn’t run their businesses without it. strong culture. His statement I have lived by is “Do not A United Nations study showed that over a billion fear failure. Reach out.” Sure enough, I had my share people moved out of severe poverty in the past 20 years of failures. His son Bob Galvin carried on that message or so, mostly because the cell phone provided them with and tolerated me! I didn’t fit into the standard corporate the resources to improve their productivity. That makes pattern, but I must have had compensatory attributes. me very proud. The most important thing I learned at Motorola was the idea of objectivity—removing your personality, your GM: Let’s talk about the day when you made the first desires, from decision making and looking at things dis- cellular phone call. passionately. That’s the hardest thing for people to do. MR. COOPER: Although that ended up being a his- It’s so easy for an engineer to fall in love with something toric moment, the only thing on my mind that day was that he or she created and forget about the fact that the Murphy’s law. technology must make people’s lives better. It was a demonstration day. I was scheduled to be on Without the people part, technology is just a a TV broadcast the morning of April 3rd, 1973, and we curiosity. It doesn’t mean anything. People are what got bumped for some other development. So, our PR it’s all about. people set up an interview with a local radio station, GM: Let’s talk about the infrastructure around the and I said, “You know, if we’re going to do that kind of phone, specifically the myth of spectrum scarcity. interview, we’re going to do it out on the streets, moving around so we can show the freedom that you get from MR. COOPER: When Marconi made his first radio a portable.” transmissions, which were point-to-point transmissions I met with this reporter outside the Hilton on 6th Ave- around 1900, there was essentially one radio channel. nue in New York. At that moment I wondered who I And the capacity on that radio channel—I hope you should call for the demo. And I reached in my back find this amusing—was one bit every 6 seconds. We pocket and pulled out my phone book (as we did in the now flip literally billions of bits per second, and we have ancient, primitive times) and I looked up the number tens of thousands of radio channels. And we repeat that for Joel Engel, who was my counterpart in developing capacity geographically. cellular technology at AT&T. I called him and, miracu- The interesting observation is that anytime anybody lously, Joel himself directly answered. I said, “Hi, Joel. has come up with a new idea—broadcast radio, two-way It’s Marty Cooper. I’m calling you from a cell phone. radio, television, satellites, Wi-Fi—there’s always been The 72 BRIDGE enough spectrum. So how could you have a myth that In the creation of a simple interface or a simple ser- spectrum is like beach prime property? that once you use vice, the issue is to eliminate the unnecessary. That’s it up, it’s gone? what makes people’s lives better. And if you can start with that notion and create a platform for that, we are in much better shape. Otherwise, every year, it will be It’s easy for engineers tougher and tougher for new technologies to be adopted. Cell phone development has focused on the attributes to fall in love with something smaller, lighter, faster. We need to focus on simplicity, on they created and forget that customizing, personalizing, and reducing friction. MR. COOPER: Arlene expresses these things very well. the technology must make The essence of her genius is she has observational abilities that are amazing and troublesome at times, because people’s lives better. she could look at anything and instantly find the flaws. She looks around at the world and sees a whole bunch of opportunities to fix things. Occasionally it applies to We have managed with technology to increase the me, which I don’t care for very much, but when it comes capacity. My observation, what’s informally called to a technology, she is wonderful. “Cooper’s law,” is that we have doubled the capacity of the radio spectrum for communications every 30 months GM: Thank you, Arlene. Marty, let’s conclude by talk- or so for over a century. For the first 50 years, we ing about your book. Anyone preparing a memoir must increased the capacity a million times. You carry that on invariably engage in the act of reflection, reappraisal, for another 50 years and it’s a trillion times. And it turns and revision. As you wrote this book, what did you learn out all of that is done by technology. And we can see that possibly surprised you or led to a revised under- how we can do this for at least another 50 years. So how standing of yourself? could anybody say that there is a limit to the capacity of MR. COOPER: Reflecting on Marty Cooper as a the spectrum? And yet that is the basis of how the FCC person, I am so different than I was 50 years ago, and allocates spectrum today. We’ve got to fix that. 20 years ago, and 10 years ago. I have an open mind. GM: Marty, I now wish to turn our attention to your Everybody that I talk to, it doesn’t matter whether wife and fellow engineer, Arlene Harris, to explore her I like the person or not, has something to teach me. thoughts on simplicity and complexity in smart phones. The essence of my life is learning and thinking, having an idea that at least for me is original. These ideas ARLENE HARRIS: Well, the beginning of my work have almost always been thought of by other people, on simplifying technology, some 20 or so years ago, came but the thrill of my life is to come up with a new way because the user experience that cell phones and com- of looking at something and thinking about it differ- puters delivered was beginning to overwhelm their users. ently. In that regard, I’m like a sponge. I love to learn The more options we have, the more tools we have, the new things. more we have that can become unintegrated. The idea of a simple technology that can be used intuitively con- GM: Thank you, Marty for this insight, and importantly, tinues to escape the people who design products. for your book. It was our honor to talk with you. SPRING 2021 73

NAE News and Notes Class of 2021 Elected

The NAE has elected 106 new mem- Barry Arkles, chair and CEO, advance understanding of the ocean bers and 23 international members. Gelest Inc., Morrisville, PA. For and its resources. This brings the total US membership contributions to organosilicon David Bem, chief technology to 2355 and the number of inter materials and organometallic and officer and vice president of science national members to 298. biochemical reagents. and technology, PPG Industries, Election to the National Academy James R. Arnold, principal, Pittsburgh. For business leadership of Engineering is among the highest Taproot Construction LLC, Fort and a sustained record of materials professional distinctions accorded Mill, SC. For commercial applica- discovery to commercialization. an engineer. Academy membership tion of processes for gold and silver Christopher N. Bowman, honors those who have made out- recovery and implementation of James and Catherine Patten Chair, standing contributions to “engineer- advanced environmental controls. Department of Chemical and Bio- ing research, practice, or education, John G. Aunins, senior advi- logical Engineering, University of including, where appropriate, signif- sor, Bioprocess and Manufacturing, Colorado Boulder. For development icant contributions to the engineer- Seres Therapeutics Inc., Cambridge, of photopolymerization reactions ing literature” and to “the pioneering MA. For advances in bioprocess for adaptable polymer networks and of new and developing fields of tech- engineering, the introduction of their innovative applications. nology, making major advancements new vaccines, and development Julia J. Brown, senior vice presi- in traditional fields of engineering, of microbiome-based products. dent and chief technical officer, or developing/implementing inno- Santokh S. Badesha, corpo- Universal Display Corp., Ewing, NJ. vative approaches to engineering rate fellow and manager of open For contributions to materials and education.” Election of new NAE innovation, Xerox Corp., Webster, device technologies for phosphores- members is the culmination of a NY. For developing materials cent light emitting diode displays, yearlong process. The ballot is set enabling the broad use of laser print- and their commercialization. in December and the final vote for ing and the creation of color laser Christopher B. Burke, chief membership occurs during January. printing. executive officer, Christopher B. Individuals in the newly elected James L. Barnard, global prac- Burke Engineering Ltd., Rosemont, class will be formally inducted dur- tice and technology leader, Black & IL. For leadership in executing coming the NAE’s annual meeting on Veatch, Kansas City, MO. For the plex water resources projects and ser- October 3, 2021. A list of the new development and implementation vice to the engineering community. members and international mem- of biological nutrient removal in Carlos A. Cabrera, execu- bers follows, with their primary affil- water treatment. tive chair, board of directors, iations at the time of election and Luiz André Barroso, vice presi- Genomatica Inc., Northbrook, IL. a brief statement of their principal dent, Core Systems, Google Inc., For leadership in developing and engineering accomplishments. Mountain View, CA. For contribu- commercializing widely adopted tions to the architecture, design, processes for fuels and intermediate New Members and performance of energy-efficient chemicals. Russell Allgor, chief scientist, warehouse-scale computing. Zoltan J. Cendes, adjunct pro- Worldwide Operations and Amazon James G. Bellingham, director, fessor, electrical and computer Logistics, Amazon, Bellevue, WA. Consortium for Marine Robotics, engineering, Carnegie Mellon For application of operations engi- Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- University, Naples, FL. For con- neering to design and improve tute, Woods Hole, MA. For design, tributions to theory, development, logistics and fulfillment systems for development, and deployment of and commercialization of electro e-commerce. autonomous underwater vehicles to magnetics simulation software. The 74 BRIDGE

Sebastian Ceria, chief executive Biological Engineering, Rensselaer ment for drinking water quality and officer, Qontigo, New York City. For Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY. For public health. application of optimization tools to contributions to methods for rapidly Craig Hawker, director, advance integer programming and screening drug efficacy and toxicity, California Nanosystems Institute, financial engineering. and biocatalytic technologies for and director, Dow Materials Insti- Lili Cheng, corporate vice presi- improving human health. tute, Materials Engineering, Univer- dent, Conversation AI, Microsoft Francis J. Doyle III, John A. sity of California, Santa Barbara. For Corp., Bellevue, WA. For scientific and Elizabeth S. Armstrong Pro- contributions to polymer chemistry and industrial leadership in user fessor and dean, Paulson School of through synthetic organic chemis- interface design, social computing, Engineering and Applied Sciences, try concepts and the advancement and computing education. Harvard University, Cambridge, of molecular engineering principles. J. Edward Colgate, Breed MA. For insights into natural bio- Wayne W. “Nick” Hazen, presi- University Professor of Design, logical control systems and innova- dent and CEO, Hazen Research Mechanical Engineering, North- tive engineering of diabetes control Inc., Golden, CO. For leadership western University, Evanston, IL. devices. in the commercial development For development of haptic inter- Frederick Dryer, Educational of hydrometallurgical processes for face technologies, including surface Foundation Distinguished Research recovering metals from ores. haptics for touchscreens. Professor, Mechanical Engineer- Mary Catherine Hill, professor, Lance R. Collins, Joseph Silbert ing, University of South Carolina, Department of Geology, University Dean of Engineering, College of Columbia. For contributions to of Kansas, Lawrence. For contribu- Engineering, Cornell University, understanding of combustion pro- tions to development and appli- Ithaca, NY. For contributions to cesses for propulsion and transporta- cation of methods for parameter understanding turbulent processes, tion applications and for fire safety. estimation and sensitivity analysis leadership in engineering, and con- William T. Freeman, principal in hydrologic models. tributions to the diversity of the scientist, Google Inc., Cambridge, William Walter Hogan, Raymond profession. MA. For contributions to computer Plank Research Professor of Global Catherine Ford Corrigan, presi- vision and image enhancement. Energy Policy, Harvard Kennedy dent and chief executive officer, Andrés José García, Regents’ School, Harvard University, Exponent Inc., Menlo Park, CA. Professor, Woodruff School of Cambridge, MA. For contributions For elucidation of injury mecha- Mechanical Engineering, Georgia to electricity industry restructuring, nisms and mitigation, and leader- Institute of Technology, Atlanta. electricity market design, and energy ship in biomechanical engineering For contributions to molecular policy modeling and analysis. and scientific consulting. engineering of biomaterial surfaces Jonathan Patrick How, Richard Erroll Brown Davis Jr., PBS and and cell adhesion force technology Cockburn Maclaurin Professor, Union Pacific (retired), Atlanta. to characterize stem and cancer Department of Aeronautics and For leadership in research and cells. Astronautics, Massachusetts Insti- development of renewable resources Gary J. Goldberg, director, board tute of Technology, Cambridge. For integration with the grid, and public of directors, BHP Group Limited, contributions to decision making education. Castle Pines, CO. For promot- and control of intelligent autono- Peter J. Delfyett Jr., University ing safety, sustainability, inclusion, mous aerospace vehicles. Board of Trustee Chair Professor of value, ethics, and responsibility in Hao Huang, technology chief Optics, ECE, and Physics, Univer- the mining industry. (retired), General Electric Aviation, sity of Central Florida, Orlando. For Charles N. Haas, LD Betz Pro- Dayton, OH. For contributions to contributions to development and fessor of Environmental Engineer- advances in electric machines and commercialization of low-noise, ing and department head, Civil, power electronics technologies for high-power ultrafast semiconductor Architectural, and Environmental aerospace electrical systems. lasers. Engineering, Drexel University, Patricia Nell Hurter, chief exec- Jonathan S. Dordick, profes- Philadelphia. For contributions to utive officer and president, Lyndra sor, Department of Chemical and quantitative microbial risk assess- Therapeutics, Watertown, MA. For SPRING 2021 75

