THE POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CENTRES IN PRAGJYOTI§A-KAMARUPA
Thesis Submitted For The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arts of the University of North Bengal 1993
By Chakradhar Das, M.A., M. Phii. LECTURER IN HISTORY FALAKATA COLLEGE JALPAIGURI q34.02
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^^ 0£C !994 PROF. P. K. BHATTACHARYYA M. A. ((A I. ), I'Pr.D. (lAI .). I.K.N.S. (l.OND.) :j»Tf jrs P.O. NORTH BENGAL, UNIVERSITY JAI>l;NAill SAKKAK I'KUI'hS.SOK Ol- nl.SlOJ<\ RAJA RAMMOHUNPUH, Dt. DARJEELINO DEAN Ol- THE FACULTY COUNCIL WESTBENCAL, INDIA. PIN-7I44S0 FOR POST GRADUATF .STUOIES IN mm, Tclcj;hone : Bagdogra—283 ARTS.COMMI;RCL a LAW UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL
Ref. No. Dated . a^.Ul.Aa^liS.t.. 1993
Certified tliat tlio Thesis entitled The Political and Cultural Gejitres in Praf:.1.voti?a - Kamarupa has becii prepared by Sri Gliakradhar Das, Lectureir in History, Faleicata College, Jalpaiguri under my supdTvision and in accordance v/itli tlie regulation of tliis Univeirsity. Tlie tliesis embodies tlie result of his investigation conducted during tlie period he worked as a Ph. D. research Scholar,
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(Pranab Kumar Hiattacharyya) PREFACE
I was born and brouc]ht up in South Bengal. When I v.'Ts posted as a Lecturer in History in Falakata College, a remote area, in Worth Bengal, I was little bit worried. But my posting at FalBkata, however, proved to be a blessing in disguise, isoon, I oecarae interested in the local history of the area, which ultimately '.;iden my horizon, and this led me to take up a thorough anc- ::y;-;taTiatic probe in the history and culture of the territory of Kaiiarupa. ^^t this juncture I was greatly encouraged by Professor Praiab Kumar Bhattacharyya, Jadunath Sarkar Professor of History and Dean, Faculty Council of Arts, Commerce and Law of iNiorth Bengal University, in successive stages of investigation-^^ during both as a student of the M.Phil. Glasses and also as Ph.D. research cancidate of -Morth Bengal University. I take this opportunity of acknowledging my deep regard and indebtedness to Professor Pranab Kumar Bhatt acharyya who was kind enough to supervise my work and render all possible assistance to complete it.
I am also grateful to Dr. (1-lrs.) C. Chakrabarti, Head^ Department of History and Professor T.K.Roychoudhury, Dr. (Mrs.) H. Bhatt acharyya. Dr. M.M. Mukherjee, Dr. A.G.Ghosh, Dr. (Mrs.) R.oanyal, Dr. I.Sarkar and other teachers of North Bengal University, who were kind enough to render occasional useful helps.
I am thankful to the staff of the libraries of North ii
Bengal university, -^^alakata College, Ass^n State Museum, Karnrup Anusa;idliiri 3a"iiti, Asiatic Society (Calcutta) and National Library (Calcutta) for their kind assistance,
I gratefully acknov;ledge my indebtedness to Prof. K.i'i.Sharma, Vice-Chancellor, Dibrugarh University, Dr. ti.D.Choudhury, Director of Assan State Museuttv Prof. J.N.Phukan, Prof, Usha «.€4j an Bhattacharyya of Qauhati University, Sri "tulananda Gos.vami, Dr, Dimbeswar Sharma# Dr. Dharmcswar Ghutia of Kamrup Anusadhai Samiti, Dr,Pradip Sharma, Exploration Officer, Directorate of Archaeology, Assanv for their valuable advice and cooperation,
I must express my deep gratitude to Prof, Bhaskar Chattopadhyay of aurawan University and Prof-, B.N, Mukherjee of Calcutta University for their valuable suggestions,
For the patient v;ork of typing the entire manuscript my gratitude goes to Sri Bani Bhushan Satia,
I have benefited immensely from Sri Pabitra Debnath, t % sincere thanks are also due to Dr.T.K, Chatterjee, Registrar and Smt. Gouri Sen of the Registrar's Branch, North iii Bengal University for their kind and useful help. Lastly, my thanks are due to my colleagues/ frioids/ relatives and family members specially to Shatnayitg, Rekhai, Bilu, Bapi and 3 amir without whose encouragement and sacrifices the v;ork could not have been completed in such a short sp?n of time. (Ghakradhar Das) Dated/ ralakata, The 2J% /iugust/ 199 3, CONTENTS 1« Introduction • •• ••• ••• JL 2. Chapter I - Geographical Background,., 7 3. Chapter II - Historical Bacicground .., 27 4. Chapter III - Date, find Spots, Location and Issuing Gdiitres of tlie Grants ... •., 69 5. GhaptdT IV Appearance and Organization of tile Inscriptions ... 110 6. Chapter V The Donors and tlie Reclpieits ...... 154 7. ChaptGST VI Aspects of Society and Economy ,,. ... 197 8. Chapter VIX - Concluding Observations... 244 Apptaidix i List of Inscriptions 258 Bibliography ... 272 Illustrations l A 4 h ^ ^ 1. Copper Plate Grants Issued by tlie Bulcsps of PragJyotisa-KSJTiarupa aiid tlieir Dates ... 77 2. Description of tlie Inscriptions ...... Ill 3. Organization of tiie Inscriptions ...... 117 4. Donation of Land Undeflr tlie Varmaia Eulc3?s ••• 158 5. Nanes of tlie Donees and tiieir RespecttVQ shares as Alloted by tlie Nidhanpur Grant ••• 159 6. Names of tile Donees and Hieir Respective shares as Alloted by tiie Tipperali Grant ••• 168 7. Donation of Land under tlie Salasttoblia Rulers 175 8. Donation of Ltaxl under tlie P51a Rulgps ••• 179 MA ,P S 1. Proveaiance of tlie Grtuits Issued by tlie Yarman kings • - 80 2. Prov^iance of tlie Grants Issued by tlie kings of tlie - 86 Salastamblia Dynasty 3. Prov€iiance of tlie Grants by tlie Pala Rulers ••• - 93 4. Early Mediaeval Temple Sites of Assam ••• -155 Irflst of Plates Plate I Nagajarl Klianikargaon Stone Inscription Plate II Dubi Grant of HiSskaravarraan, Seal Plate HI DD 1. B Plate IV Nldlxanixir Grajit of Hiaslcaravarraaii, Seal Plate V(a) DO 2. I (b) DO 2. B Plate VT Tip per all Grant of Lokanatiia 1. A Plate VII Do 1. B Plate VIII Nagaon Grant of Jlvaraja, Seal Plate IX Do Plate Do Plate XI Do Plate XII Do Plate XIII(aXIIIC ) Kuruvabalii Grant of Harijaravftrraan 2* A ( Do 2* B Plate XIV Haiointiial Grant of llarjjaravamian 2, A Plate XV I^giiallgabn Grant of Vanaraala , Seal Plate XVI Do 1. B Plate 3rvii Do 2. A Plate XVIII Do 2. B Plate XIX Do 3. A Plate XX ParbatlyS Grant of Vanaraala Bundi Plate XXI Do 1. B Plate XXII Uttarbarbil Grant of Balavarraan III, Seal Plate XXIII Do 1. B Plate 3CC[V Nagaon Grant of Balavainian III ^ Banch Plate XXV Do 1. B Plate XXVI(a) Ulub'arl Grant of Balavarraan III 1. B (,b) Do 2. A Plate XXVil Bargaon Grant of Ratiiapala, Seal Plate XXVIII Do 1. B Plate XXIX Sualkuchi Grant of Ratiiapala 3, A Plate XXX Gauliati Grant of IndrapSla 1, B Plate XXXI Guvakuchi Grant of Indrapala Seal Plate XXXII Do 1. B Plate XXXIII Gachtal Grant of Gopalavarman 1. B Plate XXXIV Klianamukli Grant of liiarmapala Bunch Plate XXXV Do Seal Plate XXXVI Do 1. B Plate XXXVI Subliankarapataka Grant of Dharraapala Seal Plate XXXVIII Do 1. B Plate XXXIX Puspabhadra Grant of DliarraapSla Seal Plate XL Do 1, b Plate XLICa) Karaauli Grant of Vaidyadeva 1. B. (b) Assam Grant of Vallabiia 1, B A map sliowing physical feature and distribution of tribes A political map of Pragjyotisa^Karaarupa A.D. 400 - 1«<")0 ABBREVIATIONS Ar-BR - Assara-Bgaif.al Relations Erhaspati - Brhaspati Smrti BS - Bengali Sal QUA - The Gomnrdiensive History of Assam CII - Corpus Inscriptionum Inclicarura° EHK - TSarly History of'Kamarupa EI - SpiF.raphia Indjca HACA - Historical ArchaeoloKy of C^itral Assam HGPA - The History of Civilisation of tiie People of Assam IA - Indian Antiquary lAA - Inscriptions of Ancieait Assam lEG - Indiaii EplCT-apliical Glossary IHQ - Indian Plistorical Quarterly JAIN - Journal of Ancleiit Indiaji History JARS - Journal of Assam Research Society JASB - Journal of tlie Asiatic Society of Bet-tr.al JBOHS - Journal of %i\^ Bihar and Ori^ssa Research Society JESI - Journal of the EplFraphical Society of India JRAS - Journal of tlie Royal Asiatic Society KS - Knraarupa SasanSvall by P.N.Hiattacharya Manu - Moiiu Smytl TRANSLITERATION TABLE \1 •^u f ? 3 ^ a a i r u 5 31 ^Vn 3fl r e ai o au ;4-.- « 31 ^ "5 ka idia ea eiia • n •^ ^ 31 •^ 3; ca cha ia jlia n ;^ o 5 % ^ ta ^la da dha nfl • cl n ^ yr ST tn tlia da dha na a ^•> 2? ^ c7f Q 2? ya ra la va / sa ^ ^ ^ • sa sa lia n f ?^ •^ ksa Jiia • Introduction In ancitfit tines the practice of using coppcir plates to record tlie transactions of land was oomiaon tlirooghoat India« Sonetiaes, stone plates were also used for the sane purpose. A large nocb^ of copper plates and fragmentary stone slabs reoording the donation of land by the kings of rragjyoti^ap-KanarSpa have been discovered and it is beyond doubt tliat tliere are still many such records eitlier hidden underneatli tlie eartli or in private hands. It is proved by tlie latest discoveries of tlie inscriptions and by tli© story beiiind tlie discovery of tiie Uttarbarbll Plat© of Balavarraan III, 'pile Inscription was recovered from Sliri Prakash Chandra Aciiarya who used to worsiiip tlie elephant of tlie seal, tliiiilc- ing tiiat tlie image was of Qod GaQela* Hie value of tiiese inscriptions as an important Histo rical source has long been recognized. Historians, starting from Sir Edward Gait, K.L.Barua, B.C.Sircar, B.K.Barua, P.G.Ghottdliury, USB* S.L.Barua, N.B.Glioudliury and otliers have extracted many information ffom tliese iixscriptions, specially for writing tiie political awd at times cultural history of the land, E.Gait's History of Assaia^ K.L.Barua»s Early History Qf Kggnarup^, B.K,Barua« s ^ Cultural History of Assaaif H.K.Barpujari's (^-V "Ehe Goanrehensive History of Aaaan^T P.C.Chottdhury's Ihe History of Civilization of tlie People of Assam are important publications relating to tlie history and culture of Prag3yotiJ|a-.KSaarlIi)a« Among more recent publications covering some important aspects of culture and civilisation of tlie land uimder study S«L.Barua*s A cJoaore- IXQUslve History of Assam. N.D. Ghoudhury* s Historical ArcliaeoloKy of Central Assam. N.Laliiri's Py»-Aty?ffi A^^flPt a*^ I«Sarkar< s aiglwyiig^Ji Q99figfttfU 9^ Py^ff^JjrgtAfft^K^qffic.^B.a must be ra^itioned. But none of the works mentioned above have attempted to make a tlu>rough analysis of the insorip- tions as a document for vliich tliey were issued,, l«e*, for recording jacoperty transfer, Tliere is little doubt tliat as a result of close exarainations of tiie insoriptions, plates etc* wiiich undoubtedly constitutes tlie principal historical record for the period under study our underetancling of tiie liistory of Pragiyoti^a^ Kanarupa will be advanced furtlier, Witli tlie help of archaeo logical and place naae evidence it is possible to locate -Oie principal administrative centres, delimit tlie areas over wliicli tiie rulers exercised control and date tiie period of tiielr activity. Several political and cultural regions have, as a result, been identified eadi of whidi liad undoubtedly a distinct character of its own, Die inscriptions also help us not to a mean ext^t to understand the evolution of the organizations of tii6 Governm^it. The actual function of the UoveErnaent markedly olianged since the second half of the 6tlj Century A,D. (Gf, Dutd Copper Plate of BUSskaravaraan) • >' Witli knowledge of the olianges in Goveirnaent and dianges in tlie typology of the Inscriptions tliemselves'as observed by B.M.Morrison in connection tiith his studies of Bengal Delta, it is possible to establisli an empirical basis for tiie periodizations of tlie history of PrSgJyotisa-KSnariXpa. There are, liowever, several problems connected witii tlie analysis and exarainations of the copper plate inscrip tions. Taking it into account tiie time span of more tiian seveii centuries and the geographic area of 78)523 square kilocietres, tlie inscriptions which are discovered do not provide us as large a corpus of data as might be expected. Again, the inscriptions are distributed unevtfily tlirougli tlie centuries and tiie large numbcii' of inscriptions wliicli may be publislied subsequently are likely to diange tlie suggested typology and conclusions. ft)rtunately ^sough most of the recovered plates fall into clearly defined stylistic groups in a d evelopmeixtal relationship witii the later plates based upon "tlie form, organization and terrainoloEy of tlie earlier ones." This may suggest that the recovdPed plates of Praejyotisa*-K5raarQpa, are r^resentative of all tli© inscriptions tliat were issued tliough perhaps tlits can bo proved only by tlie discovery and analysis of many more plates. Another problem is wheBtliea? tiie Bralimaputra Valley which has been clescribed as PrSg^yoti^a-KanarHpa constitute a meaniiieful unit for historical investigation. There i« a tcadency of many scliolars to equate modern Assam with the old kiiiedora of PrSgjyoti§a^KSiaar5pa, But tlie boundary of the old Icingdoni was largesr tlian tlie nodern one. Because from Yoginl Tantra it is known tliat tlie land was ext^ided from Nepal in tlie nortli to the confluence of Brahmaputra in the soutli and from Karatoya in tlie west to the Dlk^u in the east* It indicates that Pragjyotti^a-Kamarapa Includecl not only the wliole of Assam but the parts of North and Bast B^igal (at pres^it Bangladesli) and the hill tracts upto the border of Giiina. However, it appears while some parts of the regions interactecl politically witli one anotlier more often tlian with kingdoms lying outside it tlie eastern part of tlie territory is more closely connectecl witli Bengal tlian witli the rest of tlie country, The inscriptions throw some light on the socio-economic set up of PrSgJyotisa-Kamarupa. R.S.Sharma in tlie liglit of European experi^ice have observed some traces of feudalism in tlie socio-economic set up of Barly-Meiilieval India* To 4iiQuil Tlie informations supplied by tlie epigraplis must be corroborated by otlier sources - literary, arcliaeological aad numismatic. Among tlie literary sources mention may be made of Kautilya* s Artliasastra. K?llidasa» s Ra^huvamia. Dasakuraara- carita of Dandin, Har^aearita of Banabhatta, Mgdrarfflcgasa of Vlsakliadatta, Gaudovalio of VSkpati, KavyamimSmsa of Bl^asekhara, Bilhana's Yikramaftkadevacaritai, aandhyakaranapdl's l&naoarita^ gajataraflginl of Kalliana, YUaii Chwang's account etc. The remains of tiie undated history of Prggjyotifa- -Kamarupa consists of neolltlis, megaliths and pottery. TJiey 6 are helpful for knowing the pre-Aryan and noa-Aryan elements oi the lai^. ffliis study gives us an idea of the link of the people of ancient Assam witli tliose of tlie otlier parts of India aixl tlie Oceanic worM aai helps us in understanding tlie origin ai¥i foundation of culture of tlie land. We intd:^^ to make a thorough assessa^it of the problems ra^itionecl above in several Chapters, In order to make the study more compreh^astve and meaningful the first Chapter is devotecl to the discussion of tlie geograpiiy of tlie region wttli which We are concernecl* A historical background of tlie land witli tlie help of recently discoverecl inscriptions is deside ratum and hei:ice it has been inclndei in the second Chapter. A critical assessment of the dates and geogyaphical provenance of the grants is the subject-matter of tlie tliird Chapter. •flie fourth Giiapter deals witli tlie physical appearaiaces and organizations of tlie grants, Tlie fiftli Chapter deals with tile donors and tlie donees of tlie inscriptions. In tlie sixth Chapter a discussion has be^i made on tlie socio-economic set-up of tlie kingdom of PrSg jyotisa-KaraardpaA Concluding observation is tlie subject-matter of tlie last cliapter. The list of inscriptions discovered so far along with a brief summary to eadi has be^i given in tlie app^idix. Lastly, I have incorporated some phoio-copies of tlie seals, plates of tlie inscriptions anrl maps of the kingdom of Pragjyotisa-Karaarupa for the correct understanding of the probleia. CHAPTER - I Geograpliical Background Name of the Land Assam is known by differ^it names in anci^it period. Actually, tile word Assam nowhere occurs prior to the Ahom occupation,^ According to Gait the word is derived from tlie present designation of the Ahoms. In the epics, purarias, early literatures and epigraphs, it is often called as Pragjyotisa or K5marupa, Tlie word Pragjyotisa is mentioned in tlie Bl&agyana, tlie Maliabliarata, tlie Tlsnu Pur ana * 3 _ and tlie Harivamsa. Tliere is no meaition of Karaarupa in any 4 of tliese works. It has been described In tlie Kalika Purana tliat when Naraka of Mitliila became king of Pragjyotisa- KanarBpn and was placed in charge of the God ess KZQa^khyS, tlae name of tiie land was changed from Pragjyotisa to Kaiaerupa,' Hie earliest epigraphic reference to KSinarupa, is, however, to be found in the wellknown Allaliabad inscription of Samudragupta where Klmarupa is mentioned as a fronti€r terri- 6 tory. In classical Sanskrit literature, we find the name Pragjyotipa and KSmarupa side by side. I^r example, in the story of Baghu*8 conquest as given in tlie Raghuvamsa, the hero first ci^e to Pr%Jyotisa and tlien to Kamarupa after having crossed tlie Lauliitya. YSdavaprakasa ( G.IOOO A«D.) in Ills VaijayantI also mentions Pragjyotisa and KSmarOpa. 