Republic of Yemen TNC-BUR

Mapping of Shoreline Topography

Along The Coastline of Yemen

Final Report

Dr.Kadri AbdulBaki Ahmed (head of the team)*

Feb. 2018

*Professor of physical geography Aden University

EM: [email protected]

Contributors

• Dr. Gamal Bawazeer (Head of Marine Ecology Center EM: [email protected] • Dr. Fuad Al-Qadasy (Renewed Natural Recourses Center of General Authority of Agriculture Development) EM: [email protected]

• AbolGhaith, G. PhD student, GIS&RS Expert EM: [email protected]

Project Description

Project Title: Third National Communication and First Biennial Update Report Job Title: Mapping of Shoreline Topography Along The

Coastline of Yemen Project Number: 00088711 Contracts No.: IC 0043/2017 Duration: 4 Months Starting Date: 09/11/2017 Duty Station: Home based

1

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to express their deepest appreciation to all those who provided them the possibility to achieve and complete this report. The authors first gratefully acknowledge the UNDP leaders in Sanaa Yemen, especially those who deserve our greatest gratitude, namely : Hyewon Jung, Team Leader, Economic Resilience and Recovery Unit (ERRU), UNDP CO/YE, Fuad Ali Abdullah, Deputy Team Leader, Economic Resilience and Recovery Unit (ERRU), UNDP CO/YE and Bushra Al-Shirae, Programme Analyst, Economic Resilience and Recovery Unit (ERRU), UNDP CO/YE. The authors would like also to thank Associate Dr. Ameen Ali Mohamed member of geography department, Aden University for his support and encouragement. Eng. Ahmed .R. An Nasiri for his assistance in drawing geologic and land cover maps We also greatly appreciate and thank the team of UNDP in Aden for their security care through project time namely: Mohammed Alsoufi - local Security Associate, Ahmed Al Amodi Admin Assistant and Khulood Sheikh Programme Coordinator. Last but not least, a sincere thank is addressed to Mr. Anwar Abdul Aziz Noaman, Project Manager, TNC-BUR , UNDP / Ye, for his efficient support and feedback.

2

Acronyms and Abbreviations

a.s.l. above sea level BUR Biennial Update Report COP Conference of Parties CTM Coastal Topographic Map CZM Coastal Zone Management CZM Coastal Zone Management DSAS Digital Shoreline Analysis System EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EPA Environmental Protection Authority EPA Environmental Protection Authority FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GEF Global Environment Facility GOA Gulf Of Aden INC Initial National Communication IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LCC Land Cover Change LCCS Land Cover Classification System

LNG liquefied natural gas NAPA National Adaptation Program of Action PCDP Port Cities Development Program PERSGA Protection of the Environment of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resilience SLRT Sea level Rise Trend SNC Second National Communication SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SSH Sea Surface Height SSS Sea Surface Salinity SST Sea Surface Temperature SWH Significant Wave Height TNC Third National Communication TOR Terms of Reference UNDB United Nations Development Program UNFCCC United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change WB World Bank

3

Contents

Contributors ...... 1 Project Description...... 1 Acknowledgement ...... 2 Acronyms and Abbreviations ...... 3 List of Figures: ...... 7 List of Tables ...... 9 Exclusive Summary ...... 10 18 ...... موجز تنفيذي Chapter 1 : Introduction ...... 25 1.1 Scope of Work ...... 25 1.2. Objectives ...... 26 1.3. Previous Studies ...... 27 1.4. Material and Methodology ...... 28 Chapter two: Spatial Background ...... 31 2.1. Study Area ...... 31 2.2. Geologic Formations ...... 32 2.3. Land forms ...... 35 2.4. General Climatology ...... 39 2.4.1. Temperature ...... 40 2.4.2.Rainfall ...... 41 2.4.3. Wind speed...... 43 2.4.4.Relative Humidity ...... 44 2.5. Environment and Coastal Habitats...... 44 2.6. Oceanography ...... 49 2.6.1. Sea Surface Temperatures...... 52 2.6.2. Tidal Amplitude ...... 54 2.6.3. Sea Surface Salinity (SSS) ...... 54 2.6.4. Sea-surface height ( SSH ) ...... 55 2.6.4. Sea Level Rise...... 57 2.7. Population ...... 58 2.8. Economy ...... 60 2.8.1. Port Cities...... 61 2.8.2. Fishing...... 63

4

Chapter Three: Land cover and land Cover Change ...... 66 3.1. Baseline Land Cover ...... 66 3.1.1. Loose and Shifting Sands...... 67 3.1.2. Bare Rocks of very stony soils pure and associated with other types ...... 69 3.1.3. Salt Flat Areas ...... 71 3.1.4. Cereals pure and combined with other trees ...... 72 3.1.5. Natural Vegetation ...... 72 3.1.6. Other limited land cover types ...... 73 3.2. Land Cover - Land use Changes ...... 77 3.2.1. Materials and Methods ...... 77 3.2.2. Results and discussions ...... 78 Chapter Four: Coastal Topographic Maps and sensitive low land Areas .... 84 4.1. Coastal Zone Topographic Maps ...... 86 Coastal Topographic Map -1- Hajjah Gov...... 86 Coastal Topographic Map -2-Al Hudaydah Gov...... 87 Coastal Topographic Map -3- Al Hudaydah Gov. and parts of Taiz Gov...... 88 Coastal Topographic Map -4-Taiz Gov...... 89 Coastal Topographic Map -6-Aden Gov...... 91 Coastal Topographic Map -7-Abyan Gov...... 92 Coastal Topographic Map -8-Shabwah Gov...... 93 Coastal Topographic Map -9-Hadramaut Gov. (west) ...... 94 Coastal Topographic Map -10- Hadramaut Gov. (east)...... 95 Coastal Topographic Map -11 - Al Maharah Gov. (a)...... 96 Coastal Topographic Map -12 - Al Maharah Gov. (b) ...... 97 Coastal Topographic Map -13 - Al Maharah Gov. (c)...... 98 Coastal Topographic Map -14 - Socotra Gov...... 99 4.2. Reading and Spatial interpretation of coastal zone Topographic Maps ...... 100 4.3. List of sensitive low land locations potentially exposed to inundation of SLR ...... 105 Chapter five: Mapping of Shoreline Changes ...... 113 5.1. Material and Methods ...... 113 5.2. Results and Discussions ...... 116 5.2.1. Shoreline Accretion and Erosion Output maps ...... 116 5.2.2. Shoreline Change Analysis and Interpretation ...... 125 Chapter six: Coastal Sensitivity and Adaptation Options ...... 131 6.1. Methodology and data collection ...... 131 6.2. Results and discussions ...... 134

5

6.3. Adaptations Options...... 147 6.3.1. Adaptation to coastal erosion ...... 147 6.3.2. Adaptation to coastal inundation ...... 148 References and further readings...... 152 Annexes...... 157 ANNEX 1 Yemen Coastal Zone Geologic Maps ...... i ANNEX 2 Yemen Coastal Zone Land Cover Maps (2002) ...... xii ANNEX 3 Scored Yemen districts CSI variables on scale of 1 - 5 ...... xv

6

List of Figures:

Figure 1 The Study Area ; Shoreline and its near coastal areas...... 32 Figure 2 Highest Max. Temp.averages °C (1979-2014)...... 40 Figure 3 Min. Temp.averages (1979-2014 ) ...... 41 Figure 4 Monthly max. average of rainfall over the coastal zone of Yemen ( 1979- 2014 ...... 42 Figure 5 Seasonal max. average of rainfall over the coastal zone of Yemen ( 1979- 2014 ...... 42 Figure 6 Average seasonal rainfall over sub regions of the study area ...... 43 Figure 7 Averages of max. windspeed (m/s)1979-2014 for the period ...... 43 Figure 8 Relative Humidiyt max. averages % for the period 1979-2914 over the coastal study area ...... 44 Figure 9 EEZ of Yemen ...... 50 Figure 10 Annual Wind Speed Averages for the period 1999 -2009 over South Red Sea - Gulf of Aden – West Arabian Sea...... 51 Figure 11 Annual and seasonal SST distribution ...... 53 Figure 12Average Annual Sea Surface Temp. degree C 1982-2016 ...... 53 Figure 13. Average AMPL Tides for Gulf of Aden and Red Sea ...... 54 Figure 14 Average Annual Sea surface Salinity 2011-2015 ...... 55 Figure 15 Annual average of SSH over Gulf of Aden for the period 1992-2010 ...... 55 Figure 16 Monthly distribution of SSH for selected locations in Gulf of Aden for the period 1992-2010 ...... 56 Figure 17 Trend of Sea Surface Height Anomaly ...... 57 Figure 18 Sea level trend mm/y 1992- 2012over south Red Sea and Gulf of Aden .. 57 Figure 19 Distribution of Populution in coastal zone of Yemen via Governorate according to sensus 2004 ( % ) ...... 59 Figure 20 Quantity of fish production and other marine life caught (ton) by the coastal governorates in 2012 ...... 65 Figure 21 Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting Sands Percent of whole study area ...... 67 Figure 22 Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting SandsPercent of Land Cover Type Area ...... 68 Figure 23 Percent distribution of Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting Sands by sub-coastal regions ...... 69 Figure 24 percent distribution of Land Cover Category of Bare Rocks...... 70 Figure 25 Land Cover Category of Salt Flat Areas Percent of whole study area ...... 71 Figure 26 Land Cover Category of Salt Flat Areas Percent of land cover type ...... 72 Figure 27 Main Land Cover Types Over the Coastal Zone Study Area ...... 76 Figure 28 LCC of Barren -Dune - Salt Area By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017 ...... 79 Figure 29 LCC of Shrublands By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017 ...... 80 Figure 30 LCC of Trees By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017 ...... 80 Figure 31 LCC of Croplands By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017 ...... 81 Figure 32 LCC of Urban and Built-Up By Coastal Governorates2011-2017 ...... 82 Figure 33 LCC Decrease of Shrubland Areas (Sq Km) 2001-2017 by Coastal Districts 83 Figure 34 LCC Increase of Urban \ built Up Areas ( Sq Km ) 2001-2017 by Coastal Districts ...... 83

7

Figure 35 Shore line Length as percentage of total Yemen shoreline length by Coastal Governorates Governorates ...... 100 Figure 36 Area below 5 m a.s.l. by coastal governorates ...... 101 Figure 37Population by coastal governorates within 5 km buffer from shoreline (2004 Census) ...... 102 Figure 38paved Roads by coastal governorates as Percent length of total length within 5 km buffer of shore line) ...... 103 Figure 39Unpaved Roads by coastal governorates as percent length of total length within 5 km buffer from shore line ...... 103 Figure 40Valleys length by coastal governorates as percentage of total length within 5 km buffer from shoreline ...... 104 Figure 41 Urban areas as percentage of total area within 5 km buffer from shore line ...... 105 Figure 42 Midi district Shoreline change Figure 43 ABS district Shoreline change 116 Figure 44 Alluhaih district Shoreline change Figure 45 Al Salif district ...... 117 Figure 46 Al Khokhah district Shoreline change ...... 117 Figure 47 Al Mukha District shoreline change Figure 48 Dhubab District shoreline change...... 118 Figure 49 Al Madaribah wa ras Al Arah District shoreline change ...... 119 Figure 50 Aden Governorate shoreline change ...... 119 Figure 51 Zingibar and Khanfar Districts shoreline change ...... 120 Figure 52 Ahwar District shoreline change ...... 120 Figure 53 Rudum District shoreline change ...... 121 Figure 54 Brom Mayfa and Al Mukalla Districts shoreline change ...... 121 Figure 55 Ash Shihr and Ad Dis Districts shoreline change ...... 122 Figure 56 Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar and Al Masilah Districts shoreline change ...... 122 Figure 57 Sayhut and Qishn Districts shoreline change ...... 123 Figure 58 Haswain District shoreline change ...... 123 Figure 59 Al Gaidha District shoreline change...... 124 Figure 60 Hawf District shoreline change ...... 124 Figure 61 Socotra Island shoreline change ...... 125 Figure 62 Average End Point Rate (EPR) by districts - Shoreline Change 1984 - 2017 ...... 126 Figure 63 Average Net Shoreline Movement (NSM) ...... 127 Figure 64 Accretion - Erosion Rates ha/year ...... 128 Figure 65 South coast general CSI...... 138 Figure 66 West coast general CSI ...... 139 Figure 67 West coast erosion CSI ...... 140 Figure 68 South coast erosion CSI...... 141 Figure 69 West coast inundation CSI ...... 142 Figure 70 South coast inundation CSI ...... 143 Figure 71 Percentage of area below 5 m a.s.l. to districts area 5 km buffer from shorelin ...... 146

8

List of Tables

Table 1 Quaternary formations in the coastal study area ...... 35 Table 2 Wettlands of Yemen CoastsRed Sea -1 ...... 46 Table 3 Wettlands of Yemen Coasts Gulf of Aden -2 ...... 47 Table 4 wave characterstics ...... 52 Table 5 projected populaion of the coastal zone of Yemen (2015) ...... 58 Table 6 Number of fishermen, boats and societies in the study area ( 2012) ...... 64 Table 7-1 Proportion distribution of Land Cover types in the coastal study area and its sub regions ...... 74 Table 8-2 Proportion distribution of Land Cover types in the coastal study area and its sub regions ...... 75 Table 9 The Row Data of the Landsat Images of the Study Area ...... 77 Table 10 Percentages of general land cover types for 2001-2017 ...... 78 Table 11 Erosion and accretion growth rates for the period 1984-2017 by districts in Yemen shorelines ...... 129 Table 12 Coastal sensitivity index ranking creteria (After: Kanciruk (1989) and Gornitz (1991) and Efthimios Karymbalis ∗, 2012) modified ...... 135 Table 13 West coastal districts CSI levels values ...... 136 Table 14 South coastal districts CSI levels values...... 137 Table 15 Impacted coastal zone as % of country area ...... 146

9

Exclusive Summary

Scope of Work

This project of Mapping of Shoreline Topography along the coastline of Yemen is a contributing effort to enhance BUR and TNC and hence to enable Yemen fulfill its commitments to the Convention on a continuing basis under the UNFCCC, GEF activities. A key part of mapping shoreline topography is the identification of shoreline changes between 1984 and 2017 and the coastal Sensitivity Index (CSI)

The main objectives of this assignment are: Assessing and analyzing the topography along the shoreline to identify all low laying areas that could be affected by sea level rise, identifying land uses along the shoreline in order to determine the magnitude and importance of effects on each area, identifying the most sensitive areas that are subject to coastal erosion and inundation in case of sea level rise and high waves activity, establishing detailed topographic, shoreline change and sensitivity maps, and developing a list of priority areas that require urgent prevention/adaptation actions.

Material and Methodology

For land cover change satellite maps of 2001 and 2017 are examined and analyzed using GIS techniques especially the change detection feature to determine areas of increase or decrease in the land cover. Five land cover types are primarily examined. These are: Urban and Built-Up, Barren Dune Salt Area, Trees, Shrub lands and Croplands.

Though drawing accurate topographic map is a long and complex process, however and for the purpose of this job a concise concept of the study area coastal zone topography is established. Local and web based materials data are used for drawing these topographic maps.

GIS spatial analysis tools are also used here to produce the topographic maps considering mainly the altitude buffer of 50 meter a.s.l. with extension of 50 km distance from shoreline to avoid closed and narrow coasts at mountainous cliffs as well as to provide regional coastal topography. The map data are produced by supplementing the simplified coastal elevation raster map with a number of information layers in ArcGIS geodatabase or SHP format as follows. : shore line, wadi course, roads routes, built-up areas, main terrain features as well as coastal cities, urban areas and main villages.

Shoreline change and movement are analyzed through processes of accretion and erosion in a geographic information system (GIS) by measuring differences in past

10 and present shoreline locations. Spatial and statistical analysis was carried out to examine the positional changes of shoreline in Yemen for the period of 34 years since 1984 until 2017, using remote sensing technique and GIS. The Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) is a software extension for Arc GIS allows for automated shoreline change calculations along Yemen districts’ shoreline.

Yemen districts’ coastal sensitivities are identified and mapped using modified costal sensitivity index (CSI). Scoring of the sensitive areas is calculated according to eleven structural, physical and socio-economic variables. Modified Formula after (After: Kanciruk (1989) and Gornitz (1991) and Efthimios Karymbalis ∗, 2012) is applied here using the square root of the geometric mean of variables.

Main Overall Findings

Study area The coastal zone study area is extended within 50 m contour line buffer and 5 km distant buffer from shore line especially at coastal mountain cliffs. The shoreline of Yemen is 1906 km long. Its near coastal areas extend over 9 governorates and 49 districts –41 districts of which have direct contact to shoreline- and occupy about 3 % of the total area of Yemen.

Spatial background The geological formations that cover the coastal zone are ranging from Proterozoic Precambrian to Holocene. Quaternary sediments are wide distributed in the study area. They cover approximately 86 % of the coastal zone. South east coastal zone is characterized by few cliffs of older formations as well as Precambrian Basement Rocks.

The coastal plains of Yemen are characterized as destructive plains declined due to geotectonic processes associated with the formation of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. They are flat to hilly landscape, that rises slowly from the sea to the foot of the western mountainous highlands and the Hadhramaut southern plateau. Four main geomorphologic groups of features could be distinguished in the coastal plains of Yemen: Low hills and domes, Flood plains and fans, Aeolian deposits and beaches.

The study area has an arid to hyper arid coastal climate characterized by few and sparse amounts of rainfall, high temperatures and high relative humidity. Max Temperature of the study area ranges between 39.53 degree Celsius in October at Midi and 23.43 degree Celsius in January at Hawf. Annual average rainfall over the coastal zone study area for the period 1979-2014 reaches its high figure 271 mm at Al-Muneerah -Al-Hudaidah and drops to 31 mm at

11

Ash-Shihr-Hadhramaut. As for seasonal distribution Autumn records higher amount of 153.14 mm in Hidaybu - , Socotra. Significant high wind speed over most months is recorded for Al-Mukha at Red sea, nevertheless Hidybu , Socotra has high max record In July reaches 9.1 m/s.

The coastal area of Yemen consists of a range of habitats such as coastal wetlands, mangroves, sea grasses and coral reefs as well as halophytes, Sabakhat vegetations, Sandy and rocky beaches. These contrasting habitats are the basis of much of the country's rich and unique biodiversity, its fisheries production, its conservation and recreational values. They are also vital to livelihood of the coastal population.

The oceanographic conditions of the bordering seas of Yemen are examined due to its importance in determining the shoreline change and coastal sensitivity index. Main considered features are: sea level rise trend (SLRT), tide amplitude and significant wave height (SWH). The annual average water temperature for the period 1982-2016 varies between 29.48 C offshore of Al-Hudaida and 26.76 C offshore of Socotra. In general west coasts are hotter than south coasts. The average significant wave height is 2.66 m and it is higher in east of Gulf of Aden than west GOA and Red Sea.

No record of any cyclone having entered South Red Sea. In contrast cyclones and deep depressions are experienced -but rare- in west Arabian Sea and east Gulf of Aden. ESCS Chapala of Nov. 2015 is the first severe cyclone to cross Yemen coast. ESCS Megh of Nov. 2015 was the second ESCS after Chapala crossing Yemen coast in the satellite era.

The Sea level Rise Trend data extracted for the study area coasts shows low mean increase of SLR trend between 0.46 – 1.3 mm/year in Red sea and relative higher in Gulf of Aden.) 2.4 -1.38 mm/y ). Spatial distribution of SLR trend in Gulf of Aden indicates to general slightly gradients increase eastwards. The Annual AMPL Tides data indicates that south coasts have higher tidal amplitude up to 2.5 meter than west coasts. A marked increase in tidal amplitude in south coasts from west to east, and decrease from north to south in west coasts.

Total population of the coastal study area is about 1692485 person (2004), increased in 2015 to about double to 3121629 person. The coastal areas of Yemen are in general not densely populated with exception of a few cities such as Aden, Al- Hodiedah and Al- Mukalla. Projected population density in 2015 reached ~8179 person/km^2 for Aden , ~2910 person/km^2 for Ad Duraihimi and ~702 person/km^2 for Al Mukalla.

Current human settlements in the coastal zone of Yemen could be distinguished in four types and locations: 1)The concentrated urban port cities Aden, Al Hudaiadah and Al Mukalla, as well as governments and districts capital towns, 2) The widely distributed scattered small clusters of low density that are located within agricultural lands, 3) The strip linear settlement along the main roads and valleys

12 and 4) Along the shore line of study area that is represented by fishing villages and small ports.

Though classified among areas at risk from the impact of sea level rise and coastal flooding, the study area is a hub for development in terms of fisheries, coastal settlements, coastal infrastructure, tourism, and other development initiatives. Broad infrastructures and economic activities within the study area are concentrated in the three coastal port cities, namely Aden, Hodeidah and Mukalla, along with some small ports with specific functions.

Fishing sector has a distinct economic role in the study area. It is a major source of income for a group of community members in villages and fishing communities where most of the poor segments of the population live along the Yemeni coasts and islands. For 2012, fishing is the main occupation of about 83157 active artisanal fishermen supporting about 475,000 members of their families. Unknown but relatively high number of people is also engaged in different aspects of fishery products processing and marketing.

Land Cover and Land Cover Change (LCC)

After FAO Land Cover Map established in 2002 for Yemen 31 land cover types extend over the coastal zone study area and categorized into five main groups. Loose and Shifting Sands including dunes are prevailing with 38.69 % of the total coastal zone study area. Bare Rock land cover type represents 33.83 % and Salt Flat Areas cover 10.84 % of total area mainly of Sabakhas land cover type. Cereals land cover category is associated with vegetables, fruits and other crops. In general it covers 9.53 % of the total coastal zone area. Vegetation land cover category is covering only 6.53 % of the whole study area mainly of open to spars natural vegetation in wadi beds. Additional limited land cover category of urban areas, water bodies and closed cover less than 0.6 % of total coastal zone study area. Urban areas represent ~97 % of this category.

Five land cover types are examined for land cover change through the years of 2001 and 2017. Barren \ Dune \ Salt Area had increased since 2001 by 3971.53 sq. km and represent 85 % of total LC change. Significant increase of Croplands is also detected since 2001 by 549.33 sq. km or 565.78 % ; however this represent 4.28 % of total LC change. Shrubland areas and trees - in contrast to foregoing- had declined obviously by -72.28 % and -98.25 % respectfully primarily due to urban growth, that had increased by 72.67 % in same time period. As for this growth of Urban and Built-Up areas, Aden ranks first in expansion by 75.7 sq.km or 36.85% since 2001 and Hadramaut rank second by 48 sq.km (27.75%). Al Hudaidah experiences also urban increase by 36.7 sq.km or 7.76 % for same period.

13

Topographic Maps

Spatial analysis of topographic maps at governmental level relieved that Al Hudaidah governorate has the longest shoreline accounting for 25.4 % of the total length of the Yemeni shoreline. It also has a wide area of low elevation between 0 and 5 meter a.s.l. reaches 383.51 sq km. Notable general remark is that paved roads (8305 km long ) within 5 km buffer from shore line is longer than unpaved roads (1136 km). Regarding paved roads Aden governorate obtains the longest paved roads among coastal governorates; 23.32 % of the total length. Although the coastal area in Hadramaut and Al Mahara within 5 km buffer from shoreline is narrow, this coastal range is more likely to be intersected by linear wadi courses descending rapidly from nearby foothills. Length of wadis in Hadramaut reaches here ~ 180.3 km or 27.33 % of 659.7 km the total lengths of valleys of the whole coastal zone area within 5 km buffer from shoreline, while in Al Maharah it reaches 116.3 km. In other locations like east coasts of Abyan east of Shuqrah and west coast of Lahj this case of linear layer wadi feature is also observed . Urban buildups areas within 5 km buffer from shoreline are spreading over181.5 sq.km and concentrated in few locations in all coastal governorates except for Lahj and Shabwah. Al Hudaidah occupy the highest urban area (62.1 sq.km or 34.22 % of total coastal zone area). Aden governorate ranks second with 51 sq.km and Hadramaut with 41.1 sq.km ranks third. Mangrove areas are limited in general. These areas are concentrated mainly in west coasts and cover ~ 13 sq.km. In general 55.8 % of mangrove areas spread in Hajjah governorate. Southwards mangrove areas gradually decreased. Supplementary point layers within 5 km buffer from shoreline are also added to coastal topographic maps are, Mainly main centers cities and towns as well as ports and airports.

Twenty one sensitive low land terrain and ecological ecosystems along shoreline are detected. These locations as well as several coastal touristic, cultural, archaeological and historical attractive heritages spreading along each coastal government are potentially exposed to coastal erosion and/or inundation of SLR.

Mapping of Shoreline Changes

Shoreline change reflects the geomorphologic changes that have been taken place over 34 years period since 1984. Shoreline change analysis provides important information upon which most Yemen coastal zone management and intervention policies rely. Mapping of Shoreline Changes in this report is first of its kind for Yemen coasts.

The shoreline change analysis for the period 1984-2017 revealed that most of Yemen shorelines underwent various levels of erosion and accretion. 53.8 % of end point rate (EPR) average of all districts falls under erosion where 47.2 % falls under accretion with standard of deviation of 1.96 Al Munirah district of Al Hudaidah governorate revealed high rate of accretion reached 7.6 m /year, as well as most districts of Aden and Al Mukalla district. This could be explained by high rate of urban expansion over coasts, where Ar Raydah

14

Wa Qusayar revealed high rate of erosion of 2.8 m/year. In general the average rate of accretion in all Yemen shorelines is 1.9 m/year, where the average rate of erosion is .78 m/year.

The mean shoreline movement (NSM) from 1984 to 2017 was 15.6m/year with a standard deviation of 66.5. West shorelines of Yemen and Aden Gov shorelines show seaward advance expansion of shoreline during 1984-2017, where rest of Yemen shoreline experienced landward expand of shoreline.

High accretion rate of 42 ha/year is observed in Al Salif district of Al Hudaidah governorate as well as in Al Luhaia district (36.5 h/y) and Al Munierah district (28.5 h/y).

Relative high rates of erosion occurred in Ad Duraihimi district ( 14.7 h/y), Dhubab ( 10.3 h/y) and Ar Raidah w Qusayar district of Hadramaut governorate (9.6 h/y).