leadership in formulation technolo- Terri L. Kelly, director, United of Technology, Pasadena. For contri- gies, amorphous dispersions, and Rentals, Wilmington, DE. For butions to 20 planetary exploration continuous processing for hepatitis leadership in product development missions to Mars, Jupiter, asteroids, C and cystic fibrosis treatments. and commercialization by advanc- and comets. Marija D. Ilic, senior research ing management practices that Claire Leon, director, Graduate scientist, Laboratory for Infor- foster innovation. Systems Engineering, Loyola mation and Decision Systems, Thomas F. Kelly, founder and Marymount University, Rancho Massachusetts Institute of Technol- CEO, Steam Instruments, Madison, Palos Verdes, CA. For technical ogy, Cambridge. For contributions WI. For design and commercializa- and engineering management of to electric power system analysis tion of the local electrode atom national security space systems. and control. probe to yield 3D atomic-scale anal- Frances E. Lockwood, chief Donald Elliott Ingber, direc- ysis of materials. technology officer, research & tor, Wyss Institute for Biologically Anne S. Kiremidjian, professor, development, Valvoline (retired), Inspired Engineering; and professor, Department of Civil and Environ- Lexington, KY. For contributions Paulson School of Engineering and mental Engineering, Stanford Uni- and leadership in the development Applied Sciences, Harvard Univer- versity, Stanford, CA. For research of sustainable lubricants in automo- sity, Boston. For interdisciplinary and dissemination of probabilistic tive and industrial applications. contributions to mechanobiology seismic hazard methods and Azad M. Madni, founder and and microsystems engineering, and mentoring. CEO, Intelligent Systems Technol- leadership in biologically inspired Witold F. Krajewski, Rose and ogy Inc., Los Angeles. For advances engineering. Joseph Summers Chair in Water in low-cost simulation-based train- Kathryn J. Jackson, director, Resources Engineering, Department ing using interdisciplinary model- Energy and Technology Consulting, of Civil and Environmental Engi- based approaches. KeySource, Sewickley, PA. For con- neering, University of Iowa, Iowa William D. Magwood IV, sec- tributions to management of large- City. For advances in flood predic- retary general, Nuclear Energy scale power system technology, and tion and mitigation. Agency, Organization for Economic harmonization of engineering solu- Roger A. Krone, chair and Cooperation and Development, tions with public policy. chief executive officer, Leidos Inc., Paris. For leadership and contri- Christopher Tyler Jones, chief Reston, VA. For technical leader- butions to research programs that of operations, The Leadership ship in industry engineering and drive innovation in global nuclear Compass, Herndon, VA. For leader advances in aerospace and informa- energy enterprises. ship of defense logistics, sustain- tion technology programs. Hani S. Mahmassani, William ment, training, and system readiness Rajiv Laroia, cofounder and A. Patterson Distinguished Chair in support of US national security. CTO, Light, Far Hills, NJ. For in Transportation, and director, Zakya H. Kafafi, adjunct pro- contributions to adaptive multi Transportation Center, Civil and fessor and distinguished research user orthogonal frequency division Environmental Engineering, North- fellow, Center for Photonics and multiplexing for cellular voice and western University, Evanston, IL. Nanoelectronics, Lehigh Univer- data systems. For contributions to modeling of sity, Bethlehem, PA. For contribu- Shelley K. Lavender, senior vice intelligent transportation networks tions to materials technologies for president, Strike, Surveillance, and and to interdisciplinary collabora- organic optoelectronics. Mobility, Boeing Defense, Space, tion in transportation engineering. David Kaplan, Stern Family and Security, Program Manage- Josh Makower, general part- Professor in Engineering and Dis- ment, The Boeing Co., St. Louis. ner, New Enterprise Associates, tinguished University Professor, For contributions to technological Los Altos Hills, CA. For inventing Department of Biomedical Engi- advances of military aircraft plat- balloon sinuplasty, and for leading neering, Tufts University, Medford, forms and systems. the commercialization of this and MA. For contributions to silk-based B. Gentry Lee, chief engineer for multiple other innovations. materials for tissue engineering and solar system exploration, Jet Propul- James O. Malley, group direc- regenerative medicine. sion Laboratory, California Institute tor and senior principal, Structural The 76 BRIDGE

Engineering, Degenkolb Engineers, Michael C. Mountz, principal, Engineering, Georgia Institute of San Francisco. For leadership in Kacchip LLC, Lincoln, MA. For Technology, Atlanta. For contribu- improving seismic design. advancing industrial mobile robotic tions to topology optimization and Louis A. Martin-Vega, professor material handling systems for order its applications to medicine and and dean, College of Engineering, fulfillment. engineering. North Carolina State University, Julio A. Navarro, senior tech- Fernando C.N. Pereira, vice Raleigh. For support of engineering nical fellow, Boeing Research and president and engineering fellow, and engineering education through Technology, The Boeing Co., Google Inc., Palo Alto, CA. For industry-academic collaboration and Renton, WA. For development and contributions to speech, natural opportunities for underrepresented implementation of phased array sen- language, and machine learning. groups. sors and communication systems for David J. Perreault, Joseph F. and Margaret R. Martonosi, Hugh aerospace applications. Nancy P. Keithley Professor of Elec- Trumbull Adams ’35 Professor, Oyekunle Olukotun, professor trical Engineering, Electrical Engi- Department of Computer Science, of electrical engineering and com- neering and Computer Science, Princeton University, Princeton, puter science, Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- NJ. For contributions to power- Stanford, CA. For contributions to ogy, Cambridge. For contributions aware and power-efficient computer on-chip multiprocessor architec- to power electronics technology and architectures and mobile systems. tures and advancement to commer- design techniques for very high fre- Marcia Kemper McNutt, presi- cial realization. quency energy conversion. dent, National Academy of Sciences, Mari Ostendorf, professor, Mark T. Peters, laboratory direc- Washington. For elucidation of litho Department of Electrical and Com- tor, Idaho National Laboratory, and sphere geomechanics and leadership puter Engineering, University of president, Battelle Energy Alliance in earth resources engineering. Washington, Seattle. For contri- LLC, Idaho Falls. For leadership Pamela A. Melroy, chief execu- butions to statistical and prosodic and contributions in advancing tive officer, Melroy & Hollett Tech- models for speech and natural lan- US nuclear energy capabilities and nology Partners, Arlington, VA. guage processing and for advances infrastructure. For contributions to human space in conversational dialogue systems. Joseph B. Powell, chief scientist flight, space access, space situation Maria Palasis, president and CEO, – chemical engineering (retired), awareness, and military aeronautics Lyra Therapeutics, Watertown, Chemicals and New Energies Tech- systems. MA. For outstanding contributions nology, Shell International Explora- Danielle W. Merfeld, vice presi- to the design of medical devices and tion and Production Inc., Houston. dent and chief technology officer, drug delivery systems. For contributions to process devel- GE Renewable Energy, General Jong-Shi Pang, Epstein Family opments in energy, chemicals, and Electric Co., Charlotte, NC. For Chair of Industrial and Systems biofuels technologies. leadership and development of Engineering, Epstein Department of Laura J. Pyrak-Nolte, distin- products for large wind turbines and Industrial and Systems Engineering, guished professor, Department of solar photovoltaic systems. University of Southern California, Physics and Astronomy, Purdue Julie B. Miller, senior fellow, Los Angeles. For the development University, West Lafayette, IN. For Technology Office, Lockheed of methods to advance the theory advances in understanding of the Martin, Sunnyvale, CA. For con- and applications of optimization processes that link the mechanical, tributions to space electronic com- and operations research. hydraulic, and seismic properties in munication systems and system of Mario Paniccia, CEO, Anello discontinuities. system designs. Photonics, Santa Clara, CA. For William J. Radasky, president and Sumita B. Mitra, founder and contributions to integrated sili- managing engineer, Metatech Corp., partner, Mitra Chemical Consulting con photonic devices and their Goleta, CA. For leadership in the LLC, St. Pete Beach, FL. For design- commercialization. development and application of elec- ing and engineering nanomaterials Glaucio H. Paulino, Raymond tromagnetic transient disturbance that have revolutionized dental care Allen Jones Chair and professor, and protection standards for national worldwide. School of Civil and Environmental security and commercial systems. SPRING 2021 77

Theodore S. Rappaport, David Kramer Professor, Department of and Medical Engineering, Depart- Lee/Ernst Weber Chaired Professor, Chemical Engineering, University ment of Medical Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineer- of California, Santa Barbara. For California Institute of Technology, ing, Tandon School of Engineering, contributions to semiconducting Pasadena. For contributions to New York University, Brooklyn. For block polymers, polymeric ionic microelectromechanical system contributions to the characteriza- liquids, and hybrid thermoelectric technologies and parylene-based tion of radio frequency propagation materials. biomedical microdevices. in millimeter wave bands for cellular J. Marshall Shepherd, Georgia Juming Tang, Regents Professor communication networks. Athletic Association Distinguished and Distinguished Chair of Food Lutgarde Raskin, Altarum/ERM Professor, and director, Atmospheric Engineering, Department of Bio- Russell O’Neal Professor of Engi- Sciences Program, Department of logical Systems Engineering, neering, Department of Civil and Geography, University of Georgia, Washington State University, Environmental Engineering, Uni- Athens. For development of meth- Pullman. For invention and com- versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor. ods to understand the Earth’s hydro- mercialization of electromagnetic For application of genetic tools to meteorological and hydroclimate spectrum wave–based food processes. improve anaerobic biological water system, and for climate science pub- Jefferson W. Tester, Croll Pro- treatment. lic communication and outreach. fessor of Sustainable Energy Sys- Peter Bernard Roemer, GE John B. Simpson, staff cardi tems, School of Chemical and Healthcare (retired), Tampa, FL. ologist, Cardiology, Sequoia Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell For contributions to performance Hospital, Woodside, CA. For con- University, Ithaca, NY. For leader improvement and widespread avail- tributions to coronary angioplasty ship in development of novel ability of MRI technology. and atherectomy, and their wide- renewable energy systems. Jeanne M. Rosario, former vice spread application. Michael Makepeace Thackeray, president and general manager, Engi- Winston Oluwole Soboyejo, distinguished fellow and senior sci- neering Division, General Electric senior vice president and provost, entist, Energy Storage Department, Aviation, Lexington, SC. For leader Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Chemical Science and Engineering ship in advancing aircraft engine Northborough, MA. For contribu- Department, Argonne National design, global engineering, and sup- tions to understanding dynamic Laboratory, IL. For invention of port for women in engineering. behavior of materials and for leader cathode materials that dominate in Krishan K. Sabnani, research VP ship in STEM outreach in Africa. Li-ion batteries for electric vehicles emeritus and ambassador-at-large Sidlgata (S.V.) Sreenivasan, Joe and grid storage. (retired), Bell Labs/Nokia, Westfield, C. Walter Endowed Chair in Engi- Levi Theodore Thompson, NJ. For contributions to software- neering, Walker Department of dean, College of Engineering, and defined routing and networks. Mechanical Engineering, Univer- Elizabeth Inez Kelley Professor, Kamal Sarabandi, Rufus S. sity of Texas, Austin. For research, Department of Chemical and Bio- Teesdale Professor of Electrical innovation, and entrepreneurship molecular Engineering, University Engineering, Electrical Engineering in industrial deployment of nano- of Delaware, Newark. For advances and Computer Science, University imprint lithography equipment. in catalysis and energy storage, of Michigan, Ann Arbor. For con- Kathleen J. Stebe, Goodwin entrepreneurship, and academic tributions to the science and tech- Professor of Applied Sciences and leadership. nology of radar remote sensing. Engineering, Department of Chem- Arthur J. Tipton, founder and Mark Peter Sarkisian, partner, ical and Biomolecular Engineer- CEO, Vulcan Gray, Birmingham, Structural and Seismic Engineer- ing, University of Pennsylvania, AL. For the development and coming, Skidmore Owings and Merrill Philadelphia. For contributions to mercialization of drug delivery LLP, San Francisco. For innovation understanding of nonequilibrium systems, business leadership, and in efficient and aesthetic design of processes at soft matter interfaces fostering STEM education of dis tall buildings and structures. and its impact on new technologies. advantaged students. Rachel A. Segalman, depart- Yu-Chong Tai, Anna L. Rosen Nikhil C. Trivedi, senior part- ment chair and Edward Noble Professor of Electrical Engineering ner, Idekin International, Easton, The 78 BRIDGE