8 in fact, Pragjyotisa, Karaarupa aixl KSmakhyS are tlie Q tiiree geographical names giv^i to the same kingdom. Tlie aame Pragjyotisa has been eocplained variously. From Kalika Parana it is known that tlie name of Naraka* s city became Praejyotisapura because tiie god Braliraa created the eastern star at tliat place,"^ R. M, Natli has suggested tliat the people callei Ghao Hieius of Cliina came to India and became knovrn as 'Zuthis*. A braiidi of tiiat tribe settled in Assam and therefore, came to be known as «Prag Zutliis* later ^ no raodtfied to 'Pragjyotisa* . B, K, Kakati has suggestert tliat tlie word PragjyDtlja is a Sanskritized form of Austric group of words like Pagar Juli-tic or Pagar-jo-ticli meaning 13 'a region of extensive liills» . According to D. G. Sircar, 'Pragjyotii^a' appears to mean *tlie city or land of tlie 14 eastern light* • Here, tiie suggestion of Gait seems to be tlie most right one. According to him 'Prag' means former or eastern, and • jyotisa' means a star, astrology, sliining and tlierefore, PrSgjyotisapura may be tak^i to mean the city of Eastern Astrology, 16 Tlie words Kamarupa and Kamlkhya also suggest an Austric or Alpine origin. Kamakhya may be related with such words as Kamoi (demon) in old klimer; Kamoit (devil) in Cham, Kamet (corpse) in Santali and KSmariipa may be derived from such words as Karoru or Kamrut which is tlie name of a 17 lesser diviniti in Sant|li. Regarding tlie origin of tlie i,ame Kamarupa, from GopatUa BrTlhmana, it is known tUat '^wUen tiati died of vexation at the discourtesy shown to ixar husband Siva by her fatlier Dakslia, Siva, overcome by grief, wandered about the world carrying her dead body on his head. In order to put a stop to his penance, Vishnu followed him and lopped away the body piecemeal witli his discus. It fell to eartli in fiftyone different pieces, and wherever each piece fell, tlie ground was held to be sacred. HdT organs of generation fell on Kamagiri, i,e# the Nila- clial hill near Gauliatl, and tlie place was tlienceforth held sacred to Kamokhya, the God ess of sexual desire. As Siva still continued to do peniince, tlie otlier Gods became afraid tliat he would tliereby acquire universal power, ax^ accor dingly despatched Kamdeb, tlie Indian Cupid, to make him fall in love again, and tliereby break his penance. He succeeded in his mission, but so enraged was Siva at the result, tliat he burnt him to ashes by a fiery glance from tlie eye in the centre of his forehead, Kamdeb eventually recovered his original form and the country where this took IS place became known as Kamarupa", Location and Extension of Prag^yotisa-Kamarupa !l5iere is a teodeJicjr of miany scholars to equate modern Assam witli tlie old kingdom of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa. Bit the 10 ooundary of tlie old kingdom nas largcor tlian tlie modern one. 3o far as the boundary of tlie former kingdom Ifoglnl Tantra says - nepalasya kaPfclianSdrim brahmaputrasya saAgamam karatoyara Samarabtiya Yavad dikkaravSsinlm uttarasyam kagjaglrlh karatoya tu pasclme tirthasrestha diksunadi purvasyam girikanyake daksine Brahmaputrasya lak^ayah sangamavadlii Kamarupa Iti kliyatah sarvasastresu niseitah. "From tiie nwuntain Kancliana in Nepal upto the confluence of tlie Bralimaputra, from tiie Karatoya to DikkaravSsihl, the nortliern limit is the Jaount Ka^a, In tlie west the Karatoya, in the east tlie Diksu, 0 daughter of tlie mountain 'in the soutii tlie confluence of tlie Laksa with the Brahmaputra, tliis is tlie territory which all treatises call by the name of Kamarupa,"^ Mount Kaiija, the north^n limit of tlie laal signify Kanclia;)anga peak on tlie eastern bord^ of Nepal, while tlie Karatoya, tlie western border is tlie well-known river now flowing tlirough tlie Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal and tlie Rangpur and Bogra Districts of Bangladesh,^-^ Tlie soutliern limit of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa - the confluence of tiie Bralimaputra aiKl the Laksa at present stards near the border betwe^ Dacca and Mymensingh Districts of Bangladesh. Most probably, before 1000 or 1600 or 2000 years ago, the Bay of Bengal was closer tOr this area tlian it is to day.^^ Hie 11 COStesra border of tlie land n&Pe tlie holy river Dilcsu and 24 Uie temple of the god ess Dikkaravasinl. The former may be identified witli tlie modern Dikliu falling in tlie Bralima^ putra near Sibsagar wliile the later may be ideatlfted witli the temple of the god ess Tamresvarl now situates at Sadiya 25 about one liundred miles to tlie nortli-east of Sibsagar, Because, from an inscription of Saka 1364, discovered in the Tamresvarl temple standing at lat, 27 56», long, 96 21« near Paya (in tlie pres^it Arunachal Pradesli) about five miles from Tebangkhunti on tlie Sadiya*.Teju route, it is known tliat Tamresvarl and Dikkaravasinl are identical, Tlie inscription records tiie construction of a -wall for the - ^ .27 godess Digaravasini (Dikkaravasini). Tlius we see, tliat Prlgjyotisa-Kanarupa included not only tile whole of Assam but tlie parts of Nortli and East Bengal (at present Bang lad esli) and tiie liill tracts up to tile border of China, At present Assam lies in the extreme nortli-east frontier of India, in betwe^i 2B •> 24 North latitudes and 89 86' - 96 East longitudes covering an area 28 of 78, 623 square kilometres, Tlie boundary of PragjyDtisa-KSmarupa dianges from time to time in accordance with the political situation in Eastern India, Under Hiagadatta of tlie Maliabliapata it extended 12 to tlie confines of China, Nepal or tlie Himalayan regions, otlierwise his army could not have been consisted of the 29 Cinas and the Kiratas. On tlie otlierhand, no definite maation of eitlier Pragjyotifa or KStaarUpa is made in tlie early Buddhist or Jaina records. 30 It is also not includoi 31 among tlie sixte^i MaiiS^anapadas of tlie NikSyas, It indi cates tliat during tlie 6th ceaitury B.C. or at a later time 31 tlie land was included in tlie greater kingdom of Magadha, Kau-^lya in his Artliasastra has given refeflcence to many places of KamarOpa, such as Suvarip^aku^dya, paralauliitya etc., 32 in connection witli the economic products of KSmarilpa. The classical writes's from tlie 5tli century B.C. to tlie 2nd cmtury A.D, like Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.), Herodotus, Megastlienes, Strabo, Pliny, Peri plus of tlie Ervtlirean Sea of tlie lat century A.D,, Ptolemy's Geography of tlie 2nd ceaitury A.D., Pompinias Mela, Ammianus Mercellinus, pausanius, Dyonysius, Aelian, Gtesia^ and otliers refer to tlie people' aixl place names of tiie land but tliey are silent about its 33 name. possibly at tliat time tlie land was eitlier known by otlier names or included in tlie kingdom of tlie Prassi and tlie Gangaridae.*^ Tliis extension and contraction of the area of PrSgjyotifa-KSraarGpa is clear to us in tlie period of our study. 13 Physical Features Tile physiograpliy of a country has mucli to do in raoulding tiie geographic base for human activities and settlem^ts. 35 On tlie basis of tiie pliysical components Pragjyotisa-Karnarupa may be divided broadly into two physi cal units : tiie nortii-eastern aixl central liill tracts and tiie valleys of tixe Barak and tiie Bralimaputra, On the nortii of the laiid lie tlie Eastern Himalayas reacliing the highest altitude in tiie nortii-east at Namchu Burwa 7, 756 metres, Tlie different parts of tiie sub-Hiraalayan region are named after tiie seni-Moiogoloid tribes wiio inliabit in tiiese hills; tiie J^iutiyas, Akas, Duflas (Nisliis), Abors (Mis), Miris (Mishings) and Mishmis, 38 Tlie range continues towards the soutii-east and Joins the Patkai (the natural bouiidary between Assam and Birma), Naga, Barail, Highlands of nojilpur aixl Lushai hills. 39 The c^itral liill tracts or tiie Assajfl range wiiich includes Meghalaya and tiie outlying 40 Mikir liills is a pi iteau or table-land, Tlie lengtii of tills hill is about 400 Kms, and tiie average widtii is about 41 40 Kms, 'fliis range is occupied by tiie various tribes of tile Nagas, Jaintias, Kliasts and Garos, 42 Tliey have Mon-Khmer or Tibeto Burma affinities and generally live by shifting subsistence agriculture; tiie village often slitft witii tiie 43 field (Jhum). Hie Assam range forms tiie wiat or shed betwe^ tiie two 14 yalleys - tlie Surma aiKl tlie aralimaputpa» Tlie major part of tlie Surma valley falls wttliin tlie present Baiigladesh, Only a small triangular part of it, known as the Barak plains, forming tlie district of Gachar, falls witliin tiie present 44 State of Assam, The Braiimaputra is one of tlie largest rivers of tlie world wliicii flows majestically tiirough tlie heart of tlie land. Its valleys consists of a wide alluvial plain, about 45 720 K». in lengtii with an average breadtli of 36 Km, The valley spreadiJig flat ajid wide from east to west in tlie lower portions, tends to project nortliward in its upper 46 portion where it tapers off, Tliis fertile plain is washed away by a numbeo:' ol' tributaries of tlie J3raliraaputra, The main tributaries oi tlie nortli are tlie Suvansiri, tlie Burai, tlie Dikarai, tlie Bliarali, tlie Dhansirt, tlie Baranadi, tlie Manas, tlie Gadadhar, tlie Sankosh and tliose of tlie south are tlie Dihing, tlie Dichang, tlie Dikliou, tiie Dhansiri, tlie Kapili,, 47 tlie Digaru, tlie Kulchi etc, The word Bralmaputra moans • son of Braiuaa—' , 48 It is also known as 'Lauliitya* wliich gives a good meaning in Sanskrit as the 'Red Biver', It is seen tiiat during tlie rainy season tlie water of tlie river takes red colour when it flows tiirough tlie reel soil in tlie adjoining erabankm^its, Tliere is anotlisr intecprefcation in leg€3x1 also, given as to 16 50 / tile origin of tlie name. Parasuram, after killing his motlier, washed off liis bloody strains in tlie riv^ and 51 regained saintliood, The wiiole ill story and culture of PrSg jyotisa^KSaarUpa are closely connected witli tliis river. So that tixe history of tlie laixl is, in a sense, tlie history of tlie civiliza^ tion of tile Bralimaputra valley. 52 In tills connection it is important to note tiiat almost all tlie inscriptions of our period have been discoverea in aivl around tlie valley of tliis river. 53 Influence of the Physical Features From tile above discussion, we see tliat the region under our study is consisted of liills and plains. Tliis mountainous feature of PragJyotisa-KSharupa was responsible for tlie growtli of div^se cultures. Oiie hilly regions of tile land were iniiabited by various tribes who had diffgcent cultures of tiieir own. 54 In tiiis connection Waddell remarks, "tile relatively low rounded gneisstc and limestone hills to tlie west of Dhansiri river and Barail range, and occupied by tile Garos, Khasi, Jaintia, Mikir and Kadiari, are more op^i to India, wliilst tlie widely differ^at geological forma- tion to the east belongs to the rugged Burmese mountain 16 syst^n and cliiefly populated by tlie same tribes broadly 56 > Lass eel as Naga, "The nildesp tribes tnliabtt especially cue labyrintiiine glens and ridges of tlie upper valleys, while tlie more civilised tribes are mostly restricted to tliG bottom of tlie tropical central valley fringing the great river, wliich connects tliera witli tiie plains of India. Tlie ste^ ridges and de^ ravines in tliis area are excep tionally numerous and act as dividing barriers. On the soutli tliese ridges form a remarkable broad belt, runliing in almost parallel Unes meridionally tlirough Tippera, Mcuiipur and tlie Kuki-Lushai laixi for several hundred miles between tlie £lralimaputra and Irrawaddy, and eiclosing count less narrov) valleys of great deptii. Tlie sides of several of tliese ridges are so cliffy as to effectively bar tlie pro- 56 gress of adjoining tribes," Tliese tribes came to Pragjyotisa-Kaharapa from diffe- r^it places, A» tlie land is surrounded by hills, tliey came til ere most probably, tlirough tlie routes witli whicli tlie rela^ tion of Pr§gjyotisa^.K:§harupa witli outside world were main tained. T^ie oMest land route between India and CQiina was tlirough pragjyoti^a-Kanarupa, upper Burma and YUnan tlirough 57 which Chinese cotton and bamboo were carried to Bactria, eg There were tliree routes from Pragjyotifa-KSraarupa to flurma. Tliey were : CI) tlirough tiie valley of Braiimaputra upto Patkfti range and tlieh tiirougiri^s'pal'^es upto upper Burraaj (2) tlirough 17 iiaiiipux up to tixe Ghiudwtn valleyj (3) tlirough tlie Arakan apto Irawady valley. There were anotlier five routes leading 59 to Tibet or China from Pragjyotisa-Karaarupa, Hiey were j (1) tile pass of Dihongj (2) tiie Misiimi routej (3) tlie f4iungan pass to Munchee aixl Chinaj (4) tlie route of Manipur to the Irawadij and (6) tlie Patkai pass to Hiamo on the irawadl. Besides tiiese, numerous passes, knoWAas Duars existeti between Pr^jyotisa-KSmarupa ai^ JBhutan, There were SSmoiintain passes between pragjyotifa-KaraarQpa and Tibet tiirough which liorses were brought to LaMmauti. Tliere were also route tlirough river. Tlie main route from Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa to Bengal, 61 jB Bihar and Orissa was by tiie river Braliraaputra and Ganga. Besides Iftian Ghwang notices a water route between Kiraarupa and China via Soutliern Sea route. It is said tliat when YUan Ghwang told Hiaskciravarnian tliat he would like to return to Gliina, tiie king replied "But 1 know not, if you prefer to go, by what would you propose to return; if you select the Soutliern go Sea route, then I will send some officials to accompany you." As tile land was enriciied with an extensive rivefr systoK, tlie soil of Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa was ©jcceedingly fertile and well adopted to aljoost all kinds of agricultural purposes. Only the Braliraaputra flowing tlirough the heart of tlie land, largely contributed to the material prosperity of CO the people. Rural settlements like Abisurava^^aka, Hapos- graraa, Vain5magr5hia, Santibada, Mandaragraraa, Dosipa-Jjaka, IB 64 Pi^akagrama etc, were spread over tlirougli tliis valley. Along ffitli those some important cities or administrative centres, as mentionefl in tlie epigraphs, like Pragjyotisc^ura, Durj3ay5, Hartape^vara ©tc. with its beautiful palaces, buildings, roads and otlier amenities had developed on tlie bajiks of the Bralimaputra. 