Growth rates as relation between accretion and erosion varies obviously. Districts of growth rates more than 20 h/y are As Salif, Alluheyah and Al Munirah and all located in Hudaidah governorate. Districts with growth rates of 5-20 h/y are Midi, Kamaran, Al Mansura and Khur Maksar.

Coastal Sensitivity

This exercise, first of its kind for Yemen coast will be useful for disaster mitigation and management

Results of coastal sensitivity index (CSI) reveals that 32.5 % of the Yemen shoreline falls in the high sensitive category. The General CSI Values show that 13 districts, corresponding to 32.5 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category. Very high coastal sensitivity index is allocated in in Al Mansurah and Khour Maksar in Aden governorate as well as in Al Hali district of Al Hudaidah governorate.

As for Erosion CSI Values 18 districts, corresponding to 45 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category. Very high erosion sensitivity is allocated in Dhubab and Al Mukha along west coasts as well as Al Mansourah and Khour Maksar of Aden governorate , Kanfar and Zingibar districts of Abyan governorate, Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar district of Hadhramaut governorate and Syhut, Al Ghaydah districts of Al Maharah governorate.

Very high to high levels of erosion sensitivity, is primarily due to the low coastal slope, the high sensitivity of the coastal landforms, the highly erodible Quaternaryc and Quaternary sediments of the coastal zone and the high rates of relative sea-level rise.

Regarding Inundation CSI Values 14 districts, corresponding to 35 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category. Very high inundation

15 sensitivity is allocated in Al Hali along west coasts as well as Crater and Khour Maksar of Aden governorate and Socotra Island.

Very high to high levels of inundation sensitivity is primarily due to low coastal slope, high sensitivity of land cover - Land use , coastal population density, near shoreline paved roads and cultural heritage.

In general 33.73 % of or third of the study area within 5 km buffer of shoreline is located below 5 m a.s.l. Almost areas of As Salif, Alluheyah and Khur Maksar districts are subjected to sea inundation owing to sea level rise and high waves surge as well as Abs, Al Munirah and Al Mukha.

Adaptation options

To minimize hazards from sea level rise and coastal erosion soft adaptation options are required including: preserving, creating or enhancing natural systems such as wetlands, marshes, beaches and dunes, to protect shorelines from erosion.

Due to their very high sensitivity to both erosion and inundation index, short-term adaptation regulations should oriented to the districts of Khur Maksar and Al Mansurah in Aden governorate. High concern should also oriented to Al Mukha and Dhubab distracts of west coast, as well as the districts of Ahwar, Khanfir, Zingibar, Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar, Al Masilah, Sayhut, Qishn and Al Ghaydah districts of Yemen south coasts, that show very high erosion sensitivity. Same level of adaptation policies should be also oriented to Al Hali and Al Hawak districts of Al Hudaidah governorate as well as Crater of Aden governorate, Al Mukalla City and Socotra that show very high sensitivity to inundation hazards.

Recommendations

For future assignments on shoreline changes it is necessary recommended to obtain accurate and detailed data via surveying, purchasing or hiring from their original resources such as thematic satellite images, High resolution Digital Elevation Model ( DEM ), high resolution time series climate data, high resolution time series oceanographic data, population and socio –economic data and ecosystem data. To get accurate shoreline changes and sensitivities, it is recommended to divide shoreline study areas into small segments of 20 km long and 5 km wide and assessing all changes of beach and hinterland geomorphology and landforms, land cover-land use, ecosystems and socio economic activities, and mapping of all coastal sensitivity Index variables. To obtain shoreline changes over time it is necessary to carry out assignments every five years, to enable spatial and chronologically comparison and evaluate coastal sensitivities, changes and risks. This would enable offering perspective regarding shoreline changes trends. Conduct regional ocean modeling to provide accurate estimates for sea level rise and waves properties. This information can then be used as input into impact models.

16

Since impacts of shoreline change have costs, it is recommended to carry out an inventory of public and private property within 5 km buffer of shoreline, that could be potentially affected by sea level rise and geomorphologic changes of shoreline. To govern coastal change risks as well as for better adaptations measures it is advised to involve local persons of all coastal districts and gather their initial experience. This could be achieved through separate assessment.

Key messages

The final report on mapping of shoreline topography is involving seven core messages as following: 1. Yemen coastal zone is of critical threats to Sea level rise and more intense storms, waves, and surges due to climate change and pose a serious threat to terrain and ecosystems as well as to socio-economic activities in these areas 2. Creation of detailed topographic maps of coastal zone and shoreline changes can provide good understanding of the potential risk from coastal erosion and coastal inundation or other types of instabilities. 3. Ecosystems - such as wetlands - are highly sensitive to sea inundation as natural hazards and human influence. Rocky and cliffed segments of coast are least sensitive whereas sandy beaches backed by low plains or dunes record the highest sensitivity. 4. The ways by which erosion and accretion transform shorelines are primarily due to many factors most particularly the prevailing waves, coastal currents and tides including the geology, geomorphology, climate/weather extremes and human incursions. 5. Coastal landforms (coral reefs, barrier islands) and wetland ecosystems (mangroves, marshes) provide a natural first line of protection from storm surges and flooding. 6. The traditional approach of preventing coastal erosion through the use of hard engineering solutions may causes more problems than it has solved. Soft solutions such as beach nourishment and construction of offshore reefs are more active forms of preventing. 7. Effective coastal disaster prevention and response rely on strong governance and institutions, as well as adequate public preparedness.

17

موجز تنفيذي

اطار العمل يعدد هددذ لمشددع لعسدد خددع لتضدديسي لسددييةي فدد لدديم جهدد مسدديهمي لتعزيددز لتقعيددع لسنتين أل ل العالن لوطن لثيلث يول لتغيع ت لمنيخي م ث تمكي لديم مد تةبيد لتز ميتهدي فد معيهد لتغيدع لمنديخ عةد أسد مسدت م فد طديس نشديطيت ,UNFCCC GEF . فضال ع سس لخع لطبغعفي خع لغطيء ألسض لةنطيق لسيية يع سس خع لتغيع لخ لسييل مستوييت لحسيسي مكوني هيمي ف هذ لمشع . تتمثل اله ف لع يسي لهذه لمهم ف ع د تحةيل لخع لطوبوغع في عة طول لخد لسدديية لتح يدد جميدد لمندديط منخفضدد لمسددتو لتدد يمكدد ن تتدديثع بيستفددي منسددو ميدديه لبحع, تح ي ستخ ميت الس ض عة طول لخ لسيية لتح ي يج همي الثيس فد كدل مجيل, فضال ع تح ي لمنيط الكثع يسيسي لت تخض لةتععي لسدييةي لغمدع فد ييلد ستفددي مسددتو سددط لبحددع بفعددل المددو لعيليدد , عدد د خددع لتغيددع لخدد لسددييل خددع لحسيسددي , ضدد قي مدد بدديلمو ق ذ ت ال لويدد لتدد تتطةدد تخدديذ جددع ء ت عيجةدد لةتكيف.

البيانات وطرق البحث

لتحليل التغيرفي الغطاء االرضا اساتممل مرئياء فضاءئي لألعاوا 2001 و 2017. وذلا بءسااتاما تقنيااء االستشاامءر عاا بماام و تقنيااء نظاا المملومااء الجغرافياا . ولكشاا التغياارا زيءمة او نقصء فا الغطاء األرضاي تا توظيا امسا اناوا للغطاء االرضا ها المناءط الحضااري والمبنياا , األراضااي القءحلاا والمكسااوة بءلكثبااء واألراضااي المءلحاا , األشااجءر , المنءط المشبي و االراض المزروع بءلمحءصيل. وعل الرغ م أ انشء الارائط الطبوغرافي المقيق يمم عمال ميمانيء ممقاما وطويال المام اال اناا تاا اعاامام الااارائط الطبوغرافياا المبمأياا للنطااء السااءحلي بمااء يمكاا ماا تقاامي تصااورا موجزا لطبغرافي منطق المراس بءالستفءمة م بيءنء الويب. ولتحليل التغير فاي ااط الساءحل وحركتا عبار عملياء التمريا والارم اساتامم تقنياء GIS وتقنيء االستشمءر ع بمم لقياء االاتالفاء فا المءضا والحءضار لفتارة 34 عءماء مناذ عاء 1984 حتاا عااء 2017, بءسااتاما االستشاامءر عاا بماام تقنياا ونظاا المملومااء الجغرافياا بءالستمءن بملح DSAS

ولتحميم حسءسي المميريء السءحلي إزا التمري البحري او الرم تم االستمءن بمؤشار ممامل للحسءساي المشات ما After: Kanciruk (1989) and Gornitz (1991) and) Efthimios Karymbalis ∗ , 2012) modified اسااتام فياا 11 متغياارا طبيميااء وبشريء ت ما االلا تصاني الماميريء بحساب شامة حسءسايتاء للتمريا او الارم . وفضاال عا التحليل الكمي للنتءئج ت رس ست ارائط للحسءسي تظار كل المميريء ومستو حسءسيتاء.

مجمل االستنتاجات الرئيسية

منطقة الدراسة تمت منطق ل س س ف طيس خ لسييل خ كنتوس 50 متدع. نظدع لةصدعوبيت لخيصد فد لددعسس لجبةيدد ضدديف بعدد آخددع لةمسدديف تحدد د 5 كةدد مدد خدد لسددييل بحيددث مكدد ضدد

18

منيط لعسس لجبةي لمعتفعيت ألعةد مد 50 متدع لو قعد فد طديس لخيديس أل ل. يمتد خ لسييل ليمن بنحو 1906 كة يق مبيشع ف ي د 9 محيفظديت يمنيد 41 م يعيد .ف يي يشمل لنطيق لسيية 49 م يعي بمي فيهي تةك لت ال تق مبيشع عة خ لسييل.

الخلفية المكانية تنمرج التكوينء الجيولوجي الت تغط المنطق السءحلي م قبل حقب ماء قبال الكمباري وحتا عصر الاولوسي . وتسوم فاي منطقا المراساي تكويناء الرباءعي حيا تغطا نحاو 86% ما المنطق السءحلي . وتتميز بمض الرؤؤ الجبلي فاي المنطقا الساءحلي الجنوبيا الشارقي يياروز تكوينء جيولوجي تموم ال مءقبل الكمبري وال الزم الثالثي. و تتميز الساول السءحلي في اليم بءنااء سااول اناماميا تكونا نتيجا لمملياء جياو تكتونيا مصااءحب لتشااكيل الاايج عاام والبحاار االحماار, وهااي عبااءرة عاا أراضااي منبسااط الاا تاللياا تنحمر تمريجيء م اط الساءحل الا اقاما المرتفماء الجبليا الغربيا لاضاب حضارمو والا الكتل الجبلي غرب اليم . وتض الساول الساءحلي اربما مظاءهر جيومورفولوجيا هاي الاتالل والقبءب, الساول والمراوح الفيضي , الرواسب الريحي والشواطئ. منءايااء تااايم الظاارو المنءاياا القءحلاا والجءفاا التااي تتساا يءرتفااء مماامال مرجااء الحاارارة والرطوب النسبي وشح الاطول المطري. وتتراوح مممال مرجء الحارارة القصاوي بحساب البيءناء المتءحا للمامة 1979-2014 باي 39.53 فاي شاار أكتاوبر فاي ميامي 23.43 فاي ينءير فاي حاو . وااالل نفا المامة وصال أعلا ممامل سانوي للاطاول المطاري 271 ملا فاي المنيرة في حي انافض هاذا الممامل الا 31 ملا فاي الشاار. هاذا وقام اظاار التوزيا الفصالي للمطر زيءمة واضح في حاميبو – ساقطر للاطاول المطاري الاذي وصال الا 153.14 ملا فااي فصاال الاري .هااذا وقاام أظااار البيءنااء حااول ساارع الريااءح ا الماااء هااي األعلاا فااي مممال سرع الريءح طوال الماء , وما ذلا تحظا حاميبو بأقصا ممامل لسارع للرياءح فاي يوليو وصل ال 9.1 متر في الثءني . ويوجاام فااي النطااء الساااءحلي للاايم سلساال ماا الموائااال البيئياا كءاألراضااي الرطباا وأشدددجيس لمينجعف لمع جي لسبخيت لشو طئ لعمةي لحصوي . تعد هدذه لمو دل عةد تنوعهدي قيعدد لةتنددو لحيوي,هددذ فضددال عدد قيمتهددي القتصدديدي لسددمكي لسدديييي قدد ستهي عةدد لمحيفظدد عةدد لشددو طئ مدد لتععيدد لبحعيدد هميتهددي الحيوياا ايضااء بءلنسااب لمميشاا سااكء السواحل. نظع ألهميتهي ف تقيدي لتغيدع فد خد لسدييل تح يد مسدتو يسيسدي لسدييل تمد دس سد بعض لظع ف أل قيينوجع في لةبحيس لمطة عة منطقد ل س سد خيصد تجديه ستفدي سدط لبحع, م ستفي يعكيت لم الستفي لمعيديسي لةمدو . تتدع معد الت دسجديت يدع س سط لبحع لةم 1982- 2016 بي 29.84 دسج مئويد فد لبحديس لمطةد عةد لح يد 26.76 دسج مئوي ف لبحيس لمطة عة سقطع . بصدوس عيمد فدين لبحديس لممطةد عةد لسدييل لغعبدد كثدع يددع س مدد لبحديس لمطةدد عةد لسددييل لجنددوب لةيم .هدذ يصددل معدد ل ستفي لمو لمعييسي 2.66 متدع هدو عةد فد شدعق خةدي عد ن مند فد غعبد فد لبحدع أليمددع. مدد جيندد آخددع لدد تعصدد يدد عيصدديع تغةغةدد لدد لبحددع أليمددع بعكدد خةددي عدد ن غددع بحددع لعددع لتدد لددوي فيهددي صددول مددرثع ت ألعيصدديع لمنخفضدديت لجويدد عةدد ندد ستهي. يعدد إعصدديس Chapala فاا 25 نااوفمبر عااء 2015 اول اعصااءر ضاارب السااءحل الجنوبي الشرقي لليم ف عصر االقمءر الصنءعي تبم بءسابو اعصاءر Megh الاذي توغال كثيرا في اليج عم . وتبي البيءنء المستقطم لمنطق المراس حول اتجءه ارتفء سطح البحار الا ا ممامل االرتفاء يصل ال 0.46 -1.3 مل فاي السان فاي البحار األحمار و2.4 -1.38 ملا فاي السان فاي الايج عم وبحر المرب. ويصورة عءم فاي ترتف تمريجيء هنء م الغرب ال الشر .

19

امء فيمء ياتص بمم ارتفء المم فءن يصل فاي الممامل السانوي الا 2.5 متار فاي الايج عام وهو اعل من في البحر األحمر. ويصورة عءم يتمرج ارتفء مم المام فاي الايج عام وبحار المرب م الغرب ال الشر وفي البحر األحمر في حي يتمرج انافءض مم المم م الشامءل ال الجنوب في البحر األحمر قبءل منطق المراس . ووفقء الحصء 2004 بلا عامم ساكء منطقا المراسا 1692485 نسام . ويحساب اساقءطء السكء لمء 2015 ارتف الممم ال 3121629 نسم بزيءمة قمرهء 1429144نسام . وبوجا عااء تماام منطقاا المراساا منافضاا الكثءفاا السااكءني بءسااتثنء ماام المااواني فااي عاام والحمياامة والمكال , حي قامر االساقءطء لماء 2015 كثءفا الساكء فاي عام بحاوالي 8179 نسام كل مرب ونحو 2910 نسم كل مرب في المريامي – محءفظ الحميمة و نحو 702 نسام كل مرب في الحميمة. ويمك التممي بء سكء منطق المراسا يتوطناو فاي أربما أناوا ما التجمماااء هاااي مااام الماااواني وعواصااا المحءفظاااء والماااميريء , التجمماااء المبمثااارة فاااي األراضاي الزراعيا وهاي اقال كثءفا , التجممااء الاطيا علا طاول الطار الرئيساي واالومياا وعل طول اط السءحل وتتمثل في قر الصيءمي والمواني الصغيرة . وعلاا الاارغ ماا تصااني النطااء السااءحلي للاايم ضاام المنااءط الممرضاا للاطاار ماا تااءثير ارتفاء مسااتو ميااءه البحاار والفيضاءنء السااءحلي فءناااء تماام ماا ابارز مراكااز التنمياا فاا مجااءل مصءئم االسمء السءحلي والمستوطنء البشري , والبني التحتي والسايءح الساءحلي وغيرهاء ما المجءال التنموي , حي تنتشار فاي اطاءر منطقا المراسا وعلا نطاء واسا المميام ما هيءكال البني التحتي وغيرهء م االنشط االقتصاءمي التاي تتركاز فا الاثال المام الساءحلي الكبار عم , الحميمة والمكال فضال ع بمض الموانئ الصغيرة ذا الوظءئ المحممة. ولقطاء صايم االساامء مورا اقتصاءميء مميازا فاا منطقا المراسا , حياا مصامرا رئيسايء للاامال لمجموعاا كبياارة ماا افاارام المجتممااء المحلياا فاا قاار ومجتممااء الصاايم فياااء حياا ممظاا القطءعء الفقيرة م السكء يميشو عل طول السواحل اليمني والجزر. ووفقاء لبيءناء 2012 يوظااا صااايم األسااامء نحاااو 83157 صااايءما حرفياااء يميلاااو حاااوالي 475,000 نسااام مااا عااءئالتا . هااذا فضااال عاا توظياا عاامما مرتفمااء نساابيء ماا االشاااءص فاا جوانااب ماتلفاا ماا عمليء تجايز وتسوي االنتءج السمكي.

الغطاء األرضي بحسب الاريط التاي أصامرتاء منظما الفاءو للغطاء األرضاي للايم سان 2002 تضا منطقا المراس 31 نوعء م أنوا الغطء األرضي. صنفاء التقرير فاي سات مجموعاء هاي -1 السطوح الرملي بمء فياء الكثبء الرملي , وتغطي حاوالي 38.69 % ما منطقا المراسا , -2 األراضااي الصاااري الجاارما وتغطااي نحااو 33.83 %, 3- المسااطحء الملحياا -أهماااء السااباء - ومسااءحتاء حااوالي 10.84 %, 4- األراضااي الزراعياا وتغطااي 9.53 % , -5 النبءتء الصحراوي الجءف بءنواعاء الماتلف وتغطي 6.53 % , هذا فضال ع أنوا أاار محمومة المسءح تغط 0.6 %, ممضماء المبءني والمنشآ في المم والقر . وتشير نتاءئج تحليال التغيار فاي الغطاء األرضاي للمامة باي 2001 -2017 الا ا األراضاي الصااااري الجااارما والساااطوح الرمليااا حظيااا باااأكبر نساااب فاااي التغيااار قااامرهء 85 % زام بموجباء المسءح منذ 2001 بقمر3971.53 كل مرب . وما ا مساءح األراضاي الزراعيا قم زام بنحو549.33 كل مربا أو 565.78 % ما مساءحتاء األسءساي عاء 2001 اال ا هذه الزيءمة تمثل فقط 4.28 % م اجمءلي التغير في الغطاء األرضاي لمنطقا المراسا . وعلا النقاااايض انافظاااا مسااااءحء النبءتااااء بءنواعاااااء الشااااجري والشااااجيري بنسااااي - %72.28 و- 98.25 % عل التوالي وذلا بسابب التوسا فاي المباءني والقطا والرعاي الجاءئر, حيا توسم المسءحء المبني منذ 2001 بنسب 72.67 % . وقم احتلا عام المركاز األول فاي

20

التوساا الحضااري زام فياااء المسااءح منااذ 2001 بنحااو 75.7 كلاا مرباا او 36.85 % ماا اجمااءلي التوساا الحضااري , تلتاااء الحمياامة بمسااءح 48 كلاا مرباا او 27.75 % ثاا المكااال بمسءح 36.7 كل مرب او 7.76 % .

الخرائط الطبغرافية كش التحليل المكءني للارائط الطبغرافي لمنطق المراس فاي منساوب اقال ما 5 كلا عا ااط السءحل ا محءفظ الحميمة تستأثر بسءحل هو األطول بءلمقءرن م بقيا المحءفظاء الساءحلي , يصل ال 25.4 % م اجمءلي طول السءحل اليمني. كمء أ ا مساءحء واسام ما أراضاياء في اطءر منطق المراس تقمر بحوالي 383.51 كل مرب تق في منساوب اقال ما 5 متار فاو مستو سطح البحر. م جءنب آار بين الاارائط الطبغرافيا ا الطار الممبامة )8305 كلا أطول م الطر غير الممبمة )1136 كل . وقم حظي محءفظ عم وبنسب 23.32 % ما اطوال الطر الممبمة بءحتوائاء عل أطول الطر الممبمة م بي المحءفظء السءحلي . وم قلا اتساء النطاء الساءحلي فاي محاءفظتي حضارمو والماارة اال انا يتمياز بتقطا كبيار لالومي السءحلي الاطي المنحمرة سريمء م اقاما المرتفماء المجاءورة. ويصال طاول الومياء في محءفظ حضارمو فاي اطاءر 5 كلا ما ااط الساءحل بحاوالي 180.3 كلا او 27.33 % م اجمءلي طول الوميء السءحلي المقمرة بحوالي 659.7 كلا لانف االطاءر المكاءني. وفاي اماء في محءفظ المارة فيصل طول هذه األومي ال 116.3 كل . ال الشر م شقرة فاي محءفظا اباي والاا الغاارب ماا رأ الماءرة فااي محءفظاا لحااج تنتشاار أيضاء األومياا الاطياا التااي تقطاا السال السءحلي هنء , هذا فضال ع المميم م ناءيء األومي المنحمرة م المرتفمء الغربيا لليم بءتجءه السال السءحلي الغربي لليم . وتنتشر االراضي المبني الحضري في اطءر 5 كل م اط السءحل عل مساءح قامرهء 181.5 كل مرب وتتركز في مواق محمومة في كل المحءفظء السءحلي بءستثنء محءفظتي لحج وشبوه. وتستأثر محءفظ الحميمة بمسءح حضري هي األعلا فاي نطاء 5 كلا ما ااط الساءحل قامرهء 62.1 كل مرب او 34.22 % م اجماءلي المساءح الحضاري فاي هاذا النطء .وتاأتي محءفظا عم بمسءح حضري قمرهء 51 كل مرب في المرتب الثءني تلياء محءغظ حضرمو بمساءح انتشءر حضري قمرهء 41.1 كل مرب . م جءنب آار وبءلنظر ال طبق المءنجرو في الارائط الطبغرافي يالحظ اناء تحتل مساءحء محمومة وتتركز أسءسء في السال السءحلي الغربي لليم حي تغطي هنء حوالي 13 كلا مربا ,55.8 % مناء تنتشر في محءفظ حج وال الجنوب مناء تقل مسءحء المءنجرو تمريجيء . وكطبقااء نقطياا أضاايف الممياام ماا مراكااز الماام والقاار والمطااءرا والمااواني الاا الااارائط الطبغرافي . ولقم حمم التقريربصورة اولي فيمء ياص المواق الحسءس المنافظ االرتفاء الممرضا للغمار والتمري البحريا بسابب ارتفاء ساطح البحار وتغيار ااط الساءحل, 21 موقماء طبغرافياء وبيئياء تنتشار علاا طااول السااءحل اليمنااي فضااال عاا الممياام ماا المواقاا ذا القيماا التراثياا والساايءحي والثقءفي واالثري والتءرياي .

تغير خط الساحل عك التغير في اط السءحل مينءميكي المملياء الجيومورفولوجيا ااال ل 34 سان باي 1984 و2017 ويغطي نتءئج التي تمم رائمة في مجءلاء بءلنسب لليم , مملومء هءم المارة النطاء السءحلي . لقم كشف نتءئج التحليل المكءني عل مستو مميريء الساءحل ا ااط الساءحل شاام عمة مساتويء متفءوتا ما التمريا والارم وا 53.8 % ما ممامال EPR تقا فاي نطاء النحاا وا 47.2 % تقاا فااي نطااء الاارم بااءنحرا مميااءري قاامره 1.96 . بوجاا عااء بلاا المممل المء للرم 1.9 متر السن في حي بل المممل المء للنح 0.78 متر السن .

21

هذا وقم أظار نتءئج التحليال لتغيار ااط الساءحل ا مميريا المنيارة فاي محءفظا الحميامة نءلا القيم القصو لمممل التغير السنوي بءلرم قامرهء 7.6 متار فاي السان يقءربااء فاي ذلا ممظا مميريء محءفظ عم ومميري المكال في محءفظا حضارمو . ويماز ارتفاء ممامال الارم فاي هاذه الماميريء الا التوساا الممراناي علا حساءب البحاار . بءلمقءبال حصال مميريا الرياامة وقصيمر في محءفظ حضرمو عل اعل مممل للتغير بءلنح قمره 2.8 متر السن . وفيمء ياص صءفي حرك اط السءحل )NSM للممة 1984 – 2017 فقم وصل في الممامل ال 15.6 متر السن بءنحرا مميءري قمره 66.5 . وم نتءئج صءفي الحرك يمك التمماي ا السءحل الغربي لليم وسءحل محءفظ عم شام تراجمء بءتجءه البحر ,فاي حاي شاام الساءحل اليمني في بقي المواق تممما نحو اليءبس . وباءلنظرال ممامال الارم السانويaccretion rate لاوحظ ا مميريا الصالي فاي محءفظا الحميمة شام اقص مممل قمره 42 هكتءر السن , يلياء مميري اللحيا 36.5 هكتاءر السان ث مميري المنيرة 28.6 هكتءر السن . وفيمء بتمل بمممال النح السنوي erosion rate فقاام وصاال فااي مميرياا الاامريامي الاا 14.7 هكتااءر الساان والاا 10.3 هكتااءر الساان فااي مميري ذبءب يلياء في المرتب الثءلث مميري الريمة وقصيمر 9.6 هكتءر السن . وبمقءربا ممامال الاارم والنحا امكا إيجااءم ممامال النمااو التاي تبءينا كثياارا باي المااميريء السءحلي . هذا وقم وصال ممامل النماو الا قاي قصاو ألكثار ما 20 هكتاءر السان فاي ثاال مميريء هي الصلي واللحي والمنيرة وكلاء تتب محءفظ الحميمة. كمء تراوح مممل النماو باي 5-20 هكتءر السن في مميريء ميمي وكمرا والمنصورة واورمكسر.