PA. For development of minerals and Nanotechnology, Singapore. of biological materials and their processing technologies and mineral For contributions at the interface application in materials science and products for the paper, polymer, and of nanostructured materials, nanomedicine. building industries. medicine, and diagnostic devices to Xiaobing Fu, professor and Hongtei Eric Tseng, senior tech- improve human health. director, College of Life Sciences, nical leader, Ford Research and Matthew J. Zaluzec, director and General Hospital of PLA, Beijing, Innovation Center, Ford Motor Co., senior technical advisor (retired), China. For achievements in eluci- Dearborn, MI. For contributions to Global Materials and Manufactur- dating wound healing mechanisms control systems for enhancing vehi- ing Research, Ford Motor Co., The and sweat gland regeneration, and cle safety. Villages, FL. For innovation of light- national leadership in clinical man- Vickie A. VanZandt, president, weight materials and manufacturing agement of trauma. VanZandt Electric Transmission technologies to improve automotive Luis Enrique García, professor, Consulting Inc., Battle Ground, fuel economy and safety and reduce Civil Engineering, Universidad de WA. For contributions to advanced the carbon footprint. los Andes, Colombia. For contri- transmission, protection, and wide butions to the earthquake-resistant area monitoring systems. New International Members design, construction, and build- Yurii A. Vlasov, GEBI Founder Takuzo Aida, professor, Depart- ing code development of concrete Professor of Engineering, Depart- ment of Chemistry and Biotechnol- structures. ment of Electrical and Computer ogy, University of Tokyo, Japan. For Elisabeth Guazzelli, distin- Engineering, University of Illinois, contributions to the engineering of guished senior researcher, Matière Urbana-Champaign. For contribu- smart and adaptive molecular mate- et Systèmes Complexes, Centre tions to development and commer- rials using physical perturbation of National de la Recherche Scien- cialization of silicon photonics for multivalent interactions. tifique (CNRS), Paris, France. optical data communications. AbdulHameed AlHashem, prin- For experiments and theory that Cindy L. Wallis-Lage, execu- cipal research scientist, Petroleum enhance understanding of dispersed tive director and president, Water Research Center, Kuwait Institute particulate systems. Business, Black & Veatch, Kansas for Scientific Research (KISR), Sudhir K. Jain, director, City, MO. For applying innovative Salmiya. For research in support of Indian Institute of Technology, technology to complex large-scale improved materials for the energy Gandhinagar, Gujarat. For leader- water infrastructure systems. sector, and establishment of atmo- ship in earthquake engineering in Christopher J. Wiernicki, chair, spheric corrosion maps for Kuwait. developing countries. president, and CEO, ABS Group of Paula Alves, CEO, Instituto de Jyeshtharaj Bhalchandra Joshi, Companies, Spring, TX. For inno- Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica Emeritus Professor of Eminence, vations in the design, engineering, (iBET), Oeiras, Portugal. For leader- University Institute of Chemical and operation of ships and offshore ship in biomanufacturing, advanced Technology (UICT), Mumbai, structures. biotherapeutics, and bridging the India. For contributions in rational Donald R. Wilton, professor gap between academia and industry. design of multiphase chemical emeritus, Department of Electrical Giuseppe Bellussi, senior vice process equipment and leadership and Computer Engineering, Univer- president (retired), Development, in shaping the Indian chemical sity of Houston. For contributions to Operations and Technology Divi- industry. computational electromagnetics of sion, Eni S.p.A, Piacenza, Italy. For Johann W. Kolar, professor, highly complex structures. development and commercializa- Information Technology and Elec- Murty V. Yalla, president, Man- tion of environmentally beneficial trical Engineering, ETH Zürich agement, Beckwith Electric Co. chemical processes. (Swiss Federal Institute of Technol- Inc., Largo, FL. For contributions Peter Fratzl, director, Depart- ogy), Switzerland. For contributions to digital protection and control ment of Biomaterials, Max Planck to power-electronic technologies, devices for the grid. Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, multiobjective design optimization, Jackie Y. Ying, executive direc- Potsdam, Germany. For studies of education, and technology transfer tor, Institute of Bioengineering structure and physical properties to industry. SPRING 2021 79

Khaled Ben Letaief, New Bright lution of Earth’s groundwater and lithography that enable smaller, Professor, Electrical and Computer atmosphere. faster, and more energy-efficient Engineering, Hong Kong University Pierre Suquet, distinguished senior semiconductor devices. of Science and Technology, Clear scientist, Laboratoire de mécanique Luc Van den hove, president Water Bay, Kowloon. For contribu- et d’acoustique, Centre National de and CEO, Interuniversity Micro tions to adaptive resource allocation la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), electronics Center (IMEC), in multiuser orthogonal frequency- Paris, France. For contributions to Leuven, Belgium. For leadership division multiplexing wireless sys- the mechanics of nonlinear behavior in major international industry- tems and for academic leadership. of heterogeneous viscoplastic solids. university collaborations for the Yoelle Maarek, vice president of Christofer Toumazou, Winston semiconductor industry. research, Alexa Shopping, Amazon, Wong Chair, Biomedical Circuits, Yangsheng Xu, president, Haifa, Israel. For contributions to Department of Electrical and Elec- Chinese University of Hong Kong, online information retrieval and tronic Engineering, Imperial College Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. For data management, and leadership London, United Kingdom. For contributions in space robotics and in applied industrial research. innovations in electronics for medi- autonomous systems. Mario Veiga Ferraz Pereira, cine, including rapid diagnostics. Wanming Zhai, dean of faculty, president and chief innovation offi- Alejandro López Valdivieso , Transportation Engineering, South- cer, PSR Energy Consulting and profesor investigador, Area west Jiaotong University, Chengdu, Analytics, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. de Ingeniería de Minerales, China. For contributions to the For contributions to methodology Universidad Autónoma de San Luis design and operation of high-speed and implementation of multistage Potosí, Mexico. For contributions rail transportation networks. stochastic optimization in hydro- to the processing of complex sulfide Xiaoxin Zhou, honorary presi- electric scheduling, energy plan- ores and educational leadership. dent, China Electric Power Research ning, and policy. Marinus Aart Van den Brink, Institute (CEPRI), Beijing. For con- Barbara Sherwood Lollar, pro- president and chief technol- tributions to the development and fessor, Earth Sciences, University ogy officer, ASML, Veldhoven, implementation of power systems of Toronto, Canada. For contribu- Netherlands. For driving advances technology in China. tions to understanding of the evo- in optical and extreme ultraviolet

NAE Newsmakers

Frances H. Arnold, Linus Pauling Eduard Rhein Stiftung Technol- Capasso, Robert Wallace Profes- Professor of Chemical Engineering, ogy Awards. The award is being sor of Applied Physics and Vinton Bioengineering, and Biochemistry, conferred “for the development Hayes Senior Research Fellow in California Institute of Technology, of MRI diffusion tensor imaging, Electrical Engineering, Harvard has been appointed by President which is used for surgery and radia- University. Professor Capasso is Biden to cochair the President’s tion planning, for research into honored for seminal and wide- Council of Advisors on Science neurological diseases associated ranging contributions to optical and Technology with NAS mem- with white matter changes, and for physics, quantum electronics, and ber Maria Zuber, vice president of reconstruction of neural pathways nanophotonics. The Frederic Ives research and E.A. Griswold Pro in the brain (tractography).” Medal recognizes overall distinc- fessor of Geophysics at MIT. The Optical Society (OSA), the tion in optics and is the OSA’s Peter J. Basser, senior inves- leading global professional associa- highest award. tigator, Section on Quantitative tion in optics and photonics, has Joseph M. DeSimone, Sanjiv Imaging & Tissue Sciences, announced that the 2021 Frederic Sam Gambhir Professor in Trans- National Institutes of Health, is Ives Medal/Jarus W. Quinn Prize lational Medicine and professor of one of two recipients of the 2021 will be presented to Federico chemical engineering, Department The 80 BRIDGE of Radiology and the Molecular Samyang CRS Award in Honor musculoskeletal regenerative engi- Imaging Program, Stanford Univer- of Sung Wan Kim; the Distin- neering, the field he founded and sity, is the recipient of the 2019– guished Professor of Pharmaceutics brought to the forefront of transla- 2020 Harvey Prize in science and and Pharmaceutical Chemistry tional medicine. technology. The Harvey Prize, the and Bioengineering, University of Gareth H. McKinley, professor most prestigious prize awarded by Utah, died February 24, 2020. The of teaching innovation, Depart- the Technion–Israel Institute of award will be presented annually to ment of Mechanical Engineering, Technology, is awarded each year a midcareer scientist in biomedical Massachusetts Institute of Tech- for outstanding achievements in sci- research who shows signs of becom- nology, was elected a fellow of the ence and technology, human health, ing a leader in drug discovery, has Royal Society in 2019. and significant contributions to made significant scientific contribu- Lelio H. Mejia, senior principal, humanity. Professor DeSimone is tions to their area of research, and Geosyntec Consultants, was selected being recognized for his contribu- embodies the scientific discipline for the Ralph B. Peck Award from tions to materials science, chemis- and rigor of Professor Kim. The the Geo-Institute of the American try, polymer science and technology, inaugural award will be presented Society of Civil Engineers. He was nanomedicine, and 3D printing; at the Controlled Release Society’s recognized for international leader prize administrators said his work is 2021 annual meeting. ship in and contributions to the “a model for combining basic scien- David C. Larbalestier, Francis practice of geotechnical earthquake tific discoveries with developments Eppes Professor, Applied Super engineering, for the seismic evalu- of industrial technologies that have conductivity Center, National High ation and design of embankment a significant influence.” Magnetic Field Laboratory and dams and foundation systems, and Amit Goyal, director of RENEW Department of Mechanical Engi- for the refinement and calibration Institute, SUNY Distinguished Pro- neering, Florida State University, of analytical procedures through the fessor, and SUNY Empire Innova- was elected a fellow of the Royal examination of key case histories. tion Professor, University of Buffalo, Academy of Engineering, cited for Henry Samueli, chair of the has been elected a fellow of IEEE, his “seminal work in high current, board, Broadcom Inc., is the recipi- recognized for “contributions to high field superconducting mate ent of the 2021 IEEE Founders high-temperature superconducting rials for over 50 years.” Medal, “For leadership in research, materials.” Cato T. Laurencin, Uni- development, and commercializa- Erich P. Ippen, Elihu Thomson versity Professor; Albert and tion of broadband communication Professor of Electrical Engineer- Wilda Van Dusen Distinguished and networking technology with ing Emeritus and emeritus pro- Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery; global impact.” fessor of physics, Massachusetts professor of chemical and bio Molly M. Stevens, professor of Institute of Technology, has been molecular engineering; professor biomedical materials and regen- named an honorary member of the of materials science and engineer- erative medicine, Imperial College Optical Society of America (OSA). ing; director, The Raymond and London, has received the FEBS/ Honorary membership, the most dis- Beverly Sackler Center for Bio- EMBO Women in Science Award tinguished of the OSA member cat- medical Biological, Physical and in recognition of her outstanding egories, is for individuals who have Engineering Sciences; and CEO, scientific achievements. This award made seminal contributions to the The Connecticut Convergence of the Federation of European Bio- field of optics. Professor Ippen is rec- Institute for Translation in Regen- chemical Societies (FEBS) and ognized “for laying the foundations erative Engineering, University of European Molecular Biology Organ- of ultrafast science and engineering, Connecticut, was named the 2021 isation (EMBO) annually recognizes as well as providing inspiring leader- Kappa Delta Ann Doner Vaughn outstanding scientific achievements ship to the optics community.” Award recipient. The Kappa Delta of a female life scientist who has At the 2020 annual meeting of Awards recognize research in worked in Europe in the last 5 years. the Controlled Release Society, musculoskeletal disease and injury. Recipients are also inspiring role Samyang Biopharm USA Inc. Dr. Laurencin was chosen for his models for future generations of announced the establishment of the 30 years of scientific research in scientists. Professor Stevens was SPRING 2021 81