65 The exist<^ice of buildiiigs, mansions and differ^t types of roads and streets in these cities offer a clear hint tliat as being urban clitres tliese cities gave opportunities to tlie energetic elements of the surrounding areas. Urns, along witli 'tlie economic surplus of tile kingdom', arcliitects, artisans, sculptors, painters, mercliants etc. began to pour into tliese cities to build and decorate buildings, market places and temples. Vlhy^these cities grow up by the side of tlie river Brahmaputra ? Perhaps, it was due to commercial consideration portly. These cities were not only administrative cmtres but eaaporiura of trade also. Tlirough tiie ports of tliese cities, Pragjyoti^a-Karaarupa maintained her commercial relation not only witli otlier parts of India bat outside world. Its main articles of merchandice were botli raw and manufactured silk, gold, tejpat, lac, buffalo and rhinoceros, liide and horns, iron, aloe, musk, clotii, ivory, pearls, rice etc. But a different picture is found in tiie relatively isolated and less fertile and less agriculturally productive region of forests, liills and mountains. Tliere^people had been living for centuries, far away from the main stream, IB Uature force! them to practice jhuraing or siiifting cultivation. But as the produce was meagre as to tlieir neei, tliey supplemented it by hunting and fishing. Some- tiraes, tlie Ixillmen depended on the plainsmen for food and utlier necessaries. The latter used to buy tiie forbearance and good b^iaviour of the forraer by supplying tliem tlieir requir^a^its. 68 Hence, tliere had been a process of assimilation, "tliough small, racially, Ungutstically and 69 culturally," 'J^\Q fertility of tlie soil sometimes inspired the Uilljaien to attack the iniiabitants of tlie valley. It may be that due to this reason during tiie 12th century A,D,, by replacing tlie Hindu dynasty numerous petty kingdoms were establisliefl by tribal clilefs like those of tlie Manipuris, tlie Kacliaris, tlie Cliutias, tlie Khasi-JaintiSs, tlie Koclies 70 and otiiefTs, As Waidell remarks, "On leaving the fast nesses of tlieir hills, however, tiiey exposed tlienselves more freely to attack and on the otiierhand tlieir more luxurious living inevitably resulted in tlieir deg^ieration and absorption by the older settlers in tiie plains, even tually in tlieir turn being conquered sooner or later by a more active horde of mountaineers who again in tlieir turn succumbed in like manner to a frealier batch of invading hillraen. The xp process, which secns to have been going on from time inynemorial, has resulted in a considerable 20 mixing of races in tlie C(Sitral valleyj whereas tlie mountain tribes appear to have retained tlieir purity of stock to a much greater degree."7 1 Biere were otlier disadvantages of the physical condi tion of PrSgJyotisswKl&narupa from which people suffered a lot, O^liese were flood, eartli-quakes, climate etc. Sometimes, the river system and fertility of the soil played tli^r aesti^active role. 72 In this regard Gait points out tliat "Some of tlie legetids which have be^ ra^itioned suggest tiiat in tlie distant past tlie inliabitants of tlie country which we now call Assam attained considerable power and a fair degree of civilisation; and tliis view is confirmed by tlie narrative of tlie Chinese pilgrim Hiu^ Tsiang and by tlie copper-plate inscriptions,., Tliis beii^ so, tlie question will doubtless be asked why so few memorials of tlieir time come down to us, Tlie reason is tliat nature has vied witli man in destroying til era. The Bralimaputra valley is an alluvial country, and impetuous, snow-fed riveirs wliich debouch from tlie Himalayas find so little resistance in its friable soil tiiat tiiey are constajitly carving out new channels and cutting away tlieir banks; consequently no building erected in tlieir neighbour hood can be expected to remain for more tliaii a limited time: except at a few points like Gauliati where rock pierces tlirough the alluvium,"' « So far as tlie climatic condition of Prlgjyotisa- -Kamar^a, we are almost in dark position dut to luck of 21 evidence. Only the Cliinese travellcar Yaan Clxwang remarks tliat tile country nas "low and damp,»' Shiliabuddin Talish, tlie historian of Mir Jtuila, who conquered Assam in 1662, mode a correct assessm^it of tlie climate of Assam, when he observed tliat "it rains for eight months In tlie year and even tlie four aontlis of winter are not free from 75 rains." Such a climate of tlie laiid was largely respon sible for the destruction of ancient temples, palaces forts and other buildines, Similarly, violent eartliquakes in tlie region, tliough occuring at a distant intervals, were also respond sible for tlie destruction of structural moraun^ts.'''^ 22 Notes and Refer^aGos i Bdiiard Gait, A History of Assam^ Calcutta, 1963, p. 431. Loc • o-i . 3 P. G. Ghoudhury, HCPA« p. 9 f. 5 B, K» Barua, A cultural History of Assam, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1969, p. 13. 6 mil III. 7 B. K. Barua, op. cit.. p. 13 8 P. C. Ghoudhury, I^CPA. p. 11. 9 N. ^. Ghoudhury, Historical Archaeolof::/ of Central Aissa;n. Dellii, 19S5, p. iUVII. 10 Cited by D. G. Sircar, GHAy f.n. p. 60 11 R. M. Natii, miQ Backfiround of Assamese Gultui*e. Shillone, 1948, pp. 4-5 . 12 j^C . Otl 13 B. K. KOkati, The Mother God ess ^i^mnk-hy^i^ Gauliati, 1946,p. 6 14 D. G. Sircar, g^, p. 60 15 Edward Gait, OP. eit.T p. 15 16 P. G. Clioudliury, HCPA^ p. 35 ^'^ Loc • cu-}- . IS Cited b^» Edward Gait, op. cit.. pp. 11-12 19 YbginI Taiitra. Ch. XI, IS-lfi ao B. K. Baruay-op» eipt.. im»i- li^lS 21 D. G. Sircar, GHA. P. 63 23 22 i OC C »"i • 23 Ibid., p. 67 24 Ibid., p. 63 26 Ibid., p. 63-64 27a It is important to note here tiiatMa^asSlmalT in the Pundravardhanabhukti, noticed in tlie Klialimpur plate of DharmapSla is regarded as id^itical witli or situated near MayurasalmaU of tlie Chandrapurr vif^ya mentionecl in the Nidhanpur Plates. But tlie inclusion of Pundra vardhanabhukti in prligJyotisa^KataarCIpa as suggested by K.L.Barua is hardly proved since "Certain bordear areas of PragJyoti|a**Kaaarupa may have bem annexed to tlie Puiidravardlianahhukti by tlie Pala empire." (D.C.Sircar, Studies in tlie Geography of An9i€yit €md Medieval Infll«, DeBii, 1971, p. 162). Similarly, Tipperali was under the suisierainty of LokanStiia in the second half of the seventh century A.D. LokanStlia was a powerful feudatory of a paramount soveaceign (Gf • Tipperali Grant of LokanStlia) wliose identification is a bone of contention among the scholars. Scholars like K.L.Barua, N.N.Vasu and p.C.Clioudhury favour the idea of Tipperah's inclusion witliin tlie vassal territory under tlie suzerainty of tlie rulers of Kaiaarupa while others with 24 more justification consider tlie territory as defecto indep^irl^t, but under tlie suzerainty of a ruler of Gauda. iVe have tried to explain tiie point fur til er at the relevant places. Since tlxe territories, mentioned above were not merely jaijacent to tiie kingdom of PrSgjyotisa-KSnar'upa, but because of tiieir geographical situation and possibly also tile interests of the rulers - ruling over the vaU^ys of Brahma|iutra, we want to put tiiese territories as coming within the sphere of invlutfice of Pragjyotisa^ -KamarlTpa. 28 s. L, Baruaii, A Compreliensive History of Assam* New DeHii, 1986, p. 3 29 P. N. Bhattacharya, KSnarHpa ^SsanavalT* p. 2 (f.n,). 30 P. G, Clioudhury, HCP/^. 1969, pf l5 -16, 31 Loc . or- 32 Uc_ of ; 33 Ibid, p. xy .^ 34 Loc oi • 35 Ichliimuddin Sarkar, Aspects of Historical Geography of PragJyotiga^Kamargpaf Calcutta, 1991, p. 2 , 36 H. K. Barpujari, GHi\, p. 2 . 37 Loc- O^ • 38 . LoC^Si^ • 39 Locrgit ••"•' - -••"' ' '•"• 25 4£j N. D, Glioudliary, HAG A, p. 13 . 41 Loc. cit. 42 H. K. Barpujart, OP. oit.« p. 2 • 43 I. Sarlcar, OP. cit«. p. 3 . 44 S. L. Baruali, OP. dt.. p. 5 . 45 Loc • cil • 45 ' Loc • ciV • 47 Ibid, p.e. 48 N. D. Clioudhury, HACA, p. 16 . 49 Loc_oi • 50 . Loc o,i- 51 '^-0±_^jj • 52 S. L. Baruoli, op. cit.. p. 6 . 63 N. Laliiri, Pre>-Aliom Assam, New Dellii, 1991, p. 29. 54 P. G. Glioudliury, HGPA- p. 45 . 56 Waddell, MSSy 1900, III, pp. 8-9 . 56 Ibid. 57 N. D. CboudLury, HAGA.. p. 23 - 58 t O^li^i • 59 Ibid, p. 24 , 60 Ibid, pp.24-25 . 61 , Loc .ci-t- - 62 S. Beal, Life of Igttan Clwanr. London, 1914, p. 188 » 63 P. G. Choadhury, HCPA. p. 47 , iM .'.•••ft' • * -. 64 N. Laiiiriv-Qp-i;—ci'^'''ff^ma -n^i.-V-IT < 66 H. K. BJtfbaiari, -ggJ^^^fi." 4"/"^ 26 bb jc'» a. UiioucUiury, UCPA. pp. 359-61. ^ H. K. Barpujari, GHA. p. 3 . 68 \^jSt^ • 69 Loc.oj;' 70 P. G. Oioudhury, HOP A. p. 49 . 71 ilL-H-^' ^ 73 Edward Gait, op. cit.. p. 20-21. 74 Waiters, On YUan GhwanrJ s Travels in India. II, London, 1904, p. IBS . 76 Cited fcy. Gait, OP. clt.. pp. 141-42 76 H* K. Barpujari, £aA> ?• 6 27 CHAPTER - II Historical Background FT elil story liie materials on which a reliable framework of the iTt-iiistoric period of Pragjyotisa-Kaiaarupa can be formed ire not very fertile. We are to remain content mainly with 'iie surface findings, since very few excavations have been. ccirried out here so far. We are not sure whetiier the prehistoric man in r'ragjyotisa^Kanarupa lived in caves but tliere are caves in Chera Syndai (Kiiasi-Jaintia Hills), in Mikir Hills and Nor til Gachar, Tlxere are traces of rudimentary paintings 2 and carvings in tliese caves. Besides caves, there is a large number of palaeolitiiic tools discovered in tlie Garo 3 Hills, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur, Tlie°palaeolitiiic tools of tile Garo hills have beeai classified into tliree groups : (1) Handaxe, cleavers and ciioppers; (2) ilake tools and (3) iilade tools. Hie palaeolitiiic industry of Arunachal Pradesii is represented by ciioppers, proto-hand£uces, ovates, 4 cleavers, side-scrapers, points, flakes and cores, Typolo- gically, tlie palaeolitiiic culture of Manipuy represents tiie upper palaeolithic culture of tlie Late Pleistocene epocii 28 -..icii is consisted of flake ai:id blade tools and bone tools, MicrolitliS or tlie small stone tools represented by bicides, scrapers, points, arrowheads and broad - edged u*apag€^ have been found in the Hongram valley of the Garo 5 iiills. Here, tlie microlitliic level lies above tlie virgin soil and below tlie neolitliic level whicli signifies tliat tlie first group of prdiistoric people settled on tlie virgin soil. ISiere is a large number of neolitliic tools, found in tlxe liilly region of Assam, such as in tlie Naga hills, tlie 6 Nortli Gnchnr hills and the Garo hills, Tliey have also been fouiid in tlie districts of Braiiraaputra valley sucii as in cionitpur^Kamrup, Goalpara, Sibsagar and LaJcliimpur districts, The widespread neolithic culture of Ancieait Assam had ai'fini- 7 ties with tlie culture of Eastern Asia, Uie neolitliic speci mens of tiie land have been classified by A. H, Dani into 8 eight types J each type having a large number of v^ieties, In all tlie excavated sites of Assam, potteory has been 9 discovered. From tiie Arabari finds we come to know about tlie universal use of tliese articles of clay for botli domestic and religious purposes, CJord marked pots and Jars have been found recently in tlie Dibrugarh area in Neolitliic sites, These have also been found in Daojali Hading in tlie Nortli 12 Gachar hills and in tlie Sarutaru in tlie Kamrup district. But tlie pottery found in Selbalgirt in tiie Garo hills, is 29 13 •plain, handmade, dull red or grey In colour*.,• Here, It is important to note tliat tlie cord marked pottery occurs as tiie doininant type of ceraoic ware oveir a wide region of eastern Asia comprising China and tlie countries of Soutli East Asia, 14 Tlius, it can be said undoubtedly, tJiat tiie cord marked pottery of Ancient Assam belongs to tills eastern Asiatic Neolitiiic culture. Here, we may refer to tlio suggestion of R, Alchin wlio is of opinion tliat in tJie neolitiiic tools as is found in Assam tliere are some cultural traits Miicli reflect tiie influences of neolitiiic culture of Burma and Soutli China, These cultural traits are also found in tiie neolitiiic culture of otiieir parts of India which probably came tliere following western routes across AfghcUiistan, Central Asia and by tlie sea and not as 14b in case of Assam tiirough eastern direction, An archaeological characteristic of tlie region under 15 our study is its wealtli of Megalitlis, OSiis megalithic culture existed in tlie region not only in prehistoric time but still persists among tlie Kliasis,'^ A large number of megalitliic structures is situated at Cheirrapunjl, Jowai, Uaoflong, Daitlugkot, Nartiang and Laitkor in tlie Kliasi 17 and Jaintia hills. They are also found in tlie Garo hi lis* 18 Kamrup, Karbi hills and Naga hills, in tliis connection we may also mention some sites of mogalitlifo culture from 19 north Gachar sucli as Nunglo Bolasan, Derebora, Kobak etc, Tlie raegalitliic structures of Ancient Assam have betfi classi- 30 iifcti by C. B. Clarke iato tliree groups - (1) funeral pyres, 20 .2) kists and (3) raonum^ital groups. All tlie palaeoUtliiCj neolitliic and megalitliic tools uui structures are tlie conclusive proofs of human inliabt- tation in Anclmt Assam long before tlie advent of tlie Aryans, •plip non-j\ryans were consisted of tlie people of tribal groups who cane to tiie region from different diredtioas long before tlie ax:lvent of tlie i^ryans. In fact, botli tiie Aryans and tlie non-Aryans contributed to tlie composite culture of tlie region. Regarding tlie racial types of tlie tribes of Assam it has been suggested tliat tliey contain in varing proportions 21 Negrito, Austro-Asiatic, Alpine-Aryan and Mongolian elements. B. S. Guiia, liouevdT, m^itions that among the six main races among tlie people of Indiaj Negrito, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, Western Brachyacephal and Nordic - tlie first tliree elements are found among tlie tribal popular 22 tions of India. Mills has suggested tliat tlie pr«lit8toric "inhabitants of tlie mountains of Assam were almost certainly Negritos, little dark men witli curly hair ... traditions spealc vaguely of tiiera and tiieir curly hair still survives. It was probably tliey who made little stone celts, wliich are frequently found 23 I in tile hills". According to otliers some Iphysical features and otlier aspects of material culture signify tlie esistmce 24 of Negrito strain, particularly among some Nagas. But it 31 must be noted tiiat tlie ecctstenoe of Negrito strain in India nas become a disputed subject. Becently, S, S. Sarkar and his colleagues have sliown tlxat the Kadar of Kerala, wlio n&re coiisid^ed to possess an essentially Negrito oliaract^) 26 belong to tlie Veddia of Australoid etlmic stock. The Austric or Austro-Asiatics, in tliolr primitive 26 form are repres^ited by tiie Kliasls of Assam. Tliere are also certain Australoid etluiic traits among tiie various flodo 27 tribes. I5ie terra Austric Is a linguistic ratlier tlian an etlmic one. Two main groups of Austric speech family are Austro-Asiatic and Austronesian. In India, tlie Kols, Muiidas of Central India, tlie Ni<*Hobarese of tlie Kic^s^bar islaiicis aiici tiie KUasis of Meglialaya speak languages of tiie first group. The Austronesian group may be divided Into tliree sub-groups - Indonesian, Malaneslan and Polynesian. inteirestlngly enough, tlie Khasls are Austric so far as tlielr language Is concerned but they bear close resemblance with tlie Mongoloid people In pliyslque. The next group wlilch came to Assam was the JUbngolold or tlie Tlbeto-ijurmau family. The land between Yangtse Klang and tlie Hoang-Iio in Nortli-West China was tlielr original 30 liome. At one time tliese people migrated from tlielr origi nal liome towards tlie head-waters of tlie Irrawaddy and of tlie Ghlndwin. From tliere, some of tliera following tlie upp«r course of tlie Bralimaputra reached Tibet and occupied It. Again, from Tibet some of thera moved further and occupied tlie hills of tlie soutiiern side of the Himalayan range, right from Assam 32 i*' tile east to tlie Punjab in tlxe West. In Assam they settled m diffofeait recious and came to be known by different names 31 like tlie iiabiia, Kaclxari, fiodo, Tiwa, Karbi, Dlmasa etc. From tile lineuistic point of view, tlie Tlbeto-Burmans are 32 divided Into two groups - North Assam and Assam - Burmese* Tlie first group includes tlie various ArunachaO. tribes - Abors, Akas, Daflas, Mlrls and Mislunis uhlle the second group includes three group - the Bodos, Hagas and Kukl-clilns* Among tlie Bodo language speaking people «e find such tribes as tlie Garo, Hablia, Kaclxari, Kocli, Meclx, Hajong, Laung etc* Aft€ir tlie Austric people, tlie Mediterranean race came to tlie region, Tliey were called so as Mediterranean region was tlieir original home* Haddon observes some of tlieir etlinic 33 and cultural traits among the Nagas* Followinc the Meditcspraneans, the Alpines or tlie Armenoirts also penetrated to the land from the west or north-west. Thoy played a very Important role In the culture and civilization of tlie region before tiie advent of the 34 vedic Aryans. Some cultural traits relating to the disposal of dead, uncleanllness of a woman during menses etc* as found 35 among tlie Assamese Hindus are of Alpine origin* The Kalltas of Assam were supposed to have been of Alpine 36 origin* Following tlie Alpines, the Aryans came to the land at 33 a time wiiich is not definitely known. Before their entry into Iixlia, tliese Aryan people were expert agriculturists (aid tliey included among tlieaselves groups specialls«il in Cattle-breeding>pastoral people. 37 S« K* Chatter jee has suggested tliat tlie Indo-Aryans reached in North BLhar by 700 B.G, and moved eastward in smaller group at different times,"^ But both in tlie RgmSyaoa and Malilibhgrata. tliere are references of Pragjyoti§a^K2uuar(Xpa which indicate tliat tile land had contact witli tlie Aryan India from very early period, 39 Kau^ilya refers to an Aryan wave in the land in tlie Maurya period. In the early centuries of the Christian ^ 41 era high class BrShnagias began to settle in the region. From tlie Nidhanpur Copper Plate grant) it Is known that king HxHtivarman (6tlx cen, A«D,) donated a special AgrahSra to more than two hundred Brahmanas o£ various gotras and Veda^SkliSs for promotion of Vedic religion and culture, Sucli royal policy was largely responsible for the settlement of high class Aryans in iUicient Assam, According to some 43 tliis might have led to tlie Aryanisation of the valley and influenced tlie Tibeto-Burman rulers to adopt BrShmanical culture, The Political History Hie earliest rulers of Pragjyotisa^Kamarupa were 34 HI. i^a-yaii people. In tlie epics and PurSqiaa tliey were called uanuygg and As or as. TUey are often la^itioned as Kiratas and MiecHcivas. Maiiiranga Danava. tlie Kir at a ciiief, wlio had liis capital of Mairanga, was the earliest knotm ruler of - 44 » Pragjyotisa-Kanarupa, He was succeefied by Hatakasura, 45 ^ambar^sura, Ratn^ura and QUatakSsura respectively* •jflie Asura dynasty of Pragiyoti^a-Kamarupa was put to an end by Naraka, a priiice from Videha, wlio established a new 46 dynasty. This dynasty ruled in the region for a consi derable period. Naraka has been ra^itioned in tlie I&nSyaQa, tliG Maliabliarata, tlie KSlika PurS^ia, tlie Hiagavata Purapa, f 47 tlie Vlyiu Pur ana, and tlie Harivamsa. Accordii^ to the Kalika t^uraga, iiaraka was born of the earth by Vifnu in his Boar Incarnation and was brought up by tlie childless king Jmiaka of Videha of North lahar, Wli«i he attained the age of sixteen he came to Pr3g^yoti§a^Kamarupa and became tlie king of tiie land. At this time, he fell under the evil influence of iiis ftiend Bai^a, who was the king of 49 Sonitpura. i-'inally, for his irreligious activities, Naraka was killed by Sri Ki^jfsna, an avatar a or incarnation of Vi?nu.