حساسية الساحل اليمني يمم تحميام مرجا حسءساي الساءحل اليمناي األول ما نوعا بءلنساب للايم وتفيام نتءئجا في إمارة الماءطر التاي يتمارض لااء النطاء الساءحلي والحام ما آثءرهاء السالبي . لقام كشاف نتاءئج مؤشار الحسءسي السءحلي أ 32.5 % م السءحل اليمني يتمرض لمستو مرتف م الحسءسي تنات فااي 13 مميرياا سااءحلي . مكءنيااء تتميااز مااميريء اااورمك والمنصااورة فااي محءفظاا عاام ومميري الحءلي في محءفظ الحميمة بمرج عءلي جما للمؤشر المء للحسءسي . وبءلنظرال نتءئج مؤشار الحسءساي الااءص بءلنحا لاوحظ ا 18 مميريا ساءحلي تصان بءنااء حسءس . مكءنيء تمم المميريء التءلي األعل في مستويء الحسءسي الاءص بءلنحا ماميريء ذبااءب والماااء علاا سااءحل البحاار األحماار ومااميريء المنصااورة واورمكساارفي محءفظاا عاام ومميريتي وانفر وزنجبءر في محءفظ أبي ومميري الريمة وقصايمر فاي محءفظا حضارمو ومميريتي سايحو والغيضا فاي محءفظا الماارة. هاذه المساتويء المءليا جاما لمؤشار حسءساي النحاا تمااوم الاا النحاامار الاااي والمنبسااط للشااواطي والىاا التكوينااء الربءعياا و اشااكءل سااطح األرض الاش فضال ع مممل ارتفء سطح البحر المرتف نسبيء في تل الجاء . وفيمء يتمل بنتءئج مؤشر الحسءسي للغمر بواسط البحر فء 14 مميريا ساءحلي او حاوالي 35 % م اجمءلي المميريء السءحلي تق تح تأثير هذا المؤشر. وتصان الماميريء التءليا بءنااء ذا مستو عءل جما لمؤشار حسءساي الغمار مميريا الحاءلي فاي محءفظا الحميامة وماميريتي صاايرة واااور مكساار فااي محءفظاا عاام وجزياارة سااقطر . هااذه المسااتويء المرتفماا لمااؤ حسءسااي الغماار ساابباء االنحاامار المنبسااط وانمااءط الغطااء األرضااي فضااال عاا الكثءفاا السااكءني والطر الممبمة و القي التراثي التي تتميز باء تل الجاء . وبوج عء فء 33.73 % م منطق المراس في اطءر 5 كل م اط السءحل تق في منساوب ارتفء اقل م 5 متر فو مستو سطح البحر. كمء أ ممظ مسءح مميريتي الصلي واللحيا في محءفظ الحميمة ومميري اورمكسرفي محءفظ عم ويمرج امن ما ذلا ماميريء عاب والمنيرة والماء تق في اطءر هذا النطء المانافض االرتفاء وما ثا هاي ممرضا اكثار للغمار بسبب ارتفء مستو سطح البحر وتأثير األمواج المءلي .

22

خيارات التكيف

لتقليل الماءطر النءجم ع ارتفء مستو سطح البحر فاي غمار وتآكال الساواحل اليمنيا هناء ضارورة ملحا لألااذ بمجموعا ماا اياءرا التكيا الناءع الالزما بمااء فا ذلا تمزياز الاانظ الطبيمي السءحلي مثل االراضا الرطبا والمساتنقمء والشاواطئ والكثباء الرمليا لامورهء فاي امتصءص طءق األمواج وحمءي السواحل م التءكل.

ونظارا لحسءساايتاء المءلياا جااما لكال ماا مؤشااري النحاا والغمار السااءحلي يحااب ا تتجاا تاامابير التكي التكي علا المام القصاير نحاو ماميريء اورمكسار والمنصاورة فا محءفظا عام . كمء ينبغ ايضء توجي اهتمء كبيار لماميريء المااء وذباءب عال ساءحل البحار األحمار, وكاذل مااميريء انفاار وزنجبااءر وأحااور والياامة وقصاايمر والمساايل وساايحو وقشاا والغيضاا علاا السااءحل الجنااوبي للاايم الاايم , والتااي تظااار حسءسااي عءلياا جااما للتآكاال . نفاا المسااتو ماا سيءسااء التكيياا ينبغااي أ توجاا أيضااء الاا مااميريء الحااءلي و الحااو فااي محءفظاا الحمياامة ومميرياا صاايرة فااي محءفظاا عاام وميرياا مميناا المكااال فااي محءفظاا حضاارمو فضااال عاا جزي سقطر لمء تظاره م حسءسي عءلي جما م لماءطر الغمر.

التوصيات للدراسات المستقبلية

ألجال تمتااي المراسا المسااتقبلي فاي مجااءل رسا ااارائط النطاء السااءحلي واارائط تغياار اااط السءحل يوصي التقرير بأهمي الحصول عل بيءنء مقيق وتفصيلبي امء بشرائاء م مصاءمرهء او استمءرتاء كءلمرئيء الفضءئي الموضوعي ونمءذج االرتفاء الرقماي ذا المقا المءليا فضاال ع سلسل البيءنء المنءاي واالوقيءنوجرافي والبيءنء االجتمءعي واالقتصءمي . وحت يت الحصاول علا نتاءئج اكثار تفصايال لتغيار ااط الساءحل وطبغرافيتا وحسءساي النطاء السااءحلي يوصااي التقرياار بااء ياات تفصاايل تقسااي النطااء السااءحلي الاا وحااما بطااول 20 كلاا وعاارض 5 كلاا واالسااقءط بءلتحلياال والرساا كءفاا التغياارا فااي جيومورفولوجياا الشااواطئ وتغير الغطء األرضي واستممءال األرض والنظ البيئي واالجنمءعي واالقتصءمي علياء. وبااام التوصاال الاا تحلياال زمنااي للتغياار فااي النطااء السااءحلي بصااورت المقساام آنفااء يوصااي التقرير اجرا التقيي والمراس الموري كل ام سنوا لمراقب وتتب انجءهاء التغيار سالبء او إيجءبء . وحت يت الحصول عل تقميرا مقيق الرتفء سطح البحار واصاءئص األماواج التاي تضارب اط السءحل يوصي التقرير االستفءمة م النمءذ األوقيءنوجرافي اإلقليمي لكل ما البحار األحمار واليج عم وبجر المرب. وبمااء ا ماااءطر ارتفااء سااطح البحاار ومااء يرافقاااء ماا نحاا او غماار ورم لاااء كلفاا اقتصااءمي وحتا ياات تفاامير هااذه الكلفاا بمقاا يوصااي التقرياار بمماال مسااوحء للممتلكااء المءماا والاءصاا للنطء السءحلي بحسب النطءقء السءحلي الموص باء أعاله . وحتا يات الاتحك الفءعال لمااءطر التغيار فاي النطاء الساءحلي النءتجا عا ارتفاء ساطح البحار وتمري األمواج المءتي البام ما اشارا كءفا مكوناء المجتما المحلاي فاي إمارة التكيا لكال نطء سءحلي .

23

الرسائل األساسية

يتضم هذا التقرير الناءئي لرسا الاارائط الطبغرافيا للنطاء الساءحلي فاي الايم سابم رساءئل هءم هي 1. التغياار المنااءاي وانمكءسااءت فااي ارتفااء سااطح البحاار والتغياار الجيومورفولااوجي لاااط السءحل يشكل تاميما اطيرا للنظ االيكولوجي و االنشاط االجتمءعيا - االقتصاءمي فا المنءط السءحلي . 2. انشء ارائط طوبوغرافي مفصل للمنءط السءحلي يمكا ا ياوفر فاماء جياما للمااءطر المحتمل م النح الساءحل والارم والغمار للمناءط الساءحلي او االناوا االاار ما عم االستقرار. 3. تمم الانظ االيكولوجيا - مثال االراضا الرطبا - حسءسا جاما لمااءطر الغمار والتاءثير البشاار , فااي حااي ا الاارؤو الجبلياا فااي قطءعااء السااءحل تماام اقاال حسءسااي . امااء الشواطئ الرملي المحءط بءلساول المنافض او الكثبء فءناء تسجل حسءسي عءلي . 4. المواماال التااي بموجباااء تحاام التحااوال فااي اااط السااءحل بءلتآكاال او الغماار والاارم متمااممة اهماااء التيااءرا السااءحلي واالمااواج ر بمااء فاا ذلاا الاصااءئص الجيولوجياا والجيومورفولوجي والمنءخ المتطر والموامل البشري . 5. تمام األشاكءل األرضااي ) الشامءب المرجءنيا والجاازر الساءحلي والانظ االيكولوجياا ) األراضي الرطب و أشجءر المءنجرو واألهوار الحءئط الطبيماي الماءن األماءمي فاي مواجا ماءطر المواص والفيضءنء . 6. الطر التقليمى لمن تءكل الساواحل بءساتاما الحلاول الانمساي تسابب مشاءكل اكثار مماء تحاال , فااي حااي أ الحلااول النءعماا مثاال تغذياا الشااءطئ وتنمياا الشاامءب المرجءنياا البحري اكثر اشكءل الوقءي نجءحء. 7. تمتمم فءعلي الحم م االمااءطر الساءحلي علا االمارة الرشايمة ومؤسساءتاء فضاال عا التمويل الكءفي والتءهب لاء.

24

Chapter 1 : Introduction

From geographic standpoint a shoreline is a dynamic feature and inconsistent line that formed due intersection of sea and land. Near shoreline areas are exposed to location changes impacts of shoreline both in short and long terms. Dwellers and citizens upon land could observe easily these changes in the relative location of shoreline and determine whether a given coastal area stands now at higher or lower level with reference to sea level. Dynamic forces of atmosphere - climate change - and sea wave’s erosion are mostly forming the shoreline and affect its location change. Regarding Yemen shoreline; that extend 1906 km along southwest of Red Sea and north of Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea; it was subjected to series of changes in the rise and fall during geological times. This assignment is dealing only with current changes in shoreline and its near coastal areas.

1.1 Scope of Work

Climate change is an emerging development issues in Yemen.This project of Mapping of Shoreline Topography Along The Coastline of Yemenis is a contributing effort to enhance BUR and TNC and hence to enable the Country fulfill its commitments to the Convention on a continuing basis under the UNFCCC, GEF activities. The project will assist in monitoring shoreline changes, managing coastal zones and building further national capacities to increase the awareness on climate change issues; particularly among policy-makers to take into considerations while setting out national and sectoral polices, strategies, and programs. This project is also undertaken to strengthening the adaptation capacities for climate change impacts on Yemen’s shoreline and its near systems of coastal zones.

A key part of mapping shoreline topography is its coastal vulnerability and sensitivity through the identification of various parameters; such as coastal substrates, relief, landforms, accelerated erosion and shoreline recession, ecosystems, land cover - use and anthropogenic regimes that have greater or lesser sensitivity to potential coastal impacts of climate

25 change and sea level rise. The physical sensitivities can be broadly referred to as shoreline changes and instabilities. One of the expected impacts from climate change is the accelerated coastal erosion and inundation owing to rising sea levels. Rates and location of erosion and inundation are highly dependent on several factors including: • Coastal landform – land cover and land use types, • Local variations in the processes driving erosion or Instability, • Local factors such as topography, sediment budgets and human activities.

The creation of detailed topographic maps of coastal zone and shoreline changes due to sea level rise associated with high wave surge can provide good understanding of the potential risk from erosion or other types of instabilities.

1.2. Objectives

The main objective of this assignment as documented in TOR is to assist Yemen in the preparation of its First BUR and TNC for the implementation of the obligations under the UNFCCC. Under the scope of this work specific tasks are to be carried out including: ▪ Assessing and analyzing the topography along the shoreline to identify all low laying areas that could be affected by sea level rise under different scenarios, ▪ Identifying land uses along the shoreline in order to determine the magnitude and importance of effects on each area, ▪ Identifying the most sensitive areas that are subject to be submerged by sea water in case of sea level rise and high waves activity, ▪ Establishing detailed topographic and sensitivity maps, and ▪ Developing a list of priority areas that require urgent prevention/Adaptation actions.

26

1.3. Previous Studies

Due to its natural, environmental and economic importance, the coastal zone of Yemen is well documented. Various studies and reports have been submitted to national, regional or global institutions and organizations, nevertheless direct previous studies related to the scope of this project are scarce. Followings are the important previous studies related indirectly to potential climate change risks on coastal zone and/or their components:

▪ Main previous environmental documents related indirectly to the objective of this report are those of: (Scott D. A., 1993) who compiled a directory of wetlands in the Middle East , The National Report (NIP Coastal Areas of Yemen) , (http://www.persga.org/Files/Common/POPs_Country_Reps/POP s_Yemen_Report.pdf). (G.Wilson, 2003), (Krupp.et) , (Tawfiq, 1994) , on impact of Climate changes on the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. UNDP Regional Seas Reports and Studies.

▪ Other previous studies concerning the economic important and sensitivity to shoreline changes due to complex of drivers are those of WB Port Cities Development Program: (WB, Aden: Commercial Capital of Yemen. Local Economic Development Strategy , 2008), Aden: Commercial Capital of Yemen. Local Economic Development Strategy (WB, Mukalla: Gateway to the Hadramout. Local Economic Development Strategy , 2008) and (WB, Hodeidah: Agro-Industrial Capital of Yemen. Local Economic Development Strategy , 2008). The Program’s main objective is to develop the potential of strategic port cities in Yemen as engines for economic growth by creating an environment conducive to private sector-led growth and to the creation of employment opportunities in the three participating cities.

In addition to above mentioned coastal zone economy documents, there are other useful fishery sectoral reports of (Walid, 2012) on Fishery

27

Sector Strategy and Climate Change and (Bonfiglioli.etal, 2004) of Small-scale Fisheries in Yemen.

▪ Further general reports have been selected to examine CZM and action plans for adaptation. These are : (EPA) Republic of Yemen Environment Protection Authority National Adaptation Program of Action, (Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Yemen). (WB, Yemen, Republic of - Climate Resilient Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project, 2009), (Zajonz.etal, Final Synthesis Report. Yemen SEA of CZM. Report to the World Bank and the EPA Yemen, 2010), (Zajonz.etal, Yemen Strategic Environmental Assessment of Coastal Zone Management, June 2010). ▪ Direct previous case studies reports on coastal zones of Yemen are those of Yemen NCs: (Alsabary.etal, 2001), (Abubakr.etal, 2013) and (AbdulBaki.etal, August 2017).as well as of WB PPCR Yemen (AbdulBaki, 2013), (Alsubbary.etal, July 2000) and (Saafani.etal, 2015) • Except for the works of Aref Al Sagheer (Sagheer A. , 2008) and (AbdulBaki., 2013), (Sagheer A. , 2013) there is rareness in scientific attributions regarding Yemen shoreline topographic mapping, less concerns in geomorphologic shoreline change and coastal sensitivities due to sea level rise associated with high wave surge actions. This report is aiming to fill this gab.

1.4. Material and Methodology

To achieve the mentioned above objectives and tasks specific methods are used. Various spatial materials and data are acquired from different sources including: ▪ SRTM 30 meter elevation data, ▪ Large scale Robertson geologici maps, ▪ Available earlier topographic maps , ▪ 2002 Land use, land cover maps of the Renewed Natural Recourses Center of General Authority of Agriculture Development, enhanced by up to date Google Earth images,

28

▪ Coastal ecosystems and environments , ▪ Coastal cities and villages and their population, ▪ Coastal infrastructures and economic activities , ▪ Land Sat Remote Sensing imaginary data, available for 1984 - 2016 ▪ Coastal landforms that are to be detected and examined via Google Earth images.

Within the scope of work, the final report consists of six chapters each has its specific methods and tools. The report includes also recommendations for further studies as well as exclusive summary in English and in Arabic.

Chapter two involves general spatial background. Descriptive as well as cartographic analysis are used here referring to physical, environment and human characteristics of the study area as well as economic status and important for Yemen.

As for chapter three, land cover and land use change along the shoreline are examined in order to determine the magnitude and importance of effects on each district study area. Settlements, human activities , infrastructures as well as coastal environments and, ecosystems, land use components are plotted and distributed over land use maps the parameters of which are overlaid via GIS on the above mentioned physiographic maps so as the first main task of the job; the mapping and creating of topographic maps along shoreline of Yemen are gained.

Chapter four assesses the topography along Yemen shoreline and it’s near coastal areas. Coastal governorates and their districts as study areas are examined and 14 topographic maps are produced; (four along western coasts of Yemen and 9 along southern coasts plus one for Socotra Island). Data material and methods are explained here. Low laying land areas that could be affected by sea level rise, their terrain and ecological features as well as archeological -historical heritage sites are detected and listed here.

29

Chapter five assesses and Identifies shoreline changes. These changes are analyzed through processes of accretion and erosion in a geographic information system (GIS) by measuring differences in past and present shoreline locations. Spatial and statistical analysis was carried out to examine the positional changes of shoreline in Yemen for the period of 34 years since 1984 until 2017, using remote sensing technique and GIS. The Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) is a software extension for Arc GIS allows for automated shoreline change calculations along Yemen districts’ shoreline.

Chapter six identifies and maps Yemen districts’ coastal sensitivities using modified costal sensitivity index (CSI). Scoring of the sensitive areas is calculated according to eleven structural, physical and socio- economic variables. Modified Formula after (Gornitz, 1991) and (Gibb.etal, December 1992,) is applied here using the square root of the geometric mean of variables.

30

Chapter two: Spatial Background

2.1. Study Area

The study area is a perceived natural coastal zone feature of land‐sea interface. It is a band transitional area rather than a line. The width of the band varies from place to place and is determined by the interaction of marine and terrestrial coastal processes. However, it is more difficult to establish an unified width extension, mainly landwards. Worldwide adopted distance criteria to define the geographical delimitation of coastal zones are 10, 50, 60 or 80 km buffer from coastline. (http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/state-coast.html).Nevertheless, owing to some misleading results of distant buffer, a 50 m a.s.l. contour line buffer from shoreline is adopted for the purpose of this assignment plus 5 km distant buffer from shore line especially at coastal mountain cliffs.

According to data base of 2016 the shoreline of Yemen is 1906 km long or 0.00361 km/km^2. (http://world.bymap.org/Coastlines.html) Its near coastal areas extend over 9 governorates and 49 districts and occupy about 3 % of the total area of Yemen. See figure (1). Western part of the coastal study area is a continuous plain named Tihamah coastal zone. It is relative wide at north and narrow up southwards when reaches Bab al Mandab. The south coastal study area is narrow at its eastern reach but widens at the vicinity of Aden, but narrows again eastwards and interrupted by mountainous cliffs and escarpments especially at Balehaf, Buroum, Al Mukalla, Qusayir and Fartak. The coastal areas of Yemen are in general not densely populated with exception of a few cities such as Aden, Al Hudaidah and Al Mukalla. Yet the most important factor is that many large port activities centers are concentrated at the coastal front, directly on beaches, particularly in Aden, Hodeida and Al Mukalla. Smaller ports operate also in Al Mukha, Balehaf AdDhabbah and Nashtoon. Though classified among areas at risk from the impact of sea level rise and coastal flooding, the study area is a hub for development in terms of fisheries, coastal settlements, coastal infrastructure, tourism, and other development initiatives.

31

Figure 1 The Study Area ; Shoreline and its near coastal areas

2.2. Geologic Formations

The coastal zone is a continuous phase of ancient structural evolution of the general geological setting of Yemen. Continental rifting in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden area was long-term process that started early in the Permo-Trias and ended with the separation of the African and Arabian plates. In Late Eocene–Early Oligocene, 34–33 Ma ago, followed by the emplacement of an active spreading ridges (17.6 Ma). (Sylvie Leroy, etal, 2012 ), (M. Albaroot, A.H.M. Ahmad, Nabil Al-Areeq, M. Sultan, February 2016)

Prior to transform motions and rifting, both the Gulf of Aden and Red sea were lowlands or topographic depressions filled with adjacent

32 continental and shallow –marine sediments. In the Gulf of Aden Area Jurassic to Eocene marine sediments cover wide area. In south red sea marine sediments seem to be incompletely present since the Jurassic. In the late Middle Miocene Red Sea was cut off from India Ocean via the Strait of Bab Al Mandab.

The geological formations that cover the coastal zone are ranging from Proterozoic Precambrian to Holocene . They vary considerably and are classified into Proterozoic, Cambro - Ord / Palaeozoic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary formations. Eleven geological maps are extracted for the study area from the geologic sheets of Robertson group and produces as Annex 1 http://www.yemenwater.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/geology-of- yemen1.pdf

Proterozoic Precambrian formations or Precambrian Basement Rocks that underlie all the sub horizontal sedimentary successions. They consist of : early - late Syntectonic to post tectonic Monzonite , diorite, granite, Andesitic meta-volcanic, Acid Meta-volcanic and Marble Meta- Dolomite. These basement rocks are restricted to 0.54 % of the study area and outcrop in Qishn, Al Mukalla, Brom-Mayfaa, and as isolated outcrops in Rudum and Ahwar.

Cambro - Ord / Palaeozoic formations consist of Post - Tectonic granodiorite- alkaline granite and monzonite. They are more restricted than pre Cambrian formations and cover only 0.22 % of the study area and out crops in Brom –Mayfaa and Al Mukalla. See Annex 1

Three Jurassic formations outcrop within the coastal zone of Yemen namely: undifferentiated Amran Group, Nayfa and Al Hajur formation bituminous limestone’s dolomite marls and sands and Madbi formation: alternating marls and limestone with conglomerate. These formations have the least extension and cover only 0.13 % of the study area. They outcrop in Qishn, Al Masiela and Khanfar.

Cretaceous formations are observed in the study area namely: undifferentiated Tawilah Group, Harshiyat - Mithaf formation: Sandstones with some calcareous horizon, Qishn formation: Variable from calcareous and arenaceous units in the west to dominantly calcareous in the east and Al Mukalla - Hallah formation of Sandstone

33 with minor calcareous horizons. These Cretaceous formations extend over only 0.90 % of the coastal zone area and outcrop in Ras Fartak, AL Masielah, Araidah wa Qusayar, AL Mukalla, Brom – Mayfaa, Rudum, Ahwar and Khanfar.

Tertiary formations with proportion of 8.30 % of the study area are better represented in the coastal zone of Yemen especially in south east coasts. Hadhramaut Limestone Group consist here four formations: Umm Ar-Rudhuma formation, well bedded limestone of Jeza Formation, Rus Formation of Gypsum and anhydrites, dolomitic limestone and Habshiya - Hamara formation. In the early Eocene Epoch the rifting processes were associated with regional uplifting. This was through interval destructive Tertiary Volcanic activities of plate margins. Coeval with this, between about 31- 29Ma, flood basalts of Yemen Trap Series (YTS) erupted covering vast areas of the region including parts of the study area in Bab al-Mandab and Al -Madharibah . Miocene Salif Evaporates “Baidformation“ or Jizan Group. These deposits occur along the Arabian side of the Red Sea.-They were precipitated during the opening of the Red Sea. They exposed as salt domes near Al-Salif, 70 km north of Al-Hudaidah and at JabalAl-Milh, north of Al-Salif. They consist mainly of halite, covered by gypsum. The total thickness of this formation is about several hundred of meters.

Quaternary Volcanism has cone or crater morphology. There is a time gap of approximately 10 million years between the eruption of Tertiary Yemen Volcanic and those of Quaternary basalts. Landforms of the Quaternary Volcanic (AVS). are observed within the coastal zone in ten main volcanic fields:1-north west Midi, 2-Perim Island, 3- Jabal Umm Birka, 4- Jabal Khariz, 5-Ras Imran, 6- Little Aden,7- Aden, 8- Shuqra, 9- BirAl, and 10-Ar -Raidah w Qusaiar. They cover about 3.8 % of the study area. The (AVS) are dominated by evolved trachyandesite and peralkaline rhyolite stratovolcanoes. These volcanic centers underwent late stage caldera formation and form the remarkably linear Aden line along the southern coast of Yemen. Quaternary sediments are wide distributed in the study area. They cover approximately 86 % of the coastal zone and ranging from Q12 of undifferentiated superficial deposits of the Tihama in the red sea coastal plain,which cover third of the total area of the coastal zone to Q2 of

34 colluviums scree. Tab. (1) Notable proportion of 17.5 % of the study area is covered by Q9 of gravel sheets, gravel plains and alluvial fans generally in areas of low relief with hard surface. These forms of Q9 spread all over the south coasts of Yemen. See Annex 1

Table 1 Quaternary formations in the coastal study area

Percent of occurrence Type Description in the study area

32.99 Q12 Undifferentiated superficial deposits of the Tihama Active alluvium: Sands and gravels showing light tones on the imagery 7.54 Q11 and occurring in main water courses Older alluvium:Conglomerate&coarse gravels frequently cemented&formed duninglote to post Miocene,occurs in the lower 8.37 Q10 reaches Gravel: gravel sheets, gravel plains and alluvial fans generally in areas of 17.52 Q9 low relief with a strong surface 0.43 Q8 Barchan dunes : Classic crescent shaped dune fields 7.49 Q7-8 Aeolian deposits: Undifferentiated Linear sand dunes : often termed sief dunes which are farmed parallel to 1.46 Q7 the prevailing wind direction Loess and ancient dunes: area of wind blown soils and sands(generally 1.34 Q6 fertile land ) 4.17 Q5 Lilloral sands :Coastal sand and dunes Sabkhas evaporates and aragonite muds forming in salt marshes in low 3.84 Q4 lying areas between coastal dunes Raised reef deposits complex of coral reef and reef debris now occurring 0.88 Q3 above sea level 0.10 Q2 colluviums scree

2.3. Land forms

The coastal plains of Yemen are characterized as destructive plains declined due to geotechnical processes associated with the formation of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. They are flat to hilly landscape, which rises slowly from the sea to the foot of the western mountainous highlands and the Hadhramaut southern plateau. The length of the western coastal plain (Tihama plain) is about 500 km and its width is between 30-60 km. The southern coastal plain is longer, and narrower ( except at the vicinity of Aden,( 50 km wide ) near Ar-Rayan (20-30 km)

35 and in delta wadi Gaza in Al Maharah), with a distance of 1500 kilometers, but is less connected than the western coastal plain. Unlike the west coasts several mountain heads intersect the eastern part of the southern coastal plain. In general the coastal plains are subjected to closer extent to Aeolian, marine and fluvial lateral erosion and deposition activities of short wadis and most of the coastal plains are cumulative. (Kadri, 2003.)