selected for her innovative bio medical and Mechanical Engineer- Endowed Chair in Electro-Optics, engineering approach that addresses ing Emeritus, City College of the Georgia Institute of Technology; problems in regenerative medicine City University of New York, was Nick Holonyak Jr., John Bardeen and biosensing. The award will be one of 12 recipients of the 2020 Chair Emeritus Professor of Electri- presented at the 45th FEBS Con- Presidential Award for Excellence cal and Computer Engineering and gress in Ljubljana, Slovenia, July 5, in Science, Mathematics, and Engi- Physics, University of Illinois; and where Professor Stevens will give a neering Mentoring (PAESMEM). Shuji Nakamura, CREE Distin- plenary lecture (possibly virtually). The awards are America’s highest guished Professor, Materials, Uni- On April 20, the DRI (Desert honor for mentors who work with versity of California, Santa Barbara. Research Institute) Foundation underrepresented groups to develop The prize is given for the creation will present the 2021 DRI Nevada fully the nation’s human resources and commercialization of LED light- Medal to Kathryn D. Sullivan, in STEM. In naming him a recipi- ing, which forms the basis of all solid senior fellow, the Potomac Institute, ent the PAESMEM team stated that state lighting technology. The recipi- during a special hour-long virtual “Sheldon Weinbaum represents the ents are recognized not only for the program titled “Sea, Earth, and Sky: most outstanding mentors America global impact of LED and solid state Celebrating the Spirit of Scientific has to offer and serves as both a lighting but also for the technology’s Exploration, Discovery, and Innova- model and an inspiration to stu- tremendous contribution to reducing tion.” Dr. Sullivan, Earth explorer dents and those entering the profes- energy consumption and addressing and astronaut, is the first American sional workforce.” climate change. woman to walk in space and the Nikolay I. Zheludev, deputy Jingsheng J. Cong, Distinguished first woman to reach the deepest- director, Zepler Institute, University Chancellor’s Professor and direc- known spot in Earth’s oceans. The of Southampton, and codirector of tor, Computer Science Depart- DRI Nevada Medal was established the Photonics Institute, Nanyang ment, University of California, in 1988 to acknowledge outstanding Technological University, has been Los Angeles; Eleftherios (Terry) achievement in science and engi- awarded the Singapore President’s Papoutsakis , Unidel Eugene neering and is the highest scientific Science Award, one of the annual DuPont Chair of Chemical and honor in the state. President’s Science and Technology Biomolecular Engineering, Univer- Michael A. Sutton, Carolina Awards bestowed on research sci- sity of Delaware; George Varghese, Distinguished Professor Emeritus, entists and engineers in Singapore. Chancellor’s Professor, Computer University of South Carolina, has He shares the award with NTU col- Science Department, UCLA; and been awarded the Society of Engi- leagues Chong Yidong and Zhang Lihong Wang, Bren Professor, neering Science’s Engineering Baile. The award recognizes their Medical Engineering and Electrical Science Medal, “For pioneering global leadership in and fundamen- Engineering, California Institute contributions to experimental solid tal contributions to topological of Technology, have been named mechanics and materials charac- nanophotonics research, underpins fellows of the National Academy terization by inventing the digital the development of a new genera- of Inventors (NAI). According to image correlation (DIC) method to tion of light-based technologies. the NAI, election as a fellow is the access full-field displacement and The 2021 Queen Elizabeth Prize “highest professional distinction strain information on deforming for Engineering is shared by five accorded to academic inventors bodies.” The award highlights the NAE members: Isamu Akasaki, who have demonstrated a prolific increasing importance of DIC tech- professor, Research Center for spirit of innovation in creating or nology, which is now used in nearly Nitride Semiconductors, Meijo Uni- facilitating outstanding inventions every field of engineering. versity; M. George Craford, retired that have made a tangible impact Sheldon Weinbaum, CUNY CTO, Lumileds Lighting; Russell on quality of life, economic devel- Distinguished Professor of Bio D. Dupuis, Steve W. Chaddick opment, and the welfare of society.” The 82 BRIDGE

Message from NAE Vice President Corale L. Brierley

Campaign (2011–14) was instru- the Frontiers of Engineering (FOE) mental in launching the NAE’s program. Over the past 27 years, multigenerational Call for Engi- the FOE program has forged a com- neering Action on the Covid-19 munity of more than 4000 alumni Crisis. This unrestricted quasi- who develop lifelong partnerships endowment, established in 2012, with each other and have access was created deliberately to seed new to online resources to further cul- initiatives and support exploratory tivate their engineering careers. studies. Since its creation, the Vest These programs rely completely on Opportunity Fund has supported private support to carry out their programs like EngineerGirl, public work. Their sustained success is a engagement activities, and core true testament to the generosity of The past year was one of the most NAE mission funding. the NAE community. challenging in recent memory for More recently, the Committee on many reasons; nevertheless, your Racial Justice and Equity was made Onward increased support ensured that the possible in part through unrestricted As we close the chapter on 2020 vital work of the National Academy funds. In addition to building on the and look ahead to a new year—one of Engineering did not slow down. NAE’s history of working for diver- hopefully filled with health, happi- In 2020 our members, friends, and sity and equity in the engineering ness, and prosperity—the NAE is partner organizations collectively profession, this presidential advisory prepared to continue its vital work contributed over $9.7 million in committee will provide actionable with refreshed vision and drive. new cash, pledges, and planned recommendations to address racism, Unfortunately, the covid-19 pan- gifts. I am so very grateful for the prejudice, and discrimination based demic is still all too much a part of continued generosity shown by on scientific evidence and engineer- our lives, and there is work to do in the NAE community. ing methods. We cannot predict addressing and contributing solu- The ongoing covid-19 pan- when or what the next crisis will be, tions to societal problems related to demic illustrates the urgent need but we can ensure that the NAE is racial injustice and inequity, as well for engineering expertise that only adequately resourced to respond. as climate change. the NAE can provide. President In addition to launching timely We are able to continue our John L. Anderson noted in the and necessary initiatives, private work because of your generosity as 2019 Annual Report, “As a trusted support provides sustaining fund- members, friends, and partners. source of advice, the NAE must ing for established programs. Our You understand the importance of also be dynamic and proactive to EngineerGirl program introduces an authoritative voice to provide address complex and consequential girls and young women to the evidence-based advice and guid- issues.” A healthy foundation of countless learning experiences and ance on major challenges facing the unrestricted support is essential to career opportunities in engineering. nation and world, and you play a the NAE’s ability to act both pro- In 2021 EngineerGirl will celebrate vital role in ensuring a dynamic and actively and promptly whenever 20 years of bringing national atten- proactive NAE. Thank you for your called upon by the nation. tion to the possibilities that engi- continued support. During the exceptional year of neering represents to all people at 2020, philanthropic support— any age, but particularly to women provided by members and and girls. Your support also helps the friends—of the Charles M. Vest NAE convene up-and-coming engi- President’s Opportunity Fund dur- neering leaders to facilitate crossing the NAE’s 50th Anniversary disciplinary collaboration through Corale L. Brierley

For more information about ways to give, please contact: Radka Nebesky, Director of Development, 202.334.3417 or [email protected] SPRING 2021 83

2020 Honor Roll of Donors

We greatly appreciate the generosity of our donors. Your contributions enhance the impact of the National Academy of Engineering’s work and support its vital role as advisor to the nation. The NAE acknowledges contributions made as personal gifts or as gifts facilitated by the donor through a donor-advised fund, matching gift program, or family foundation.