^ From Maliabliarata it is known tliat Naraka was succeeded by t his son Hiagadatta.^-'- In tlie 'sabha parva* it is said tliat Hiagadatta, tlie king of Pragjyotisa resisted Ar juna.^^ The battle lasted for eight days and finally Hiagadatta surrendered, 36 63 Bliagadatta ^as succeeded by his son Vajradatta. .;. tixe ^aliabharata it is said tiiat when YUdhisthira performed iiurse-sacrifice to prove liis supreoacy as a ff^fnT^tr-t Vajradatta, liter a decissive battle acknowledged tlie supremacy of 54 Yudhi?^Ira. in tlie Harsacarita. it has been mentioned tliat pu§padatta and Vajradatta were tlie successors of Hia^adatta, But in tlie inscriptions of Hiagadatta»j line, we do not find 55 the name of Puspadatta* It was most probably that<*^Vajradatta was tlie youneer brother of Puspadatta, bat the writers of the inscriptions of Vanamala, Balavairoan III and RatpapSla, 56 erroneously mentioned liim as brother of Bhagadatta," The interv^iinf pdriod between Hiagadatta' s successors and Pusyavarman is dark. Ihe Nidhanpur grant of Bi&skara- varman mentions tliat three tliousand years passed between the deatli of Vajr£Mdatta and the succession of PUfyavarman, 58 founder of a new dynasty. From traditional accounts we get tlie names of a large numbea: of rulers who ruled in tlie land after Vajradatta. According to one, tlie successors of Hiagadatta in direct line were Dharmapala, Karmap&la, 59 P^thvlplla and SubShu. After nineteen kings of the 60 dynasty of Naraka, Subahu has been placed. He obstructed the seu!rificial horse of TLkramSdltya and was overtlirown. After this, Jitari, a Dravidian, became tlie king of Pragjyo- tisa-Kamarupa, 36 •Bie Varman Dynasty !Qi6 real political history of PrSgiyotisa^Kamarupa starts wltlx the rule of Pu^yavarman, the fooMcir of the 62 Varman dynasty. !I!he dynasty is so named as all tlie rulers of tlie line of pu§yavarman had all their principal names 63 aiiciing in the i«ord Varman. In the Nidhanpur grant of Kjnaskaravarmaii it is said tliat '*iihm. tlie ]ctngs of the Naraka iaraily, having enjoyefl tlie position of rulers for three tliousand years, had all attained tlie conditions of Gods, 64 Pusyavarman became tlie lord of tlie "world." Since Pu§ya- varman is said to have born in tlie family of Naraka, tlie iyiiasty founded by liiia is sometimes called Naraka or iiiauma ^ txirii or Ear til) • A reccait study on tlie Umaciial Bock Inscription by ij» Giiutia lias shown tiiat Maliara^adliirSja Surendravarman, a scion of tlie liouse of Hiag&datta ruling at Kamardpa with Pragjyotisa as iiis seat of administration, was the earliest 66 historical king of Hiauma - Naraka origin. i Chatiaiios reasonably refuted tlxe tlieory put forward by D« C. Sircar aiid p, D. choudhury that Surendravarman of UnSshal Book Inscription and Mahendravarman of the Bhauma^Naraka dynasty are tlie same pecrson as both 'Surendra' and 'Mahendra' are synonymous, meaning Indra. His cliief argumeit is tliat both o tlie Dubi and tlie Nidhanpur Copper Plates of HiSskaravarman 31 whicli supply tlie full geneological list of the Varman kings ji" tile Hiaujna-Naralca origin have not raentionecl tlie name » Surendra' anywhere. ^urendr a varman has been placed sometime in the first 67 naif of the 4tli century A.D, by tlie latest. OJidrefore, 68 lu was a predecessor of Pusyavarman, Wliai tiie former died witliout leaving aiiy heir, his throne passed on to Pusyavarman, I priiice of tlio collateral brancix founded by Vajradatta of ttie Hiauma-lJaraka origin, wlio ruled at the neighbouring 69 kingdom of pavaka. Most probably Pufyavarman eitlier usurped tiie tlirone of ^'ragjyotifa after tlie deatli of Surendravarman, or tile former was cliosen to tlie tlirone by the people of Pragjyotisa wheii Surendravarman died sonless eixactly in tlie manner Bralimapala, tlie found dP of the Pala dynasty of U KamarCTpa in later times cliosen by tlie people when Tya'jasimlia, tlie 21st ruler of tlie SSlastamblia dynasty without leaving an heir, Tile iLlloiiabad Inscription of Samudragupta refers to a - - 71 iting of Kamarupa as pratyanta-ny;tpatl, But tlie name of the king is not mentioned, P, N, Bhattacharya identifies tliis king witli Pusyavarman who out of loyalty and devotion to liis overlord and patron named liis son and daughter-in-law 72 after tlie name of Samudragupta and his queen" DattadevT, Probably, tlie cliequered oareeir and adiievements of Samudragupta raiglit have tficouraged liira to do so, 38 As pugyavarmaii was contemporary of Samudragupta, he iiiuat ruled beiore 376 A.D., i.e., when tlio lattcffs political career came to an ^id. P.O.Clioudhur.y has placed pugyavarman tn tile period betwecii A.D. 355 - 380. 74 Pu§yavarm£ui assumed tlie title of MahlSr&JadhirSja. But it is not kiiown liow far he was successful in tiie exten sion of iiis kingdom. Because tlie Allahabad Inscription m^v. 76 tions, along witli KSmarupa, the kingdom of I)av5ka which 76 was Pusyavarman' s ancestral kingdom. It may be tliat he lost his liold sondiow on DavSka after his occupation of tlie tiirone of Kamarupa. Tlius we see tliat KamarSpa became a feudatory state of tlie Guptas at tlie time of Pu§yavarraan. Such a state of affairs continued upto tlie time of accession of Mali^idravarman, tlie 7tJi king of tlie dynasty in C. 450 A.D. We know notliing beyond tlie names of the rulers who ruled after Pusyavarman and MaliQidravarinan. They are Samudravarman, Balavarman, Kaly^avar. man aiid Ganapativarman, Notliing important is recorded about tliem neitlieo" in tlie Htdratures nor in tlie epigraplis. Ganapativarman abdicated tlie tlirone in favour of his 77 son Malieiidravarman due to old age or disease. Tiie reign 78 of Maliendravarman has be^i placed between A.D. 450 - 4B6. in A tile seal attached to tlie Dubi Grant he has been described as 79 tile performer of two liorse sacrifices. Hiese sacrifices 39 i HMf, that wiicai tile Gupta empire declined, KSmardpa kingdom 80 . j>ui to flourish. By his brilliant career of conquest .t^ ^ilory, Mali^idravarraan paved tiie way for tlie greatness SI vaica KSraarlipa attained under Biaakaravarman, Ue was con- t^aporary of four Gupta rulers - Kumoragupta I, Gkandagupta, purugupta and Budhagupta, Possibly after Kumaragupta I, when the Gupta empire was on tlie way of decline, Maliendravarraan €!XtGaxIol his sway to soutli-east jctengal where tiiere is no 82 evideaice of Gupta rule until tlie time of Valnyagupta, 83 Mall^idravarman was succeeded by hia son Narayanavarraan, Notliing particular is known about his reign. He was succeeded 84 ' _ „ by Ills son Hmtivarraan. Tlie importance wliich Karaarupa gai- nec! at tlie tine of Malieaidravarraan increased at tlie time of iiiutivarman, i«'roni his iiargailga Bock Inscription it is known tiiat he performed one Asvaraodha sacrifice. Not only the old kingdom of Davaka, but also tlie Surma valley was now included 86 , witliin his kingdom. His conquests in puijdravardliana lying to tlie West of tlie river Teesta and to the east of Kosi or Kausika, tlie region wh^e he donated land to 205 families, is proved by tlie Midlianpur Coppdr Plate of Jaiaskaravarman 87 originally issued by tlie former. His reign has been placed 88 between C.A.B, 510 - 555, If it was so tli^i he most probably acknowledged tiie supremacy of Yasbdharraan at least for a short p(SPiod, Because Mandasor Inscription of A,D, 532 - 533 of YasodharmaJi demands tliat "He, before whose feet, 40 Giiieftains having (tlieir) courage removed by tlie strengtli of his arms, bowed down, from the neighbourhood of tlie (river) Lauliitya upto (tlie mountain) Maliendra ••• (and 89 from Himalaya ... upto tlie western ocean,.," Bliutivarmrai was followed by iiis son Gandramukha- 90 voi'/iaii v;no in turn was succeeded by his son Stliitavarraan, ,le perrormed two horse sacrifices. Probably tliese wetre due to tlie celebrations of his victories over liis feudal lords in nortli and soutii-east B^igal. i^om the Dubi grant of liiiasittjravarman it is known tliat tlie coronation ceremony of stliitavarman was performed by tlie Brahmi^is according to '- 91 ipl tile Sastras. It is tlie first recorded exampl92 e of tlie Vedic coronation ceremony of a Kaoarupa king,' Sthitavaxman was succeeded by his son Susthltavarman 93 94 or Ijirigahka. He took tlie title of MaharajSdliirffja. In tlie Hargacarita it is said tliat he "took avay tlie conoli- shells of tlie lords of tlie armies, not tlieir Jewels; grasped tlic stability of tlie eartli, not its tribute; seized tlie 96 majesty of monarchs, not tlieir hardness," OJie performance ol horse-sacrifices by Maliendravarraan, Hmtivarman, Stliita^ varman and assumption of tlie title Maliarajadliiraja by Sustliitavarman signify tlie growing power of tlie kings of Prag jyoti^a^KSmarilpa which alarmed MaliZls^iagupta of Gauda wlio out of fear attacked Kamarupa, In the Ajpsliad Inscription it is recorded tliat Sustliitavarraan was defeated by MahSsaia- 96 gupta. 41 tile Dubi Copper Plates of Hiaskaravarman indicates tiiat Susthitavariaan vas succeeded by his eldctr son Supratifi- ^vitavarraan. He died a premature death leaving the tlirone to Ills younger brotlier Hiaskaravaruan. Hiaskaravarman was not only the greatest monarch of tills family but also a remarkable ruler of ancient India, His accession was probably a little earlier tlian that of darsavardhan (A,D. 606), Tills may be gatliered from Ills posi tion as an aged king, dressed as BralimS, lAiile Harsa himself took tlie place of Sakra (Indra) in the religious ceremonies 98 described by Yuan GUwang, An early Assamese work called Kamarupaj i:^urabrita refers to a date to mark an era starting 99 from 594 A,D« No otiier event important enough Hiaskaravarman ascended tlie tlurone of Klmarupa at a time when the reputation of his family was at ^ low ebb. He 42 'ot only restorerl but liftocl It to a height tliat even Harsa - tixe Sakolottara - PatiSvara welcomed his alliance* The most remarkable ev^it in the career of Bhaskara- Vfirman was the diplomatic alliance witii Har?avardhan. It took place at a time when the latter succeeded his brotiier Bajya*. vardhana, wlio was, supposed to have been treadierously mur dered by ^asaiika, tlie lord of Gau^a. To take revenge on Sasanka, when Harsa was on a day' s Journey towards Qaa(^a, Ha&savega, Hiaskara* s ambassador meet Harsa with valuable presents and 102 proposed to form an 'iaperisiiable alliance'* Harsavardhan received Hsimsavega most cordially and sent him back with valuable presents* Thus, an alliance between Har§a and Biaskara K)3 was formed which was tlie outcome of a reciprocal • longing' • Tiiougli somo scholars tiiink tliat tlie nature of tlie alliance indicated tlio subordinate position of PrSgjyotisa-Kamarupa to Harsa, tiie contenporary sources like tlie Har$acarita and tlie account of Yuan Chwang and tli© special honour which Harsa snowed to btiaskara in the religious assemblies of Prayag and ivanauj prove tliat Harsa treated tlie Kamarupa king as a res- 104 pected ally and esteemed friend and not as vassal king. The new alliance proved to be a source of concern to tlie Gaudas, But unfortunately tliere is no record to sliow tliat eitlier Hiaskaravarman or Harfavardlian was successful in conquering Gauda during the life time of SalSAka. We sliall discuss it in detail in next diapter. 43 Till now two copper plate grants of Hiaskaravarman iiave been discovered - tlie Dabi Copper Plates and tlie Nidlianpur Copper Plates. OSie latter mentions a number of feudatories of Bxaskaravarman. On tlie basis of tlie Nidhanpur irant K.L.Barua suggests tiiat tlie area of soutli-east Bengal, uicludiiig SyUiet, Tripura ajid parts of Saraatata were inclu- dec! in tlie kingdom of Hiaskaravarman. According to P.G. aiioudlmry tlie Tipp€ffali Grant of tlie feudatory Lokanatha tlirows a new light on Hiaskara' s sway over Sylhet and Tripura. But it must be noted tliat tlietre is no refetr^ice to tile name of Hiaskaravarman in the Upperah Grant. There is a good deal of controversy among tlie scholars with regard to tile date and the identification of Jayatungavarsa of the Tipperali Grant of Lokanatlia. B.G.Basak thinks hira to be 108 Mityasena, tlxe Later Gupta king of Magcdha. But, there is no evid^ice to suggest that Alltyasetia extended liis authority as far as tlie easternmost part of Bengal. 'Bie testimony of tlie Aryaman3u^.§rl~mula^kalpa, tlie Aphsal and tlie VaidyanStiia Temple Inscription may suggest at best the inclusion of central and soutli-west Bengal bordering on the sea in Adityasena's kingdom.^^^ B.C.Sen identifies Jayatungavarsa of tlie Tipperah 110 Grant as Dharmapala of Gauda. P.L•Paul tliinks Jayajtui^avarsa III as a local ciiief like Lokanatlia. H.N.Vasu identifies him 44 112 rtttii yumc auccessor oi' iiUSskaravarman, K.L«J3arua tliinks 2.13 aim as a title of Salastamblia. p.O.Ghoudhury holds tiiat ayatoiigavarsa of tiie Tipperah Grant was none but Biaska^» varman of Kamarilpa,-^^^ R, G. Mazuadar thinks Jayatungavarsa as tile Par an es vara of the Tlpp€(rah Grant and takes him to be a Kiiadga ruler,-^-^ According to D,G.Sircar, tlxe verses 7-9 of tlie Tipperali Grant indicate tliat Jayatufigavar§a and JfYZMlliarana were ty^*;refractory feudatories of the Paramesvara who vos probably tlie ruler of Qauda of whom Lokanatha was a faitliful subordinate. Lokonatha detfeatecl Jayatui!igavsr|(a on beiialf of liis masteir who next sent him against Jivadharana of tile I^ta family."'-'^''' JlvadhSra^ia placated Lokanatha and also tile Pararaesvara possibly by an offer of his acceptance of a subsidiary alliance.'^-'^ ^lother important event in the piBriod of Biaskarayarman is the visit of Chinese Pilgrim YUan Chwang to KamaTupa in C. 642 - 43 A.D., when YUan Chwang was at Nalanda for the second time in 642 A.D., Hiaskaravarman sent a messengetr to Nalanda to invite tlie pilgrim. But Sllabhadra, tlie he^ of tile monastery, did not comply with it or even with a second 119 / request. Hilskaravarman grew angry and threatoneA SXlabhadra "If necessary tlien I will etiulp my army and elephants and like the clouds sweep down on and trample to the v&y dust that monastery of Nalanda". !Ehe treat had the desired result, yuan Ghwrn^ visited Karaarupa and stayed there for a raontli. 45 After returning from the Kongoda campaign, Harsa ueard of it and s^it a messengcff to BhSskara to send YUon 122 Ohwang imraediately. Hiaskara replied tliat "He (Harsa) can take ray head, but he can not take tlie Masteff" of the 123 law yet." Harsa replied "said tlie head" Witli this aiflskaravarman becane submissive and proceeded to meet 124 Hf^rsa with the pilgrim and with a vast army. He met Uarsa at Kajajfigala near BSJmalial, and tlie latter received him courteously, After tlie deatli of Harsa, liis throne was usurped by Ills minister Arjuna. At tliis time a Chinese mission led by VKang-HiU€iTi-tse arrived Kaiaauj, Arjuna not only ill-treated but put some of tliem to deatli. Wang-hiuen-tse fled to Nepal and sought help of Tibet and KSmartipa, It appears from the Chinese account tliat tlie kings of Nepal and Tibet assi^^ted iiin witli forces. With tliese aids Wang-liium-tse defeated ATjuna and took liim as a prisoner* to China, Hiaskara probably dtori soon after tills incident. It may be noted here tliat being a devotee of §iva, HiSskara was respectful to other religions - specially to Buddliism. It is proved by his letter to SllahUaidray the head of the NalandU monlistery to send the Chinese pilgrim to his court witli a view to learning more about the teacliings of TatiiSigata. Undes* liis rule K^arupa became a seai; of lecirning* Students from all parts of India came here and received 46 127 aducation in various Ifistras, He was a good administrator, v/itli a vast and well-organized administrative maoliineryi HiSskaravarman gave a good example of truth and jastioe, holding before liis subjects the idea of a paternal king in tliG proper organization of the state.