Four main geomorphologic groups of features could be distinguished in the coastal plains of Yemen: Low hills and domes, Flood plains, Aeolian deposits and beaches

• Low hills and domes are widely distributed in the coastal plains of Yemen. They represent the end stages of erosion and are observed between Ras al Mukalla and Ras Sharmah, Ras Fartak, between Ermah and Ahwar and between Ras Amran and Khor Amira and the vicinity of Bab al-Mandab as well as various isolated locations along the west coastal plain. • In addition to old alluvium of conglomerate and coarse gravels frequently cemented, that occur in the lower of main wadi reaches in the coastal plain, Active alluvial sediments are located in coastal wadi beds and deltas .Alluvial fans also occur at coastal foothills. They formed by the sudden spread of sediments carried by floods leaving highlands to the lower coastal plain. Main wadis that reach the south coastal plains are ( from west to east ) : W. Maaden, W. Tuban, W. Bana, W. Hassan, W. Ahwar, W. Maifaa, W. Hagr, W. Buaish, W. Hwairah, W. Al-Masielah, W. Gaza and W. Shaquot . As for the west coastal plains ,main wadis are : W. Harad, W. Mawr, W. Akhraf, W. Haydan, W. Surdud, W. Siham, W. Rima, W. Zabid, W. Mawza, W.Bani Khawlan, W. De Nachib , W. alwoja raimah. Several short and linear streams are also intersecting the coastal plains of Yemen. Significant amounts of fluvial sediments loaded by drainage waters of vast wadi basins are deposited in the coastal plains, in favorite for agriculture arable lands. According to Ital Consult the alluvial deposits of Wadi Tuban was estimated by 4 million ton pro year. In delta wadi Tuban thickness of alluvial sediments reach about 200 meter.

36

• Aeolian deposits are significant features in the coastal zone of Yemen. They vary according to time and place of accordance as well as to form. Four types of Aeolian sediments are observed in the study area: Coastal sand and dunes, Loess and ancient dunes, linear sand dunes and Barchan dunes. o Coastal dunes are of various size and morphology. They formed depending on several driving factors mainly: the availability of the sediment supply, dominant wind speed - direction, moisture , vegetation present, and the geomorphology of the near shore and beach face .Coastal sands and dunes extend obviously along Yemen coasts near shore line except for some locations north of Bajil and between Seihut and Ras Fartak.In most cases, the coastal dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. o Loess and ancient dunes are indicators for ancient climate change, since these types are of fine grain size dust and silt. In the study area this type of aeolian deposits occur only in Abs at north part of west coast o Linear sand dunes or Seif dunes, predominant in most deserts especially in the south western parts of Rub Al - Khali. Within the study area and according to the geological maps of Robertson Group the only location of this type of dunes are observed north east of Aden. They reflect seasonal wind direction change. Barchan dunes have three main characteristics: Crescent shape like a quarter moon, formed of desert sand and always faces the wind. They are the classic crescent shaped dune fields that could be observed along the study area but dominate especially in Rudum District of Shabwah Governorate.

• Beaches are significant landform features of the study area. According to their location they are observed either alongside a body of water which represent current state of land-water relation or as raised or high beaches which are found at a level above the current shoreline, not reachable by waters at high tide.

37 o Shore line beaches of the study area are of great tourism important and are classified according to their grain size into mud flats, also known as tidal flats, , sand beaches, pebble or gravel beaches and stony beaches , All types of these beaches occur in the coastal zone and each has its ecological important. o A raised beach is sometimes called a marine terrace. A It was formed by wave action when it was close to the waterline. During a later period, a change in sea level or an uplift of the land can put it beyond the water’s reach. In the southern coastal plain of Yemen especially between Mukalla and Shahr, three levels of high beach promenades. The upper level is located at an altitude of 60-200 meters above sea level, the middle level extends from 10 to 40 meters above sea level and the last level located less than 10 m above sea level and returning to Holocene. In term of west coastal plain most marine landforms are located close to the shore and also is belonging to the Holocene. Several foot-like terraces with a marine origin can be seen from the road between Bajil and Sanaa, located 150 meters above sea level. At other location, in the salt dome north of Hodeidah, that was gradually submerged by the sea twice, there is obvious evidence of two levels of high beaches, the highest of which returns to 3750 and 4000 years from now (Davison I . and others, 1995)

38

2.4. General Climatology

The study area has an arid to hyper arid coastal climate characterized by few and sparse amounts of rainfall , high temperatures and high relative humidity. Local average climatology is generated via available global weather dataof the SWAT website. its database for 18 hypothetical stations https://globalweather.tamu.edu/ is used here.

Main driving factors marking the climate variables in the Study area are: 1. Direct location effect of neighboring water bodies, mainly south Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and indirect effects of Arabian Sea and Mediterranean Sea, 2. Nature of General air circulations and 3. Local topography .

Apart from the detailed importance of the topography and location of neighboring seas, the General air circulations dominating the south of the Arabian Peninsula are the most obvious factors. Due to Yemen's geographic position within the seasonal cycle of the northern Indian Ocean, three separate systems could be distinguished each has its own air mass: Winter trading cycle. Summer season cycle and the transitional cycles in Spring and Autumn.

In Winter- due to thermal effect, winds blow from the Arabian Peninsula to low pressure in East Africa, and take the north-east south-west direction. As a result, surface eastern winds blow to the northeast. Air masses on land are relatively cold with a limited rain effect on the highlands. However, winter rains are caused by the conditions of air cycles penetrating from the Mediterranean, especially on the coastal plains but are nevertheless scarcity and their effect is most pronounced during the spring transition cycle when it enhances the role of the so- called Red Sea Thermal Range - Red sea convergence zone (RSCZ) . In summer Yemen is effected by the Inter Tropical Thermal Intermediate convergence zone (ITCZ), that moves north and south with the apparent movement of the sun, causing the south-west wind to prevail on the surface. The movement of (ITCZ) reaches latitudes 17 - 18 degrees north, and its effect - in combination with the topographical factor - is confined to the summer monsoon rains especially on the western highlands and the Hadhramout plateau and has relative restricted effects on the coastal plains.

39

North Arabian Sea and Tropical Lower Atmospheric Somali Jet Stream alter development of atmospheric depressions and Cyclones which effect specially south east coasts climatology.

2.4.1. Temperature

Max Temperature of the study area ranges between 39.53 degree Celsius in October at Midi (42.81 Lon.-16.39 Lat.), at NW borders to SA, and 23.43degree Celsius in January in Hawf ( 52.81 Lon. -16.7 Lat. ), near the border to Oman. Min Temperatures vary between 29.28 degree Celsius in June at Al-Munierah of Al-Hudaidah gov. and 11.54 degree Celsius in January at Hawf of Al- Maharah gov. Fig.2.

Along the coastal plain Midi have the highest annual and seasonal max temperatures as well as all over the months except for March-May and September. Regarding Min. Temperatures Hawf has the lowest Min. Temperatures along space and time. Minimum temp. is represented For each hypothetic station in Fig. 3.

Figure 2 Highest Max. Temp.averages °C (1979-2014)

45 40 35 30 OCT MIDI; 39.53 25 20 15 10 5

0

MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI MIDI

Alluhaiah

Al-Khukhah Al-Khukhah Al-Khukhah JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ANNSPRINGSUMMERAUTWINTER

40

Figure 3 Min. Temp.averages (1979-2014 )

35 30 25 20 jan AlMunierah; dec AlMunierah; 15 23.29 24.55 10 5

0

RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM RUDUM

AlMunierah AlMunierah AlMunierah AlMunierah

Ras-Alaarah

Ad-Duraihimi Ad-Duraihimi jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec Ann SpringSummerAut Winter

2.4.2.Rainfall

Annual average rainfall over the coastal zone study area for the period 1979-2014 reaches its high figure 271 mm at Al-Muneerah -Al-Hudaidah governorate and drops to 31 mm at Ash-Shihr-Hadhramaut governorate. Monthly variations of rainfall amounts are obviously observed from available data record. In Aug Al-Munierah, rainfall amount reaches 88.8 mm while it drops to 13.87 mm in June at Ahwar, Abian governorate. Fig.4.

As for seasonal distribution Autumn records higher amount of 153.14 mm in Hidabu - Socotra. Least seasonal rainfall amount is 42.09 and recorded in Winter at Alluhaiah – Al Hudaidah governorate. Fig.5. Regarding seasonal rainfall via coastal sub regions fig. 6 revealed that Socotra has higher rainfall amounts in Autumn, Winter and Spring, where west coasts exceed in Summer.

41

Figure 4 Monthly max. average of rainfall over the coastal zone of Yemen ( 1979-2014

100 aug 90 AlMunierah; 88.83 80 70

60

50 jun Ahwar; 13.87 40 30

20

10 0

Ahwar

Khanfar

HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU Alluhaiah

Alluhaiah

AlMunierah AlMunierah AlMunierah AL-GHAIDHA

jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec

Figure 5 Seasonal max. average of rainfall over the coastal zone of Yemen ( 1979-2014

180 Aut HIDAYBU; 160 153.14 Summer 140 AlMunierah; 112.32 120 100 80 Spring HIDAYBU; 60 51.05 Winter Alluhaiah; 42.09 40 20 0 HIDAYBU AlMunierah HIDAYBU Alluhaiah Spring Summer Aut Winter

42

Figure 6 Average seasonal rainfall over sub regions of the study area

160 140

120 100

80

60 40

20

0 Spring Summer Aut Winter

east coasts Socotra west coasts

2.4.3. Wind speed

Significant high wind speed over most months is recorded for Al-Mukha at Red sea, nevertheless Hidybu - Socotra has high max record In July that reaches 9.1 m/s. Lowest min. average of wind speed of 2.25 m/s is recorded for Ash-Shihr in March. Fig.7

Figure 7 Averages of max. windspeed (m/s)1979-2014 for the period

10 jul HIDAYBU; 9 9.10 8 7 6 5 4 oct Ras - 3 Alaarah; 4.37 2 1 0

HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU

Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Al-Mukha Ras-Alaarah jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec

43

2.4.4.Relative Humidity

For the period 1979- 2014 , Hidybu - Socotra has high annual max. averages of relative humidity reaches 67% , while lowest ann. RH is recorded for Al – Khukha; 0.45 %. Fig.8

Figure 8 Relative Humidiyt max. averages % for the period 1979-2914 over the coastal study area

76 sep AL- GHAIDHA; 74 75.04 72 70 68 66 64 apr HIDAYBU; 63.70 62 60 58

Data

HAWF HAWF HAWF

RUDUM

HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU HIDAYBU AL-GHAIDHA jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec AnnSpringSummerAutWinter

Source: (https://globalweather.tamu.edu/

2.5. Environment and Coastal Habitats.

Yemen is distinguished among other countries of the world with its geographical and biological features. It has the highlands in Arabia and a long coastal line in the mainland of about 1906 km long. As a result of different climate and geographical characteristics, several of habitats were involved. wetlands are the main features that compose the natural resources and rich biodiversity in Yemen. only one wetland in the category "Wetland of International Importance" according to Ramsar criteria is Dewah lagoon in Socotra Island where Designated as a Ramsar Site in 2007.

Yemen wetlands are one of the most important wetlands in Arabia. There are 17 wetlands areas were identified in that qualify for inclusion in A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East. They support an

44 appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species of birds. (Table 2) (Scott D. , - A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East. IUCN and IWRB Slimridge., 1995) Furthermore, they are including in Important Bird Areas in the Middle East. (Evans, 1994)There are 57 sites in Yemen, comprising Socotra Island, that are of major bird conservation importance. Some of them were located away from the coastal area.

Yemen's wetlands can be divided into natural and man-managed systems. They are a complex of intertidal flats, lagoons, sandy and rocky beaches and a march created by run- of sewage treatment plants.

The coastal area of Yemen consists of a range of habitats: an arid coastal zone, coastal wetlands, mangroves, sea grasses and coral reefs. These contrasting habitats are the basis of much of the country's rich and unique biodiversity, its fisheries production, its conservation and recreational values. They are also vital to livelihood of the coastal population.

Sabakhat: Sabakhat form a major habitat type, where much of the Yemen coast line particularly in Red Sea coast is low lying and is seasonally inundated leading to the formation of Sabakhat. These Sabakhat dry out seasonally to form a biotic salt pans with scattered halophytic plants or blue-green algal crusts, with notable exceptions around Ghulayfiqah and Al Makha. In general, Sabakhat is absent in area where freshwater dependent vegetation dominated. (IUCN, 1987)Distribution of Sabakhat is denser in the northern parts, and more sparsely south of Nukhaylah. Sandy and rocky beaches: The Yemen coastal area characterized by their sandy beaches and very important nesting sites for sea turtles such as green and hawksbill turtles. All the beaches often are wide and relatively flat. Rock headlands or cliffs are a common feature of shores particularly in northern part of the Gulf of Aden. Sandy and rocky beaches defend the coastal area from wave and coastal erosion, also in order to enhance habitats and support coastal biodiversity such as benthic fauna and flora, rare and endangered bird’s species Coastal vegetation: coastal vegetation is known to occur along the coastline of Yemen, includes salt marshes plants, halophytes, Sabakhat, and fresh water depend vegetation.

45

Table 2 Wettlands of Yemen CoastsRed Sea -1

Area/ No. Site name GOV Lon Lat ha

42 ੦ 47´- 1 Midi to Al- Luhayyah Hajja / Al- Hudaydah 16੦21´-15 ੦ 33 30,000 42 ੦ 41´

42 ੦ 17´- 2 Islands of the Northwest coast Hajja 15 ੦ 28´-16੦ 02´ 5,000 42 ੦ 42´ 42 ੦ 32´- 3 Bahr Ibn Abas, Ra's Isa and Kamaran Island Al- Hudaydah 15 ੦ 11´-15 ੦ 28 35,000 42 ੦ 48´ unkno 4 Wadi Surdud Al- Hudaydah 15 ੦ 13´ 43 ੦ 20´ wn unkno 5 Al- Urg to Al- Hudaydah Al- Hudaydah 14 ੦ 55´ 42 ੦ 55´ wn 6 Al-Hudaydah Sewage Lagoons Al- Hudaydah 14੦ 49´ 42 ੦ 57´ 50 42 ੦ 58´- 7 Nukhaylah to Wadi Nakhlah Al- Hudaydah 14੦ 38´-13 ੦ 53´ 12,500 43 ੦ 13´ 43 ੦ 14´- 8 Al-Khawkha to Al-Makha Al- Hudaydah/ Ta'izz 13੦ 48´-13 ੦ 18´ 7,000 43 ੦ 18´ 100- 9 Dhubab Flats Ta'izz 12 ੦ 55´ 43 ੦ 25´ 200 10 Ta'izz Sewage Lagoon and Marsh Ta'izz 13 ੦ 39´ 44 ੦ 00´ 250 11 Wadi Warazan Ta'izz 13 ੦ 25´ 44 ੦ 15´ 90

46

Table 3 Wettlands of Yemen Coasts Gulf of Aden -2

No. Site name GOV Lon Lat Area/ha

12 Aden Mudflats and Marsh Aden 12 ੦ 45´ 45 ੦ 02´ 10,000 13 Wadi Jahr Abyan 13 ੦ 58´ 46 ੦ 23´ 500 14 Wadi Hajar Hadramout 14 ੦ 06 48 ੦ 42´ 50-100 15 Qishn Beach Al- Mahra 15 ੦ 26´ 51 ੦ 45´ 100 16 Abdullah Gharib Lagoons Al- Mahra 16 ੦ 21´ 52 ੦ 20´ 50 Socotra 17 Qalansiya Lagoon 12 ੦ 24´ 53 ੦ 40´ 100 Archipelago

S Adopted from Evans, M.I. (1994).

47

Mangrove: Mangrove are extremely important coastal vegetation, their extensive root stabilize sediments and protect the coast line. They also provide shelter and variety of marine organisms. The distribution of mangrove restricted by many factors such as tidal range, degree of shelter and limited freshwater. (IUCN, 1987)). The distribution of mangrove species is associated with the availability of fresh water resources.

There are extensive mangrove stands especially in the Yemen Red Sea at Midi, Al- Luhayyah, Al-Hudaydah and Dhubab. Two species of mangrove were identified Avicennia marina which widespread both on main land and on some islands and rhizophora mucronata which existing in a few sites.

Conditions along the Gulf of Aden coast area may not suitable for mangroves, only one species Avicennia marina, was reported in the northern part of The Gulf of Aden in only two sites, the first one is inside the volcanic crater at Bir Ali in Shabwah Governorate, and the second is in the mouth of small wadi in Khor Khalfoot in Al- Mahra Governorate.

Halophytes: Halophytes vegetation occurs where a fresh groundwater supply is limited or absent and where saline intrusion is rare. Halophytes vegetation distributed along the Yemen coastline. Many of the halophytes are succulents, such as: Odeyssa mucronata, Suaeda fruticose and Zygophyllum album. (IUCN, 1987)

Seagrasses: Seagrass beds are formed by unique groups of species of flowering plants that grow completely submerged in shallow coastal waters. The coastline in Yemen support seagrass communities. They are an important nursery habitat for fish and invertebrates and a source of food for many coastal organisms. Seagrass beds in of the Yemen Red Sea increase from north towards the south; they have been reported also in more shelter areas. Nine species were recorded in Yemen Res Sea. (IUCN, 1987)In the northern coast of the Gulf of Aden Seven species of seagrass were reported. (Bawazir, 2003)

Coral reefs: Coral reefs play an important in in the marine environment in Yemen, as these ecosystems not only provide habitats for a wide variety of marine species, but also protect the coast line from erosion and storm

48 damage The physical conditions characterizing the Yemeni Red Sea provide an ideal environment for coral growth. About 250 species of hard coral have been identified (Michel et.al, 2010). In Yemen coral reefs are found in the Red Sea from midi in the north to Ras Isa, near Al- Hodeida and from al-Khawkha to Bab Al- Mandab in the south. Along the south coast coral reefs exist from Ras al Ara, Aden, Shuqra, to Al- Mukalla and Al- Mahra Governorate.

The location of Yemen at the foot of the Arabian Peninsula with its nearest land to Africa at the strait of Bab al Mandab allows hundreds of thousands of birds to cross to Africa during migration from Eurasia or wintering in Yemen. (Al-Saghier, 1999) Sustaining many types of species, especially those of birds, the wetlands of Yemen increase the diversity of species in the country. Birds maintain an important place among these species, not only in terms of number of species but also the sizes of population.

2.6. Oceanography

In integration to the spatial background of the study area, this section provides brief summary of the oceanographic conditions of the bordering seas of Yemen, due to its importance in analyzing the status of sensitivity to the shoreline changes on various coastal components. Main oceanographic features in consideration are: bathometry, climatology , sea surface temperature(SST),sea level rise trend (SLRT) and sea motions especially tides amplitude and significant wave height (SWH) as well as sea surface height (SSH). Yemen sea bodies bordering the study area are south Red sea, Gulf of Aden and North West parts of Arabian Sea. These water bodies are geographically located between two important ocean domains, namely, the Indian Ocean domain and the Atlantic Ocean domain through the Mediterranean Sea. This location gives Yemen coasts a very important and strategic situation as an ocean gateway, and makes them particularly interesting scientifically and environmentally, as well as politically, socially

49 and economically. However, this location also adds tremendous pressures on its coastal fragile environment. The Yemen EEZ in Red Sea Fig.9 forms 1,930 km long and 270 km-wide trenches that narrow at the strait of Bab al Mandab to about 27 km, where the depth isabout300 m. Several Offshore Yemen islands of south Red Sea are : Kamaran, Jabal al-Tair Island,Hanish Islands and others north Kamaran. The island of Perim, divides the strait of Bab Al-Mandab into two channels, of which the eastern, is 3 km wide and 30 mdeep, while the western, has a width of about 25 kmand a depth of 310 m.T here is surface current inwards in the eastern channel, but a strong under-current outwards in the western channel. (Kalmar, 2005)

Figure 9 EEZ of Yemen

(http://www.marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=8353)

The Gulf of Aden continental shelf area is about 200 meters depth. The coastline consists of a series of sandy beaches, broken at intervals by rock outcrops that often extend into the shallow waters. The only shallow water banks are adjacent to east of Aden and extend to about 30 km offshore. Offshore islands are generally limited to the Socotra Archipelago. The marine climate is largely controlled by same land regional distributions of atmospheric pressure and its changes over vast area. Wind patterns are controlled to a large extent by two distinct monsoons.. During the Northeast Monsoon high pressure systems create strong SSE wind that is pulled through the Strait of Bab el Mandeb and cause large surface inflow from the Indian Ocean. During the southwest monsoon the direction of the winds over the southern

50

Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is reversed and is directed toward the Gulf of Aden. (Saafan&Sheno, 2004) , (Kalmar, 2005) Wind-speed play an important role in the extent of the surface-water cooling and the amount of deepening of the mixed layer. Satellite derived mean wind-speed estimates for the period 1999 -2009 indicates that in Socotra during the winter the mean wind velocity is ~ 7.45 m s-1 increases in summer to 12.42 m s-1. These figures decrease in south Red sea to 5.45 - 6.64m s-1 in summer and winter respectfully. (http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov) See also Fig 10

Figure 10 Annual Wind Speed Averages for the period 1999 -2009 over South Red Sea - Gulf of Aden – West Arabian Sea.

Legend

3.45 – 4.13 4.13 – 4.65 4.65 – 5.05 5.05 – 5.57 5.57 – 6.24 6.24 – 7.12 7.12 – 8.25 8.25 – 9.73 9.73 – 11.6 11.6 – 14.1

No record of any cyclone having entered South Red Sea. In contrast cyclones are experienced but rare in west Arabian sea and east Gulf of Aden. Here are some records: (William James Lloyd Wharton, John Phillips , Great Britain Hydrographic Office , Great Britain Admiralty, 1900), (Kadri, A. and Bawazeer ,G., 2016) • Between June lst-3rd, 1885, a cyclone traversed the whole length of the Gulf of Aden on an almost due west course. Its center appears to have passed over the northern part of Socotra. • A hurricane was experienced in the gulf of Aden on October 14th and 15th, 1896, • The tropical storm of June 11, 1996 • The Deep Depression ARB 02,

51

• The Cyclone Gonu in June 6, 2007. Gonu the strongest cyclone on record in the Arabian Sea. It made landfall in extreme eastern Oman. The storm affected wide area including east parts of Yemen. • ESCS Chapala Nov. 2015 is the first severe cyclone to cross Yemen coast after the severe cyclonic storm of May 1960. • ESCS Megh Nov. 2015 was the second ESCS after Chapala crossing Yemen coast in the satellite era.

As consequences to wind speed, Tab. 4 summarizes main waves annual averages over the near seas to coastal zone namely SWH, SSH, Maximum individual wave height, Significant height of combined wind waves and swell, Significant height of wind waves.

Table 4 wave characterstics

South West South coasts- Parameter data source coasts - Socotra coast east west HWMAX (m) https://www.ecmwf.int/ 1.3 -1.9 1.9 - 3 3.5 - 5.1 7.0 - 8.0 SSH (m) http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com 0.29 0.26 2 - 2.4 0.31 SWH(m) https://www.ecmwf.int/ 1.45 -1.7 1.4 -1.6 1.9 - 4.4 4.4 SH - wave swell https://www.ecmwf.int/ .43 - .75 .8 - .99 1.27 -1.87 1.74 (m)

2.6.1. Sea Surface Temperatures

The annual average water temperature for the period 1982-2016 varies between 29.48 C offshore of Al-Hudaida and 26.76 C offshore of Socotra. In general west coasts are more temperate than south coasts. Fig.11 & 12 illustrate annual and seasonal SST distribution along adjacent seas to the study area. Notable remarks observed from Fig.11 & 12 are:

▪ Socotra near seas has least annual and summer SST by 26.3 C ▪ High annual and seasonal SST is observed for near Al-Hudaida and Midi seas. ▪ In Spring SST remains relatively constant with lower variations over all near study area seas.

52

Figure 11 Annual and seasonal SST distribution

32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 Fartak Mukalla Ras al Bab el Hudaida Socotra Ahwar Aden Midi Belhaf aara Mandab

Ann Spring Summer Aut Winter

Source: (http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov/)

According to data obtained from previous resource for the period 1982- 2016 the absolute max. SST is recorded for Midi offshore by 32.89 degree C in Sep. 2015 and absolute min. SST is recorded for Socotra by 23.05 degree C in Aug. 2004.

Figure 12Average Annual Sea Surface Temp. degree C 1982-2016

Legend

26.3 – 26.7 26.7 – 27 27 – 27.4 27.4 – 27.7 27.7 – 28 28 – 28.4 28.4 – 28.7 28.7 – 29.1 29.1 – 29.4 29.4 – 29.8 Source: (http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov/)

As for calculated temperature trend, an increase of SST through the years 1982-2016 is observed in all near coastal seas with high increase near Al- Hudaidah and Midi by of 0.75 -0.74 degree C respectfully. Lower increase in SST through the same period is calculated for near seas of Ras Fartak and Socotra by 0.35 - 0.39 respectfully.

53

2.6.2. Tidal Amplitude

Along the shores of the coastal study area a rise and fall of tide is observed. In some places, tidal stream seems to flow. The tides of the gulf of Aden begin to make themselves felt. The Annual AMPL Tides data for Yemen shore line is extracted from Aviso server indicate that south coasts have higher tidal amplitude up to 2.5 meter than west coasts. See Fig. 13

Figure 13. Average AMPL Tides for Gulf of Aden and Red Sea

Legend

0.59 – 0.783 0.783 – 0.976 0.976 – 1.169 1.169 – 1.362 1.362 – 1.555 1.555 – 1.748 1.748 – 1.941 1.941 – 2.134 2.134 – 2.327 2.327 – 2.52

Data source: (http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com)

A marked increase in tidal amplitude in south coasts from west to east, and decrease from north to south in west coasts.