Lifetime Recognition Societies We gratefully acknowledge the following members and friends who have made generous charitable lifetime contributions. Their collective, private philanthropy enhances the impact of the academies as advisor to the nation on matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

The Abraham Lincoln Society In recognition of members and friends who have made lifetime contributions of $1 million or more to the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine. Boldfaced names are NAE members. Bruce and Betty Alberts Michael and Sheila Held* Gordon and Betty Moore Dame Jillian Sackler Richard and Rita Atkinson William R. and Rosemary Philip and Sima Needleman Raymond and Beverly Norman R. Augustine B. Hewlett* Peter O’Donnell, Jr. Sackler* Craig and Barbara Barrett Ming and Eva Hsieh Gilbert S. Omenn and Bernard and Rhoda Jordan* and Rhoda Baruch Irwin and Joan Jacobs Martha A. Darling Sarnat* Stephen D. Bechtel, Jr. Robert L. and Anne K. Robert* and Mayari Leonard D. Schaeffer Arnold and Mabel James Pritzker Sara Lee and Axel Schupf Beckman* Kenneth A. Jonsson* Richard L. and Hinda G. James H. and Marilyn Leonard Blavatnik Fred Kavli* Rosenthal* Simons Harry E. Bovay, Jr.* Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.* Martine A. Rothblatt John and Janet Swanson Donald and Lana Bren Tillie K. Lubin* Jack W. and Valerie Rowe Marci and James J. Ralph J.* and Carol M. Whitney* and Betty Fritz J. and Dolores Truchard Cicerone MacMillan H. Russ Prize Fund Anthony J. Yun and Harvey V. Fineberg and John F. McDonnell of the Russ College Kimberly A. Bazar Mary E. Wilson George P. Mitchell* of Engineering and Bernard M. Gordon The Ambrose Monell Technology at Ohio Cecil H. Green* Foundation University

The Benjamin Franklin Society In recognition of members and friends who have made lifetime contributions of $500,000 to $999,999 to the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

Rose-Marie and Jack R. Russell L. Carson Penny and Bill George, Alexander Hollaender* Anderson* Charina Endowment Fund George Family Thomas V. Jones* John and Elizabeth James McConnell Clark Foundation Cindy and Jeong Kim Armstrong Henry David* Christa and Detlef Gloge Ralph and Claire Landau* Kenneth E. Behring Richard Evans* William T.* and Catherine Asta and William W. Gordon Bell Eugene Garfield Morrison Golden Lang* Elkan R.* and Gail F. Blout Foundation John O. and Candace E. Ruben F.* and Donna Theodore Geballe Hallquist Mettler *Deceased The 84 BRIDGE

Dane* and Mary Louise Shela and Kumar Patel Herbert A. and Dorothea Andrew and Erna* Miller William J. Rutter P. Simon* Viterbi Oliver E. and Gerda K. Henry and Susan Raymond S. Stata Alan M. Voorhees* Nelson* Samueli Roy and Diana Vagelos Anonymous (1)

The Marie Curie Society In recognition of members and friends who have made lifetime contributions of $250,000 to $499,999 to the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

The Agouron Institute Nicholas M. Donofrio Mark and Becky Levin Richard F. and Terri W. John and Pat Anderson David and Miriam Donoho Frances and George Ligler Rashid W.O. Baker* Ruth and Victor Dzau Robin K. and Rose M. Julie and Alton D. Warren L. Batts Dotty* and Gordon McGuire Romig, Jr. Elwyn* and Jennifer England Janet and Richard M.* Stephen* and Anne Ryan Berlekamp George and Christine Morrow H.E. Simmons* Daniel and Lana Branton Gloeckler Clayton Daniel and Judy Swanson George* and Virginia Jerome H.* and Barbara Patricia L. Mote Ted Turner Bugliarello N. Grossman Ralph S. O’Connor* Leslie L. Vadasz Clarence S. Coe* John L. Hennessy Kenneth H. Olsen* Martha Vaughan* Rosie and Stirling A. Chad and Ann Holliday Ann and Michael Ramage Charles M.* and Rebecca Colgate* William R. Jackson* Simon Ramo* M. Vest W. Dale and Jeanne C. Anita K. Jones Anne and Walt* Robb Wm. A. Wulf Compton* Mary and Howard* Kehrl Matthew L. Rogers and Anonymous (1) Lance and Susan Davis Kent Kresa Swati Mylavarapu

The Einstein Society In recognition of members and friends who have made lifetime contributions of $100,000 to $249,999 to the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

Laura E. and John D. Diane and Norman Chau-Chyun and Li-Li Julie H. and Robert J. Arnold Bernstein Chen Desnick Holt Ashley* Bharati and Murty Priscilla and Sunlin* Robert* and Florence Nadine Aubry and John Bhavaraju Chou Deutsch L. Batton Chip and Belinda John and Assia Cioffi Paul M. Doty* Francisco J. and Hana Blankenship Paul Citron and Margaret Charles W. Duncan, Jr. Ayala Erich Bloch* Carlson Citron George and Maggie Eads William F. Ballhaus, Sr.* Barry W. Boehm A. James Clark* Robert and Cornelia Eaton David Baltimore Gopa and Arindam Bose G. Wayne Clough The Eleftheria Foundation Thomas D.* and Janice David G. Bradley Barry and Bobbi Coller James O. Ellis, Jr. and H. Barrow Lewis M. Branscomb John D. Corbett* Elisabeth Paté-Cornell H.H. and Eleanor F. Sydney Brenner* Ross and Stephanie Emanuel and Peggy Barschall* Malin Burnham Corotis Epstein Donald and Joan Beall Ursula Burns and Lloyd Ruth David and Stan Thomas E. Everhart Daniel and Frances Berg Bean* Dains Peter Farrell Cleopatra and Eugen Zhonghan John Deng Michiko So* and Cabuz Roman W. DeSanctis Lawrence Finegold *Deceased SPRING 2021 85

Tobie and Daniel J.* Fink Thomas Kailath Stanley L. Miller* Harold C. and Carol H. George and Ann Fisher Paul and Julie Kaminski Sanjit K. and Nandita Sox Delbert A. and Beverly C. Yuet Wai and Alvera Kan Mitra Robert F. and Lee S. Fisher John and Wilma Kassakian Sharon and Arthur Money Sproull Robert C.* and Marilyn Diana S. and Michael D. Joe and Glenna Moore Georges C. St. Laurent, Jr. G. Forney King David* and Lindsay Arnold and Constance Harold K.* and Betty Leon K. and Olga Morgenthaler Stancell Forsen Kirchmayer* Narayana and Sudha Richard J. and Bobby Edward H. Frank and Frederick A. Klingenstein Murty Ann Stegemeier Sarah G. Ratchye William I. Koch Jaya and Venky Edward C. Stone William L.* and Mary Gail F. Koshland Narayanamurti F. William Studier Kay Friend Jill Howell Kramer Ellen and Philip Neches Thomas and Marilyn Christopher Galvin John W. Landis* Norman F. Ness Sutton William H. and Melinda Janet and Barry Lang Ronald and Joan Nordgren Charlotte and Morris F. Gates III Louis Lange Susan and Franklin M. Tanenbaum Nan and Chuck Geschke Ming-wai Lau Orr, Jr. Peter* and Vivian Teets Jack and Linda Gill Gerald and Doris Laubach David Packard* Hemant K. and Suniti Martin E. and Lucinda Edward D. Lazowska and Charles and Doris Thapar Glicksman Lyndsay C. Downs Pankow* Leonard Kent* and Avram Goldstein* David M.* and Natalie Larry* and Carol Papay Kayleen Thomas Robert W. Gore* Lederman Jack S. Parker* James M. Tien and Ellen Paul and Judy Gray Bonnie Berger and Frank Nirmala and Arogyaswami S. Weston Corbin Gwaltney Thomson Leighton J. Paulraj Gary and Diane Tooker Margaret A. Hamburg and Thomas M. Leps* Edward E. Penhoet Katherine K. and John J. Peter F. Brown Jane and Norman N. Li Percy A. and Olga A. Tracy William M. Haney III R. Noel Longuemare, Jr. Pierre John C. Wall Wesley L. Harris Asad M., Gowhartaj, and Allen E.* and Marilynn Robert* and Joan George* and Daphne Jamal Madni Puckett Wertheim Hatsopoulos Davis L. Masten and Alexander Rich* Robert M.* and Mavis E. Robert M. Hauser Christopher Ireland Arthur D. Riggs White Jane E. Henney and Stella and Steve Matson Ronald L. Rivest John C. Whitehead* Robert Graham Roger L. McCarthy Howie Rosen and Susan Jean D. Wilson Lyda Hill Michael and Pat McGinnis Doherty Ken Xie Jane Hirsh William W. McGuire Henry M. Rowan* Tachi and Leslie Yamada Michael W. Hunkapiller Burt* and Deedee Joseph E. and Anne P. Adrian Zaccaria Catherine Adams Hutt McMurtry Rowe* Alejandro Zaffaroni* and Peter Barton Hutt Marcia K. McNutt Jonathan J. Rubinstein Peter Zandan Jennie S. Hwang Rahul Mehta Maxine L. Savitz Janet and Jerry Zucker M. Blakeman Ingle G. William* and Ariadna Walter Schlup* Anonymous (3) Richard B. Johnston, Jr. Miller Wendy and Eric Schmidt Trevor O. Jones Ronald D. Miller Richard P. Simmons

*Deceased The 86 BRIDGE

Golden Bridge Society In recognition of NAE members and friends who have made lifetime contributions totaling $20,000 to $99,999. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

$75,000 to $99,999 Paul F. Boulos Diane Greene and Rita Vaughn and Theodore John Neerhout, Jr. Kristine L. Bueche Mendel Rosenblum C.* Kennedy Roberto Padovani Josephine Cheng Robert E. Kahn Johanna M.H. Levelt Jeffrey Dean Sengers

$50,000 to $74,999

Jane K. and William F. Priscilla and Paul E.* Jane and Alan R. Mulally Linda S. Sanford Ballhaus, Jr. Gray Cherry A. Murray Leo John* and Joanne Corbett and Marsha Kathryn S. and Peter S. Cynthia J. and Norman Thomas Caudill Kim A.* Nadel David W. Thompson William Cavanaugh Richard A. Meserve Robert M.* and Marilyn Sheila E. Widnall Selim A. Chacour James K. and Holly T. R. Nerem A. Thomas Young The Crown Family Mitchell Cathy and Paul S.* Peercy Elias A. Zerhouni Gerard W. Elverum Darla and George E.* Ellen and George A.* Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Mueller Roberts

$20,000 to $49,999

Andreas and Juana Acrivos Mark T. Bohr Malcolm R. Currie Arthur and Helen Rodney C. Adkins Rudolph Bonaparte Glen T. and Patricia B. Geoffrion Jane E. and Ronald J. Kathleen and H. Kent Daigger Paul H. Gilbert Adrian Bowen David and Susan Daniel Eduardo D. Glandt Alice Merner Agogino Corale L. Brierley Ingrid Daubechies and Arthur L. and Vida F. Clarence R. Allen James A. Brierley Robert Calderbank Goldstein Valerie and William A. Lenore and Rob Briskman Pablo G. Debenedetti Mary L. Good* Anders Andrei Z. Broder Carl de Boor Joseph W. Goodman John C. Angus Rodney A. Brooks Mary and Raymond Kathy and Albert G. Seta and Diran Apelian Alan C. Brown Decker Greenberg Frances H. Arnold Andrew and Malaney L. Tom and Bettie Deen Carol K. Hall Ruth and Ken Arnold Brown Elisabeth M. Drake Delon Hampton* Kamla* and Bishnu S. Harold Brown* E. Linn Draper, Jr. Eli Harari Atal Robert L. Byer James J. Duderstadt Janina and Siegfried Ken Austin* François J. Castaing Stephen N. Finger Hecker Clyde and Jeanette Baker Sigrid and Vint Cerf Bruce and Pat Finlayson Robert and Darlene William F. Baker Joe H. and Doris W.L. Edith M. Flanigen Hermann William F. Banholzer Chow Samuel C. Florman David and Susan Hodges David K. Barton Vinay and Uma G. David Forney, Jr. Grace and Thom Becky and Tom Bergman Chowdhry Douglas W. and Margaret Hodgson R. Byron Bird* Joseph M. Colucci P. Fuerstenau Edward E. Hood, Jr.* Diane and Samuel W.* Rosemary L. and Harry Elsa M. Garmire and Lee Hood and Valerie Bodman M. Conger Robert H. Russell Logan Hood Kay and Gary Cowger Richard L. and Lois E. Evelyn L. Hu and David Natalie W. Crawford Garwin R. Clarke *Deceased SPRING 2021 87