^^ None of tlie contemporary records ref°cfrs to any wife of Bhaskaravarman. Furtlier, he was often mentioned as Kumara^ 129 *> -raja. BSna in his Harigacarita motions him as Kumara alias Hiaskaravarman wltli BUI^a and tliereby suggest tliat HiSskaravarman was called kumcffa as he was a bachelor like 130 tlie epic hero. It is possible tliat he died without any imciediate successor, ISLie S&lastambha Dynasty It is not definitely known who was the immediate successor of Hiaskaravarman, Gait is of opinion that after tlie deatli of Hiaskaravarman tliere appeared an anarchy wliich brought to an eiid to tlie line of kings which owed its origin 131 to Naraka, Tlie kingdom was tak^i possesion of a new ^ 132 Hiagadatta line of kings headed by S&lastambha, But D. H, Bhandarkar suggests tlie name of Devavarman as the 133 successor of Hiaskaravarman on tlie light of Chinese source. Besides K.L.Barua suggests tlie name of Avantlvarman betwetfi 47 / 134 lihSskaravarman and Salastambha. He furtlicr adds tliat Avantrvarman, tlie direct successor of Hi5skaravarinan did not reign for more than five years at the longest aad that SSlastambha occupied tlie throne of KamarGLpa about 655 A.D* 135 after detlironing and probably killing him," Observing similarity in the names of BLiaskaravarMan and Avantlvarman and epitiiet 'Partlxiva' before the name of the latter (meaning both »a king' and »tlie son of PntkivT i), M, H. 136 sharma rightly supports tbe view of K« L* Barua. The Bargaon coppca:* plate grant of Bataapala records tlie passing of tlie kingdom of the Naraka kings (i.e. of Pusyavarman' s dynasty) into tlie hands of the Uleocha king nsm&i Salastamblia owing to a turn of adverse fortune. 138 According to Hoernle tlie word »Mleccha» means a foreigner, K, L. Barua eocplains tlie word as tlie non-Hindu Mongoloid 139 people. According to D, C. Sircar *Mleccha« may be the 140 Sanskrit!sod form oi . tlie tribal name Mech. Here, tlie su^4;estion of jx, i^. iJutta seeeis to be right in concluding tiiat tlie Varwaji dynasty, which was probably the first Indo- -Aryan dynasty in Pr3gJyoti§a^KSmarSpa, was overthrown by ^Slastamhlia, of Mongoloid origin, who then made himself the 141 ^ king of the land, S51astamblia transferred his capital from Pragjyoti^apura to HarupeJ^vara, which his successors continued to rule. 48 The Hayunthal CJopper Plates of HarJJaravorman descri- jGis Vijaya,-'-^ Palaka,''''^ Kumar a,-^^ Vajradatta,''•'*^ liarfa,-^'^ Balavarman,-^^"^ GaJcra,"'-^ Arii.tUI,^'^ and ilarjjara, as coming after S^lastambha one after the otiier. But tlie Tezpur Copper Plates of Vanamfila places the , 151 152 name of Salamblia (not PrSlamblia ) after Harsa. K.L. Barua held tliat after Balavarman(II) and before SElambha, tii€re were probably two kings whose names have yet to be 163 recovered. M. M, Sliarma suggests tliat tiiese two unnamed kini;s wero 3rl JIvar5(j) of tlie Sankara - NarSyana Stone Image Iiiscription and Diglekliavaraa of Hari-Hara Stone image 154 / Inscription, Maiiarajadliiraja Srl-JIvarSja of tlie recently discovered fragm^itary copper plate inscription from Nagaon was most probably Sri Jlvara(j) of the Saiikara - MarSyajja Stone Image Inscription, They have been placed ^elween A.D. 156 765 - 790. iYom the Uttarbarbil Copper Plates of Bala^ 156 varman III we get the name of Vanamaladeva, Jayamala or 157 158 VirabShu and Balavarman (III) who ruled after HarJJara. Tlie last king of tlie dynasty establislied by SSlastfliabha was Tyagasimlia. He was tiie 21st king of the dynasty. The rule of Vijaya, Palaka, KumSra and Vajradeva was not of any consequmce. in view of this P.C.ClioudliBry places tlian during the short period of A.D. 676 - 725, Harsadevn bocane king after Vajradeva. The Palupati epigraph ol tlie iiepal king Jayadeva II mentions one Jrl Har^adeva, 49 •pr^i of Odra, Kalinga, Kofiala and otlier lands who gave Ills lau^iiiter ftajyamatr (Bliagadattara.1a •. KalaJ5) married with -layexieva II. But H.CMazumdar rightly expresses his • loubt to the identification of Hargadeva of Paiupatl epi- grapii witli Harsadeva of Pr&gJyoti9a/-K2marIipa owing to the fact that many dynasties of India claimed tUeLr descent 168 from Bhagaiatta e«g., the Kara dynasty of Orissa, According to the HSyuntlial Copper Plate inscription, Sri Harsa was succeeded by his son Balavarraan (II). But we do not find tiie name of tlie latter in tlie DTgiialtgaB Copper Plate of Vanamalavarraan. Most probably Balavorraan (II) had a very short and insignificaiit rule for Vihich he has beoii ignored in tlie epigraphs of Vanamala under reference. It may not be unlikely tliat it was Balavarman (II) and not Sri Har?a, as presumed by K.K.Barua wlio has been defeated by Yasovarman of Kanauj in around A.D. 750 and most probably soon after Sri Harsa's deatli. It is thus apparent that i&lambha (alias Cakra) was tiie immediate successor of 157 Balavarman (II) Tile DlghaUgSd, Tezpur and Parbal^yH Copper plates of Vanamala speak lii£^ily of SSlambha, His reign has been placed between A.D. 790 - 810. It is true tliat SSlamblia tried to revive tlie lost prestige of tlie kingdom and he succeeded in establishing a coraparitively peaceful reign after a few docades of disorder tliat ovemdielraefl KamariTpa under tlio -wealc rule of his predecessor."^^ 60 Salarablia was succeei3ed by his brother Aratii£ irtio 170 iii turn was lolloweti by his son Harjjaravarman. We get lour epigrapiis of the time of Harjjaravarman viz* the Hayuntlial Copper Plate Inscription, the KuruvUbahi CJopper Plate Inscription, the Tezpur Book Inscription of G,E« 510 =^ A.D. 829 " 30 and an image inscription, From tiie Tezpur Bock Inscription it is known that he took the impe rial titles MaliarSjacUxiraja Parame^vara Paramabhattargka^'^'^'^ which signifies his great and extensive power* From the HiSgalpur plate of Narayanapala we know that at the command of Devap&la, his younger brotheir Jayapala launch«d upon a 17 P career of conquest. Hearing of his very name from a distance tlie ruler of Utkala left his capital and tlie king of PrSgjyotisa ac£^ted tiie suzerainty of OevaplU.a and was left 'unmolestecl'.-^'^ From tiiis it appears tliat tiie king of Kamarupa had eitlier made a treaty wltli tlie Talas of Magaidha 174 or was tlieir ally, P.G.Glioudhury identifies tills king of Prag^yotisa of the Biagalpur Copper Plate of Narayaij^a- p2lla witlx Harjjaravarraan,"*"*^ Har j jar a was followed by his son VanamSla alias VlravShu. His rule has been placed between A*D* 835 - 176 865« Witii his accession KfSmarUpa outered into a new phase of development, in image inscription saxA tiiree copper plate grants viz., the I£ghallg36, the Tezpur and the Parbatlya Copper Plate Inscriptions have been discovered 51 •ji his time till now. The Tezpur Grant was issue! in the 19til year of liis reign^'''^ while the two other grants are not dat^t He, like liis fatlier, assumed tlie high sounding titles like MqhI>rS.1idltirSja Paramelvara ParamaTiiatl^arcika wliidi is known to us from his records,"^"^^ By his Tezpur Grant he donatetl a village on tiie bank of Trf-srotS (modern Teesta) which signifies tlie extension of Mafrvarupa kingdom in tiio North iiengal under hira. Vanamala abdicated in favour of liis son Jayamala* Notliing is known to hira. He was followed by his son Bala- V£ffman III, Three Copper Plate Inscriptions are derived of liis time viz, the Uttarbarbil, Nowgong and UlubSrl - issued in tile Stli,'^'^^ 8tii-^° and IStli"^-^ regnal years of Bala- varman III respectively* His reign has been fixed between A.D. 835 - 910."^^ Like his predecessors Balavarman III also took tlie imperial titles Maliar5.iadliira.1a Paramesvara 183 Paramabhat;1^5raka. By liis Nowgong Grant Balavarman III granted land in tlie west of Teesta or Karatoya in North Baigal which indicates his hold over tlie area* We know notliing of tlie immediate successor of Balavarman III, Tlie last king of tlie dynasty was Tyagasiibha Who diecl witliout leaving an hetr,***^ Thus we see that with Tyagasiralia tlie dynasty establislied by Salastarabha came to an end, 52 She Plila Line Bralimap^a nas tlie found €ir of the PSla line* He was electecl as tlie king of KSmarOpa by his subjects is evident by til© BargSon Qraiat of BatnapHla. Diis is an incident wliich finds a parallel in tlie history of Bengal. The said grant proves his descent from Naraka* 187 Hiraraapala abdicated in favour of his son Batnaplla, whose accession witnessed anotlier period of'prosperity of KlraarGpa, Tliere are tliree grants of his time viz, Goratbarl, TOO 189 BargSon and SuSHcuchi - issued in tiie 12tli 26th"^ and aetii"'^^ year of his reign respoctively. He ruled for about 30 years from A,D, 1010 to 1040•'^"^ The epigraphs of his time give tixe iilii^s tliat he saved his kingdom from tixe Sakas, tlie kings of tlie Gurjara, Gauda, Kerala and the chief of tlie V31ilkas, tlie TSis and tlie ruler of the Deccan who liold a covetous eye on tlie country."^ But his defeat, > in tlie hands of Silcaiidra of Bast bengal is proved by tlie Dacca Plates of Kalyanacai¥lra whlcli states tliat ^dcandra easily defeated RatnapUla ai^d returned his queen to him in order to 193 ^ keep his pronu se* Batnap^a took the titles of Par am es vara Pararaabtia^t^Sraka Maliara.1Sdliira.1a while his predecessor simply - 194 deleted as Mali5rl.iadlilra.1a« 53 purandaraplLLa was the son of BatnapSla «lio was a poet and died before his fatlieff,^®^ So after BatnapSla, Indra^ 196 pSla, son of PurandarapSla ascended the tlirone* He •yon relgn^l probably between A.D. 1040 - loes,-^"' Two grants Oauliati and Guwakuclii have been discoveoced of his time. 35xe former grant was issued in the 8th year of his reign."^^^ 199 Vfliile tlie latter one was issued in his 2a.8t regnal year, In the Gauliati Grant) Indraplla has been described as & •veritable lord of tlie eastern region,^^ His chief queen JcSjyadevT was a Raftrakuta princess, -^ He defeated Kalyanacandra, son of Sxicandra of Bast Bengal is proved by tiie Gachtal Grant of his son Qoplla, Aa Hie grant states '*He (i.e. Indrapala) once had an occassion to aeet the king of Vanga, named Kalyanacandra who was tlie son of Sricandra and possessed undefeatable arias which earlier had tlie distinction of demolisliing tlie strong king of Gauda. Indra- pSla til en took his place at tlie head of a Cluster of boats, covered by flutteriJig wheels and chowries and in no time defeated him i.e., (Kalyanacandra) and annihilated him along witli his farae."^^ indrapala was succeeded by his son Gopala. His Gachtal Copper Plate speak highly of his various qualities.^^ !Ehe Grant is not datei. He like liis f atlier took the titles of Paranesvara Paraiaablial^^araka ia.iadhira.1a.^^ He reigned 206 between A.D. 1065 - 1080.' 54 GopSla was followed by his son Harsapala, Probably it ills time occured tlie invasion of the caiukya Vikram3ditya 71 wlio is said to have overrun Magadha, Anga, Gauda and ^araarupa. Tlie invasion probably had no any permanent result. ^'^ DharrnapSla was tile last important king of tlie PSla iynasty. He was tiie great grandson of IndrapUla. Three loppeir Plate inscriptions - K}ian3raukli, Subliankarapataka and Puspabliadra have been discover ed of liis time. "Hie first K ^-wo Wf?re issued in the 1st ajid 3rd year of his roign respectively wiiile tlie last one is not dated. Dliarmapala has 210 boGfi placed between A.D. 1095 -1120. Towards tlie close of ills reign he sliifted his capital from Pragjyotisapura to 211 KaraarHpanagara. KSmarTipanagara Ixts g^ierally be^i iden tified witii KSmatanagara, capital of KSniatS^Koch kingdom in 212 tile western part of -Braliraaputra valley. In tlie Silimpur Stone Slab Inscription we get tlie name of one Jayapala who is considered to be tlie son anl suocessor 213 of Jaiiarraapala. Bie R5raacarita of Sandhyfikara Nand! refers to tlie fact tliat Mayana, tlie genecral of l^apSla of Gau^a 214 conquered KSmarlipa. "Oiis invasion of Mayana took place 215 at tlie time of Jayapala « resulting in tlie occapation of only tlie soutli-western portion of Karaarupa, over iriiich R5map51a placed his vassal Tingyadeva, ^le Konauli Grant 66 >f vaiAyadeva records tliat KuraarapSla, king of Gaud a, having h nri of tiie hostility of Tiiigyadeva, appointod Uis minister 217 Y::;ifiyadeva as a raler in place of tiie former. AftdT tliQ c^eatii of iiis laaster, Vaiclyadeva declared his independence imd assLuaocl tlie imperial titles of Maliarajadhirlija Pararaas- ^^^ PQJ^amabiia-^taraka, H© also ovdPtlirew Jayap^lla and conquered tiie rest of KaraarQpa. The defeat of Jayapala In tiie iiands of Vaidyadeva must occured b^ore tlie date of tlie Karaauii Grant. Artliur Venis has fixed the date of the grant 219 as 1142 A.D. Witii the defeat of Jayapala, rule of the Braiiraap^a dynasty ended and Vaidyadeva established a Br^h- raana dynasty in Kanarupa, We kno^ no tiling about tlie successors of Vaidyadeva, THie Assam Plates of VallaWiadeva ref^s to a set of ruliars- 221 222 HiHskara, Ra'ijarideva alias Trailokyasiralia, Udayakar^a 223 224 alias Nihiankasimlia, Wlio were born in Candravaihsa. • 225 The Grant was issued in the Saka year 1107 » 11S5 A,D. It does not mention tliat Vallahlia was a king of Kamarupa. The seat of his government is also not mentioned. But tlie 226 two refer^ices to tiie Boar - incarnation of ^snu signify ills touch with tlie KSraarlipa kings, HSySrideva, predecessor of Vallabliadeva is said to have defeated the king of Vanga, 227 Hiattasali identifies tiie king of Vanga with Vliayastfia. But the DeopSra inscription credits VLjayasena as the vanqui- QOg siieir of tile king of Karaarupa (apSkyta KSmarupa^Uiupam) 56 BaJ iabiiadeva was also a powerrul rulecr. Tlie campaign led by Baklitiyar in A,D, 1202 to Tibet was completely destroyed in Assam by Vallabliadeva or his successor, P.CChoudhury, aowev^, rejects tlie view of Hiattasali. He offers a new suggestion tliat Vl^vasundaradeva alias Prthu and Sandhlya who wGTo rulors of diff er€*it dynasty, held responsible in 229 repuisiiit sucoessive Muslim invasions, Miateveir be the litdttcac, these invasions weakened the stability in the kingdom ;'i prS.gjyotisa^lt5marupa, It splited up into several indep^i- 230 ieiit principalities. At tliis time, the Alioms entered into tiie Braiiraaputra valley and pushed back the successors of tile old dynasty to tlie west who most probably shifted tlieir capital to KSratS to save themselves from tlio harassment 231 of tlie Alioms, Tlie Ahoms captured tiie kingdom of PrSg^yotii -KSmarupa and started a new era in tiie liistory of the land, ,... 57 Notes & Ref efrences i P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p. 51. 3 H, D. Sankalia & T, G, Sliarnia, .S2iA> P» 29. 4 ibid, p. 30. 5 Loc^of • 6 P. C. CSioudliury, HCPA* pp# 52-53. 7 J. H. Hutton, Tl^fl AnganLl Naeaa^ London, 1921, pp. 40a-9. & A. U. Dani, PreUistory and Protohistory of Eastffirn India. Calcutta, 1960, pp. 41-77. 9 H. D. Sankalia & T. C. Sliarma, XSAi P. 34. 10 P. G. Gboudiiury, HGPA. p, 66 (f .n.) , 11 LQC. dK 12 H. D. Sankalia & T. G. Sliarma, SSiAx P* 34- 13 Lo^cy"' 14 N. D. Gboudhury, HAGA. p, 55. 14a Bridget and Raymond Alcliln, OSie Rise of Givilization 3,n India and Pakistan^ Nefw Dellii 1983, pp.353^52. 14b Loc.of • 15 J. P. Mills, i^., I, 1933, pp. 3-6. 16 p. c. Ghoudhury, HGPA. p. 59. 17 H. D. Sankalia and T. G. Sliarma, CHA. p. 37^ IB Loc-cii^ 19 N. 0. Ghoudiiury, HAGA. p. 57. ao H. D. Sankalia & T. G. Sharma, GHA,^ p. 38^ 58 21 P. C. Clioudliury, HOP A. p. 77, 22 B. S. Gulia, yUe Census of Indi^, III, (1931). 23 J. P. Mills, JAB^.. 1933, pp. 3-G. 24 P. G. Gboudliury, HCPA, p. 79- 35 Cited by H.D. Sonkalia & T, C. Sliarma, S^t P» H 26 P. G. Giioudliury, flSE^, p. 81. 27 H. D. Sanlcalia & T. C. Sliarma, GHA. p. 15. 28 P. C. CliDUdliury, HGPA. p. 81 • 29 H. D. Sankalia & T. C. Sharma, GHA. pp. 14-15. 30 N. D. Giioudliury, HACA*. p« 29. 31 H. D. Sankalia & T. G. Sharma, HCA. p. 16. 32 Ibid, p. 17. 33 A. C. Haddon, gtie Races of Man. p« 116. 34 K. L. Barua, «iUpines in Eastern India', Indiaii Culture.Ill (1936) pp. 163^71. 36 B. K. Kakati, Tlie Motlidr God ess Kgm3kliyll. pp. 69-64 ., 37 H. D. Sankalia & T. G. Sliarma, QHA. p. 22 ^ 38 S. K. GiiattdTjee, Ttie place of Assam j.n the History & Qivlllzation of India. Gauliati University, 1956, p. 7 39 N, D. Clioudhury, HAGA.. p. 26 . 40 i_ OC Cil' 41 N. D, Giioudliury, HACA. p. 27, 42 Nidhanpur Grant of Hiaskaravarman, lA^. pp. 53-64, 43 P. G. Giioudliury, HGPA. p. 104 . 59 ' G:iit, A History of Assam (reprint), Calcutta, 1967, p. 12. 46 Kalika Purai:ia, Gh, 36-42. 47 N. D. Gliouclhury, HACA« p. 63, •^ Kalika Pur Spa, ch. 38. 49 D. a. Maiikacl, 'KarakSsur Episode iii tlie K.2UJ.kll Purapa*, JABS. X, p. 16. 51 Nayanjot Laiiiri, Pre-AlK?jn Assam. New Dellii, 1991, p. 65 . 52 t.OC.cti> 53 Niclhaiipur Coppcsr Plate Grant of Bliaskaravarman V. 6, iM> p. 50. 64 N. D. Glioudhury, HAGA. p. 66. 56 iae..^j'• 57 N. Laiiiri, op. ci^.. p. 66. 68 Nidhanpur Grant of Bli5skaravarman, V, 7, lAA. p, 60. 69 K. L. Barua, EHK. p, 24. 