2.6.3. Sea Surface Salinity (SSS)

Red sea waters adjacent to west coasts of Yemen are more saline than other sea surface areas within the study area. Fig 14. Owing to extensive evaporation the surface waters here form one of the most saline water masses of the world. Annual average of sea surface salinity decrease in south Red Sea from 37.5 ppt at north to 36.5 at south. In Gulf of Aden the annual average of SSS decrease from west to east from 36.5 to 35.24 ppt. In general salinity is higher in summer than winter and the annual variation is about 0.5ppt in South Red Sea, 0.66 ppt in North West of Gulf of Aden increases eastwards to 0.76 ppt.

54

Figure 14 Average Annual Sea surface Salinity 2011-2015

Legend

35.42 – 35.78 35.78 – 35.93 35.93 – 35.99 35.99 – 36.02 36.02 – 36.08 36.08 – 36.23 36.23 – 36.59 36.59 – 37.46

Source: (http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov)

2.6.4. Sea-surface height ( SSH )

Sea-surface height (SSH) is the height (or topography or relief) of the ocean's surface. On a daily basis, SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth as well as ocean circulation and variations in the gravitational field. Variations in SSH can be used to calculate sea level rise and properties of ocean heat storage.

Global Ocean Gridded Absolute Dynamic Topography data for the period oct/1992- dec/2010 is available viahttp://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/data/product-information/duacsfor Yemen seas adjacent to coastal zone study area is extracted and analyzed. Main outputs are as followings:

• The annual average of SSH over Gulf of Aden for the period 1992- 2010 ranges between 0.69 and 0.52 m Fig.15

Legend Kernel Smoothing Figure 15 AnnualPrediction average Map of SSH over Gulf of Aden for the period 1992-2010 [ZOS$].[SSH ZOS] Filled Contours 0.522 – 0.539 0.539 – 0.555 0.555 – 0.572 0.572 – 0.589 0.589 – 0.606 0.606 – 0.623 0.623 – 0.639 0.639 – 0.656 0.656 – 0.673 0.673 – 0.69

55

• There is slightly increase of SSH from west to east. • No data obtained for Red Sea

The average monthly distribution of SSH for selected locations in Gulf of Aden for same period is illustrated in Fig 16. Notable remarks are:

Figure 16 Monthly distribution of SSH for selected locations in Gulf of Aden for the period 1992-2010

0.85

0.75

0.65

0.55 0.45 0.35 0.25 jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec

Mukalla sea Socotra sea Al -Maharah sea Bab al - Mandab sea Aden sea Rudum sea

• Max. SSH for south east seas and Socotra accord in May. • Min. SSH accord in Oct-Sep for south west seas. • Fluctuation of SSH ranges between 0.26 meter at Mukalla sea and 0.12at Socotra sea meter.

As for Trend of Sea Surface Height Anomaly, data is obtained and extracted for coastal zone seas of Yemen from

http://sealevel.colorado.edu/content/map-sea-level-trends including these of Red sea and plotted as figure 17 below. These data trends have been determined for a finite period (1993 - present), and reflect the impact of decadal scale climate variability on the regional distribution of sea level rise. As observed from Fig. 17. Trend of Sea Surface Height Anomaly increase eastwards in Gulf of Aden and northwards in Red Sea.

56

Figure 17 Trend of Sea Surface Height AnomalyLegend Kernel Smoothing_6 Prediction Map ['ssha trend ye$'].[ssha_trend] Filled Contours 2.81 – 3.01 3.01 – 3.21 3.21 – 3.41 3.41 – 3.61 3.61 – 3.81 3.81 – 4.02 4.02 – 4.22 4.22 – 4.42 4.42 – 4.62 4.62 – 4.82

2.6.4. Sea Level Rise

Ocean Indicator products of mean sea level rise trends from Jason-1, Jason- 2, Topex/Poseidon over the whole ocean for the period from Oct-1992 to Dec-2012 is being available from AVISO ocean observations web site at http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/home.html

The Sea level Rise Trend data extracted for the study area coasts shows low mean increase of SLR trend between 0.46 – 1.3 mm/year in Red sea and relative higher in Gulf of Aden ( 2.4 mm/y for Aden 1.77 mm/year for Mukalla, 1.38 mm/y for Al Mahara) . Spatial distribution of SLR trend in Gulf of Aden indicates to general slightly gradients increase eastwards. Fig. 18

Figure 18 Sea level trend mm/y 1992- 2012over south Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Legend 0.455 – 0.877 0.877 – 1.3 1.3 – 1.72 1.72 – 2.14 2.14 – 2.56 2.56 – 2.98 2.98 – 3.41 3.41 – 3.83 3.83 – 4.25 4.25 – 4.67 4.67 – 5.09 5.09 – 5.51

Source (http://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/en/data/products/ocean-indicators- products/actualitesindicateurs-des-oceansniveau-moyen-des- mersindexhtml.html)

57

2.7. Population

The coastal areas of Yemen are in general not densely populated with exception of a few cities such as Aden, Al-Hodiedah and Al- Mukalla. Population density for 2014 in Aden reached ~763person/km^2, where in Al Hudaidah was ~57person/km^2 and ~14 person/km^2 in Hadhramaut.

In term of forehand census data of 2004 total population of the coastal study area is about 1692485 person adopted from villages shape file obtained from Ministry of public Health and Population, Republic of Yemen, Al Hudaidah had 41% of total coastal population in2004 , Aden came second with 34 % and Hadramaut came third with 13 % .See Fig.19 below. Projectedpopulationdatafor2015 is obtained and extracted for the study area from (http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/gpw-v4-population- count-rev10/data-download) Population density increased in 2015 to ~8179 for Aden , ~2910 for Ad Duraihimi district of Al Hudaidah governorate and ~702 for Al Mukalla district of Hadhramaut governorate. Total population of the coastal zone area increased in 2015 to about double to 3121629 person. Detailed projected population and density for coastal governorates is in tab.5 provided.

Table 5 projected populaion of the coastal zone of Yemen (2015)

Gov. Count 2015 Max density Hajjah 107308 146.93

Al Hudaidah 1724507 3750 Taiz 53333 56 Lahjjj 57476 703 Aden 771198 8179 Abyan 88656 328 Shabwah 7266 7 Hadhramaut 296140 703 Al Maharah 15746 8

Current human settlements in the coastal zone of Yemen could be distinguished in four types and locations:

58

• The concentrated urban port cities Aden, Al Hudaiadah and Al Mukalla, as well as governments and districts capital towns, • The widely distributed scattered settlements are characterized by the presence of small clusters of low density that are located within agricultural lands, • The strip linear settlement along the main roads and valleys that penetrate the coastal plains and discharge into the Red Sea or the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea and • Along the shore line of study area that is represented by fishing villages and small ports. •

Figure 19 Distribution of Populution in coastal zone of Yemen via Governorate according to sensus 2004 ( % )

Hajjah Shabwah Taiz 1% Al-Maharah 0% 2% 4% Hadhramaut Lahjj 13% 1% Al Hudaidah 41%

Aden 34%

Abain 4%

59

The city of Aden has a complex urban structure. Unlike most port cities, the city of Aden grew on a peninsula, which provides a good natural harbor. It has expanded along the coast and followed the main radial route inland.

Al Hodeidah is a sprawling, low-density city that has developed concentrically outward from the original seacoast settlement. In general, the seaside historic city is more dense than the eastern fringe.

Al Mukalla is not yet a city whose form follows a continuous expanse of urban development. Rather, it is a loose grouping of settlement distributed over long coastline and steep topography. Its component parts are growing in respect to their own needs as well as those of the city as a whole.

Migration and urbanization have played an important role in the overall growth of the city ports of Yemen. Diversification of socioeconomic activities in the coastal cities has enhanced employment opportunities, encouraging an unprecedented drift to the coast.

2.8. Economy

Over the history of Yemen some famous coastal ports was the focus of much attention at merchant trade. In recent years, owing to their various economic and marine resources, the entire near shoreline coastal areas have been developed to important attractive centers of trade, fishing, industry and commerce, as well as for biodiversity, truism and settlements. Given the importance of Yemen coastal and marine areas, in both conservation and development terms, there is increasing concern about the effects of climate change impacts - especially sea level rise and extreme high wave surge actions derived from high wind speed associated with cyclones or low depressions - on these precious but threatened settlements, economic activities, infrastructures and ecosystems.

60

2.8.1. Port Cities

Broad infrastructures and economic activities within the study area are concentrated in three coastal port cities, namely Aden, Hodeidah and Mukalla, along with some small ports with specific functions in Al-Mukha, Balehaf ,Al-Dhabbah near Ash Shihir and port of Nashtoon in al Mahara governorate fig.() The PCDP’s main objective is to enable the transformation of three strategic port cities in Yemen—Aden, Hodeidah and Mukalla—into engines for economic growth by creating an environment conducive to private sector-led growth and to the creation of employment opportunities. The Port of Aden rests on an ancient natural harbor at north side of the crater of an extinct volcano that forms the peninsula that protects the harbor. Aden was first mentioned in historical records in the Old TestamentBook of Ezekiel as a trading partner. Aden is an ancient city and its position as a trading center dates back to the seventh century BC. It served as a station for merchants of spice and incense and a passageway for caravans traveling over the Arabian Peninsula. In modern times, Aden’s location at the south west corner of the Arabian Peninsula near the strait of Bab al Mandan ; the entrance to the Red Sea, only 6.4 km from the main East-West shipping route, and its natural deep- water harbor have historically made the city one of the busiest refueling stations in the world, servicing most ships that pass through the Suez Canal. Aden was the primary trading post in the Arab region for the British and at one point ranked fourth among the world most important ports and even second place after New York as the busiest port, but after 1967 this position decreased for political reasons.

After 1990 the city was declared as free trade zone, commercial and economic capital of the unified Yemen. This step enhanced again its neglected importance. Since then, the city has seen tremendous expansion of port and airport facilities, and in upgrading its infrastructure, , the most prominent of which’s was the Aden Container Terminal (ACT), which opened for business in March 1999.

Geographically the port of Aden consists of:

• Ma'alla Multipurpose and Container Terminal

61

• Aden Container Terminal • Oil Harbor • Fishing Harbor

Operated by Aden Refineries Corporation and the economy of the Port of Aden depends on its function as a commercial center for the surrounding regions and as a refueling stop for ocean-going vessels. The city is home to small industry that includes light manufacturing, production of marine salt, and boat-building. (http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/YEM_Port_of_Aden_214. php )) The city of Aden is differentiated from the rest of the country in several important ways .First, Aden has deep natural protectedseaport .Second, the immediate region has an abundance of raw materials. Finally, Aden is well known for its hospitable culture and rich urban physical heritage . These characteristics, combined with the presence of the , terminal international airport, and ADEN Free Zone, comprise the foundation for the future growth of the maritime, hospitality tourism, and manufacturing industries in the governorate

The first signs of Al Hudeidah date back to the beginning of the fourth century AD when it developed as a halt station for travelers and then developed into a small town of fishermen. In 1961, the construction of the harbor, enabled the city to assert a national economic importance. Development of new roads in the 1960s made the extensive Tihama plain accessible for agricultural production, which was traded in the city and exported. After 1970, the growth of expatriate remittance income, and the application of technical assistance programs served to accelerate urban development. A rapidly increasing volume of goods imported through the Hodeidah Port allowed the city to maintain its national status as an economic hub.

After the unification of Yemen in 1990 Hodeidah remained the most important entry point for imports to Yemen. The city’s location on the Red Sea gives it advantage for international shipping. It has ground transport links to high demand markets and is the most proximate city to the Tihama

62 plain. With these assets, Al Hudaidah is poised to strengthen its role as an agro-industrial capital of Yemen.

The city of Mukalla has been for centuries a small seaport located in precipitous cliffs dropping into the Gulf of Aden, isolated from the rest of Hadhramaut .After oil discoveries in the Hadramout Region, Mukalla emerged from isolation and grew into a regional capital. The city has experienced significant demographic and economic growth Today, in addition to being the third largest port of Yemen, Mukalla is a major center of administrative, social and economic services, as well as gateway to tourism and business in the Hadramout Governorate.

The port of Saleef is situated within Kamaran Bay 50 km north of Hudaidah. It's primary aim is for the reception of bulk grain vessels There is also a salt berth designed only for the loading of rock salt in bulk. Currently there are very limited facilities at this port.

Ras Isa Oil Terminal is used for the export of Marib Light crude from the oil wells in Mareb. There is no bunker/fresh water or provisioning facilities at this terminal due to its location.

The port of Al Mukha is situated to the south of Hodeidah.It is very limited in any cargo handling equipment therefore vessels calling at this port must have their own gear. There are no alongside bunker or fresh water facilities at this port although fresh water and diesel oil can be arranged in limited supply via road tankers. This port is exposed to the open sea and can therefore be affected by weather conditions delaying berthing or sailing of vessels.

2.8.2. Fishing

In addition to the economic activities of port cities, the fishing sector has a distinct economic role in the study area. It is a major source of export earnings as well as its contribution to the achievement of food security. It is also a source of income for a group of community members in villages and

63 fishing communities where most of the poor segments of the population live along the Yemeni coasts and islands.

According to Yemen ministry of fish wealth available statistics for 2012, fishing is the main occupation of about 83157active artisanal fishermen directly supporting about 475,000 members of their families. In addition, an unknown but relatively high number of people are also engaged in different aspects of fishery products processing and marketing. In particular, the fish processing plants, spread along the Yemen Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coastal zones, employ a large number of people, including women, in fish processing, canning and lobsters processing plants. Tab.6. summarize some aspects of fishing statistics for 2012 according coastal governorates.

The production of fish and other marine life caught (traditional and industrial fishing) by the coastal provinces, institutions and companies for 2012 is estimated as total of 230516ton 99.2 % of which for ordinary fishing and the few rest for industrial fishing. Fig.20 presents spatial distribution of ordinary fishing by coastal governorates.

Table 6 Number of fishermen, boats and societies in the study area ( 2012)

Number Number Number of of of boats Governorate societies fishermen Abyan 7 5489 1420 Taiz 12 1146 3928 Hajjah 5 1950 430

Al Hudaidah 34 35318 7112

Hadramout 20 17959 5700 Shabwah 12 1551 818 Aden 8 4048 2132 Lahjjj 4 2272 522 Al-Maharah 16 6568 2902 Socotra 11 1400 island 4074 Total 129 83157 23582

Source: (Ministry of fish wealth (planning sector and fish projects), 2012)

64

Figure 20 Quantity of fish production and other marine life caught (ton) by the coastal governorates in 2012

90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

(Ministry of fish wealth (planning sector and fish projects), 2012)

As seen from Tab. 6 and Fig. 20 following notable remarks could be distinguished:

• Al Hudaidah obtained the highest numbers of fishermen (35318) and boats (7112) in 2012 nevertheless it ranked third in fishing production by 31583 ton. • Al-Maharah by 86161 ton of fishing production scored as first and Hadhramaut scored second by 52604 ton. In 2012. • In general governorates located by Gulf of Aden (east) produced 62% of total quantity of fish production and other marine life caught (ton) in 2012, while Red Sea governorates production is only 18 % .

65

Chapter Three: Land cover and land Cover Change

The definition of land cover is fundamental, because in many existing classifications and legends it is confused with land use. It is defined as the observed (bio)physical cover on the earth's surface, including land use features. ( http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x0596e/x0596e01e.htm ) based on the FAO-Land Cover Classification System (LCCS). The standard FAO classification scheme provides a standardized system of classification that can be used to analyze spatial and temporal land cover variability in the study area. This approach also has the advantage of facilitating the integration of coastal land cover mapping products to be included with the shoreline topography mapping datasets of next chapter.

3.1. Baseline Land Cover

Land Cover map of Yemenis prepared by Environmental & Remote Sensing Services Center (ERSS ) / FAO- Africover in Nov 2002 with corporation of Agricultural Research And Extension Authority (AREA ) and Renewable Natural Resources Research Center ( RNRRC ), is used here as a baseline land cover to examine the status of land cover (FAO/Africover, 2002)

After FAO Land Cover Map established in 2002 for Yemen, 31 land cover types extend and extracted for the coastal zone study area. (See Annex C for detail maps covering the study area) These maps represent the baseline situation of Land Cover of the coastal zone of Yemen. Types of land cover here could be categorized as followings:

1. Loose and Shifting Sands including dunes, 2. Bare rocks of very stony soils pure and associated with other types, 3. Salt Flat Areas including Sabkhas, 4. Cereals pure and combined with other trees, 5. Natural Vegetation and 6. Other limited types. For the purpose of spatial analysis the study area is classified into four sub coastal regions namely:

66

▪ The western coasts extending along red sea shore line located in Hajah, Hudaidah and Taiz governorates, with an area of 10824.88 sq km or of the study area 46.68 % of the total area 23188.65 sq km. ▪ The south western coasts along Lahjjj, Aden and Abyan governorates, north west of Gulf of Aden, that extend over 23.73 % of study area, ▪ The south eastern coasts along north shore line of Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea, that extend in Shabwah, Hadhramaut and Al Maharah governorates 24.93 % and ▪ Socotra coasts that occupy only 4.65 % of total area.

3.1.1. Loose and Shifting Sands

Land cover type of loose and shifting sands is prevailing in Yemen coastal zone. Its five subtypes cover 8971.18 sq km or 38.69 % of the total area. Main LC type of this category is loose and shifting sands associated with dunes that spread over 22.91 % of the total area, at most concentrated in West Coasts. Fig.21&23

Figure 21 Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting Sands Percent of whole study area

20

15 10 5 0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra Loose and Shifting Sands / Dunes Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Tr Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Gr Loose and Shifting Sands / Cereals Dunes

67

Other notable remarks regarding Loose and Shifting Sands - land cover category are: • Except of pure Dunes cover all other types are represented highly in West coasts, Fig 22. • Dunes spread mostly over South West coasts and partially over south east coasts. • The coasts of Socotra have lower portions of Loose and Shifting Sands

Figure 22 Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting SandsPercent of Land Cover Type Area

100

80

60 40

20

0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra Loose and Shifting Sands / Dunes Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Tr Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Gr Loose and Shifting Sands / Cereals Dunes

68

Figure 23 Percent distribution of Land Cover Category of Loose and Shifting Sands by sub-coastal regions

16 south east coasts; 14 13.44 12

10

8 South West Coasts; 3.71 6 Socotra; 2.68 4 West Coasts; 1.15 2

0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open Acacia Tr Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Natural Veget Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Cereals Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Fruit Trees

3.1.2. Bare Rocks of very stony soils pure and associated with other types

Bare Rock land cover type represent 33.83 % of the area ,the majority (62%)of which are Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil and 9.41% are Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia. Observed spatial varieties for this land cover type are: Fig. 24.

▪ South east coasts of Yemen are covered mostly with bare rocks. 7/8 subtypes spread over 73.86% of the total area of this part of the study area and 54.4 % of whole area of bare rocks of the coastal zone are represented here. Major sub type of this category is Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil, that occupy 73% of all bare rocks types. ▪ In west coasts of the study area Bare Rocks are limited to 7.8 % of whole Yemen coastal area, and represented by only 4/8 subtypes. 10 % of all bare rocks category is observed here specially of Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open Acacia Trees, that have high percentage

69

accordance (71.7 %) of its whole area within the coastal zone. See tab. (7-1). ▪ The south west coasts of the study area are also limited for bare rocks category. Only 15 % of land cover area is represented by 5/8 subtypes of bare rocks in this part of the coastal zone. Main subtype is Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia that weight 44% of its area in the coastal zone here. ▪ In Socotra only two subtypes of bare rocks are observed namely : ▪ Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Natural Vegetation, that covers 39 % of its whole area here and comes second after its percentage area of 52 % in south east coasts and ▪ Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil, that covers 12.77 % of its whole area here.

Figure 24 percent distribution of Land Cover Category of Bare Rocks

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open Acacia Tr Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Natural Veget Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Cereals Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Fruit Trees

70

3.1.3. Salt Flat Areas

Salt flats or Salt pans are natural areas in which the ground is covered with salt and other minerals. These flats are formed naturally over thousands of years where water evaporates from near surface ground water. Salt flats can be found all over the world. In coastal zones they are located above the level of high tide and characterized by the absence of vegetation. Evaporates, Aeolian deposits and tidal-flood deposits are common in sabkhas.

Salt Flat Areas cover 10.84 % of total area mainly of Sabakhas land cover type. In west coasts of Yemen land cover category of Salt Flats areas covers 4.61 % of the whole study area and 9.87 % of west coasts. Sabhka LC subtype is dominant here and spread almost along and near shore line and widely extend north of Bajil. Fig. 25&26.

Figure 25 Land Cover Category of Salt Flat Areas Percent of whole study area

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra

Salt Flat Areas

Salt Flat Areas / Cereals

Salt Flat Areas / Sparse Natural Vegetation

Sabhkas

71

Figure 26 Land Cover Category of Salt Flat Areas Percent of land cover type

100

80 60

40

20 0 south east coasts South West Coasts West Coasts Socotra Salt Flat Areas Salt Flat Areas / Cereals Salt Flat Areas / Sparse Natural Vegetation Sabhkas

In south west coasts of Yemen land cover category of Salt Flats areas covers 3.63 % of the whole study area and 15.32 % of south west coasts, whereas In south east coasts it covers only 1.83 % of the whole study area represents 7.37 % of south west coasts. In Socotra this land cover type is restricted to 0.77 % of total coastal zone study area but represents 16.47 % of the island coastal area.

3.1.4. Cereals pure and combined with other trees

According to FAO LCCS cereals category are associated with vegetables, fruits and other crops. In general it covers 9.53 % of the total coastal zone area. This category is restricted in arable lands in north part of West coasts where it spread over 16.99 % of its area and in wadi deltas of south west coast where it covers 6.32 % of its area. Limited proportions of cereals could be observed in south east coasts and Socotra.

3.1.5. Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation varies from region to region. It is reported that 264 wild species exists in the coastal zone. (Al-Hawshabi Othman Saad Saeed , El- Naggar Salah Mohammed Ibrahim, 2015) This land cover category is

72 covering only 6.53 % of the study area. Main land cover types are open to spars natural vegetation in wadi beds, or distributed among cereals, grasslands, open palm trees and closed mangroves.

3.1.6. Other limited land cover types

This land cover category includes the least distributed land cover types such as Water bodies and closed Marshes as well as urban areas that cover less than 0.6 % of total study area. Urban areas represent ~97 % of this category and distributed mainly in south west and west coasts.

Eventually and as general output regarding this section, tab.17 below summarizes the percentage distribution of all land cover types over the study area and its sub- coastal regions. Fig. 27 hereafter presents also the overall percentage of the major land cover types within the coastal zone study area.

73

Table 7-1 Proportion distribution of Land Cover types in the coastal study area and its sub regions

Whole South West Socotra Study south east coasts West Coasts Coasts Area

LCC Type Category % of % of % of % of % of % of % of % of

% sub whole sub whole sub whole sub whole LCC coast area coast area coast area coast area

Salt Flat Areas 1.19 0.01 0 0 0 2.54 1.19 0 0

Flat Salt Flat Areas / Cereals 0.47 0 0 0 0 1 0.47 0 0

Salt Flat Areas / Sparse Natural Vegetation 0.03 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.56 0.03 Salt Sabhkas 9.16 7.36 1.83 15.31 3.63 6.33 2.95 15.91 0.74 subtotal 10.84 7.37 1.83 15.32 3.63 9.87 4.61 16.47 0.77 Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil 20.98 53.89 13.44 15.65 3.71 2.47 1.15 57.61 2.68

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open Acacia Tr 0.35 0.4 0.1 0 0 0.54 0.25 0 0

Very

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia 9.41 15.28 3.81 17.48 4.15 3.11 1.45 0 0

-

Soil Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Natural Veget 1.94 4.05 1.01 0.71 0.17 0 0 16.29 0.76

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse 0.3 0 0 1.25 0.3 0 0 0 0 Rock

Stony Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Open to Sparse 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0

Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Cereals 0.84 0.17 0.04 0.01 0 1.71 0.8 0 0 Bare Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Fruit Trees 0.01 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 subtotal 33.84 73.86 18.42 35.1 8.33 7.83 3.65 73.9 3.44

Loose and Shifting Sands / Dunes 22.91 5.75 1.43 25.07 5.95 32.94 15.38 3.28 0.15

Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Tr 6.19 0 0 0 0 13.23 6.17 0.3 0.01

and

Sands

Loose and Shifting Sands / Open to Sparse Gr 5.02 0 0 0.46 0.11 10.5 4.9 0.07 0 Loose and Shifting Sands / Cereals 2.49 0 0 0.74 0.18 4.96 2.32 0 0 Loose

Shifting Dunes 2.08 0.78 0.2 7.93 1.88 0 0 0 0 subtotal 38.69 6.53 1.63 34.2 8.12 61.63 28.77 3.65 0.16

74

Table 8-2 Proportion distribution of Land Cover types in the coastal study area and its sub regions

Whole South West Socotra Study south east coasts West Coasts Coasts Area

LCC Type Category

% % of % of % of % of % of % of % of % of sub whole sub whole sub whole sub whole

LCC coast area coast area coast area coast area Cereals 0.82 0.3 0.08 0.19 0.05 1.49 0.7 0 0 Cereals / Fruit Trees 1.37 0 0 1.33 0.32 2.25 1.05 0 0 Cereals / Vegetables 6.1 0 0 2.33 0.55 11.84 5.53 0.44 0.02

Cereals Cereals / Other 0.09 0 0 0 0 0.18 0.09 0 0 Fruit Trees / Cereals 1.16 0 0 2.47 0.59 1.23 0.57 0 0 subtotal 9.53 0.3 0.08 6.32 1.51 16.99 7.94 0.44 0.02

Wadi with Natural Vegetation / Open to Spars 3.58 8.72 2.17 4.29 1.02 0.59 0.27 2.4 0.11

Wadi with Natural Vegetation / Cereals 0.14 0 0 0 0 0.28 0.13 0.1 0 Open to Sparse Grassland 0.96 2.74 0.68 0.24 0.06 0.36 0.17 1.06 0.05

Open Palm Trees 1.74 0.02 0 3.5 0.83 1.9 0.89 0.41 0.02 Natural

Vegetation Sparse Natural Vegetation 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.09 0.02 0 0 0.7 0.03 Closed Mangrove 0.04 0 0 0 0 0.07 0.03 0.19 0.01

subtotal 6.53 11.55 2.87 8.12 1.93 3.2 1.49 4.86 0.22

Waterbodies 0.02 0.01 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.27 0.01

water Closed Marshes 0 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0.04 0 subtotal 0.02 0.02 0 0.01 0 0 0 0.31 0.01 Urban Area 0.56 0.37 0.09 0.93 0.22 0.48 0.23 0.35 0.02 Totals 100 100 24.92 100 23.74 100. 46.69 100 4.64

75

Figure 27 Main Land Cover Types Over the Coastal Zone Study Area

Loose and Shifting Sands / 25 Dunes; 22.91 Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil; 20.98 20

15 Bare Rock - Very Stony Soil / Sparse Acacia; 9.41

10 Sabhkas; 9.16

5

0

76

3.2. Land Cover - Land use Changes

This section of Land Cover change attempts to explain where change is occurring, what land cover types are changing and the rates or amounts of land cover change. Five land cover types are primarily examined using satellite imaginary and GIS techniques. These are: Urban and Built-Up, Barren Dune Salt Area, Trees, Shrublands and Croplands.