J. Stuart Hunter Burn-Jeng Lin Joy and George Yongkui Sun Ray R. Irani Jack E. Little Rathmann* Gaye and Alan Taub Wilhelmina and Stephen Robert G. Loewy Buddy Ratner and Cheryl Rosemary and George Jaffe Thomas* and Caroline Cromer Tchobanglous Leah H. Jamieson Maddock Kenneth and Martha Daniel M. Tellep* Edward G.* and Naomi Thomas J. Malone Reifsnider Matthew V. Tirrell Jefferson John C. Martin Thomas J. Richardson James A. Trainham and George W. Jeffs* James F. Mathis Richard J.* and Bonnie Linda D. Waters Kristina M. Johnson Robert D. Maurer B. Robbins John R. Treichler Michael R. Johnson Dan and Dalia* Maydan Bernard I. Robertson Cody and Richard Truly Frank and Pam Joklik Jyoti and Aparajita Mary Ann and Thomas Raymond Viskanta Howard and Evelyn Mazumder Romesser Thomas H. and Dee M. Jones* James C. McGroddy William B. and Priscilla Vonder Haar John L. and Nancy E. Larry V. McIntire Russel Robert and Robyn Junkins Kishor C. Mehta Vinod K. Sahney Wagoner Eric W. and Karen F. James J. Mikulski Steve* and Kathryn David Walt and Michele Kaler Susan M. and Richard B. Sample May Min H. Kao Miles John M. Samuels, Jr. Daniel I.C. Wang* James R.* and Isabelle Duncan T. Moore Jerry Sanders III Albert R.C. and Jeannie Katzer Van and Barbara Mow Kathryn Sarpong Westwood Albert S. and Elizabeth Matt O’Donnell Robert E.* and Mary L. David and Tilly Whelan M. Kobayashi Claire L. Parkinson Schafrik Willis S. White, Jr. Robert M. and Pauline W. Aliene and Thomas K. Donna and Jan Schilling George M. Whitesides Koerner* Perkins Ronald V. Schmidt John J. Wise Demetrious Koutsoftas Lee* and Bill Perry Fred B. Schneider and Edgar S. Woolard, Jr. James N. Krebs Donald E. Petersen Mimi Bussan Israel J. Wygnanski Lester C.* and Joan M. Julia M. Phillips and John William R. Schowalter Yannis C. Yortsos Krogh A. Connor Martin B. and Beatrice William and Sherry Ellen J. Kullman Dennis J. Picard E.* Sherwin Young Michael and Christine Leonard and Diane Megan J. Smith Teresa and Steve Zinkle Ladisch Fineblum Pinchuk Alfred Z. Spector and Mary Lou and Mark D. Louis J. and M. Yvonne John W. and Susan M. Rhonda G. Kost Zoback DeWolf Lanzerotti Poduska David B. and Virginia H. Anonymous (2) David C. Larbalestier Henry H. Rachford, Jr. Spencer Yoon-Woo Lee Srilatha and Prabhakar Henry E. Stone Frederick J. Leonberger Raghavan Lisa T. Su

Heritage Society In recognition of members and friends who have included the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, or National Academy of Medicine in their estate plans or who have made some other type of planned gift to the Academies. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

H. Norman and Idelle* John C. Angus Stanley Baum Daniel Branton Abramson John and Elizabeth Clyde J. Behney Robert and Lillian Brent Gene M.* and Marian Armstrong C. Elisabeth Belmont Corale L. Brierley Amdahl Norman R. Augustine Daniel and Frances Berg James A. Brierley Betsy Ancker-Johnson* Jack D. Barchas Paul Berg Lenore and Rob Harrison H. and Elkan R.* and Gail F. Blout Briskman *Deceased Catherine C. Barrett Enriqueta C. Bond Kristine L. Bueche The 88 BRIDGE

Dorit Carmelli William L.* and Mary Thomas* and Caroline Sheila A. Ryan Peggy and Thomas Caskey Kay Friend Maddock Paul R. Schimmel A. Ray Chamberlain Arthur and Helen Asad and Taj Madni Stuart F. Schlossman Linda and Frank Chisari Geoffrion Pat and Jim McLaughlin Rudi* and Sonja Schmid Rita K. Chow Paul H. Gilbert Jane Menken Vern L. and Deanna D. Paul Citron and Margaret Martin E. and Lucinda Sharon and Arthur Schramm Carlson Citron Glicksman Money Susan C. Scrimshaw John A. Clements George and Christine Van and Barbara Mow Kenneth I. Shine D. Walter Cohen* Gloeckler Guido Munch* Arnold and Constance Morrel H. Cohen Christa and Detlef Gloge Mary O. Mundinger Stancell Stanley N. Cohen Joseph W. Goodman Philip and Sima H. Eugene Stanley Graham A. Colditz and Chushiro* and Yoshiko Needleman Harold Stark Patti L. Cox Hayashi Norman F. Ness Rosemary A. Stevens Colleen Conway-Welch* John G. Hildebrand and Ronald and Joan Nordgren John and Janet Swanson Ross and Stephanie Gail D. Burd Gilbert S. Omenn and Esther Sans Takeuchi Corotis John R. Howell Martha A. Darling Paul* and Pamela Talalay Ellis and Bettsy Cowling Nancy S. and Thomas S. Bradford W. and Virginia Walter Unger Barbara J. Culliton Inui W. Parkinson John C. Wall Malcolm R. Currie Richard B. Johnston, Jr. Zack T. Pate Patricia Bray-Ward and Glen T. and Patricia B. Anita K. Jones Neil and Barbara Pedersen David C. Ward Daigger Jerome Kagan Frank Press* Clare M. Waterman David and Susan Daniel Diana S. and Michael D. James J. Reisa, Jr. Robert* and Joan Peter N. Devreotes King Emanuel P. Rivers Wertheim Gerard W. Elverum Norma M. Lang Richard J.* and Bonnie B. C. Kern Wildenthal Dotty* and Gordon Marigold Linton and Robbins Maw-Kuen Wu England Robert Barnhill Eugene* and Ruth Roberts Wm. A. Wulf Emanuel and Peggy Epstein Daniel P. Loucks Julie and Alton D. Tilahun D. Yilma Tobie and Daniel J.* Fink Ruth Watson Lubic Romig, Jr. Michael and Leslee Robert C.* and Marilyn R. Duncan* and Carolyn James F. Roth Zubkoff G. Forney Scheer Luce Esther and Lewis* Rowland Anonymous (1)

Loyalty Society In recognition of members and friends who have made gifts to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine for at least 20 years. Boldfaced names are NAE members.

François M. Abboud Edward M. Arnett Diane and Norman Kristine L. Bueche H. Norman and Idelle* K. Frank Austen Bernstein Jack E. Buffington Abramson Daniel L. Azarnoff Mina J. Bissell George* and Virginia Andreas and Juana Donald W. Bahr Floyd E. Bloom Bugliarello Acrivos Robert W. Balluffi Jack L. Blumenthal Eugenio Calabi Dyanne D. Affonso Jack D. Barchas Barry W. Boehm Webster and Jill Cavenee Bruce and Betty Alberts Jeremiah A. Barondess Richard J. Bonnie David R. and Jacklyn A. Clarence R. Allen Angela Barron McBride Kathleen and H. Kent Challoner Barbara W. Alpert Stephen D. Bechtel, Jr. Bowen Purnell W. Choppin Lawrence K. Altman Richard E. Behrman Lewis M. Branscomb John L. Cleasby Wyatt W. Anderson Gordon Bell John and Sharon Brauman Michael and Adriana Clegg John C. Angus Leslie Z. Benet W.F. Brinkman John A. Clements Paul Berg Alan C. Brown Linda Hawes Clever Kenneth I. Berns Donald D. Brown Barry and Bobbi Coller *Deceased SPRING 2021 89

Richard A. Conway John P. Geyman Edward A. and Kathryn F. Elena and Stuart Max D. Cooper Paul H. Gilbert Kravitz Nightingale Linda A. Cozzarelli David Ginsburg James S. and Elinor G.A. Ronald and Joan Pedro M. Cuatrecasas David V. Goeddel Langer Nordgren G. Brent and Sharon A. Lewis R. Goldfrank Louis J. and M. Yvonne Peter O’Donnell, Jr. Dalrymple Joseph W. Goodman DeWolf Lanzerotti Gilbert S. Omenn and William H. Danforth* Richard M. Goody Joyce C. Lashof Martha A. Darling James E. Darnell, Jr. Enoch Gordis Gerald and Doris Laubach Gordon H. Orians Igor B. and Keiko O. Dawid Emil C. Gotschlich Judith R. Lave Harold W. Paxton Mary and Raymond Roy W. Gould Cynthia and Robert Aliene and Thomas K. Decker Shirley and Harry Gray Lawrence Perkins Roman W. DeSanctis Robert B. Griffiths Ellen Lehman Gordon H. Pettengill Nicholas M. Donofrio Paul F. Griner I. Robert Lehman Karl S. Pister Irwin Dorros Michael Grossman Margaret A. LeMone Jeffrey L. Platt Lewis S. Edelheit Philip C. Hanawalt Johanna M.H. Levelt William H. Press and David and Lucy T. Wesley L. Harris Sengers Jeffrey Howell Eisenberg Adam Heller Howard Leventhal Roberta and Edwin Gerard W. Elverum John L. Hennessy Jack E. Little Przybylowicz Emanuel and Peggy Jane Henney and Robert Robert G. Loewy Roy Radner and Charlotte Epstein Graham J. Ross Macdonald V. Kuh Robert M. Epstein George J. Hirasaki Anthony P. Mahowald Charles C. Richardson W.G. Ernst John P. Hirth Donald C. Malins Jerome G. Rivard Thomas E. Everhart David and Susan Hodges Vincent T. Marchesi Bernard I. Robertson Gary Felsenfeld Joseph F. Hoffman Joyce Marcus Linda S. Sanford Stanley Fields Frank Hole Rudolph A. Marcus Maxine L. Savitz Harvey V. Fineberg and Edward E. Hood, Jr.* Hans Mark R. Duncan* and Carolyn Mary E. Wilson Thomas F. Hornbein Ida M. Martinson Scheer Luce Tobie and Daniel J.* Fink Peter M. Howley James F. Mathis Randy Schekman Edith M. Flanigen Sarah and Dan Hrdy Robert D. Maurer Joseph E. Scherger Kent V. Flannery Catherine Adams Hutt William C. Maurer Gerold L. Schiebler Samuel C. Florman and Peter Barton Hutt Marie McCormick and Richard Schoen and Doris G. David Forney, Jr. Richard and Fleur Hynes Robert Blendon Fischer-Colbrie Harold K.* and Betty Robert L. and Anne K. Christopher F. McKee William R. Schowalter Forsen James Mortimer Mishkin Sara Lee and Axel Schupf Henry W. Foster, Jr. Paul C. Jennings James K. and Holly T. Mischa Schwartz T. Kenneth Fowler James O. Jirsa Mitchell John H. Schwarz Hans and Verena Donald L. Johnson Peter B. Moore Robert J. Serafin Frauenfelder Frank and Pam Joklik Joel Moses F. Stan Settles Carl Frieden Anita K. Jones John H. Moxley III Iris R. Shannon William L.* and Mary Paul and Julie Kaminski Sezaki K. Mtingwa Charles J. Sherr Kay Friend Samuel L. Katz and Earll M. Murman Stephen M. Shortell Mitchell H. Gail Catherine* M. Wilfert Elaine Nadler Edward H. Shortliffe Theodore V. Galambos K.I. Kellermann Albert Narath Arnold H. Silver Joseph G. Gall Charles F. Kennel Jaya and Venky Maxine F. Singer Ronald L. Geer Ivan R. King Narayanamurti Jack M. Sipress E. Peter Geiduschek Miles V. Klein Philip and Sima Georges C. St. Laurent, Jr. Nan and Chuck Geschke Albert S. and Elizabeth Needleman Raymond S. Stata M. Kobayashi Stuart O. Nelson Richard J. and Bobby Jill Howell Kramer Duncan B. Neuhauser Ann Stegemeier *Deceased The 90 BRIDGE