60 N, Laiiiri, OP. clt.. p. 66. 61 Loc ;di\ • 62 P. 0. Oiioudiiury, ^GPA^ p. 128. 63 D. G. Sircar, SIJ^, p. 96. 64 NidhaJipur G.P. of Hiaskaravarraan. 65 D. G. Sircar, GHAT p. 95- 66 Jai Prakash Sinfih and Gautam Sengupta edited, ArdiacoJjogy of Nortli-Bastcrn India, New Deliii, 1991, diaptctr XVII by Dliarraaswar Gliutia, pp, 222-43 60 •"is ; ,je F, Fleet, 1970 (reprint) »Allaliabad Posthumous Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta*, (^orpgs Inscriptionum III, Yorajiasi . ?;> p. N. Hiattacharya, KamarQpa Sllsanava31« Banaras, 1931, Intro., p, 14- 73 P. a. ahouclhury, HCPA. p, 135. 74 i< alandS (jlay iJeal, Line 1, 75 H, C, Mazujndar, The Classical AKe« Bombay, 19^70, p. 90- 76 D. Ghutia, op, cit,, p. 239 He is of opinion tliat tlie two brotheffi Hiagadatta and Vajradatta ruled contemporaneously indepoDdtfit of eacli otiier in the two neighbouring kingdoms of KSmarupa and Davaka, respectively, and tliis state of affairs seems to have be^ continued perhaps in tlie days of tlielr respective successors also. Hiis implies tiiat the two braiaches originating, respectively, from Bliagadatta and Vajradatta, of tlie same Hiauma^Naraka house ruled paralle- lly in the two neighbouring kingdoms of Kamarupa and ^avSka, 77 D, C. Sircar, QHii, p. 99. 78 P. G. Glioudhury, HCPA, p. 4S6. 79 Seal attaclied to tlie Dubi G. P. of Biaskaravarman, Line- 6 » 61 •<(< N. K. Hiattasali, »Asvaraedha Celebrated by the kings of i 96 Fleet, OP. cit.. p. 200-208. 97 Dubi Copper Plates, V. 72, lAA^ p. 27. 98 Life, p. 177f. 99 The original manuscript of tlie work is not available. It says tiiat in tlie year 612 Bakhtiyar advanced as far las Kamapltiia. Oiie date of Baklitiyar invasion as given in 62 tile Kahai Varasi Rock Inscription and confirmecl by the rabaqHat-i-N^iri is S.E, 1127 = A.D, 1205-06, In tlxat case the local era might have beeii started in 1206-612 ~ A.D. LuO JASB^ VI, p. 69. iOl K. L. Barua, SS^> P* 42ff. 102 a. G. Basak, History of North-Eastem India« Calcutta, 1934, p. 104. lO.'i s, L. Boruali, A Gomprdiensive History of Assam, New Dellii, 1985, p. 101- 104 Gait, 9Pt c41?., p. 26- 105 J. C. Giiosh, IHQy VI, pp. 442-43. 106 K, L. Barua, Indiaii Culture. I, pp. 421-32, 701-702, 107 P. G. Ghoudhury HGPA. p. 177. 108 H. G. Basak, fii, XV, pp. 302^12» 109 B, P. Siniia, Dynastic History of Magadha. Patna. 1977, p. 159- 110 B. C. Sen, Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of BetiF.aJ,, Gal. University, 1942, p. 354. 111 P. L. Paul, Early History of Bengial. I^ Cal. 1939, p. 27. Paul has suggested tliat tlie Tipperali Grant indicates tlie existence of a NStlia family who ruled as feudatories for tiiree generations before LokanStka. MimaliSrSja was tlie first of tlie family wiio was succeeded by his son SrlnatJia. iTlie latter was succeeded by Ms son Bhavanatiia wiiose relation witii tiie next ruler - Lokanatha is not known* 63 L1-: N. N, Yasa, Social History of KSmargfia, III, pp. 19-20, UiJ K. L. Barua, JARS. I, 97-103- 114 P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p. 178- il& a. G. Mazujndar, History of BflUftalT I, Dacca Univesrsity, 1943, p. 88 . lu D, c. Sircar, Select InscriDtlonSt Vol. II, DeHii, 1963, pp, 26 ff; Uaa, XXIII, p. 224. Lib Log, d-i . iiy lAlsii p- i65f • 120 Ibid, pp, 169-74 , 121 L£)i;.at . 122 l.p.C.a!'- 123 rqc^f . 124 ,t-Q^T4li - 126 Locah 126 JiUiii. VI, p. 69* 127 S. L. Barualx, OP. cit.. p. 107- 138 P. G, Glioudhury, HGPA» p. 186. 129 B. K. Barua, A- Cultural History of Assam^ I, Gauiiati, 1969, p. 32- 130 D. G. Sircar. GHA, p. 110. 131 Gait, OD. cit.. 0. 28. 132 L QC,ci.-f. 133 Quoted by P. G. Gboudliury, lifiEA, p. UBS- 64 134 K. L. Barua, ^gj^, p, 69- 136 M, M. Sliarma, lAA, p, 0.32- lar? n, C. sircar, CH^, p. 122 • 138 JASBy /Ol. LXVII, :iJB98, p. 99ff. 139 K. L. Barua, Sfii, p. 107. 140 D. G. Sircar, GHA, p. 122 • 141 Cited k-^ N, D. Clioudhury, HACA^ p. 83. 142 HayuiTtlial Grant of Har j jaravarraan, V,4, IAA« p. 90. 143 IJsiA, V.6. 145 i-QC> cut- 146 Ibid. V.6. 147 Ibid. V.7. 148 3;bid. V.8. 149 L O <^ • <^^- 150 Ibid. V.ll, lAA. p. 91- 151 D. Ghutia says tliat (JARS. Benudhar Sliarrna Commemoration Vol.. Gauliatt, 1987, p, 20) it was so loiig believed on tlie basis of tlie defective transcript of the Tezpur plates that the name of HarJ jaravarjnan' s fatlier was PrSlamhlia. But the clear reading of botii tlie ParbatlyS and I^giiallgai^' Copper Plate Grants of Vanamllla shows tliat Pralamblia is a wrong reading for SBlamtiia, and also tliat tlie name of HBrjJara's father WAS not Salarablia (sic Pralambha) but Aratlil, tlie younger brotiier of Salamblia. 65 '-"^ Tezpur Copper, PI.^ 166 p . ' ^U^» P. 0.33. ^^^' P- a08. ^'"iX CoppQi. p7_4. -Ui. P. 130. " °^ ^^'^-"^ HI, V 12 161 ,^ ^' iU, p. 166. ic. ,;'*'^^-.p. 31. ^^» ^-^1 p. l7Sf •l^f^-^. p. a4i. ""' "• ""«--., £A^ i'Xat' e °'of HIT«-JJaravar„au. •« • . 2S Vol., XQ't p /T • ^- ClioudJiup HcPii ^^^alpur copper piat« r ' ^' P- »«. ' ^-^-Sf P, 166. 66 a. G. Mazumclar, t^^^storv of Beingal. I, p. 117. ^!, N. Vasu, £IIs__cii., p. 159. ^. p. n. Clioudhury, HGPA, p. 215. i.'/ Tezjjur Copper Plates of Vaiinmaia, Line 24, jj^^, p. 100- 17 i IblcU, Line 20, ParbatlyS" Copper Plate of Vanaraala, Line 47, i^A, p. 119• 179 M. M. Sliarraa, lAA.. p. 128 . IBO LoC-.CU-f • IBl Ibid, p. 313 1S2 P. G. Glxoudhiiry, HOP A. p. 486. m3 Uttarbarbil Gopp oriTb'on Copper Plates, Lines 51-52, lAA. p. 159- .*w aauiiati Grant of Indrapala, V.17, i^A, p* 133, iir/ p, C. Giioudhury, HGPA, p. 486. 198 Gauliati Grant of Indrapala, V. 24, JMy P« 1^84- 199 Guw5kuclii Grant of Indrapala, V. 25, XM> P« 198, 200 Gualiati Grant, V. 20, lAAo p. 333. 201 Gachtal Grant of Gopalavarraan, V,22, IAA< p. 211, 202 Ibid,, V.20 . ^^03 Ibyi., 7,23-31. 204 Ibid,., Line 61, lAA, p. 212, 206 P. G. Giioudhury, HGPA, p. 486. 206 Ibid.t p. 259. 207 Ibid., p. 260. 208 Kiianaraukli Goppeo? Plates of Dliarraap'Sla, V.21, iM, p. 22a. 209 ^ubliahkarapataka Copper Plates of Diiarraapala, V»21, 1^, p. 245, 210 P. C. Giioudhury, HCPAf p, 486. 211 M. M. Sliarraa, lAA. p. 223 212 P. K. Hiattacharyya, ' Study of a few Geograpiiical names of Nor til Bengal' in Novura Organun^y Coochbeliar, June, 1985, Vol, V, No.l 213 iilimpur Stone Slab Inscription, RJ, XIII, V.22 • 214 II, P. Sastri, MASS, III, pp. 1-57- 215 K. L, Barua, op, c^t;., p. 148 • 68 r ?, N. Bliattacharya, KS, p. 40f, 145- i.imaaH Uopper relate of Vaidyadeva, V.13, JJ^, p# 277-, .... iDid., Line 47, JMi P- 280, .1^ Cited by M, M. SUarma, IAA% p. 273'. i-^/ h» K., Barua, OP, cit.. p. 40» ^ !' Assara Copper Plate of Vallabiiadeva, V.3, XM, p» 293, ^-^ ibid., V.6, IM, p. 294. 224 Ibid., V,3, IAA« p. 293. 225 ibid., V.16, IM, P» 295. 226 Ibid,, V.2 and 25, lA^. pp. 293 and 296. 227 IH9, XXII, p. 1-14. 238 R. R. Muklierjee and S. K. Maity, qorpus of Bafinal Inaerip- tions, Calcutta 1967, p. 854 cf. Hie Klinai»VarBi Hock inscription, ^aka 1127 suggests tlie defeat of tlie Turkish hords took place aroUJid 1205 A.D. (M.Neog. PrSchva^ SasajiavalT, Assara, 1974 pp. 141, 1. 229 P. C. Ghoudhury, HCPA, p. 256. 230 N. D. Ghoudhury, HAGA. p. 102 . 231 Lofft cjt. 69 CHAPTER - III i>atc3, i'lnd Spots, Locations and Issuing Centres of the Grants Dates of tlie Qrants iu file copper plate grants of tlie kings of PrSgjyoti^a- Kaiftarupa tiie date appears eitlier in tiie last portion or in tli© body of tiie inscription wiien it describes tiie occassion of the grant. It is found eitiier by writing in words or by using iiumDers. Generally, it mentions tlie regnal year of the king. in tiiat case, we have to decide tlie date of tiie inscription by fixing the ruling period of tiie king from literary or otlier sources. Tliis metliod is also applicable wlien tlie Inscription is ioujnd undated, i3ut wlien tJie undated inscription can not be dated by this method or from its internal evidence, an approximate date can be fixed on the basis of its palaeogra phy, In tills coniiection Aiimad Hasan Dani has suggested tiiat tiie stiidy of palaoocraphy should rest on a study of teciini- ques, materials and traditions of writing and not upon a iiariow raorpliological analysis,^ Among tJie undated grants of Pragjyoti?a-K5niarupa, first moiition may be made of the Na^ajarr-Klianikarglbn Fragmentary otone Inscription. It is mucli damaged. At pros^it it contains 70 Miv live lines wiiich aipply no tiling as to £lx tlie date of cue inscription. On palaeographic ground P.G.Choudhury assigns it to tile end of tlie 6th or tlie beginning of tlie 7tli ^eiitnry A,D,^ According to D.G#Slrcar tlie record is written in characters of about the Stli century A,D,^ But H.N.Sharma places it not later thaji the early part of the 6tli century n.D,^ Tlie Varraan kings started tlieir lule in the middle of • - 4t!j century A,D. and ruled upto tlie middle of the 7th i^^uitavy A.D. As the date of the Naga;iarl-Klianikarg5on ins- ci-iptioii I'all witiiin that period and as the style, language uiri script of tiie inscription is very close to tlie Umachal jiu 'v-irgaii^;a rvock Inscriptions, we may consider it as an .u3'' ri.ctlon of tlie Varman dyiaasty. Ajiother two undated inscriptions of tlie Varraan dynasty xiave been discovered till now. They are tlie 3>Ubi Copper jiate and the Nidhanpur Copper Plate Inscriptions of Bliaska^ ravanaan. The fonner grant was issued much earlier tlian the latter which is clear from its writing style. The script of tile Bybi Plate is the eastern variety of the Nortli Indian alphabet prevelant in tlie 6th and the 7tli centuries witli cer tain Pfjinarkable differences from the script of the Nidhanpur Copper Plate Gr«int of Hiaskaravarraan, The former grant was issued and inscribed in PrSgJyotisapura while the latter one was inscribed and issued from the royal residence situated at 71 Kar aasaAvarua. Wiien did Kar^iagavarna was included witliin tlie HO pi. re oX aiiaskaravariaan ? The fixation of tlie time will help s Gu assign a tentative date to the said grant. P.W.Biattacharya's opinion is tlxat immediately after the Joint victory of Har^a and Hiaskara over Sasinka in about 6u6 A.D,, Hiaskara spent sometime in Karjgiasuvarna celebrating tile Joint victory. At tliis time tlie donees met the king in ills temporary camp and managed to have tlie edict reissued to tiiem in place of one which was granted earlier by Hiaskara's great grand father Huitivarraan. But the tlieory of joint victory put forward by P.N. filiattacliarya has been refuted by M.M.Shairaa on the ground tiiat tiie xiargacarita does not give any indication tiiat Harsa 6 took part in tiie fight, K.L.Barua is of opinion that Kar^asuvar^ia passed to 7 iJJiasitara before the coronation of Heirsa in 612 A.D. lilt iiar^avardhana took tlie role of conqueror after 612 H.;j. is clear f2X)ra tlie account of iiian Ghwang,° Tlie pilgrim said that Harsa passed first six years of liis reign tiirough conquest aiul enjoyed a peaceful reign of 30 years after that. Here we get 36 years reign period of Har§avardhana. YUan ('liwojig Gompletod his works in 648 A.D,, in the year of tlie death of Harsavairlhana which is evident from the Chinese source. Then Harsa started his political career 36 years 72 uefore 648 A.D, i.e.,In 612 A.D. •flie pilgrim i»as totaly i" --fark of tlie activities of Har§a from 606 - 612 A.D. -dtor becomiiui tlie ruler of botli Kaayalcubja and Ili5nai5vara iursa probably engaged in incesaant wars witii the rulers of 9 iiadhyadesa and annexed their territories. His war against ':altuiKa was possibly a drawn affair. It would appear tiius, tiiat aii5skaravarman» s annexation of Karnasuvarija was possi ble only after tiie demise of Sasanka, the date of wlxich ranges from 619 to 637 A.D. R. D. Banerjee on the light on Ganjam Plates of 619 A.D. Iiolds tliat Hi!lskara conquered Qailda before 619 A.D. Because from the plates it appears tliat ^aSanka had already * lost his possessions in B^igal and was master of Orissa only' , But it seems improbable tliat in 619 A.D., Sa^Snka maintained his hold only over Orissa losing his original kiiii^dora iuciuding capital. Besides, Magadlia was under the icingdom of Sasanka till liis deatli is proved by the account oi" Yuan Gliwajig. From tile account it is known tliat shortly before 637 A.D, Sasanka eradicated tlie Bodlii tree at Gaya and ordered tiie removal of an image of Buddha from a temple near tiie tree. in addition, tiie discovery of a number of gold ajid silver coins of Saiaiika from the deltic regions of Beiigal and Saraata^ia along witli some so called imraitation uapta goljd coins gives as impression that Saianka "was not mexely ruler of western part but the whole of the undivi ded Btsigal, R. G, Mazumdar says that in 641 A.D, Harfavardhana cjonquerecl Magadha and in tlie next year he occupiecl Orissa mn Kongoda. At tliis time, Hiaskaravarraan conquered Gau^la 12 .ia But tile opinion of H. C. Mazumdar tiiat Shaskaravarman :>ui4uerai (jauda in 642 A.D, can not be accepted. Because *.i recei.viiit; a letter from iiarsavardhan, Hiaskaravarraan .r-oco<:2>.leel with a large troops of elephants and sliips up tlie • uiecs rmci readied tlie country of Kienshu-ho-ki-lo (Kajan- 13 ,;ala, near modern Rajraalial) Hence, it becomes clear tiiat 14 >aaua had alreafly come Uiider tiie jurisdiction of Hiaskara. besides, in 642 A.D. Hiaskaravarraan did not reside in Kar\ia^ suvcirna but in Pragjyoti§apura. He used to reside in Karna^ duvorna for a few years aftetr its occupation for giving tlie people the benefit of a well organized administration. During this v&y period tlie Nidlianpur grant must have been reissuerl to the decendants of the original donees as a part of his 15 revenue settlem^ait. On the basis of above observation it nay reasonably oe said tnat Bliaskaravarman conquered Gau 16 Tiie Tipperalx Grant of Lokanatha bears a date- Historians hold dtffer^t opinions reearding its 17 reading. Dr. Basak read it as 44 at first, Hiandarkar IS has suggested tliat the date is 144, Lateflf on, R, G. easak .fblie date "to 344 and ref €£PS it to tlie Gupta .!ira. This opinion of R. G. Basalc has been supported 20 by P. L* Paul who has placed tlie grant in 663 - 64 A.D. r, c. dioudhury says tliat tlie grant has been dated -ccordinj;: to the Kamarupa era started by Bliaskaravarraan ; i oy*r A.jj, ruKl tlierefore tlie date of tlie grant is 44 + 21 • - C3.X A.D. But D. G. Sircar on tlie grouixl of J Hitu^grciphy supports tlie later opinion of R. G. Basak ijici assit-m tlie Tippesrali Grant of Lokanatiia to 344 Gupta 21a :ra i.e., 664 A.D, We have already se^i as suggested Dy 3ircar on tlie basis of tlie close study of tlie Tipperali Grant of Lokanatiia that botli Jayatuiigavarsa and Jlvadlia- ran;- of the RJItas were like him feudatories of the Para^ "ie^vciTa who v;as a Gaud a king. Due to tlie corroded form of tlie Copper Plate Ins- criy)tion of Jlvoraja, tlie date of tlie grant is not known. Oi\ nnlar,ographic ground Dr. Chutia tliinlcs it of tlie op otii - JUi centuries a.u, iiut P. C. Clioudhury has fixed tiio dato oi two ujiiaiowi successors of Balavarraan (11) in betAveeai A.D. 765 - 90. JIvaraja may be onq, of them, if we 75 iiiow 15 years to tiie first successor (i#e, Diglddia- vm'ruaji) tiieii Jivaraja most probably raled between A«B« 03 ?bu - 90, His grant was issued at tliat time. Hie Kuruvabahi Grant of HarjJaTavarmaa, the ruler of the Salastamhlia dynasty is undated. But on the basis of tlie Tezpur Bock Inscription of G.E. 510 -830 A.D, Dr. Cliutia has fixed tlie date of tlie former grant round tim date of the latter. The Hayuntlial Copper Plate of tlie sane king is also not date4. Palaeograpliically, tlie praiit is to be placed in or about 826 A.D,*^ Actually, thr j^rant was issued by Harjjara's son Vancunala, the Yuvciraja, on belialf of tlie king, who might have been old 25 at tiiat tine and in a retiring stage, Harjjara's ruling 26 peiriod has becdi fixed between A.D, 815 -835, Therefore, We may say tiiat the Hayuntlial Grant was issued towards the close of the reign of HarJJara i,e, in 835 A,D. Bo til tlie DlghaHgaS and Parbatlya Copper Plates of Vana;nala, son of Harjjara, are not dated. His one inscrip tion i ^e,, tlie Tezpur Copper Plate was issued in liis 19tli rccnal year. Then tlie date of the inscription is 835 + 19 = 854 A.D. The Dlghallg56 record is earli^ in date tiian botli the Tezpur and Parbatlya Grants of Vanamala, Tlier(-;i'ore, we may place the Dhlgallga6 Grant in betwecai 76 -^.^ aiid 854 A.D. we have no other way but to place the PnrbatlyS Grant of Vanaraala witliin his ruling period. His 27 i)e;riofl lias been placed between A.D, 835 - 865, 'j:iie tvjo uiKlated inscription of the Pala dynasty are t.ie uachtal Copper Plate of Gopala and the PugpahhadrS Jopper Plato of Dliarniapala, v/e have to place tliese grants witiiin tlie ruling periods of tlie respective kings, P. C, 28 jiiouclhury iias placed Gopala betweeii A,D, 1065 - 3J08O .