3.2.1. Materials and Methods

The data used for LCC as well as for next chapter five - shore line Change - include multi-date Landsat summarized in tab. 9. below.

Table 9 The Row Data of the Landsat Images of the Study Area The Row Data of the Landsat Images of the Study Area Satellite Path/Row Date Satellite Path/Row Date Landsat OLI 160/049 10/1/2017 Landsat TM 4-5 159/051 08/03/1985 Landsat OLI 159/051 22/07/2017 Landsat TM 4-6 160/049 15/05/1984 Landsat OLI 161/049 24/10/2017 Landsat TM 4-7 161/049 20/01/1986 Landsat OLI 161/050 05/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-8 161/050 17/01/1985 Landsat OLI 162/050 12/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-9 162/050 16/07/1984 Landsat OLI 163/050 22/10/2017 Landsat TM 4-10 163/050 12/11/1984 Landsat OLI 164/051 10/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-11 164/051 19/11/1984 Landsat OLI 165/051 20/10/2017 Landsat TM 4-12 165/051 26/11/1984 Landsat OLI 166/050 24/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-13 166/050 20/01/1985 Landsat OLI 166/051 24/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-14 166/051 03/12/1984 Landsat OLI 167/049 31/08/2017 Landsat TM 4-15 167/049 14/04/1984

Based on spatial images in tab. 9.land cover analysis is carried out using vector-based classification relying on previous maps such as maps of parts of the coast prepared by the Agricultural Research Authority in Dhamar and the aerial images provided by Google Earth application as well as visual interpretation of the satellite images. Number of indicators is used to confirm the vector-based classification and to correct the misleading results. Main indicators used here are: 77

• NDBI, to detect engineering construction • NDVI to determine vegetation cover and plants areas, and • MNDW water index to separate water bodies from other objects.

The land cover map for the year 2001 has been downloaded from (https: // earthexplorer usgs. gov /) The land cove changes are then identified between 2001 and 2017 by using the change detection feature in ArcGIS software to determine the areas of increase and decrease in the land cover.

3.2.2. Results and discussions

• Land cover areas and percentages changes for the examined five land cover types for the years 2001 and 2017 are presented in table 10. The majority land cover of the coastal zone study area in 2001 was Barren - Dune - Salt Area (61.5percent of total area of all LC types).This area of Barren \ Dune \ Salt Area had increased since 2001 by 3971.53 sq. km and represent 85 % of total LC change. Significant increase of Croplands is also detected since 2001 by 549.33 sq. km or 565.78 % ; however this represent 4.28 % of total LC change. Shrubland areas and trees - in contrast to foregoing- had declined obviously by -72.28 % and -98.25 % respectfully primarily due to urban growth, that had increased by 72.67 % in same time period.

Table 10 Percentages of general land cover types for 2001-2017

% Change Change % Change of total LCC LC Type 2011 2017 Sq. km by LC type types Barren \ Dune \ Salt Area 7006.46 10977.98 3971.53 56.68 85.60 Croplands 82.51 549.33 466.82 565.78 4.28 Shrublands 3997.32 1108.25 -2889.08 -72.28 8.64 Trees 206.62 3.62 -203 -98.25 0.03 Urban and Built-Up 107.29 185.26 78 72.67 1.44

78

• LC change rates by coastal Governorate show several notable indicators represent the resource potential and probable responses to natural and anthropogenic disturbances. These driving factors determine the types of land cover that can exist or change within influence of land use practices that are possible. Followings are the main results:

• Remarkable increase of barren-dunes-salt areas is observed for Hadhramaut Governorate by 2851.30 sq. km since 2001 or 266.76 % of the initial area in 2001. Lahj and Shabwah governorates show adversely LC change values of this type. See fig. 28. • Shrubland areas have widely declined since 2001 all over coastal Governorates .Fig.29. Hadhramaut, Al-Maharah and Al Hudaidah Governorates show high levels of decrease reach -1017.01 sq. km , -767.34 sq. km , -471.99 sq. km respectfully

Figure 28 LCC of Barren -Dune - Salt Area By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017

3000

2500 2000

1500

kmSq. 1000 500 0 -500 Al Al Shabw Hadra Hajjah Huday Taizz Lahj Aden Abyan Mahar ah maut dah ah 485.67 2851.30 14.08- 95.98 125.29 21.59- 27.48 350.58 70.89 سلسل 1

79

Figure 29 LCC of Shrublands By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017

0

-200

-400

-600 Sq. kmSq. -800

-1000

-1200 Al Al Shabw Hadra Hajjah Huday Taizz Lahj Aden Abyan Mahar ah maut dah ah 767.34- 1017.0- 90.46- 262.28- 58.17- 43.23- 84.26- 471.99- 94.34- سلسل 1

• Trees, though their initial limit overall extensions- except for Al Maharah ( 82.42 sq. km) - , have been also decreased since 2001 overall the study area. This decline of trees amount is applied clearly in Al Maharah Hadhramaut and Al Hudaidah with -99.5 % , -99.2 % and -78 % of their initial areas in 2001. See fig. 30. •

Figure 30 LCC of Trees By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017

20

0

-20 -40

kmSq. -60 -80

-100

-120 Al Al Shabwa Hadra Hajjah Hudayd Taizz Lahj Aden Abyan Mahara h maut ah h سلسل 1 0.00 -5.76 -1.01 -0.97 -1.47 -8.97 0.10 -102.91 -82.01

80

• Cropland areas increased significantly in Hadramaut and Al Maharah since 2001. LCC in croplands expand from the initial year by 235.77 % for Hadramaut and by 197.34 % for AL Maharah. See fig. 31.

Figure 31 LCC of Croplands By Coastal Governorates 2011-2017

250

200

150

100

Sq.km 50

0

-50 Al Al Shabwa Hadra Hajjah Hudayd Taizz Lahj Aden Abyan Mahara h maut ah h 197.34 235.77 0.73 13.61 0.26- 0.00 8.34 11.16 0.13 سلسل 1

• As for Urban and Built-Up areas, Aden ranks first in expansion by 75.7 sq.km or 36.85% since 2001 and Hadramaut rank second by 48 sq.km (27.75%). Al Hudaidah experiences also urban increase by 36.7 sq.km or 7.76 % for same period. Fig. 32.

81

Figure 32 LCC of Urban and Built-Up By Coastal Governorates2011-2017

40 35 30

25

20 15 kmSq. 10 5

0

-5 Al Al Shabwa Hadram Hajjah Hudayd Taizz Lahj Aden Abyan Mahara h aut ah h 5.40 27.75 0.00 0.00 36.85 0.00 0.22 7.76 0.00 سلسل 1

• LC change by 40 coastal districts indicates some details regarding spatial rates of changes and driving physical and human factors, especially extreme climate change impacts as well as local .Mainfour LC types considered here are croplands, trees, shrubland and urban built-up areas. LCC indicators for these four LC types are : o Except for urban built-up areas, that indicate various levels of increase since 2001 at all districts, the other three LC types show allover decrease. o Croplands area decrease affected mainly Urban districts of Aden, Al Khawkhah (Al-Hudaidah Gov.)and Al Mukha (Taiz Gov.) and Qishn (AL Maharah Gov.) o Shrublands area decrease affected also capital districts towns mainly Hidaybu, Al Ghaydah, Khanfir, Sayhut and Ad Dis .Fig.33. o Decrease of trees affected all coastal districts. Higher level of decrease observed in Al Ghaydah where 24.6 sq. km is reduced since 2001. Second affected district is Hidaybu,which lost ~16.6 sq.km. of trees area in same period. Hawf and Qulensya Wa Abd Al Kuri have been affected also and lost 12.57-9.8 sq.km respectfully.

82

o Distinct indicator of LCC by coastal districts is their Urban and Built- Up expansion since 2001. Fig. 34. Hidaybu and Al Mukalla City districts have been significantly expanded since 2001 by 43.10 and 28.31 sq.km respectfully.

Figure 33 LCC Decrease of Shrubland Areas (Sq Km) 2001-2017 by Coastal Districts

0

-50 -100

Sq Km -150

-200

-250

Al Mansura Al

Kamaran Ghaydah Al

Al Munirah Al

Dhubab

Khanfir Wazir Ghayl Ba

Al Khawkhah Al MinaAl

Craiter

Sayhut Ahwar Durayhimi Ad At Tuhayat Huswain

Abs Hidaybu

Ad Dis Ad Attawahi Madaribah AlWa MukallaAl City

…

o Al Ghaydah , Al Mukha , Qulensya Wa Abd Al Kuri as well as Aden Governorate districts have been expanded also since the initial year 2001. Fig. 34.

Figure 34 LCC Increase of Urban \ built Up Areas ( Sq Km ) 2001-2017 by Coastal Districts

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Abs

AdDis

Ahwar

Craiter

Sayhut

Khanfir

Al Al Mina

Dhubab

Hidaybu Kamaran

Attawahi

At Tuhayat At

Al Al Munirah

Al Al Mansura

Al Al Ghaydah Al Al Khawkhah

AdDurayhimi

Al Mukalla City Al Mukalla

Ghayl Ba Ghayl Wazir Al Madaribah Wa Arah Wa Al Al Madaribah

83

Chapter Four: Coastal Topographic Maps and sensitive low land Areas

The production of an accurate topographic map is a long and complex process that may take several years from start to finish. However for the purpose of this job and its report two -dimensional representation of three- dimensional coastal land surface is established in order to provide concise concept of the study area coastal zone topography. Attempts are put forth to consider the main components of topographic map regarding its areal, linear and points physical, human and environmental characteristics. Fourteen large scale coastal topographic maps are produced, covering coastal governorates and Socotra Island ; 4 CTM scale 1:500000 for west coastal zone, 9 CTM scale 1:450000 to 550000 for south coastal zone and one for all area of Socotra Island. Materials used for drawing these topographic maps are:

• SRTM Digital Elevation Model Data 30 m resolution, • Data world at https://data.world/ocha-yemen , and • http://www.diva-gis.org/gdata • Ministry of public Health and Population, Republic of Yemen. • Republic of Yemen, Premiership, Social Fund for Development . • Landsat Images 2017, earthexplorer.usgs.gov . • Open Street maps, www.openstreetmap.org. • Land Cover of Yemen, FAO.

GIS spatial analysis tools are used to produce the topographic maps considering mainly the altitude buffer of 50 meter a.s.l. with distance extension to avoid closed and narrow coasts at mountainous cliffs as well as to provide regional coastal topography in order to present general terrain features background and show the basic landmarks of the area. The map data are produced by supplementing the simplified coastal elevation raster map with a number of information layers in ArcGIS geodatabase or SHP format as follows: shore line, wadi course, roads routes, built-up areas, main terrain features as well as coastal cities, urban areas and main villages. It ought to mention here that a detail closed to shoreline

84

assessment provided with accretion and erosion maps by district is to be addressed in next chapter.

Regarding the topographic map of this chapter, additional reliable numerical information of spatial distributions and analysis of previous layers is provided within external layer of areas of low lands between 0 - 5 m a.s.l. and another external layer of areas within 5 kilometer buffer from shore line. See section 4.2. Descriptive list of detected sensitive low land terrain and biological features is also provided. See section 4.3.

85

4.1. Coastal Zone Topographic Maps

Coastal Topographic Map -1- Hajjah Gov.

86

Coastal Topographic Map -2-Al Hudaydah Gov.

87

Coastal Topographic Map -3- Al Hudaydah Gov. and parts of Taiz Gov.

Al-Tihamah megaliths

88

Coastal Topographic Map -4-Taiz Gov.

89

Coastal Topographic Map -5- Lahjjj Gov. and parts of Aden Gov.

Hiswat al-Hugayma

90

Coastal Topographic Map -6-Aden Gov.

Sabr ancient village or settlement

91

Coastal Topographic Map -7-Abyan Gov.

92

Coastal Topographic Map -8-Shabwah Gov.

93

Coastal Topographic Map -9-Hadramaut Gov. (west)

94

Coastal Topographic Map -10- Hadramaut Gov. (east)

95

Coastal Topographic Map -11 - Al Maharah Gov. (a)

96

Coastal Topographic Map -12 - Al Maharah Gov. (b)

97

Coastal Topographic Map -13 - Al Maharah Gov. (c)

98

Coastal Topographic Map -14 - Socotra Gov.

This remote island is a treasure trove of unusual life forms. Some of the most unusual ecosystems in the world are stands of Dragon's Blood Tree, such as the grove named Rokeb di Firmihin.

99

4.2. Reading and Spatial interpretation of coastal zone Topographic Maps

In-depth reading of previous topographic maps and spatial analysis of their layers at governmental level leads to following of key observations:

• Al Hudaidah gov. has the longest shoreline accounting for 25.4 % of the total length of the Yemeni shoreline (~2000 km). This is due to its many shoreline meanders, tidal inlet bays and islands. Fig. 35

Figure 35 Shore line Length as percentage of total Yemen shoreline length by Coastal Governorates Governorates

30

Al Hudaydah; 25.40 25

20

Al Maharah; 12.57 % 15 Soqatra; 11.97 Hadramaut; 11.10

10

5 Hajjah; 3.57

0 Al Al Hadrama Abyan Aden Hudayda Hajjah Lahj Shabwah Soqatra Taizz Maharah ut h 6.38 11.97 6.91 4.26 3.57 11.10 12.57 25.40 9.21 8.64 سلسل 1

• Al Hudaidah gov. has also wide area of low elevation between 0 and 5 meter a.s.l. reaches 383.51 sq km. Fig 36 This is owing to the fact that the central Tihamah, within which Al Hudaidah extend, comprises the widest and low slope area of the coastal plain, where the southern and northern tips are more proximal to the foothills.

100

Figure 36 Area below 5 m a.s.l. by coastal governorates

450

400 Al Hudaydah; 383.51

350

300

250

200

meter asl meter 5

150

100

50

0 Al Al Hadr Area_Sq_KM under Area_Sq_KM Abya Hajja Shab Soqa Aden Huda Mah ama Lahj Taizz n h wah tra ydah arah ut Area_Sq_KM under 5meter asl 224.89 132.84 383.51 168.81 178.81 83.23 93.54 110.78 108.94 253.35

• Moreover Al Hudaidah gov.with 498330 persons has the highest population( 2004 census) within 5 km buffer from shoreline. Fig. 37 Second populated area is Aden gov. 403276 and Hadramaut gov. with ( 284016 ) comes third - taking Al Mukalla city in consideration –. • After (Open Street Map) , notable general mark is that paved roads ( 8305 km long ) within 5 km buffer from shore line is longer than unpaved roads (1136 km). • Regarding paved roads Aden gov. has the longest paved roads among coastal governorates; 23.32 % of the total length.Fig38. • Looking at unpaved roads within 5 km buffer from shore line, Al Hudaidah gov. once more comes first with 20.06 % of the total length.Fig. 39.

101

• Although the coastal area in Hadramaut and Al Maharashtra within 5 km buffer from shoreline is narrow, this coastal range is more likely to be intersected by linear wadi courses descending rapidly from nearby foothills. Length of wadis in Hadramaut reaches here ~ 180.3 km or 27.33 % of 659.7 km the total lengths of valleys of the whole coastal zone area within 5 km buffer from shoreline, while in Al Maharah gov.it reaches 116.3 km. Fig. 40. In other locations like east coasts of Abyan gov.east of Shuqrah and west coast of Lahjjjj gov. this case of linear layer wadi feature is also observed .

Figure 37Population by coastal governorates within 5 km buffer from shoreline (2004 Census)

600000

Al Hudaydah; 498330 500000

Aden; 403276 400000

300000 Hadramaut; 284016

Population count Population 200000

100000

0

102

Figure 38paved Roads by coastal governorates as Percent length of total length within 5 km buffer of shore line)

Aden; 23.32

Hajjah; 0.73

Hadramaut; Al Hudaydah; 14.65 16.05

Figure 39Unpaved Roads by coastal governorates as percent length of total length within 5 km buffer from shore line

Abyan; Aden; 2.13 Taizz; 12.88 12.19

Al Hudaydah; Shabwah; 15.04 20.06

Al Maharah; 12.49

103

• Urban areas are concentrated in few location in all coastal governorates except for Lahjjjj and Shabwah govs. Al Hudaidah gov. occupy the highest urban area of 62.1 km or 34.22 % of total area 181.5 sq.km within 5 km buffer from shoreline. Aden gov. with 51 sq.km is the second in urban area concentration and Hadramaut gov. with 41.1 sq.km is third. Fig 41. • The supplementary point layers within 5 km buffer from shoreline added to coastal topographic maps are: Main city and town centers , ports and airports. • Mangrove areas are limited in general. These areas are concentrated mainly in west coasts and cover ~ 13 sq.km 55.8 % of which spread in Hajjah gov.Southwards mangrove areas gradually decreased; Al Hudaidah gov. (39.5 %)and Taiz gov. (4.8%).

Figure 40Valleys length by coastal governorates as percentage of total length within 5 km buffer from shoreline

30 Hadramaut; 27.33

25

20

15

10

5 Aden; 0.75 0 Abyan Aden Al Al Maharah Hadramaut Hajjah Lahj Shabwah Soqatra Taizz Hudaydah

104

Figure 41 Urban areas as percentage of total area within 5 km buffer from shore line

40

Al Hudaidah; 34.22 35

30 Aden; 28.10

25Hadramaut ; 22.70

% 20

15

10

5

0 Al Al Hadram Shabwa Mahara Socotra Abyan Aden Hudaid Hajjah Taiz Lahjj aut h h ah 0.00 0.00 1.60 0.99 34.22 28.10 1.19 2.52 8.69 22.70 سلسل 1

4.3. List of sensitive low land locations potentially exposed to inundation of SLR

Adopted from: (Scott D. , A DIRECTORY OF WETLANDS IN THE MIDDLE EAST, 1995) (datazone birdlife org, 2017), (Republic of Yemen Ministry of Water and Environment Environment Protection Authority (EPA), Oct 2004) here is a list of sensitive terrain, ecological, low land locations potentially exposed to inundation of SLR. Return also to table 2. It should be noted that this list is an initial list been specified in accordance with only one topographic variable related contour line near sea. In chapter VI several other variables are use to be used to determine the most sensitive sites on the coastline

1. Midi - Al-Luhayyah: ( Area: 30,000 ha ).It is the only known breeding area in Yemen for Collared Kingfisher, Clamorous Reed Warbler and probably Mangrove Reed Warbler. Other wildlife: Dugong 105

dugon (Vulnerable) and Chelonia mydas (Endangered) The site comprises about 90 km of very flat sabkha coastline with extensive offshore sand bars and inter-tidal mudflats, especially at Al-Luhayyah in the south, some sandy beaches around Midi in the north, and occasional sand dunes and cliffs, especially in the northern half. Reef-rock rubble patches are frequent offshore in the southern half, but there are no significant coral reefs. More than 60 km of the coast is fringed by well-developed mangrove Avicennia marina, which becomes very dense between Midi and Buhays; these are the most extensive stands of mangrove in Yemen. The site has been identified as an Important Bird Area.

2. Islands north of Al-Hudaydah: (Area: 5,000 ha). There are numerous islands north of Kamaran island which extend to the Farasan Bank of Saudi Arabia; they include: Kadaman, Hataban, Badi, Uqban, Kutamah, Qusur & Tiqfash. The site comprises a loose archipelago of at least 31 small islands on the northern Red Sea shelf, from Buhays in the northeast to Al-Badi off the north coast of Kamaran in the south.

3. Bahr Ibn Abbas : (Area: 35,000 ha ).The site comprises the large island of Kamaran, Ra's Isa headland on the mainland coast to the southeast, and the adjacent shallow, sheltered bay, Bahr Ibn Abbas, north of Ra's Isa. Kamaran is a low flat separated from the mainland by a channel 2.5 km wide and less than 100 m deep. It is about 20 km long (from north to south) and up to 8 km wide. The south coast of Ra's Isa is a steep, sandy storm-beach, backed by several old, raised beaches of coral debris and with occasional sand dunes, low cliffs and patches of sabkha; there is a fringing coral reef close inshore. The north coast of Ra's Isa and the coast of Bahr Ibn Abbas are very flat and dominated by bare sabkha, broken only by a coral outcrop at the port of Al-Salif and occasional areas of sand dunes. There are extensive inter-tidal mudflats and sandflats as well as some coral reef off Al-Salif and Al-Khawbah. Seagrass beds are frequent here.

106

4. Al-'Urj : (Area: 1,500 ha).This location isformerly undisturbed 15-km- stretch of coast, with a wide variety of natural habitats in a small area Shallow sea bay is located here and protected from the open sea by Ra's al-Kathib . The bay contains extensive inter-tidal mudflats with small patches of stunted mangrove and a number of small sandy islets.

5. Nukhaylah – Ghulayfiqah: (Area: 1,800 ha). The coast is flat here, with exposed sandy beaches, large areas of sabkha, especially west of Ghulayfiqah. Small tidal inlet at Nukhaylah supports a fringe of patchy mangrove Avicennia marina. There is a small lagoon, about 200 m long, at Al-Fazzah, separated from the sea by a narrow belt of sabkha.

6. Jaza'ir al-Zubayr: (Area: 3,300 ha). The Zubair group comprises ten main islands and a couple of small rocks. All the islands are of volcanic origin, being eroded ash cones and lava. They are situated adjacent to the deep waters of the central Red Sea trench (all around the island the sea has depths of 500 m or more) and close to the Red Sea shipping lanes. The Zubair group of islands hold important breeding populations of seabirds with significant populations of notably brown booby, sooty gull, white-eyed gull and sooty falcon. The islands also may be the northernmost colony of masked booby. Other wildlife: evidence of turtles nesting on several islands.

7. Jaza'ir al-Hanish (Area: 28,000 ha) is Globally significant colony of brown noddy and bridled tern.

8. Al-Mukha - Al-Khawkhah (Area: 7,000 ha) The northern part is dominated by narrow sand beaches, the southern coast by large areas of bare salt flats (sabkha) with some salt pans

9. Bab al-Mandab - Mawza : (Area: 5,000 ha ).This location stretch of at least 3 km of coastal lagoons and saline flats (sabkha) extending

107

south from the village of Dhubab southwards The coastal wetlands hold many water birds .

10. Hiswat al-Hugayma: (Area: 25,000 ha ). This site is an extensive area of gravel plain to the east of Bab al-Mandab stretching from the coast to foothills and at least from al-Hajaf to beyond Bir Ras al-Ara.The site's good cover of vegetation and closeness to the Bab al-Mandab make it a very important stop-over point for migrants.

11. Khor Umairah : This site is characterized by a semi-enclosed lagoon isolated from the shore by a permanent sand spit running from the east consisting of fine mud and sand with rocks in the central part of the lagoon. There is also a coarse sand and gravel desert coastal plain in the surrounding area. The sheltered conditions in the lagoon reduce wave energy and limit the resuspension of sediments. Additionally the sea grass beds downstream of Khor Umairah may be considerably important to the detritus food chain and sea turtle populations.

12. Aden Coastal Wetlands (lagoon, marshes and beach) : (10,000 ha) The wetlands surrounding Aden city consist of: - marshland covering an area of 50 ha which receives the run-off of the swage treatment plant located nearby; - an artificial lagoon of the swage treatment plant; - four large lagoons on the west side of the Aden peninsula; - large intertidal flats; and - sandy beaches and rocky cliffs. The Aden Coastal Wetlands are considered to be one of the most important sites for migratory birds and regularly host over 10,000 waterfowl including three globally threatened and 12 regionally important species populations (Table). The site meets the conditions of the International Ramsar site and Bonn Conventions. Among the most significant species found in the area are Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) with 9200 birds counted on the last census (in 1996), the largest concentration any where in the Middle East. Other important species include Great Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), and Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola).

108

13. Balhaf Burum is now considered one of the main ports of Yemen, particularly after the success of Yemen LNG project for constructing a liquefied natural gas in 2006.The site is a coastal area located in the eastern Gulf of Aden, stretching and grouping of high aspect islands with extensive fringing coral reefs and rich fishing sites. Besides, they are an important site for nesting of important seabirds and threatened marine turtles. Yemen Several sites of conservation importance are located in this area. The three islands of Baraqa, Sikha and Hallaniyah are less than 10 km from the Bir Ali mainland. They are all important sites for breeding of the endemic Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) and Sooty Gull ( Larus hemprichii).

14. Karif Shoran is A unique habitat, consisting of a volcanic crater lagoon with mangrove vegetation which is the only site on the southern coast.

15. The three islands of Baraqa, Sikha and Hallaniyah: (Area: 300 ha). These islands are lying less than 10 km off Bir Ali on the Gulf of Aden coast, all important sites for breeding of the endemic Socotra Cormorant (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) and Sooty Gull (Larus hemprichii).

16. Sharma and Jathmun : These coastal sites are located to each other along the coastline of Shabwa governorate, eastern Gulf of Aden,. The coastline of Sharma-Jathmun area is 50km long. The beach of the area is considered as the most important nesting area for the Green Turtle in the entire Arabian region, including Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Approximately nesting 1000 turtles were recorded in the area.