Joan A. Steitz Roy and Diana Vagelos George D. Watkins Ward O. and Mary Jo Rosemary A. Stevens Charles M.* and Rebecca John T. and Diane M. Winer Edward C. Stone M. Vest Watson Evelyn M. Witkin Lubert and Andrea Stryer Raymond Viskanta Robert J. Weimer Owen N. Witte F. William Studier Andrew and Erna* Viterbi Herbert Weissbach Gerald N. Wogan Norman Sutin Peter K. Vogt Jasper A. Welch, Jr. Edgar S. Woolard, Jr. Charlotte and Morris Peter and Josephine von Raymond P. White, Jr. Wm. A. Wulf Tanenbaum Hippel Robert M. White Carl Wunsch Samuel O. Thier Irving T. Waaland Robert M.* and Mavis E. Tachi and Leslie Yamada Alvin Trivelpiece David B. and Marvalee H. White Ben T. Zinn Karl K.* and A. Roxanne Wake Jean D. Wilson Turekian Gail L. Warden

Annual Recognition Societies The National Academy of Engineering gratefully acknowledges the following members and friends who made charitable contributions to the NAE, and NAE members who supported the Committee on Human Rights, a joint committee of the three academies, during 2020. The collective, private philanthropy of these individuals has a great impact on the NAE and its ability to be a national voice for engineering. We acknowledge contributions made as personal gifts or as gifts facilitated by the donor through a donor-advised fund, matching gift program, or family foundation.

Catalyst Society

$50,000+

John and Pat Anderson John O. and Candace E. Robin K. and Rose M. Leonard Kent* and Cleopatra and Eugen Hallquist McGuire Kayleen Thomas Cabuz Ming and Eva Hsieh Richard F. and Terri W. Katherine K. and John J. Paul Citron and Margaret Edward D. Lazowska and Rashid Tracy Carlson Citron Lyndsay C. Downs Julie and Alton D. Marci and James J. Truchard A. James Clark* Mark and Becky Levin Romig, Jr. Anonymous (2) Zhonghan John Deng Frances and George Ligler Jonathan J. Rubinstein Nicholas M. Donofrio Asad M., Gowhartaj, and Henry and Susan Samueli Friend Dotty* and Gordon Jamal Madni Raymond S. Stata John F. McDonnell England Stella and Steve Matson John and Janet Swanson

Rosette Society

$25,000 to $49,999

James O. Ellis, Jr. and Jennie S. Hwang Robert E.* and Mary Elisabeth Paté-Cornell Michael and Christine Schafrik Edward H. Frank and Ladisch Lisa T. Su Sarah G. Ratchye Jane and Norman N. Li Anonymous (1)

*Deceased SPRING 2021 91

Challenge Society

$10,000 to $24,999

John and Elizabeth Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. John C. Martin Hemant K. and Suniti Armstrong Nan and Chuck Geschke Clayton Daniel and Thapar Nadine Aubry and John L. Paul and Judy Gray Patricia L. Mote Andrew and Erna* Viterbi Batton Carol K. Hall Larry* and Carol Papay James M. Tien and Ellen Gordon Bell Wesley L. Harris Cathy and Paul S.* Peercy S. Weston Daniel and Frances Berg Victoria Haynes John M. Samuels, Jr. John Young Mark T. Bohr Chad and Ann Holliday Linda S. Sanford Adrian Zaccaria Chau-Chyun and Li-Li Michael W. Hunkapiller Heung-Yeung (Harry) Chen Irwin and Joan Jacobs Shum and Ka Yan Chan Friend Josephine Cheng Frank and Pam Joklik David B. and Virginia H. Kathryn Sarpong Joseph M. Colucci Eric W. and Karen F. Kaler Spencer Ruth David and Stan Dains Mary and Howard* Kehrl Richard J. and Bobby Ann Thomas E. Everhart Kent Kresa Stegemeier

Charter Society

$1,000 to $9,999

Linda M. Abriola Arden L. Bement, Jr. Wesley G. Bush Pablo G. Debenedetti Ilesanmi and Patience Craig and Karen François J. Castaing Carl de Boor Adesida Benson Corbett and Marsha Mary and Raymond Rodney C. Adkins Thomas and Becky Caudill Decker Ronald J. Adrian Bergman Selim A. Chacour Hariklia Deligianni Montgomery and Ann Elwyn* and Jennifer Don B. Chaffin Brenda L. Dietrich Alger Berlekamp Stephen Z.D. Cheng Stephen W. Director Richard C. Alkire Bharati and Murty Weng C. Chew Ali H. Dogru Minoru S. Araki Bhavaraju Dianne Chong Albert A. Dorman Frances H. Arnold Mark and Kathy Board Vinay and Uma Chowdhry Fiona M. Doyle Ruth and Ken Arnold Charles F. Bolden Margaret S. Chu James J. Duderstadt R. Lyndon Arscott Rudolph Bonaparte John and Assia Cioffi James Economy Aziz I. and Wendy Lillian C. Borrone James J. Coleman John V. Evans Asphahani Anjan and Francy Bose Jason J. Cong and Jing Charles Fairhurst Wanda M. and Wade Paul F. Boulos Chang Peter Farrell Austin John E. Bowers Harry M. Conger IV Robert E. Fenton* Arthur B. Baggeroer Klaus D. Bowers Robert W. Conn Leroy M. Fingerson Mary Baker Craig T. Bowman Stuart and Marilyn Cooper Bruce and Pat Finlayson William F. Baker Frank Bowman Kay and Gary Cowger John W. Fisher James E. Barger Lewis H. Branscomb Natalie W. Crawford Edith M. Flanigen Harrison H. and Corale L. Brierley Robert L. Crippen Karl N. Fleming Catherine C. Barrett James A. Brierley Glen T. and Patricia B. Samuel C. Florman Ana P. Barros Andrei Z. Broder Daigger G. David Forney Lionel O. Barthold Alan C. Brown David and Susan Daniel Robert C.* and Marilyn Tamer Basar John H. Bruning Ingrid Daubechies and G. Forney Steven Battel George* and Virginia Robert Calderbank Eric R. Fossum Bugliarello L. Berkley Davis Efi Foufoula-Georgiou *Deceased Antonio J. Busalacchi, Jr. Lance and Susan Davis Katharine G. Frase The 92 BRIDGE

William L.* and Mary Kay James R.* and Isabelle James K. and Holly T. Randall W. Poston Friend Katzer Mitchell Dana A. Powers Douglas W. and Margaret Pradman P. and Sunita Piotr D. Moncarz William F. and Linda S. P. Fuerstenau Kaul Carl L. Monismith Powers Mauricio Futran Michael C. Kavanaugh Duncan T. Moore William R. Pulleyblank Alec D. Gallimore and Edward Kavazanjian Charles W. Moorman Henry H. Rachford, Jr. Reates K. Curry Hossein Kazemi Norman R. Morrow Srilatha and Prabhakar Elsa M. Garmire and Chaitan Khosla Edward and Stephanie Raghavan Robert H. Russell Noboru Kikuchi Moses Vivian and Subbiah* Donald P.* and Frances Judson and Jeanne King Dennis A. Muilenburg Ramalingam Gaver James L. Kirtley Cherry A. Murray Buddy Ratner and Cheryl Arthur Gelb Albert S. and Elizabeth M. Albert Narath Cromer Robert B. Gilbert Kobayashi David Nash L. Rafael Reif Eduardo D. Glandt Paul C. Kocher Alan Needleman Kenneth and Martha Dan M. Goebel Jindrich Kopecek John Neerhout, Jr. Reifsnider Joseph W. Goodman Philip T. Krein Robert M.* and Marilyn Gintaras V. Reklaitis W. David Goodyear Charles T. Kresge R. Nerem Eli Reshotko Helen Greiner John M. Kulicki Paul and Dotty Nielsen Thomas J. Richardson Gary S. Grest Way Kuo William D. Nix Bernard I. Robertson Hermann K. Gummel Derrick M. Kuzak Ronald and Joan Nordgren Mary Ann and Thomas Donald J. Haderle Louis J. and M. Yvonne Matt O’Donnell Romesser Eli Harari DeWolf Lanzerotti Babatunde and Anna David and Bonnie Roop James S. Harris David C. Larbalestier Ogunnaike Murray W. Rosenthal William A. Hawkins III Lou-Chuang Lee Susan and Franklin M. Henry M. Rowan* Janina and Siegfried Frederick J. Leonberger Orr, Jr. Vinod K. Sahney Hecker Jefferson C. Lievense Sara N. Ortwein Alejandro M. San Martín John L. Hennessy Burn-Jeng Lin Fran and Kwadwo Osseo- Maxine L. Savitz Arthur H. Heuer Jack E. Little Asare Robert F. Sawyer Grace and Thom Hodgson Robert G. Loewy Thomas J. Overbye Donna and Jan Schilling Urs Hölzle Daniel P. Loucks Roberto Padovani John H. and Pauline G. Lee Hood and Valerie William J. MacKnight Bernhard O. Palsson Schmertmann Logan Hood David A. Markle Sorab Panday Ronald V. Schmidt Eric Horvitz David and Diane Matlock Bradford W. and Virginia Fred B. Schneider and John R. Howell Gary S. May W. Parkinson Mimi Bussan Davorin D. Hrovat Dan and Dalia* Maydan Claire L. Parkinson Henry and Sally Schwartz John R. Huff Jyoti and Aparajita P. Hunter Peckham Lyle H. Schwartz Izzat M. Idriss Mazumder John H. Perepezko Norman R. Scott Wilhelmina and Stephen Roger L. McCarthy Aliene and Thomas K. Yang Shao-Horn Jaffe Larry V. McIntire Perkins Martin B. and Beatrice E.* Leah H. Jamieson Robert and Norah Lee* and Bill Perry Sherwin Michele B. Jamiolkowski McMeeking Kurt E. Petersen Neil G. Siegel Mrdjan Jankovic Terry and Carol McNulty Craig E. Philip Daniel P. Siewiorek James O. Jirsa Kishor C. Mehta Julia M. Phillips and John Kumares C. Sinha David W. Johnson, Jr. Richard A. Meserve A. Connor William A. Sirignano Michael R. Johnson Robert M. Metcalfe James D. Plummer Sarah Slaughter Marshall G. Jones R.K. Michel John W. and Susan Debra and Alexander Brewster Kahle Susan M. and Richard B. Poduska Slocum Paul and Julie Kaminski Miles Victor L. Poirier Alvy Ray Smith Warren F. Miller, Jr. H. Vincent Poor Robert F. and Lee S. Sproull *Deceased SPRING 2021 93

Alfred Z. Spector and Cody and Richard Truly J. Turner Whitted Jie Zhang Rhonda G. Kost David M. Van Wie James C. Williams Paul Zia Gunter Stein Suzanne M. Vautrinot Ward O. and Mary Jo Teresa and Steve Zinkle Howard A. Stone Charles M.* and Rebecca Winer Ben T. Zinn William D. Strecker M. Vest Donald C. and Linda Mary Lou and Mark D. Guaning Su Thomas H. and Dee M. Winter Zoback Kathryn D. Sullivan Vonder Haar Sharon L. Wood Charles F. Zukoski Virginia and Carl Irving T. Waaland Dennis A. Woodford Anonymous (2) Sulzberger Wallace R. Wade Edgar S. Woolard, Jr. Eva Tardos Robert and Robyn Wagoner Margaret M. Wu Friends Gaye and Alan Taub John C. Wall Israel J. Wygnanski Kristine L. Bueche Robert L. Taylor C. Michael Walton Beverly and Loring Wyllie Kayleen Helms Peter* and Vivian Teets Christine A. Wang William W-G. Yeh Curtis Jones Edwin L. Thomas Robert S. Ward Paul and Cynthia Yock Guru Madhavan Jean Tom John D. Warner Ajit P. Yoganathan Hussam Mahmoud James A. Trainham and Darsh T. Wasan Yannis C. Yortsos Ronald S. Robinson Linda D. Waters Warren and Mary William and Sherry Young Jennifer Sinclair Curtis John R. Treichler Washington Elias A. Zerhouni Ronald A. Williams

Foundations, Corporations, and Other Organizations In recognition of foundations, corporations, or other organizations that made gifts or grants to support the National Academy of Engineering in 2020.