^jin Uiarraapala between A.D, 1095 - 1120 The Kamauli Copper Plate of Vaidyadeva is dated in aii way that its dating is too difficult without a knowledge 30 ou astronomy. It is recorded in tiie inscription, tiiat y.t lru:ic! has been donated on as ekadasi (i.e,, IjarivSsara) coinciding with a Viguva -. Samkrajiti, On tiie basis of tliis astronomical information and a consideration of tlie chrono- logy of the Pala and Sena dynasties of Bengal, Artliur Venis 31 has fl3Cod the date of the inscription as 1142 A,I), Tiio iissara Copper Plat€)S of Vallabiiadeva was issued iii the Saka year 1107 = 1181335 A.D, wlio most probably ruled between A.D. 780 - 90. Copper Plate Grants issueri by tiie rulers of Prlf jyoti^^A-K^fU'^ftuf- ar Name of tlie king'~who "' Ru ling"" p priod of"" Regnal"" JQST "'o' Name of tlie Grant issued tlie grant tiie king issuijif; tlie f;r •Tue Varrini'i Dynasty Nagajarl-Klianikargaon Not mentioned Not raejitioaed Not mentioned Fragmentary Stone Inscription Dubi Hiaskaravarraan A.D. 594-650 " Nidhanpur ti n 11 Tipperah Lokanatiia Not knowi 544 th Tlie Salastambha Dynasty Nagaon Jlvaraja A.D. 780-790 Not mentioned Hayunthal Harjoaravanaan A«D« 815-835 It Kuruvabahi n It It KTghallgaS Vanaraala A.D, 835-865 It Tezpur n N 19th Parbatlya n It Not motioned Uttarbarbil Balavarraan III A.D. 885-910 5tli Nowgong ti II 8th UlubarT 11 II 13tli T«blf C','f)f'% Name of "iSri^kTiie .iig porioc iJame of tlie Grant wlio IssuQci tiie Grant Uie Paia Dyimsty Goratbarl Hatnapala A.J). 1010-1040 12t Bargaon li 35 t Suwallcuclii II 26t Gauliati Indrapala A.I>. 1040-1066 8t GuSkuclii. It II 21s Gachtal Gopala iUD. 1065-1080 Not ment Klianamukh Dharmapala A,D* 1096-1120 1s Su bliaiikar apataka II 3r lisnaWiarlrS' It Not ment After tlie Pala Dynasty Kamaali Vaidyadeva A.D. 1138-1145 Not clea Assam Valla hiiadeva A,D. 1176-1196 Saka Era 79 Geo^rapliical Provenance of the Inscriptions i'iie task of locating tiie place names, mentioned in rjiB inscriptions is a difficult one. However, tiiree sources oi information can be applied for Ijocating tlie geographic Hi-ea associated with tlie inscriptions of the area under study. The reported find spot of tixe grant Is tlie most helpful source. The find spots of tiie Inscriptions are mentioned in many reports. Tiiey are identified in terms of well-known geograplitc division. The second source is tlie ii:xm'T- as seeii on the inscription of the division, district €uici sub-district witliin which the donated land lies. Wllel^-• ~!vor thn area included in these administrative divisions is a^wii, It is very helpful in locating tiie land. Finally, w!H-.r, riio donation is of village or villages and nh&i tlie Inscription refers to a village describing the boundary of the rrantfr! innd, then it is possible to locate these .jiGK-iit villages throu^iii a careful searching on tiie politi cal map of tlie land. illl tliese sources have beei:i utilised in locating tlie Cfxjgrapliical area associated with the inscriptions of tiie area under study. Still, tiiere are some inscriptions wliose geograpiiical location could not be made. In connection with locating tlie geograpiiical area PtiOVEWAl^GE Ui?" TilE CSiANTS ISSUED BY THE VifflilAN KINGS 1, Nagajarl - KlianikargSon Fragmentary Stone inscription, 2. Dubi Copper Plate Inscription of Bliaskaravarman. 3. Nidlianpur Copper Plate Inscription of BliSsicaravarman. 4, Tipperali Copper Plate Inscription of Lokanatlia. * Tlie square around tlie number indicates tlxe find spot while tlie circle aroai^ tlie number indicates tlie location of tlie issuing centre of tlie inscription, 81 associated with tlie inscriptions, it is seen that the kings of Fragjyoti^a-Kamaiupa donated lands to tiie Brlduaanas in tsie outskirts of the kingdom or in tlie territories gene- f ally Iniiabitecl by the tribal people. Most probably, tixe L'lotive betiind tlxis settlement of tlie Bralimanac among tlie • ii^bal peoples was to enable tlie latter to get an opportu nity of eominp closer of executing themselves with Sanskrit ulrure, more important with tiie better technique of pro- • iuc txoas as oecter known as wed-cultivation instead of smitiiit, cultivation wiiich was the prevailing mode of agri- auitare in tiiose areas. These Bralima^a settlers had the icjiDvuedge of calender, seeds, crops and cattle breading. 33 Thus, the Bralimafias wMle on tlie one hand helped to increase tlie productivity of the soil, at the same time played no rnean part in popularising the king of tiie country and thereby consolidating his kingdom. provenauce of tlie Grants Issued by tlie Vaiman Kings ' Among the Varman Inscriptions, first mention may be made of tiie Na6ll;JarI - KhanikargSon Fragmentary Stone Inscription. It has been reportedly collected from Naga- jarl area, nenr the village Klianikargaon of tiie Sarupatiiar area of tnt! Golaghat Jiub-Division of the Sib^agar Dist- 34 '' rict. But due to the corroded form of the linscriptioi we do not get the name of the village - where the grant 82 a us node. But as it is a stone inscription, its shifting tram a place to another distaut place is not easy. 3i&r&- rore, we may think tliat tlie land granted by this inscrtp- r.ioii was v^y near tlie find spot. The land granted in tlie Dubi Copper Plate of Bhaska^ i iv^artTiaix is not known as tlie last plate is not available. mc inscriptions have be^i discovered at the village Dubi in the Kamrup district, about three miles from the Pathsala 35 Hallway Station on tiie H, F, Bailway. Tlie Nirihanpur Copper Plate of HiSskaravarman have oeeii recoyered from almost on the eastern fringe of tlie Syliiet district of Bangladesh in tlie village of Nidhanpur (near Supatala village) of P^caklian^a pargana, within 36 Beanibazar thana. Hie land donated by tliis grant was in tliG MayurasTilniala - agrahara, belonging to tlie Gandrapurt Visaya^ bounded by the river Suska - Kausika in the easteipn, soutii-eastern Cities and a stream GanginikS to the west of it, P. N, Hiattacharya conjectures tliat tlie donated land 38 was situated by tlie side of tlie riveir Karatojta. K. L* Barua iiolds tiie opinion tliat tlie donated land was situated 39 within tlie present district of Purnea in Bihar. M. M. AO 41 Sliarma supports tlie view of Barua. But°J. G. Ghosh 42 and D. G. Sircar identifying Kausika witli Ku^iiiara in the Sylliet region, suggested that tlie donated land of tiie Kidhan- pur Grant of Hiaskaravarman was situated in the SyUiet dis trict of Bangladesh. 83 The Tipperaii Plate of Lokanatlia reportedly found in uxe old Tippera district in tlie Presidency of Bengal I,approximately the modern district of Comilla). By tiiis fttraiit, Loicanatiia donated a plot of land in the forest region 4-4 • 4S iat.avi-biiC[kha^i4a) in the vi^aya of Suvvunga, Tliis /lyaya has he&i placed in the Gachar area, east of Syliiet vv K^K.Biattasali, The donated land has not been id«iti- 4,ssuin^. centres of the V^armaii Grants Due to the corroded foim of the KagS.jarr-Khanikarg3on iiiscription, we know notiiing about the issuing centre of the grant. The Dubi Copper Plate of Hiaskaravarraan was issued flora his capital Pragjyotisapura. From the Uttar- 47 4S barbil and the Nowgong Copper Plate Grants of Balavar- man, it is kiaown tliat Pragjyoti?a was situated in the kingdom of Kamarupa wiiich was the capital city of Naraka, The - 49 50 » Bargaon and tiie Suwalkuclii grants of Ratnapala, the 61 52 Gauliati and Guvakuciii Grants of Indrapala, tlie Gachtai^. 53 . 54 * m 56 Grant of Gopala, the Khananoikli and Subliaftkarapataka Grants of Dharmapala and tlie Kalik5pur5na^^ also described Pragjyoti^a as the capital city of Naraka. The capital of Naraka secras to have been situated at the village Narakasur- gaon which is very near to the modern city of Gauhati» Because Kalikapurgna describes Pragjyotisa as a Giridurga 84 rvrK ' ^a.IaaurKa (.surrounded by mountains and water). We find r.hat NarakSsurgSon is also surrounded on three sides by tlie 67 'ine Karakasur Ilill, From the l:iubi Grant of HiSskaravarman we come to know that Stliitavarman built a city on the bank of the river Braiimaputra, P.C.Glioudliury suggests tliat tlie 68 said city might liave been an extension of PrSgjyotisa. Tliis lead us to conclude tliat Naraka* s Pragjyotisa wliidi was jL'ijr^iiAoliy located at and around the Narakasur iiill now .jstendect upto tlie bank of tiie river Brahmaputra, tlius making ' r3^:Jyoti3a identical with the modern city of Gauhati, which 59 is also sum'ounded by a semicircle of hills, The Nidhanpur Grant of Hiaskaravarman was issued from Karnasiivarna which was a second capital city of the king. • i- 'Uins of tlio city have recently been discovered at Haj- bai-iaan^a, six miles south-west of Berhampur, headquarter of cme mursiiidabad district. Now Karnasuvarna is a station of the Eastern Railway at a distance of 292 Km. from Howrali. The issuing centre of tlie Tlpperah Grant of Lokanatiia is not known. The find spots and locations of tlie plates of the Varmaii line are much more dispersed. JFrom tlieir geographical provenance we come to know that 1, The Varman kings were able to exteaid their iiold almost on the wliole of ilower Assam Valley. At the time of Bliaskaravarman it was extended upto tlie present district of Murshidabad in West Bengal. 2, Tlie 85 JO lit leal c litres under tliem were cone entrat eel in tixe •Lower Assam valley area. 3, The feudal kings had also tJit> autiiority to donate land by issuing copper plates which is evid^it by tlie Tipper all Grant of Lokanatiia. 'Vile Proveaiance of the Plates of the Salastanbha Line Amon^ tlie nine grants of tlie Salastambha dynasty, tixe first one is tiie Fragmentary Copper Plate Inscription c)J JIvarSja, It was found at Karaiyani Bamungaon, Palasani iincleir Itachali Police Station in Nagaon district, Notiiinc is known about the land donated by this grant due to tlie eon'oded form of tlie inscription, Tiu; Kuruvabalii Copper Plate of Harjjaravariaan was ioLUKt at tiio tirae of clearing tile debries for the recons truction of the nawfthar of the Kuruvabalii sattra of Lanka, go a township in tlie Nagaon district of Assam. Tlie donated land of the said grant is located in a ccartain field •where a sacrifice "was performed in the vigaya called Dijjinna. P. C, Ghoudhury takes DijjinnS to be id^itical with modern 63 Dinajpur of iiortli jjeogal (and partially of Bangladesii) 64. But tills identification does not appear to be correct. Hocently D. Giiutia has identified the vis ay a with the sou til-eastern region of tlie present Nowgong district inclli- ding areas of the raodcarn Karbi-Anglong district, waslied by the 86, pilUVEi^AI^CE Or THE GRANTS ISSUED BY THE KINGS OF THE SALASTAMBHA DYNASTY 1. Nagabn Fragmeatary Copper Plate Inscription of JivarEja 2. HSyujitixal Copper Plate Inscription of Harjjaravaman 3. Kuruvabahi Copper Plate Inscription of Harjjaravarman 4. DIgliallgSo Copper Plate Inscription of Vananala 5. Tezpur Copper Plate Inscription of VanamSla 6,, Parbatlya Copper Plate Inscription of VananSla 7. attarbarbil Copper Plate Inscription of Balavarman III a. Nowgong Copper Plate Inscription of Balavarman III 1 9, Ulnbarl Copper Plate Inscription of Balavarman III 87 65 i tfex mjo (u) or tiie Diian/Di^en (Yamuna). He is of opi- liion tliat Dljjinna is a Sanskritised form of a local name and is derive! from Bodo origin.^^ Most probably the land donate! by tlie Kuruvabalii Grant was very near to the find spot* The Haytintlial Cxrant of Harj jaravarman was discovered ht (!.n>iuithnl, in th© Nowgong district of Assam (now in tlie klKxr riilis district) .^"^ Among tiie tiiree plates of the grant only tiie middle one is available. Due to tiie non-aval lability ot tiie plates, tlie land granted by tliis charter Is not known. Hie DTgliaUga^ Copper Plate of Vanamaladeva was found at village iXgiiaH under Kaliabar revcoue circle of Nagaon district in ASsam.^^ By tliis grant VanamSla donated a land Hi Purjjika Pradesa« situated on tiie soutiiern bank of Bratuna- putra.^^ Tills prades'^a appears to be identical with PuruJI ylsaya of Kiianaraukli Copper Plates and PurajX-vi^aya of Puspa- biiadr'a' Copper Plate of king Dharmapala of the Brahmapala dynas- ty« Purjjika-vi^aya may be located in tlie southern part of tiie modern district of Nagaon, Inciiiding parts of Karbl-Anglong district of Assam around tiie river JamunS in tlie historically important Daboka region. In tiie Ettghallgao Grant there la a river named Dimara wiitcii forms tiie eastern boundary of tlie donated land. Cliutia identified tills river with the modern Dimaru, a tributary of tiie Jamuna in tiie present dis trict of Karbi-Anglong in Assam."^^ He thinks tiiat Purjjika was a large province in tiie soutiiern division of tlie 88 ivin|-rtora of Karaariipa wliich included both the ^i gay as of Dijji- ruih. ojid Kalahga witliin tiiat territory,'^*^ Because both tlie piaot: and the rivulet named Dijamakka mentioned in coniiection m.r.h tile boundaries of tiie villaee Digdolo-Vpddhagrama of the ! uj^pabhadra Grant are fouixl maationed in similar circamstanp. ces in the DigixaHgao Copper Plate Inscription.*^ The Tezpur Grant of Vanamala was found underneatli the earth near the town of Tezpur.*^^ The land donated by this grant was on the western side of river Trisrota' wliose soutrv.eastern boundary was candrapuri. Tliis Candrapuri may h< the G'nndrapurl vigaya of the Nidhanpur Grant. It Is alre ady noted that the said visaya was on the western bank of tiie ri V e r F a rato ya • 'i'ue r'ardatlya uraiit of VanamSla have been recovered at t.iH: villas;e of Parbatlya, three miles away from the Tezpur 77 to^ii ji iiarran^^ district, Assam. By this charter the land was r;i.iiit»i iu tile village called HaposagrSma belonging to 78 the SvalpamaiiiiOka visaya of tiie uttar»»kula. The word Jjbtai\akuia means tiie nortliern part of the river Brahmaputra. Tuis word is also used in otiier land grants of Kamariipa such fis Ratuiipala" s Bargaon Grant, Indrapala* s Gauliati Grant and Indrapala's Guwakachi grant.**^^ In the Gauhati Grant of Indrapala, we find Hapyoma as a name of a visaya. JUrther in the Assam Plate of Vallablia, Hfipyacca Is a name of a 89 maoaala*^'^ M.M.Shaima tliinks that Haposa, Hapyoraa and Hapyaka might roughly mean the same place, all of wliich are said to have been situated in the northern side of tlie river BralMa*- putpa.®^ P«C,Choudhury suggests that the place can be locate in the district of Darrang of Assara^^ whicli is ver^ near to the find spot of the Parbatly'S Grant of Vanamala. At tlie Uttarbarbil village of tlie Howraghat area of the present Uikir Hills district a copper plate grant of Bala- 84 vairaan III has been discovered. The grant is named accor ding to the name of the village. The land donated by ttiis grant was sliced off from the Vappadeva Pataka, in tiu> /ara- Sepa-^tana vi^aya, Pattana means a city while vifaya menns a district. !0tien it is clear that Varasepattaiia vl^aya r'erl- ved its name from the city of Varase, wliich mirJit have h&en the head-Quarter of the entire vl£aya,^'^' P«c,ChniirV;K> r?« thlnKs Varasepaftana to be identical with the Varia vist!.>a of Vaidya- deva»s Kamanli Grant, 87 At tlie time of the Mnuryas, tnr terrti oo pataka denotefl a sub-division of a vi^aya. But th^ tein was Bftt-so used in Assam, Here Pataka means to be a part of a village, or a kind of hamlet, having a name of its own, QQ but belonging to a larger village. Here the last meiining may be most appropriate and tlie land donated by tne prf^s.^at charter seems to have becai sliced off from the haralet nan*^ Vappadeva, Most probably the land grantetl by the Uttor^avb i plate lay near about tlie pres^it village oi' datl-5 =,«. i-rp^ta Sub-division.^ 99 B^avarman III' s Nowgong Grant was found at tlie village Satdrgaon by the side of the zlver kalang near tiie small town of Ptiranigudam, six miles to the east of Nowgong.^-^ ©le land donated by this grant was at Hensiva in Dljjinna ylfaya on - tile Dak a Inakula, l«e«, tiie soutiiern side of tlie 93 rlv«p Brlahmaputra. We have already identifiecl Dij^lnni vlgaya wltli tlie soutlv-eastern region of the present Nowgong distncti including areas of modem Karbi-Anglonp district of Assam, in connection with the location of the granter! land of Ktirtivabahi Grant of Harjjaravarman, The idcaitification of the place called Heiisiva has not been made. The Ulubail Copper Plate of Balavarman III was Xoium in a paddy field of tlie No.l Ulubarl village oi the wahar^j.-ii-l Maaja of the Darrang district of Assam.*' The donated land of this grant was sliced off from the land known as mkktira In the Manual vigaya, in the nortliern side of the river 95 Brahmaputra. The grant mentions the name of a river rvmed 96 9 ^ Dlmdau wlille describing tlie eastern and nortli-easter-: boundary of the donated land. Most probably, th^ identifica tlon of Monjai vi?aya and Dlmdau river has not be*^ m-re till now* Issuing Centre of the Popper plates of the S51astarabha Dynasty. Almost all the grants of tiie SalastamhiK: i-; -! ly were issued from the administrative centre or Haciapesv ru\u lf?w.t 91 c.