17. Qishn Beach : (Area: 100 ha). This site is a 6-km stretch of gently shelving beach backed by sand dunes on the Gulf of Aden coast, especiallyimportant for Sooty Gulls Larus hemprichii and possibly a nesting site for Green Turtles Chelonia mydas.

109

18. Ra's Fartak : (Area: 10,000 ha). It is the mountainous part of Al- Mahra on the southeast coast, Gulf of Aden. It receives significant dew condensation at night supporting many endemics; these include the Combretaceae tree species Anogeissus.

19. Abdullah Gharib Lagoons : (Area: 100 ha).They are group of large brackish to saline coastal lagoonson the Arabian Sea coast, 20 km northeast of Al-Ghayda, AlGhayda Governorate. They are especially important for gulls and terns (Laridae). These large coastal lagoons lie either side of the village of Abdullah Gharib.

20. The wooded Mahra : (Area: 15,000 ha).The south-west monsoon brings here mist and rain to the slopes in late summer when the mostly deciduous vegetation springs into leaf and the otherwise poor herb layer is transformed. The tree cover comprises mostly Anogeissus dhofarica/Commiphora habessinica woodland with abundant Adenium obesum and, in places, Acacia senegalensis. These unique woodlands hold 500 species of plants, with 30 endemic species and two endemic genera.

21. Qalansiya Lagoon: (Area: 500 ha). It is A tidal inlet, coastal wetland, and brackish lagoon sealed off from the sea by a sand bar on the northwest coast of Socotra Island; the most important wetland on Socotra.This wetland was said to be a brackish lagoon in 1964 (thus possibly sealed off from the tide at that time by a sandbar), but it is now used as an alternative, bad-weather harbour for fishing boats and thus must now be a tidal inlet. Inland there is a lowland plain, and the vegetation is mainly Croton shrubland (relatively thick and tall in 1964). The fishery is for sprats and shellfish.

In addition to previous mentioned, terrain and ecological low land features, there are also several coastal touristic, cultural, archaeological and historical attractive heritages spreading along each coastal

110 government involve important additional point data to the coastal topographic map of Yemen. Main sites of attention are :

• Al-Tihamah megaliths - Al Hudaydah. Seven groups of giant megaliths (including the impressive rows of standing stones at al-Muhandid and Al Fazah standing stone) from the time period between 2400 BC and 1800 BC. Tallest standing stone was some 6 m tall but now is slanting. Stones are some 20 tons heavy. (KHALIDI L. and KEALL. E., 2011)

• Historic Town of Zabid : Zabid's domestic and military architecture and its urban plan make it an outstanding archaeological and historical site including 86 mosques. Besides being the capital of Yemen from the 13th to the 15th century, the city played an important role in the Arab and Muslim world for many centuries because of its Islamic university. (http://www.wondermondo.com/Yemen.htm)

• Prehistoric sites in Al Maharah, Eastern Yemen: Wadis Thabut and Faydami on the sandy plain surrounding Al- Ghaydah, and the narrow strip of coastline extending eastward toward Hawf on the Omani border (Rose, July 2002)

• Sabr ancient village or settlement north Aden: End of second Millenium BCE mud brick settlement measuring 2 Km by 700 Meters in the Wadi Tuban.

• Natural and cultural heritage of Socotra Island.

▪ This remote island is a treasure trove of unusual life forms. Some of the most unusual ecosystems in the world are stands of Dragon's Blood Tree, such as the grove named Rokeb di Firmihin.

▪ Giniba Cave - Soqatra. The longest known cave system in Socotra, one of the many cave systems on

111

the island. Length of the explored passages is 13 525 m. ▪ Eriosh petroglyphs - Soqatra. Group of petroglyphs of unknown age (possibly the first millenium BC) on the flat surface of desert. Some petroglyphs resemble symbols of unknown writing, there are also cross-like figures which may be created by early Christians in the 4 - 6th centuries AD.

▪ Hoq Cave - Soqatra. Comparatively large, approximately 3 km long cave with beautiful stalactites and stalagmites, endemic cave fauna. In the cave have been found ancient ceramics, cave art and wooden tablet with writings dated from the 258 AD. Writings on the walls of cave have been left by Arabs, Indians (Brahmi script), Greek.

112

Chapter five: Mapping of Shoreline Changes

Changing of sea level relative to the land and the increase or decrease in sand supply to the coast causes the shoreline to retreat or advance over time. Shoreline change that occurs over few tens of years or less is difficult to understand and predict. These short-term shoreline changes can also be quite variable alongshore. One portion of the coast may be experiencing retreat while just a few kilometers away stable or advancing conditions may prevail. Shoreline retreat is not always a continuous and steady process with a little more of the beach eroded each year.

Changes in shoreline can be analyzed through processes of accretion and erosion in a geographic information system (GIS) by measuring differences in past and present shoreline locations. Several resources are available for both extracting shoreline positions and quantifying shoreline change. The Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) is a software extension for Arc GIS allows for automated shoreline change calculations along the coast. The user must supply the shoreline data and the software helps the user create measurement locations (transects) and completes the shoreline change calculations at each location. The result is a visual representation of the shoreline change along a coastline. This representation is far more useful for analysis that one overall average. Unusually high rates of erosion/accretion are easily recognized from the resulting maps.

5.1. Material and Methods

Spatial and statistical analysis was carried out to examine the positional changes of shoreline in Yemen for the period of 34 years since 1984 until 2017, using remote sensing technique and GIS. Steps of work could be summarized as following:

➢ First step: • Extracting shorelines: Two types of satellite images are used to extract the shorelines for the study period. The old one of 1984 is extracted from land sat 5 satellite images. Satellite images of year 1984 are gathered during the year 1984 for all Yemen shorelines.

113

Gaps of some parts were replaced with 1983 and 1985 Satellite images. Current Yemen shorelines are extracted from the satellite Landsat 8 OLI for the months of Aug- Oct 2017. All satellite images are obtained from (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) . Regarding satellite image data return to table 12 for further detail.

• The process of detecting and extracting shorelines from previous satellite images has gone through several phases as follows: - Geometric correction of imagery to unify all satellite images into world Mercator projection, - Radiometric Correction to resolve radiometric errors, - Spatial enhancement to increase the spatial visual clarity through integrating of spatial resolution of band 30 meter with band 15 meter, - Imaginary enhancement to improve explanation capability of vision to images, in order to increase distinguishing of parameters, through optical amplification of small differences between features in grayscale for ease access. • Image classification to separate land and water via Modifier Normal Deferent Water Index (MNDWI) that use the formula:

MNDWI=)SWIR(Band)– Green(Band) / )SWIR(Band) + Green(Band( Where SWIR= short wave infra red

• Visual Interpretation that has supplementary objectives to correct errors, address imbalances caused by clouds as well as for hand drawing of some parts that could not be distinguished such as very small cliffs. ➢ Second Step: I. The study area was divided into 147 sets, two for each. More than two sets are given for some very meandrous districts and islands. 23567 transect line layers are also created as perpendicular lines to the Baseline layer, each with 200 meter long and 100 meter interval. II. Building Geo Data Base: The shoreline positions were compiled and managed in Arc GIS 10.5. A geodatabase (GDB) was created for the extracted shoreline positions. Each shoreline has attributes

114

include date, length, ID, shape and uncertainty. The date of acquisition for each image was entered for the date column while the length, ID and shape were automatically generated.

➢ Third Step: Spatial Analysis: In this last stage GIS tools such as spatial analysis tool, raster calculator, topology analysis tool and Digital Shoreline Analysis System DSAS extension are used.

III. The DSAS extension calculates shoreline rates of change based on the measured differences between the shoreline positions associated with specific time periods. The following statistical measures are obtained: (Oyedotun, Temitope D. Timothy., 2014) 1. Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE): A measure of the total change in shoreline movement considering all available shoreline positions and reporting their distances, without reference to their specific dates. 2. Net Shoreline Movement (NSM): reports the distance between the oldest and the youngest shorelines. 3. End Point Rate (EPR): derived by dividing the distance of shoreline movement by the time elapsed between the oldest and the youngest shoreline positions. The EPR is employed where only two shoreline positions are available as it is the case for the study area period between 1984 and 2017. To give the end point rate the distance between the two points is calculated and this distance is divided by the number of years that have elapsed, in our case study 33 years.

R1 = Dm/T Where R1 is the rate, Dm is the distance in meters between the two dates and T is the period between the two shoreline positions

4. Accretion is indicated by positive EPR rate of change, while the negative rate of change indicates to the erosion. (Kuleli, 2010) and (K. Appeaning Addo1, P.N.Jayson-Quashigah, K. S. Kufogbe, 2011) .

115

5.2. Results and Discussions

5.2.1. Shoreline Accretion and Erosion Output maps

As output result of shoreline changes and owing to wide extension of Yemen shoreline, only 20 maps are obtained representing selective sites within Yemen coastal districts. Each map is provided with its location site of analysis, shoreline location in 1984 and 2017. Erosion and accretion along shore line are represented by red and yellow colors respectfully. Unchanged land is represented by grey color and waters by blue color. DSAS statistical measures of NSM, SCE and EPR are also illustrated and explained in a unified legend of four categories. These shoreline change maps are presented below. (Legend is general for all)

Figure 42 Midi district Shoreline change Figure 43 ABS district Shoreline change

116

Figure 44 Alluhaih district Shoreline change Figure 45 Al Salif district

Figure 46 Al Khokhah district Shoreline change

117

Figure 47 Al Mukha District shoreline change Figure 48 Dhubab District shoreline change

118

Figure 49 Al Madaribah wa ras Al Arah District shoreline change

Figure 50 Aden Governorate shoreline change

119

Figure 51 Zingibar and Khanfar Districts shoreline change

Figure 52 Ahwar District shoreline change

120

Figure 53 Rudum District shoreline change

Figure 54 Brom Mayfa and Al Mukalla Districts shoreline change

121

Figure 55 Ash Shihr and Ad Dis Districts shoreline change

Figure 56 Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar and Al Masilah Districts shoreline change

122

Figure 57 Sayhut and Qishn Districts shoreline change

Figure 58 Haswain District shoreline change

123

Figure 59 Al Gaidha District shoreline change

Figure 60 Hawf District shoreline change

124

Figure 61 Socotra Island shoreline change

5.2.2. Shoreline Change Analysis and Interpretation

Shoreline change analysis provides important information upon which most Yemen coastal zone management and intervention policies rely. Such information is however mostly scarce for large and inaccessible shorelines largely due to widely distributions of coastal lines and expensive field work. Using DSAS approach makes possibilities to calculate shoreline rates of change based on the measured differences between the shoreline positions associated with specific time periods.

1. EPR: The shoreline analysis for the period 1984-2017 revealed that most of Yemen shorelines underwent various levels of erosion and accretion. 53.8 % of EPR average of all districts falls under erosion where 47.2 % falls under accretion with standard of deviation of 1.96 (Figure 62).

125

Figure 62 Average End Point Rate (EPR) by districts - Shoreline Change 1984 - 2017

10

8 Al Munirah

6

4

Meter 2

0

-2

Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar -4

Districts

As observed from fig. 62 Al Munirah district of Al Hudaidah Gov. revealed high rate of accretion reached 7.6 m /year, as well as most districts of Aden Gov. and Al Mukalla district. This could be explained by high rate of urban expansion over coasts, where Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar revealed high rate of erosion of 2.8 m/year. In general the average rate of accretion in all Yemen shorelines is 1.9 m/year, where the average rate of erosion is 0.78 m/year. 2. NSM: The mean shoreline movement from 1984 to 2017 was 15.6m/year with a standard deviation of 66.5. For spatial variation of NSM see Fig 20. Since the Net Shoreline Movement (NSM) indicates to the distance between the oldest and the youngest shorelines, negative values represent erosion or landward retreat of shoreline, while positive values represent deposition or seaward advance expansion of shoreline.

126

Figure 63 Average Net Shoreline Movement (NSM)

300 Al Munirah 250 200 150 100

meter 50 0 -50 -100 Ar Raydah Wa -150 Qusayar

Districts

As observed from NSM fig., west shorelines of Yemen and Aden Gov shorelines show seaward advance expansion of shoreline during 1984-2017, where rest of Yemen shoreline experienced landward expand of shoreline.

3. Accretion-Erosion-Growth rate: Erosion and accretion in the study area reflect the geomorphologic changes that have been taken place over 34 years period since 1984. Rates of erosion and accretion as (ha/yr) is obtained via dividing total accretion and erosion by total period of observation and are illustrated in fig 64. Growth rates are shown in tab.2 Total growth is calculated as subtraction of accretion area in hectare from erosion area in hectare. Growth rate ha/year is obtained as result of dividing total growth by time period of observation; 34 years. From fig 64 and tab. 2 following significant notes ought to be revealed:

• The ways by which erosion and accretion transform shorelines are primarily due to many factors most particularly the prevailing

127

waves, coastal currents and tides including the geology, geomorphology, climate/weather extremes and human incursions. • Waves, currents and tides can influence the coastal areas in many ways and are the primary causes of coastal abrasion/erosion and to some extent, of coastal accretion. Stronger wave energy equates to higher rate of erosion and/or accretion. • The geology of a coastline is a vital factor to shoreline change including the coast’s rock assemblage and its tectonic imprints. Generally, rocky coasts imply high rate of erosion/abrasion. But the presence of coral/reef and mud flats along the near shore somehow dissipates the energy of the waves before reaching the shores.

Figure 64 Accretion - Erosion Rates ha/year

50 40 30 20

10 ha/year 0 -10 -20

Districts

• High accretion rate of 42 ha/year is observed in Al Salif district of Al Hudaidah Gov. as well as in Al Luhaia district (63.5 h/y) and Al Munierah district (28.5 h/y). • Relative high rates of erosion occurred in Ad Duraihimi district ( 14.7 h/y),Dhubab ( 10.3 h/y) and Ar Raidah w Qusayar district of Hadramaut Gov.(9.6 h/y).

128

Table 11 Erosion and accretion growth rates for the period 1984-2017 by districts in Yemen shorelines

ha ha ha ha/year District erosion accretion total growth growth rate Abs 3.98 60.98 57.01 1.68 Ad Dis 72.37 2.74 -69.62 -2.05 Ad Durayhimi 499.58 94.30 -405.28 -11.92 Ahwar 98.72 43.94 -54.78 -1.61 Al Mukha 249.32 97.27 -152.06 -4.47 Al Buraiqeh 87.55 213.38 125.83 3.70 Al Ghaydah 250.09 49.82 -200.27 -5.89 Al Hali 8.07 93.44 85.38 2.51 Al Hawak 7.50 64.90 57.41 1.69 Al Khawkhah 18.41 47.60 29.19 0.86 Al Madaribah Wa Al Arah 228.35 453.70 225.35 6.63 Al Mansura 9.35 263.84 254.48 7.48 Al Masilah 148.22 8.07 -140.15 -4.12 Al Mina 63.25 192.87 129.62 3.81 Al Mualla 66.12 62.98 -3.14 -0.09 Al Mukalla City 107.16 85.24 -21.92 -0.64 Al Munirah 8.91 969.48 960.56 28.25 Alluheyah 43.12 1240.37 1197.25 35.21 Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar 327.94 5.92 -322.02 -9.47 As Salif 28.31 1431.08 1402.77 41.26 Ash Shihr 76.69 43.93 -32.75 -0.96 At Tuhayat 149.38 56.80 -92.58 -2.72 Attawahi 7.28 23.81 16.53 0.49 Bajil 37.81 90.95 53.14 1.56 Bayt Al Faqiah 15.22 2.10 -13.11 -0.39 Brom Mayfa 115.58 79.89 -35.69 -1.05 Craiter 2.76 35.43 32.67 0.96 Dhubab 350.71 46.93 -303.78 -8.93 Ghayl Ba Wazir 43.92 12.08 -31.84 -0.94 Hawf 32.18 10.08 -22.10 -0.65 Huswain 43.64 11.86 -31.78 -0.93 Kamaran 52.57 508.82 456.25 13.42 Khanfir 151.34 199.08 47.74 1.40 Khur Maksar 9.40 228.77 219.37 6.45 Midi 53.87 590.36 536.50 15.78 Qishn 77.15 5.55 -71.59 -2.11 Rudum 101.78 202.41 100.62 2.96 Sayhut 115.62 4.81 -110.81 -3.26 Zingibar 23.23 87.42 64.19 1.89

• Growth rates as relation between accretion and erosion varies obviously. Districts of growth rates more than 20 h/y are As Salif, Alluheyah and Al Munirah and all located in Hudaidah Gov. Districts of growth rates of 5-20 h/y are Midi, Kamaran, Al Mansura and Khur Maksar.

129

• Higher growth rates regarding erosion are revealed in Ad Durayhimi (11.92 h/y) . Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar (9.47 h/y) and Dhubab (8.93h/y).

130

Chapter six: Coastal Sensitivity and Adaptation Options

Sensitivity means the degree to which a coast may experience physical changes such as flooding, erosion, beach migration, and coastal dune destabilization. Under this definition the Yemen coastal district, along the Red sea coast Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea, are sensitive to sea surge flooding and severe coastal erosion. The November 2015 cyclones of Chapala and Megh had inundated several parts of south coastal zone, indicating nature of sensitivity. This report is an attempt to develop a coastal sensitivity index (CSI) for Yemen coasts. Eleven variables were adopted in calculation of CSI (the square root of the product of the ranked variables divided by the number of variables). Variables data are obtained from several parts of this report to generate CS index for coastal district. This chapter reveals that 32.5 % of the Yemen shoreline falls in the high sensitive category. This exercise, first of its kind for Yemen coast will be useful for disaster mitigation and management.

6.1. Methodology and data collection

Sensitivity in this report has been identified in terms of a number of semi-quantifiable variables, comprising four Geological- structural and three process variables. The four geological – structural variables are: (a) geology and rock type, (b) geomorphology and landforms (c) coastal slope and (d) shoreline change. The three process variables are: (e) relative sea-level rise (f) significant wave height and (g) mean tide range. The geological variables describe the physical characteristics of a coast and account for the relative erosion resistance of a shoreline, its susceptibility to flooding and long-term erosion/accretion trend. Physical process variables contribute to inundation hazards of district section of the coastline. Four socio-economic variables are also included namely (h) land use land cover , (i) coastal population density, (j) paved roads and (k) cultural heritage (tourist areas). The Socioeconomic variables are generally perceived in terms of people and their activities are being sensitive to flooding hazards and therefore require a consideration. All coastal sensitivity parameters include both qualitative and quantitative information. Depending upon the nature of each variable, the entire Yemen coasts are segmented via districts and assigned sensitivity ranks according to specific criteria ranging from 1 to

131

5 (1: very low, 2: low, 3: moderate, 4: high and 5: very high sensitivity) . See table 1. The Geological formations about the study area and their rock types captures the relative resistance of underlying bedrock and obtained from the geological maps in annex 1, whereas geomorphology variable reflects the actual landforms on the coastal zone study area and their relative resistance to erosion and undertaken from direct previous observations and experience of the author. See above 2.3. Land form section.

The coastal slope is the generalized topographic gradient of the coastal zone that extends from shoreline to a reference height. In this report the reference height chosen was 5 meter asl. It is one of the most important factors to be considered in estimating the impact of sea-level rise on a given coast. (Pamela A. O. Abuod ha & Colin D. Wood roffe, 2010) Steep slopes experience less flooding compared to gentle- to moderately- sloping coasts where any rise in sea level will inundate larger extents of land. In this report the slope of each coastal district is online calculated in degree related to average distance of counter line of 5 m a.s.l. https://rechneronline.de/slope/ Shoreline change represents the shoreline displacement or recession in m/y and obtained from average end point rate (EPR) results of chapter five Sea level rise as a result of climate change is conspiring with coastal erosion to slowly submerge communities along the coastal areas of Yemen. This vertical physical process enhances coastal erosion as well as inundation. This variable data is derived from Figure 18. The significant wave height (SWH) variable refers to the mean wave height (trough to crest) of the highest third of the waves. Because of the ability of waves to rapidly transform the shoreline (SWH) in this report is applied as a dual variable for calculating both erosion and inundation coastal sensitivity index. Data of SWH is adopted from https://www.ecmwf.int/.

The tidal range is linked to both inundation and erosion hazards. Ranking coasts in relation to tidal range has been viewed differently by different researchers. This report has adopted a view that the higher the tidal range, the lower the sensitivity. Large tidal range dissipates wave energy. (Gornitz, 1991) and (Pamela A. O. Abuod ha & Colin D. Wood

132 roffe, 2010). (Efthimios Karymbalis ∗, 2012) Data of tidal amplitude is derived from figure 13 above. To obtain a preliminary assessment of the impacts of anticipated sea- level rise on the socio-economic activities, land cover of the coastal zone Population density, paved roads and cultural heritage within 5 km buffer from shoreline were identified. Land cover – land use on the landward side of the shoreline within 5 km of the shoreline is extracted from the land cover maps in annex 2. This variable includes allocations for Urban-build up areas, ecological sensitive areas, agriculture/fallow land, vegetation, open space, sands, sabakha and Barren land. Population density is used instead of population members because it reflects the actual level of people’s concentration and owing to wide differences of districts areas. Projected data for population density for 2015 is extracted and scored as shown in tab. 1. In same manner data of paved roads is derived from districts land use maps, and scored. Owing to accurate data gaps regarding cultural heritage, this variable is qualitative addressed in rely of expert judgment.

Building the CSI After collecting of all variables data The following steps were taken: • Each of the variable’s attributes is scored on a scale 1-5 based on its sensitivity to climate change. See table 2. • The CSI value of each district’s sigma is calculated as the square root of the product of the scored variables divided by the number of variables as seen in the equation below.

Where: CSI = coastal sensitivity index X= variable score n = number of variables • General CSI is first calculated using all eleven variables • Erosion CSI is then calculated using the structural and process variables ( a to g ) • Inundation CSI is calculated using the four socio-economic variables plus three process variables (e to k) see annex 3. • Output values of districts’ CSIs is then summarized in table 2 & 3

133

• Mapping the districts CSIs: This undertaking has resulted in six maps, which can be used to identify coastal areas which are more sensitive than others to the potential impacts of climate change induced coastal inundation and erosion. Figures 1-6

6.2. Results and discussions

1. General CSI Values

• CSI values above 136.45 are classified as having very high to high sensitivity. 13 districts, corresponding to 32.5 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category (Fig.1&2 ). • The general CSI values alongside the south coast of Yemen - including Socotra island - range between 354.50 and 30.98. The median value of the index for the same coasts is 94.34, and the standard deviation is 91.70 • Along the west coasts of Yemen the CSI values have higher range between 393.24 and 22.16. This range is also applies also the whole coastal study area. The median value of the CS index for the same west coasts is 63.09, and the standard deviation is 106.35.

134

Table 12 Coastal sensitivity index ranking creteria (After: Kanciruk (1989) and Gornitz (1991) and Efthimios Karymbalis ∗ , 2012) modified

Variables Very low (1) low (2) moderate 3 High (3) Very high (4)

Geological formation Pre Cambrian- Cretaceous- a TERTIARY QUATERNARY QUATERNARYC Paleozoic JURASSIC sandy shore sandy shore medium hard geomorphology + high hard rock coastal backed by bed backed by b rock sea Landforms sea cliffs reentrance rock and artificial dunes and cliffs structure plains Coastal Slope c >=1 (>=0.3 - <1 ) (> 0.2 - < 0.3) ( >=0.1 - < 0.2 ) ( 0 < 0.1 ) ( degree) shoreline recession accretion stabile erosion d (m/yr) ( >=+2 ) (1 to +1.9 ) (+ 0.9 to -0.9 ) (-1 to -1.9 ) ( >=-2 ) e Sea level rise (mm/y) ( <0 ) ( >=0<1 ) ( >=1<2 ) (>=2<3 ) ( >=3 ) f SWH (m) ( <=0.5 ) >0.5 < 1 ( >=1<1.5 ) ( >=1.5 <2 ) ( >=2 ) g Tidal range (m) ( >2 ) ( >1.5<=2 ) ( >=1<=1.5 ) ( <1>0.5 ) ( <=0.5 ) Urban, Sand and Vegetation, Agriculture/fallow h Land use/land cover Barren land ecological sabakha open space land sensitive areas Population i <500 (>=500<1000) (>=1000<2000) (>=2000<5000) (>=5000) (density(Persons/sq. km)) j Paved roads km < 50 <100>=50 <200>=100 <500>=200 >=500 Cultural heritage k NA Absent little Present Semi Present Present (tourist areas)

135

Table 13 West coastal districts CSI levels values

5 km Erosion Inundation Districts buffer General Legend CSI CSI area/sq.km CSI

1 Abs 50.33 26.11 12.68 2.93 very high 222.45 393.24

Ad 2 223.96 24.84 11.89 136.45 222.45 Durayhimi 146.97 high

General

3 Al Mukha 256.00 153.50 37.03 9.62 moderate 81.23 136.45 CSI

4 Al Hali 41.34 393.24 28.46 34.02 low 41.25 81.23 5 Al Hawak 31.64 280.26 17.57 32.07 very low 22.16 41.25 Al 6 124.88 30.43 12.00 Khawkhah 157.30

7 Al Mina 23.40 222.45 21.51 20.78 very high 33.33 41.4

Al CSI

8 169.10 32.11 12.42 5.20 26.83 33.33 Munirah high

9 Alluheyah 286.67 55.61 15.21 7.35 moderate 22.05 26.83 Erosion 10 As Salif 140.21 50.77 13.89 7.35 low 16.56 22.05

11 At Tuhayat 239.03 61.97 20.28 5.79 very low 11.71 16.56

12 Bajil 167.92 64.22 24.84 5.20

Bayt Al 13 78.38 49.43 16.56 5.66 21.71 34.02 Faqiah CSI very high

14 Dhubab 380.12 147.71 41.40 10.14 high 12.42 21.71

15 Kamaran 111.81 22.16 13.89 3.21 moderate 8.55 12.42

16 Midi 264.58 28.60 12.68 3.21 low 5.79 8.55 Inundation very low 2.93 5.79

136

Table 14 South coastal districts CSI levels values

5 km buffer General Erosion Inundation Districts Legend

area/sq.km CSI CSI CSI

1 Ad Dis 210.23 79.27 28.69 8.28 very high 222.45 393.24 2 Ahwar 408.40 99.48 33.33 8.00 high 136.45 222.45

3 Al Buraiqeh 363.14 186.84 28.69 17.46 moderate 81.23 136.45 General

4 Al Ghaydah 657.70 168.16 35.13 15.21 low 41.25 81.23 CSI 5 Al Madaribah Wa Al Arah 543.18 81.23 22.05 8.55 very low 22.16 41.25

6 Al Mansura 34.36 345.19 38.25 24.19

7 Al Masilah 199.23 78.16 37.03 7.07 very high 33.33 41.4 CSI

8 Al Mualla 18.70 191.45 30.00 19.12 high 26.83 33.33 9 Al Mukalla City 222.42 132.48 14.16 21.71 moderate 22.05 26.83

10 Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar 294.92 95.73 40.00 7.17 low 16.56 22.05 Erosion 11 Ash Shihr 188.98 121.36 25.35 12.42 very low 11.71 16.56 12 Attawahi 10.24 129.45 20.95 16.56

13 Brom Mayfa 284.05 30.98 11.71 7.09 very high 21.71 34.02

14 Craiter 10.20 136.45 14.81 24.69 high 12.42 21.71

15 Ghayl Ba Wazir 46.31 41.25 14.34 6.68 moderate 8.55 12.42 CSI

16 Hawf 250.35 92.95 15.21 19.42 low 5.79 8.55 Inundation 17 Huswain 225.35 37.07 26.83 5.07 very low 2.93 5.79 18 Khanfir 647.45 121.09 35.13 9.24 19 Khur Maksar 52.12 354.50 39.28 24.19 20 Qishn 130.09 61.17 35.50 6.32 21 Rudum 722.36 56.05 17.57 6.05 22 Sayhut 246.31 91.65 37.61 10.00 23 Socotra 1396.39 171.62 24.84 25.35 24 Zingibar 63.97 80.00 37.03 5.79

137

Figure 65 South coast general CSI

138

Figure 66 West coast general CSI

139

Figure 67 West coast erosion CSI

140

Figure 68 South coast erosion CSI

141

Figure 69 West coast inundation CSI

142

Figure 70 South coast inundation CSI

143

• AS shown in figures 1&2, Very high coastal sensitivity index is allocated in east Aden governorate in Al Mansurah and Khour Maksar as well as in Al Hali district of Al Hudaidah Gov. • High coastal sensitivity index is primary located in Socotra island , Al Ghaidhah district as well as Al Buraiqa district of Aden Gov. Along west coasts high CS index is allocated in Dhubab and Al Makha districts of Taiz Gov. and Al Khukhah,Bayt Al Faqieh, Al Hauk, and Ad Draihimi of Al HUdaidah Gov.