Amazon.com, Inc. Forney Family Foundation Jewish Community PJM Interconnection The AYCO Charitable Freeport-McMoRan Foundation San Diego Princeton Area Community Foundation Copper & Gold Inc. Johnson & Johnson Foundation, Inc. Bell Family Foundation Fulgent Genetics Marin Community Saint Louis Community Branscomb Family GE Foundation Foundation Foundation Foundation The Grainger Foundation Microsoft Corporation Samueli Foundation Castaing Family Foundation Gratis Foundation Minneapolis Foundation The Seattle Foundation A. James Clark and Alice Henry & Sally Schwartz Gordon and Betty Moore Siegel & Friend Foundation B. Clark Foundation Family Foundation Foundation Silicon Valley Community Columbus Foundation Henry M. Rowan Family National Christian Foundation ConocoPhillips Foundation, Inc. Foundation Houston Tien Family Foundation Cummins, Inc. Houston Jewish Oracle Corporation W.M. Keck Foundation Dassault Systèmes Community Foundation Orcas Island Community Zerhouni Family Charitable Fidelity Brokerage Hsieh Family Foundation Foundation Foundation, Inc. Services, LLC Huff Family Foundation The Pittsburgh Foundation Anonymous (1)

We have made every effort to list donors accurately and according to their wishes. If we have made an error, please accept our apologies and contact the Office of Development at 202.334.2431 or [email protected] so we can correct our records. The 94 BRIDGE

Calendar of Meetings and Events

Late February– Call for new nominations for 2022 May 24–26 Workshop on Sharing Exemplary April 26 election cycle (from current members/ Admissions Practices that Promote international members only) Diversity in Engineering March 1–31 Election of NAE officers and councillors June 23–25 Japan-America Frontiers of Engineering March 17–19 German-American Frontiers of Symposium Engineering Symposium May 14 NAE Council Meeting Meetings are held virtually unless otherwise noted.

In Memoriam

R. Byron Bird, 96, Vilas Professor Robert E. Fenton, 87, professor Nehru Centre for Advanced Scien- Emeritus, University of Wisconsin– emeritus, Ohio State University, tific Research, died December 14, Madison, died November 13, 2020. died December 28, 2020. Dr. Fenton 2020. Dr. Narasimha was elected a Dr. Bird was elected in 1969 for con- was elected in 2003 for pioneering foreign member in 1989 for leader- tributions to fundamental chemical systems research and engineering ship in the development of aero engineering in the fields of transport on the design and operation of auto- nautics in India and for many phenomena and rheology. mated highway systems. significant contributions to the understanding of fluid flow. Ronald Bullough, 89, retired con- Vladimir E. Fortov, 74, academi- sultant, research director and chief cian secretary, Russian Academy of Thomas W. Parks, 81, professor scientist, AEA Technology, Harwell Sciences, died November 29, 2020. emeritus, School of Electrical and Laboratory, died November 21, Acad. Fortov was elected a foreign Computer Engineering, Cornell 2020. Dr. Bullough was elected a member in 2002 for pioneering University, died December 24, foreign member in 2011 for contri- research of hot, dense matter under 2020. Dr. Parks was elected in 2010 butions to understanding irradiation extreme conditions and for reform- for contributions to digital filter effects in solids and leadership in ing and energizing engineering in design, fast computation of Fourier nuclear technology. Russia’s civilian sector. transforms, and education.

George Dieter, 92, Glenn L. Martin Robert A. Frosch, 92, retired guest Peter B. Teets, 78, retired presi- Institute Professor of Engineering, investigator, Woods Hole Oceano- dent and chief operating officer, University of Maryland, College graphic Institution, and retired Lockheed Martin Corporation, died Park, died December 12, 2020. Dr. senior research fellow, Belfer Center November 29, 2020. Mr. Teets was Dieter was elected in 1993 for con- for Science and International elected in 1999 for contributions to tributions to engineering education Affairs, John F. Kennedy School of the nation’s space and launch vehi- in the areas of materials design and Government, Harvard University, cle programs and for management of processing. died December 30, 2020. Dr. Frosch aerospace programs. was elected in 1971 for contribu- Tony F.W. Embleton, 91, retired tions toward the improved appli- Daniel M. Tellep, 89, retired chair, head, Acoustics and Mechanical cation of engineering resources to Lockheed Martin Corporation, died Standards, National Research Coun- large-scale engineering develop- November 26, 2020. Mr. Tellep was cil of Canada, died November 13, ments with special emphasis on elected in 1979 for pioneering theo- 2020. Dr. Embleton was elected a for- underwater acoustics. retical, experimental, and design eign member in 1987 for outstand- contributions in the development ing contributions and international Roddam Narasimha, 87, DST Year- of reentry systems for US Fleet leadership in engineering acoustics. of-Science Professor, Jawaharlal Ballistic Missiles. Invisible Bridges Tinker, Taylor, Soldiering, Spy: Escaping Efficiency Traps

of efficiency, scientific management was bigger than time and task tracking. It was a “mental revolution.”3 In reality, though, that revolution faced resistance. Consider slacking on the production floor—or “soldiering,” as Taylor termed it. When factory workers lollygagged, that meant revenue loss. But when the companies following the Taylor System tried to eliminate these unwanted Guru Madhavan is the Norman idle times, pointing to accountability, employee morale R. Augustine Senior Scholar and and burnout problems increased. Efficiency in practice director of NAE programs. was not an unalloyed advantage. In a society with countless efficiencies, no two John le Carré laid espionage traps. They came with are alike. In a recent analysis, manufacturing policy honey pots, false flags, and negotiated morals. Just as scholar Erica Fuchs and colleagues cited a midsize in these thrillers, one such double agent has infiltrated American company that struggled to produce nine vast areas of our real lives: the concept of efficiency. million masks during the initial stages of the covid-19 We created efficiency as a way to think about reducing pandemic. 4 The chief hurdle was not in sourcing the waste and boosting performance. Now with untold vari- core ingredient—melt-blown polymer—but in sourcing ants, efficiency has become much more insidious. What the elastic cord for the mask’s ear loops: The sole US was once a solution to escape the trap of disorder has supplier of the elastic could not quickly scale to pro- now become the trap itself. duce it in sufficient quantity, and the only product it In the frosty January of 1912, a perfectly accoutered could provide was coiled, which was incompatible with Frederick Winslow Taylor appeared at a congressional the assembling equipment. Unspooling dramatically hearing in Washington. Over four days, with formulas slowed production. Policy wonks “wouldn’t classically and charts, the steely-eyed engineer lectured politicians think we needed to produce elastic,” Fuchs points out. on process control, capitalism, and work philosophy. A “And yet, in this story, that lack of elastic cost our year earlier, he had published The Principles of Scientific country millions of masks a week.”5 The point here is Management, an accidental bestseller. Taylor sold his not to make elastic manufacturing a national priority, theory as the way to elevate efficiency in “every branch but to make the manufacturing system itself more elas- of the business to its highest state of excellence, so that tic. Piecemeal efficiencies (or inefficiencies) like highly 1 the prosperity may be permanent.” specialized production can and do trigger unanticipated Taylor’s ideas spread from the oily machine shops of systemic crashes. Pennsylvania to the chambers of the US Congress and Efficiency may be portrayed as a paragon of rational Sunday sermons in Paris. A father in the Dominican thought, but this can be a cover for its more duplicitous Order preached that the “love of God is the Taylor System of our inner life.”2 But for Taylor, the high priest 3 Hearings before Special Committee of the House of Represen- Inspired by the name of this quarterly, this column reflects on the tatives, January 1912, published in the Bulletin of the Taylor practices and uses of engineering and its influences as a cultural Society XI(3–4), June-August, 1926. enterprise. This issue’s column also simultaneously appears in the 4 Fuchs ERH, Karplus VJ, Kalathil N, Morgan MG. 2020. To Indian Institute of Technology’s new global science and technol- respond to the pandemic, the government needs better data on ogy magazine. domestic companies that make critical medical supplies. Issues in 1 Taylor FW. 1911. The Principles of Scientific Management. Science and Technology, Dec 18. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers [1919 version], p. 9. 5 Hearing on trade, manufacturing, and critical supply chains: 2 Taylor Society. 1920. Frederick Winslow Taylor: A Memorial Lessons from Covid-19. Testimony for Subcommittee on Trade, Volume. Norwood: Plimpton Press, p. 6. House Ways & Means Committee, July 23, 2020. The 96 BRIDGE aspects. Understanding four covert identities may help right, efficiency thrives on rigidity, repetition, and rigor in uncovering this guise. A penchant for quick returns unwisely erodes invest- The first and the most familiar is when efficiency ments in not just maintenance and scientific research serves as a toy. In this aspect, efficiency produces but civics and arts as well. Yet we consciously make gains that make countless conveniences possible, from these choices, which begs the question: Is efficiency a livestreaming to frozen lasagnas and express-delivered characteristic of simplified systems or oversimplifying Nordic socks. Each application is endlessly—and minds? separately—optimized for efficiency, systematically The fourth and final covert identity of efficiency turning individual preferences into parameters. But if is that of a trap, enticing the mark with the idea of greater efficiency merely produces the newest fad rather unquestioned goodness. How, after all, could being than a material gain, we are right to question whether a more efficient be anything other than a positive thing? benefit has been achieved. The simple answer is that numerical objectives that are The second identity emerges when efficiency becomes divorced from human concerns are not innately ben- a general theory. Over the past century, the shopfloor eficial. Indeed, the world is full of examples where the concept has been exported to the management of work- “efficient” solution had monstrous consequences. ing hours. The typical 40-odd-hour workweek with In Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy, le Carré wrote, “The meetings, emails, calendar invites, teleconferencing, more identities a man has, the more they express the and action items is more or less a scripted show. We buy person they conceal.”6 The same is true for efficiency. into the unspoken theory that these optimize billable To become nuanced and skilled in questioning the toys, hours while leaving our work environments increasingly theories, traditions, and traps of efficiency, we need to less nurturing, an enemy of productivity and creativity. unmask our risky flirtations with it. That’s how we can The third is when efficiency is viewed as a tradition. Effi- engineer efficiencies that don’t just make us better off, ciency can be a fierce numbers game. A ritual in its own but better.

6 le Carré J. 2000 (1974). Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy. New York: Pocket Books, Simon & Schuster, p. 213.

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