2. Erosion CSI Values

• Erosion CSI values above 26.83 are classified as having very high to high sensitivity. 18 districts, corresponding to 45 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category (Fig.3&4 ). • The erosion CSI values alongside the south coast of Yemen - including Socotra Island - range between 40.4 and 11.71. The median value of the index for the same coasts is 28.69, and the standard deviation is 9.63 • Along the west coasts of Yemen the CSI values have nearly similar range between 41.4 and 12.42. The median value of the CS index for the same west coasts is 18.92, and the standard deviation is 9.03 • Very high erosion sensitivity is allocated in Dhubab and Al Mukha along west coasts as well as Al Mansourah and Khour Maksar of Aden governorate , Kanfar and Zingibar districts of Abyan governorate, Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar district of Hadhramaut governorate and Syhut, Al Ghaydah districts of Al Maharah governorate. Table 3. And (Fig.3&4 ). • High erosion CSI is located Al Buraiqeh , Ahwar and Ad Dis districts along south coasts of Yemen as well as Al Hali and Al Khukhah along west coasts. Table 3. • Very high to high levels of erosion sensitivity, is primarily due to the low coastal slope, the high sensitivity of the coastal landforms, the highly erodible Quaternaryc and Quaternary sediments of the coastal zone and the high rates of relative sea-level rise. See annex 3.

144

3. Inundation CSI Values

• Inundation CSI values above 12.42 are classified as having very high to high sensitivity. 14 districts, corresponding to 35 % of the total Yemen coastline districts, are assigned to this category (Fig.3&4). • The inundation CSI values alongside the south coast of Yemen - including Socotra Island - range between 25.35 and 5.07. The median value of the index for the same coasts is 9.62, and the standard deviation is 7.14 • Along the west coasts of Yemen the CSI values have a range between 34.02 and 2.93. The median value of the CS index for the same west coasts is 7.35, and the standard deviation is 9.7 • Very high inundation sensitivity is allocated in Al Hali along west coasts as well as Khour Maksar of Aden governorate and Socotra Island. See table 3 And (Figs.5&6 ). • High inundation CSI is located in Al Hawk district, at west coasts as well as Al Buraika, Al Mukalla and Al Ghaidhah districts along south coasts. See table 3 And (Figs.5&6 ). • Very high to high levels of inundation sensitivity is primarily due to low coastal slope, high sensitivity of land cover - Land use , coastal population density, near shoreline paved roads and cultural heritage. See annex 3 Percentage link between districts areas of 5 m a.s.l., and that of 5 km buffer from shoreline indicates to level of sea inundation due to sea level rise and high waves surge in each coastal district. As presented in figure 71 following observations could be noted:

o In general 33.73 % of or third of the study area within 5 km buffer of shoreline is located below 5 m a.s.l. o Almost areas of As Salif, Alluheyah and Khur Maksar districts are subjected to sea inundation owing to sea level rise and high waves surge as well as Abs, Al Munirah and Al Mukha.

As for impacted coastal area as percentage of total Yemen, according to 1-5 meter Sea-Level Rise Scenarios, table 15 presents six main affected parameters: area, population, GDP, agriculture , urban extent and wetlands.

145

Figure 71 Percentage of area below 5 m a.s.l. to districts area 5 km buffer from shorelin

100 As Salif Alluheyah 90 Khur Maksar Abs 80 Al Mukha Al Munirah

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Table 15 Impacted coastal zone as % of country area

Sea-Level Rise Scenarios Yemen 1 meter 2 meter 3 meter 4 meter 5 meter parameters Unit level Impacted coastal zone as % of country area AREA (Sq. km.) 415196 0.15 0.20 0.28 0.35 0.43 POPULATION Person 18349000 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.11 1.24 (million 13954 0.49 0.49 0.59 0.71 0.82 Total GDP USD) AGRI (Sq. km.) 2932 0.07 0.07 0.14 0.14 0.17 Urban Extent (Sq. km.) 3885 1.60 1.96 2.27 2.63 2.91 Wetland (Sq. km.) 13129 1.59 2.25 3.11 4.04 4.77

Adopted from: The Impact of Sea-Level rise on Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis by Dasgupta, Laplante, Meisner, Wheeler and Yan (2007)

146

6.3. Adaptations Options

Yemen coastal zone is of critical ecological concentration, economic activity and to some extent densely populated centers especially at port cities of Aden, Al Hudaidah and Al Mukalla as well as several fishing ports. Sea level rise and more intense storms, waves, and surges due to climate change pose a serious threat to large numbers of people living in these areas. Consequently Yemen through EPA has identified coastal zones as a priority area for climate change adaptation. The results of this report provide a framework for coastal managers and planners to prioritize efforts to enhance the resilience or consider adaptation measures in the coastal zone within coastal study districts. Sensitivity of the Yemen coasts is considered in conjunction with other social factors and provide an input into broader assessments of the overall vulnerability of coasts and their communities. This section identifies some adaptation options, that lower the risk and actual losses from climate change impacts. It considers mainly the process of adaptation to coastal erosion and flooding/inundation hazards where major impacts may occur.

6.3.1. Adaptation to coastal erosion

Both natural and anthropogenic factors were observed to contribute for shoreline erosion and accretion. However the influence of human actions on accelerating shoreline erosion is a major concern.

Construction of hotels or houses near shoreline and destruction of vegetation along the beachfront were all observed to be aggravating shoreline erosion.

The traditional approach was to prevent coastal erosion through the use of hard engineering solutions including sea walls, and breakwaters. This expensive policy has, in some cases, caused more problems than it has solved. New, soft engineering solutions include beach nourishment and the construction of offshore reefs are more active forms of soft engineering. To minimize hazards from sea level rise and coastal erosion adaptation options include preserving, creating or enhancing natural systems such as wetlands, marshes, beaches and dunes, to protect shorelines from erosion.

147

The traditional coastal infrastructures often increase the rate of coastal erosion, disconnecting land and ocean while providing little natural habitat for estuarine species. Instead it is recommended to create living shorelines by: • Planting riparian, marsh, and submerged aquatic vegetation; • Installing organic materials such as bio-logs and organic fiber mats; • Managing, restoring, enhancing or creating new wetlands, coral reefs and habitats; and • Constructing oyster reefs or “living breakwaters” that dissipates wave energy before reaching the shore.

6.3.2. Adaptation to coastal inundation

Ecosystems - such as wetlands - are also highly sensitive to sea inundation as natural hazards and human influence, but are adaptable to change. Rocky and cliffed segments of coast are least sensitive whereas sandy beaches backed by low plains or dunes record the highest sensitivity.

In terms of the socio-economic impacts of the anticipated of sea-level rise and high wave surge, most of the coastal economic areas are exposed to coastal inundation. Wide parts of port cities, fishing ports and dwellers’ settlements, as well as tourism activities and facilities are concentrated along the highly and very highly sensitive coastal districts.

To minimize hazards from sea level rise and coastal inundation adaptation options include ‘shore protection’ and ‘retreat’. Protections involves • Shoreline armoring – structures that prevent flooding or fix a shoreline position such as seawalls, bulkheads, retaining structures, revetments, dikes, and storm surge barriers., and • Elevating land – raising land and structures to keep pace with sea level rise such as sand replenishment, engineered dunes, and elevating both land and structures. • Retreat includes moving or removing development. Such as removing or relocating structures, regulating development, and prohibiting shore protection Nevertheless in the short term, retreat is more socially disruptive. In the long term, shoreline armoring may be more disruptive with greater environmental impacts. Sea level rise and storm surge maps could create a detailed picture of community resources and areas exposed or vulnerable to future inundation. Rising sea levels 148

will inundate wetlands and low-lying lands, erode beaches, destroy infrastructure, cause population displacement, intensify flooding, and increase the salinity of groundwater tables. Four procedures should be considered when mapping sea level rise and storm surge:

• Preparing high resolution topographical elevation data. • Establishing mean sea level and mean high water level. • Mapping inundation for increments of sea level rise for 0.5 to 2 meters and a storm surge of 1 to 3 meters. • Visualizing inundation and storm surge scenarios.

Due to their very high sensitivity to both erosion and inundation index, short-term adaptation regulations should oriented to the districts of Khur Maksar and Al Mansurah in Aden governorate. High concern should also oriented to Al Mukha and Dhubab distracts of west coast, as well as the districts of Ahwar, Khanfir, Zingibar, Ar Raydah Wa Qusayar, Al Masilah, Sayhut, Qishn and Al Ghaydah districts of Yemen south coasts, that show very high erosion sensitivity. Same level of adaptation policies should be also oriented to Al Hali and Al Hawak districts of Al Hudaidah governorate as well as Crater of Aden governorate, Al Mukalla City and Socotra, that show very high sensitivity to inundation hazards. See table 3.

Essentially hints to be carried out to achieve the tasks of previous adaptation options are:

• Establishing districts Integrated Coastal zone Management to build adaptive capacity and raising awareness of persons and institutes as foundation measure to reduce sea level rise and waves energy impacts on coastal zone. • Recognizing that coastal peoples and their possession as well as coastal environments are all at risk and that everyone should join efforts to minimize short and long term shoreline changes impacts.

149

Recommendations for further shoreline studies

The effects of shoreline changes as erosion or accretion rates due to sea level rise and extreme wave energy on the social - economic and ecological coastal zone systems of Yemen are increasingly well relieved in this report. Coastal sensitivity index had been developed to assess both coastal erosion and sea floods sensitivities. Although this report’s outcomes are first of their kind for Yemen coasts, lack of high resolution satellite imaginary and the broad study area and time shortage are main obstacles that hindered assessing the changes of near shoreline coastal areas in further detail. For future Yemen shoreline mapping projects It is recommended to take concern on followings:

• It is necessary to obtain following detailed data via surveying, purchasing or hiring from their original resources: o Thematic satellite images o High resolution Digital Elevation Model ( DEM ) o High resolution time series climate data o High resolution time series oceanographic data o Population and socio –economic data o Ecosystem data • To get accurate shoreline changes and sensitivities, it is recommended to divide shoreline study areas into small segments of 20 km long and 5 km wide and assessing all changes of beach and hinterland geomorphology and landforms, land cover-land use, ecosystems and socio economic activities, and mapping of all coastal sensitivity Index variables. • To obtain shoreline changes over time it is necessary to carry out assignments every five years, to enable spatial and chronologically comparison and evaluate coastal sensitivities, changes and risks. This would enable offering perspective regarding shoreline changes trends. • Conduct regional ocean modeling to provide accurate estimates for sea level rise and waves properties. This information can then be used as input into impact models. • Pursue training on use of some of the publicly available modeling frameworks to assess the impacts of shoreline change on coastal environment as well as coastal zones. These models could then be applied to local conditions.

150

• Since impacts of shoreline change have costs, it is recommended to carry out an inventory of public and private property within 5 km buffer of shoreline, that could be potentially affected by sea level rise and geomorphologic changes of shoreline. • To govern coastal change risks as well as for better adaptations measures it is advised to involve local persons of all coastal districts and gather their initial experience. This could be achieved through separate assessment. From current observed shoreline change impacts over coastal Yemen districts, all ought to convince that adaptive responses are unavoidable. All decision makers within coastal districts, and local civil societies and institutions, in the private sector, and nongovernmental organizations should identify their actions regarding their short-and longer-term adaptation options that could increase their adaptive capacity to current and future impacts of shoreline changes.

151

References and further readings

AbdulBaki, Kadri. (2003.). Some Geomorphologic indicators of climate change in Yemen during the late Pleistocene and Holocene ( in Arabic ). Journal of geographical Society of Yemen, . AbdulBaki. (2013). Bab al-Mandab Pilot Coastal Zone (BMPCZ) Final Report. Pilot Program for Climate Resilience Consultancy for Rapid risk assessment of Climate Change on Coastal Zones. AbdulBaki.etal. (August 2017). climate change impact and adaptationon assessment on coastal zone, ( Al Mukalla), in TNC-BUR. under unfccc. (Under Publishing). Abubakr.etal. (2013). climate change impact and adaptationon assessment on coastal zone, (Aden), in SNC,. under unfccc. Al-Hawshabi Othman Saad Saeed , El-Naggar Salah Mohammed Ibrahim. (2015). Vegetation patterns and floristic composition of Yemen November. www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/cls . AlSaafanetal. (2015). IMPACT OF SEA LEVEL RISE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF ADEN .لGOVERNORATE, REPUBLIC OF YEMEN. facility of science bulletin Sanna University 32-15 Alsabary.etal. (2001). climate change impact and adaptationon assessment on coastal zone, ( Al Hudaidah), in INC,. under unfccc. Alsubbary.etal. (July 2000). Assessment of Potential Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Zone Areas of Yemen FINAL REPORT. Bonfiglioli.etal. (2004). Small-scale Fisheries in Yemen Social Assessment. Food and Agriculture Organisation The World Bank. Chalabi.etal. (May 2012). MONITORING SHORELINE CHANGE USING IKONOS IMAGE AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS: A CASE STUDY OF. Informatics Laboratory, Institute of Oceanography,. D Davison I . and others. (1995). Deformation around Excumed Miocene salt deapirs , AL Salif and Jabal Al Milh, Tihama plain , NW Yemen. In : Bosence D. (edit.) Rift sedimentation and Tectonics in the Red sea – Gulf of Aden Region ( Abstract vol.) uni. of Sana’a and Royal Holloway uni. of Sana’a and Royal Holloway uni. of London(org.) . D.A. Scott. (1995). A DIRECTORY OF WETLANDS IN THE MIDDLE EAST. IUCN-The World Conservation Union , WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature, International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB). 152

Dasgupta.etal. (April 2009). The impact of sea level rise on developing countries: a comparative analysis. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9499-5: Climatic Change April 2009, Volume 93, Issue 3–4, pp 379–388. Deric A. Scott. (1993). A directory of Wetlands in the Midlle East. ElRaey. Impact of Sea Level Rise on the Arab Region. Environmental & Remote Sensing Services Center (ERSS )- FAO/Africover. (2002). Yemen. EPA. National Adaptation Programme of Action. et G.Wilson. (2003). Environmental status of Yemen’s Gulf of Aden coast determined from rapid field assessment and satellite imagery. etal Walid. (2012). Fishery Sector Strategy and Climate Change in Yemen: Policy Implications. Poverty and Sustainable Development Unit, UNDP Yemen. Friedhelm Krupp.et. Zoological survey in the Red Sea coastal zone of Yemen. G. Bawazir. (2003). Halophila stipulacea (Forsskal) Ascherson. New record for the South of Arabia/ Northern coast of the Gulf of Aden. Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, Vol. 7 No. Gibb.etal. (December 1992,). A STANDARDISED COASTAL SENSITIVITY INDEX BASED ON AN INITIAL FRAMEWORK FOR PHYSICAL COASTAL HAZARDS INFORMATION. SCIENCE & RESEARCH SERIES N0.55: Head Office, Department of Conservation, PO Box 10-420,. Goodhue.etal. (September 2012 ). Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change:. Gornitz. (1991). Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise. Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology. Global and Planetary Change Section) 89: 379-398. http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/qalansiya-lagoon-socotra-iba-yemen/text http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov. http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov.. http://oceanwatch.pifsc.noaa.gov/. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_YEM.pdf.. http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/gpw-v4-population-count-rev10/data-download.. http://world.bymap.org/Coastlines.html.. http://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/en/data/products/ocean-indicators-products/actualitesindicateurs-des-oceansniveau-moyen-des- mersindexhtml.html.

153 http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com.. http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/state-coast.html.. http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/state-coast.html.. http://www.marineregions.org/gazetteer.php?p=details&id=8353.. http://www.persga.org/Files/Common/POPs_Country_Reps/POPs_Yemen_Report.pdf.. http://www.wondermondo.com/Yemen.htm. http://www.wondermondo.com/Yemen.htm http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/YEM_Port_of_Aden_214.php ).. https: // earthexplorer usgs. gov /. https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/.. IMPACT OF SEA LEVEL RISE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF ADEN GOVERNORATE, REPUBLIC OF YEMEN .. Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Yemen. https://www.uncclearn.org/sites/default/files/inventory/gef37_0.pdf: DEF, EPA. IUCN. (1987). -The Distribution of Habitats and Species along the Yemen Arab Republic Coastline. Marine Conservation Survey, IUCN/ Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment Programme, Gland Switzerland and Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. J. I. Rose. (July 2002). Prehistoric Sites in Mahra, Eastern Yemen. Adumatu Issue No. 6 . K. Appeaning Addo1, P.N.Jayson-Quashigah, K. S. Kufogbe. (2011). Quantitative Analysis of Shoreline Change Using Medium. Marine Science ; 1(1): ,1 -9. Kalmar. (2005). The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Global International Waters Assessment . KHALIDI L. and KEALL. E. (2011). LATE PREHISTORIC STANDING STONES OF THE TIHAMAH. ENGLAND: Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports BAR International Series 2317. M. Albaroot, A.H.M. Ahmad, Nabil Al-Areeq, M. Sultan. (February 2016). Tectonostratigraphic of Yemen And Geological Evolution: A New Prospective. International Journal of New Technology and Research (IJNTR) ISSN:2454-4116, Volume-2, Issue-2, ,Pages 19-33. M.I. Evans. (1994). -Important Bird Areas in the Middle East. Bird life conservation series. Bird life international. Cambridge, UK. Ministry of fish wealth (planning sector and fish projects). (2012). N. Tawfiq. (1994). Impact of Climate changes on the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. UNDP.

154

O.A. Al-Saghier. (1999). - Marine important bird areas in Yemen. Paper Presented to the Scientific Symposium on Future Horizons for Optimal Use of Fisheries and other Marine Lives. University of Hadramout Al-Mukalla. Open Street Map.. Oyedotun, Temitope D. Timothy. (2014). Shoreline geometry: DSAS as a tool for Historical Trend Analysi. Geomorphological Techniques (Online Edition). . Britsh Society for Geomorphology . Pamela A. O. Abuod ha & Colin D. Wood roffe. (2010). Assessing vulnerability to sea-level rise using a coastal s e n s i t i v i t y i n d e x : a c a s e s t u d y f ro m s o u t h e a s t A u s t r a l i a. Coast Conserv 14:1 ,89–205. Persage. (2004). Status of Mangroves in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Phillipsa.etal. Erosion and tourism infrastructure in the coastal zone: Problems, consequences and management. 2006: Tourism Management 27 (2006) 517–524. Republic of Yemen Ministry of Water and Environment Environment Protection Authority (EPA). (Oct 2004). YEMEN FIRST NATIONAL REPORT TO THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY. Republic of Yemen Ministry of Water and Environment Environment Protection Authority (EPA). Saafan&Sheno. (2004). Seasonal cycle of hydrography in the Bab el Mandab region, southern Red Sea. Journal of Earth System Science ,Volume 113, Issue 3, pp 269–280. Saafani.etal. (2015). IMPACT OF SEA LEVEL RISE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF ADEN GOVERNORATE, REPUBLIC OF YEMEN ,. Faculty of science bulletin 27(2015) 15-32 Sana’a University . Sagheer,A.A (2013). Combined Use of Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS to. JKAU: Mar. Sci. , Vol. 24, No. 1, ,pp: 85-100.

Sagheer,A.A . (2008). Geo-environmental study of Hodeidah-Salif coastal area, Red Sea, Republic of Yemen, with emphasis on remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) application: PhD thesis. Giza: Faculty of Science Cairo University. Sylvie Leroy, etal. (2012 ). From rifting to spreading in the eastern Gulf of Aden: a geophysical survey of a young oceanic basin from margin to margin. Tuncay Kuleli. (2010). Quantitative analysis of shoreline changes. Environ Monit Assess , , 167:387–397. V. Gornitz. (1991). Global coastal hazards from future sea level rise. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology (Global and Planetary Change, 89 ,379-398. Visalatchi.etal. (2013). Land Use and Land Cover Mapping and Shore Line Changes. Cloud Publications International Journal of Advanced Earth Science and Engineering 2012, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 1-12, Article ID Sci-19.

155

WB. (2008). Aden: Commercial Capital of Yemen. Local Economic Development Strategy . WB. (2008). Hodeidah: Agro-Industrial Capital of Yemen. Local Economic Development Strategy .

WB. (2008). Mukalla: Gateway to the Hadramout. Local Economic Development Strategy .

WB. (2009). Yemen, Republic of - Climate Resilient Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project. Washington, DC: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/410961468340751913/Yemen-Republic-of-Climate-Resilient-Integrated-Coastal-Zone- Management-Project. William James Lloyd Wharton, John Phillips , Great Britain Hydrographic Office , Great Britain Admiralty. (1900). RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN PILOT. Publisher Printed for the Hydrographic Office , Admiralty, by Eyre and Spottiswoode . Zajonz.etal. (2010). Final Synthesis Report. Yemen SEA of CZM. Report to the World Bank and the EPA Yemen. Report to the World Bank and the EPA Yemen. Zajonz.etal. (June 2010). Yemen Strategic Environmental Assessment of Coastal Zone Management. Phase IV Report (Final Report) for the World Bank and the Environment Protection Authority.

156

Annexes

157

ANNEX 1 Yemen Coastal Zone Geologic Maps

i

ii

iii

iv

v

vi

vii

viii

ix

x xi

ANNEX 2 Yemen Coastal Zone Land Cover Maps (2002)

xii

xiii

xiv

xv

xvi

xvii

xviii

xii

xiii

xiv

ANNEX 3 Scored Yemen districts CSI variables on scale of 1 - 5

a b c d e f g h i j k

Erosion CSI variables

Inundation CSI variables Cultura Paved Coasta l shoreline SLR Population roads( geolog land l slope tidal landcover heritag Districts displacemen trend SWH (density(Persons/s density y forms degre ampl - Landuse e t m/y mm/y q. km)) (km/Sq.k e (tourist m )) areas) Abs 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.3 1.0 1.0 2.0 Ad Dis 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 Ad Durayhimi 5.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.7 1.0 3.0 5.0 Ahwar 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 3.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 Al Mukha 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 Al Buraiqeh 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 1.0 5.0 5.0 Al Ghaydah 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 Al Hali 3.5 4.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Al Hawak 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 Al Khawkhah 4.5 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 3.0 4.0 Al Madaribah 4.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 1.0 4.0 2.0

xv

Wa Al Arah Al Mansura 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 4.0 4.0 3.0 Al Masilah 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 2.3 1.0 1.0 3.0 Al Mina 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 Al Mualla 4.5 3.5 5.0 2.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 4.0 2.0 3.0 Al Mukalla City 2.0 3.3 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 2.8 2.0 5.0 5.0 Al Munirah 4.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 Alluheyah 4.5 4.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 Ar Raydah Wa 4.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 3.0 2.0 Qusayar As Salif 5.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 Ash Shihr 5.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 At Tuhayat 5.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 3.7 1.0 2.0 2.0 Attawahi 4.5 2.7 4.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 5.0 Bajil 5.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 Bayt Al Faqiah 5.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 4.0 Brom Mayfa 1.0 2.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.8 1.0 2.0 2.0 Craiter 4.5 2.7 2.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 5.0 2.0 5.0 Dhubab 5.0 3.3 5.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.3 1.0 3.0 2.0 Ghayl Ba Wazir 5.0 4.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.3 1.0 2.0 2.0 Hawf 3.0 4.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 3.7 1.0 4.0 4.0 Huswain 3.5 2.7 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 Kamaran 5.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0

xvi

Khanfir 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.3 1.0 4.0 2.0 Khur Maksar 5.0 4.5 5.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.7 3.0 4.0 4.0 Midi 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Qishn 3.5 3.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 2.3 1.0 1.0 2.0 Rudum 4.5 2.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 Sayhut 3.0 3.7 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 2.3 1.0 2.0 2.0 Socotra 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 Zingibar 5.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 3.7 1.0 1.0 2.0

xvii