= i uae oi tile place has beeai read differently by different S<.UA.OJ. irs such as Haruppesvara, Hatappesvara, Hadappesvara, .4^ pesvara, Hadapposvara, Hareiyesena etc. It has been -M.g|;e^t;^{ Uxat the city was definitely located at the site v>i tile raoclern Tezpur town on the nortix bank of the river ^•aiu-ii43utra»'^^ Durii^ the rcdgn of Vanamala it was of con- iidaiable dimensions extending probably from the Bamuni Hill * J ' tiu oast to Daliparbatiya on the west with the modern town ai •l From tlie above discussion it appears that all the known pT-rmts of the Snlastambha period were made by the rulers oi tue saiae dynasty. No trace can be found tiiat their feudal kings issued any grant. As with the inscrip tions of previous dynasty, find spots and locations of the granted land lie near tiie centre fiom where the inscripti ons were issued. The issuing centre of the grants changed frow the lower Assara valley to the upper Assam valley with Tespur as the centre of power. The geographical prov^aance of the grcUits of the Salastamblia dynasty indicates that the Salastarabiia administration was more firmly established in the Darrai:ig - Howgoi-j^j area than anywhere else in Kamarupa. 9J P\' lino plates oi" the Pala rulers have been discovered .! I i now. Amonf tJiem the first is the GoratbariL Copper Plate ,' Hntnapnln. Tho find spot of the plate is unknown. By • ixi. is mnt Ratnapala tLouatect a land sj-iced off from tiie _ - .101 o^uvGidasa jr'Tit-caka ana iihattaya Pattaica in tiie liavrnga visaya inp mucH is not identified, The exact place wiiere tlie Bai^aon Grant of Ratnapala "^as aiscovered is not known, IBut it iias beeii recovered from a cultivator of I^aliarbarl village of tlie Bai'g'Son mauja of tiie Tezpur ouo-division of tiie Darrai"it District, Assam, Tiie ^;rajit nas recorded tlie donation of a land sliced off from tiie kaiiadevapatiika i)i tlie Trayodasa^rStaa visaya in Uttarakula i.e., tlie northern bank of tiie river Braiimaputra, P,C, CiioudiiLiry in a map sliows Trayodasa£;rama in North Lakhimpur above Majuli.-^^"^ The ouwallcuchi Plate of Ratnapala was discoverer! in 105 villarp Suivallcuchi of the district Kamrup. Tiic land donated by tills trant is iii tiio ivolaiiga vi§aya wiiicii iias been located in the region near tiie raodeni Kalang river in tiie Nowi:one district of Assam."^^^ Tlie Ganliati Grant of Indrap^la was found in the village 93 '"^2^. it PiiOVENANGE OF THE GRMTS ISSUED BY THE PALA RULERS 1. Goratbarl Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala 2. Bargaon Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala 3. Sunalkuclii Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala 4. Gauliati Copper Plate Inscription of IndrapSla 5. Guakuchi Copper Plate Inscription of IndrapHa 6. Gachtal Copper Plate Inscription of Gopala ?• KhanSraukli Copper Plate Inscription of Dhairaapala 8. Sabhankarapataka Copper Plate Inscription DharmapSla 9. PuspabhadrS' Copper Plate Inscription of Dhairaapala 94 diirpaiiara of the PStldarrang Mauja of the Gauhati 8Ub- slvision of the Kararup district.-^"^ By this IndrapIIla gran ted a land at the KSsIpataka belonging to the HapyomS visaya iii the Uttarakula i.e. the northern bank of Bralmaputra, v/e also come to know the narae of a mandala known as H5pyacS and a village Haposa in they^plate of Yallabhadeva"**'*' and «^arbatIyS plate of Vanamala ^^ respectively. All the pla^ ces Haposa, Hapyoma and Hapyac5 might roughly mean the same place as all the places belonged to the northern bank of Brnliriaputra. The Assam Plates of Vallabhadeva refers to a villago nnnnd Sa/osmhikoHcika which may be identical with moueru ocuigsari, at a distance of 10 k.m. to the north of tiie Braimaputra, ;)ust opposite of Pandu."^^'IIP^ Therefore, we may say that the land donated by the Gauhati Grant of Indra- pala was very near the find spot of the grant. The Guwaicuchi GraJit of Indrapala was fouiui lit the village Guwakuciii, lying very near to the modem Wnlbari town of the Kamrup district of Assam.•'••^^ The land transferred by this graiit was in the Man^i yigaya in the north bank of Bralimaputra.-'--^'^ The grant refers to a place known as the Paiidaribliiimi while describing the boundary of the donated 115 land, -^ Till now there is a mauja in the KamiQp district, called as the Panduri mauja.^-'"'^ The Hangia junction of the NortlwEast Frontier Railway falls within the Panduri manja. lliB Due to the similarity of the name and also because of the 95 ,rf:'sent Paixluri belonging to the North bank of BraJimaputra, it may be supposed tliat Mandi Vlsaya was alsp soraawhcjre near or around modern Rangiya.-^-^^ It indicates that thi) land donated by the Guwakuclii Grant was near to the find spot. Tlie find spot of the Gachtal Grant of GopaiavaCTnan 120 is Gachtal, a village near Dabaka of the Nowgong district, By tliis grant the king donated a land sliced off from the KliSrlkonSkoaci-blmmi in Barasro^arabuba vlsaya. ^-^ There is a village named Bada in the modern Barpeta Sub-division of tlie Kamrup district. There is an affinity of tliis name - - 122 with Badasojambuba of the Gachtal Grant. Rirther, the suffix konclii indicates that the land granted by tiiis grant was in Kamrup district as it happened only in this dist- . ^ 123 net, The Klianamukh Copper Plate of Diiarmapala was reco vered from Khanamuldi, a village in Barbaghia mauja of tlie NowEoi-ig district,•^^'^ It granted land at DigalandJ: in the -105 PurujI visaya.-^ We have already td^itifled PuTUjI vigaya in connection with the identification of Purjjika pradeda of -Dighnllgho Grant of Vanamala. The find spot of the ^bliaiikara pataka Grant of Dhaiinapala is not known. It is named such because the land donated by this grant belonged to a locality called Subhah- 96 karapatHka in the Di^Jjinna visaya. The identifioation cf Di ! iliwa vi$aya has been made in relation to the granted 127 iRfid ot Kuruvabalii Grant of llarj jaravarman.*^' The Puspabhadra Copper Plate of Dharmapala was uncovered somewhere on the dry bed of the river Pu^pablia- df>. in Hortii Gauiiati. v/ith tiiis grant Dliarmapala donated a ' -ad sliced off from the land of Guhesvara-Dig Issuing, Centres of the Grants of the Pala Line "1 OQ Tiie ooratbari Grant of Ratnapala and the Gachtal /i*aiit of Gopaiavarraan 130 were issued from the adrainistra^ tive ceiitre of iiadapyaica, identical with Hadapeavara, wsis located at the site of modern Tezpur town* Wliereas the 131 13? Bargoon and Suwaikuciii Grant of EatnapSia , the 133 134 Gauhati and Guwakuclii Grant of Indrapala were issued from Durj;jaya. It has been suggested by P.N.Blinttwharya tliat wlien the people elected Braiimapala, he transferred Ills capital to Priigjyoti?apura or its neighbourhood"^ from Hadapesvara and it was Ratnapala who after fortifying the city called it Srl-Durjjaya, P.G.Glioudliury lias identified Durjjaya with Pragjyotisapura alsb but rejected 97 tne view of shifting of tlie capital to Durjjaya from Ha Tiie issuiiig centres of Kiianamukli and ^bliahkarapa- taka Grants of Dhaimapala are not known. But Ills Fu^pabhadra Grant was issued from the administrative centre of Karaarupa- 139 140 nagara, whicli N.N.Vasu tliinks to be in Rangpur. D P.K.Hiattaciiaryya following P.N.Hiattacharya lias identified - - 141 KRraaiiapanagara with the city of Karatapur. K.L. Barua tliinks it as 'the city of K5mrild of tiie Muslim chroniclers / - 149 at North-Gauhati near tlie t^ple of Asvakranta. "^ P«C« Clioudliury holds that 'the city of Kararud' of the Muslim writers caii be identified with a place in North Gauhati, just - 143 opposite Pragjyotisapura or Gauhati, The eastern portion of North Gauhati is still known as Rajduar (the royal gata) indicating tliat the king's palace was tliere. 144 There is aiiother place called aangmalial (the pleasure palact) wliich is incidentally the find spot of the Pu^pabhadra Grant of 145 Dharraapala, Under the former dynasty the political and cultural centres of Pragjyotisa-KSmariipa were concentrated in the Darrang-Nowgong area. But in the time of thfe pSlas tliese 98 , CO lie en tr at eel in the western side of that area l,e« in ru' Kamaiiap district, tii^-ough tlie previous area did not lo.'^ its importance wliich is evident from the find spots, Location of the granted land and administrative c^itres of !!•• nrajTits, Pi'ovenance of the Grants issued after the Pala dynasty T-he rvnnr\uli Grant of Vaidyadeva was discovered at .. ,inu.Li - a vil-Latje near the confluence of the rivers 146 varu,.ia and Ganga in Varanasi, By tliis, Vaidyadeva dona^ t0s tv*o villages of Santibada and Mandara in Bada visaya, ill Kamarupa roandala, in the :^iukt^i(, of Pragjyotisa, The ^r-xnted villages were undoubtedly situated in modern Kamarup district because we have already seen that Ba^a vipaya was located in modern Kamarup district of Assam, in connection witli our discussion of the location of the lands donated by the Uttarbarbil Grant of Balavarraan III and tlie Gachtal 147 grant of Gopala. The exact find spot of the Assam Plate of Vallabhadeva is not kjiown, W. Winder, the then Assistant Executive Engineer of Tezpur, presented it to the Asiatic Society of 14S Bengal in 1886, By this grant the king donated seven villages - Cadi, Devuniconci, Sajjapiga, Vangaka, Saosrahl- 149 iconcika, J^slpa^aka and SoncIpat;aka. The suffix-KoncI^^ 99 Li. tne names oi' tlie villages (Devunlkohcr, Samiui-alilkoncika) iudicatos that the donated villages were situate^ in modern 160 rvam^rup district, Issuinp: Centres of tlie Grants Vaidyadeva issued his Karaauli Grant from liis victo- ISl rious poyal head-quarter situated at Harasakonci. It was in modern Kam^rup district is indicated by the suffix-Konci mth the name of the centre. The administrative ceiitre from where Vallabhadeva's Assam Plate ytas Issued is not kiiown, Tho fine'' spot, location of tho donated lands and Issninr contre of the grants issued after tlie pala dynasty coiifirw our inference that the political and cultural cen^ tres of Prngoyotisa-Kamarupa gradually shifter from the cast to the west. 100 MOTES & liEFEI-iENCES i r,.|-l.i\ani, Indian Palaeagraphy, Oxford, 1963, pp,78 and 86 Lhid. p.K), i»ani writes, »»The forms in any particular inscription are not ends in themselves. They are tlie materials for proper study and analysis into one or other tradition followine one or otlier teclmique. The tradi tion relates the script to one particular culture, and thus writing becomes a part of tiie culture, and the diff^ relice in tecliniquc accounts for tlie creation of the new forms. AS a palaeographer I ara in quest of the tradi tions and the tecliniques that can better explain the development of the characters in India, and thai pave the \vay to ciellnint; tixe particular cultures within wliich the different writing styles operate. The development of tlieir wiltings is a part of the evolution of these cultures," 2 Cited by M. M, Shama, i^ p, 303 4 Ibid, The basis of Dr, Sliarma is a letter, dated 27th July, 1972 to Kamaleswar Salkla, Lecturer, D.R.College by the Cliief EpigrapitLst of the Government of India where he wrote tiiat "tlie inscription is in Gupta charac ter of about 500 A.D." 6 P. N. Bliattacharya, KSygp* 16 101 o ,;. M, Sliarna, Xiy^, p» 56. ' r. L. Barua, j^l^, p. 67- % (taraa Prasad Gliaiida, 3;tiiiase BSngSlT* Gal, 1981, p. 104-06. 10 R. D. Banetrjee, History of Orissa, I, p, IHBf. 11 a. G. Mazuradar, BafiKla Desher Itili5s« PrSchln Yuga, I, Cal, 1988 p. 39. 11a P. K. Hiattacharyya, Two Interestiiig Coins of Safeaiika, JRAS. , pp. 153-54. 12 R. G. MazLundar, op, cit. ^ p, 42- 13 Life of Yuan Ghwanp:, pp. 169-74. 14 jj. IX, joarua, pp. clt.< p. 29. 15 M. M. aiiarraa, iM> P- 29. 16 Tipper all Copper Plate Grant of Lokaiiatli, Line 29, Si, XV, p. 308. 17 Loc. df_- IS Gitsd by P. L. Paul, Early History of BenKal^ I, cal., 1939, p. 27 (foot-note). 19 LOC-..CA1-' 20 Loc, elf* 21 P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p, 178. 21a D. c. Sircar, Kailan Copper Plate Grant of Srldharana RSta, Ili2j XXIII, p. 224. 21b Ibid., Select Inscriptions, II, Dellii, 1963, p. 29. 22 JARS, :CCCI, 1969-90, p. 111. 23 P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p. 4B5. 102 H ibid., p. 212. ;a5 14, M. Sliarma, lAA, p, 85. >:G P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA. p. 212-13 . '?7 ibid., p. 486. •Jb L o c . cii. 09 Li;^^.''-''' ;3C' Si, II, p. 347-68. 31 I 0 C . I i [ . 3?- Ibid,, V, p. 181-83. Jo iruaaieiidu Guiia, Medieval and Early Colonial Assam, p. 41. 34 M. M. Sliarma, i^, p. 303. 35 Ibid., p. 10 . 36 Ibid., p. 38. 37 Nidhanpur Copper Plate Grant, lines 49, ia;3, iM, p.43, 49. 38 P. N. Hiattadiarya, £S, p, 5, 39 Cited in lAA, p. 62-64. Barua' s cliief arguments are as follow* 1 I. KausikS must be idmtified witli Koki of BLliar, because phonetically tlie ivord Kausika is more akin to Kosi tliaia to Kusiara, II. Tlie Kusiara, which runs practically from east to west, could not have formed tlie nortli-eft»t«rn and sou til-eastern boundary of tlie donated land. It must have been possible only on the part of a river like Hosi of iiUiar, running from nortli to soutli. 103 III. P. N. jBliattacliarya in his KamartlDa SSsaiava trios to eatablisli tliat SyUiet was a seperate kingdom tn tiie beginning of tlie 7tli c^tury A.D. and tlxat ev^i YUan (jhwang made seperate mention of Sylliet (Slii-lxi-clio^to-lo)» 40 LoC.Cit . 41 J. 0. Gliosh, iSa, VI, p. 642- 42 D. 0, Sircar, iflfij VII, p. 743. 43 Si> XV, p. 301. 44 Tippcira Grant of Lokanatlia, Une 22, fii, XV, p. 307 . 45 Ibid., line 21, St> ^V, p. 307 . 46 New Lif^ht on tlie History of Assam, IHQ, XXI (1945), p. 28. 47 Uttarbarbil Grant of Balavarman III, V,S . 48 Nowgong Grant of Balavarman III, V.6 . 49 Bargaon Grajit of RatnapSla, V,5 . 60 Suwalkuchi Grant of Ratnapala, V«5 . 51 Gnuhnti Grant of IndrapSla, V,6 . 52 uaw^uciii Grant of indrapSla, V.6 . 63 Gachtal Grant of Gop^a, V.8 . 54 iaianSraukii Grant of Dliarraapala, V.2 - 55 Subliaiikarapat^aka Grant of Ddiarmapala, V«2 56 KalikHpiiraoa, 38, 123f 67 Dubi Grant, V.3? 68 P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p. 156 69 M, M. Sliarma, lAA, p. 221 According to D« G, Sircar, Lalitakanta as m^itioned in tlie Kalika puraiia (Gil. 38), not f^r from Gauliati, tlie 104 •iiifi city oi' Assam, lying a few miles from tlie Kamakliya teinple and identified witli tlie ancient city of Pragjyo- tisapura (Studies in tlia Gfogranhv of Ancirtit and Medieval India, Dellii, 1971, pp. 162-63). X.- R. G. Mazumdar, History of Bcaigal, I, p. 7. "^i- £ABS» XXXI, 1989-90, p. 106. G2 Ibid., :aVI, 1961-82, p. 1. 63 f, J. Ghoudhury, HOP A, p. 242- 64 M, M. Siiarma, IAJ\. p. 249- 65 Abliinanda Hiaratl. ed, by Biswaiiarayan Skastrl & P. G. Ghoudhury, Gauliati, 1982, p. 123-29. 66 Loc.oi . 67 M. M. Siiarma, lAiy, p. 89. 68 i^aS, XXIX, p. 27-52 . 69 Ibid., p. 42. 70 Ibid.. Baiudhar Siiarma Commemoration Vbl.« 1^7, p. 212 Botli PuraJI and Pujari of nUarmap5la's Grants , are referred to as viigava. whereas Purjjtka is ref^ rred to as Prcidesa. Tlie expressions Pradesa. vi^ava etc. are g^iearally used to indicate tesrritorial units, sometimes big, and at otlier tines small, T!lie torra vi^aya is generally used to mean a territory eQtJiva- l^it to a modern district, wttliin a prades», i.e., province. Tims prad esa* according to the same referen ces, is bigger territorial unit, wliile vigaya is a 106 Siialier such unit. Bit there are other refercaices where prade^a is used to mean actually a vigaya, i«e«, 1 district. In the DlghallgaS Copper Plate tlie terra prades'a may be talc en in the latter sens©, i.o», a territorial unit equivalent to a district (yijinya). 'Vd JrU-iiJi XiCXiC, p. 50-51- '^^ J Alts ^ Benudhar Shairaa Qomraemo ration Vol. ^ 1987, p.213 74 LoC.cif . 75 Tezpur Grant of Vanaraala, V,32, lAA, p. 100. 76 It is impossible to identify Trisrota of Tezpur Grant witii the JJhirai River of Tezpur wliich was also called Trisrota" in Kaiaarupa. Because TrisrotS is motioned in such a raaiiner in tiie Tezpur Grant tiiat it appears that tile river was most celebrated one* Hence, the Trisrota referred to here must be the most celebrated Karatoya river which is described as the river Ganga of Dvaptira. 77 M, 'J. Sharrna, XM? P» H^ . 78 Parbatiy" Grant of Vononala, line 48, lAA, p. 119. 70 :.:, M, Siiairaa, IAA, p. 125. 80 ucmhati Grant of Indrapala, line 36, XMJ P» 183. 81 Ass-jjn Copper Plate of Vallabhadeva, V.12, lAA^ p« 295 82 M. M. Shaima, Ik^^ p. 300. 83 P. G. Ghoudhury, HCPA, p. 219. 106 >i4 M. M, Siiarraa, IAA« p. 127- 85 uttarbarbil Grant of Balavarman III, lines 36-2f7, iM> P- 132. 86 M. M. Siiarraa, IAA« p. 138. 87 P. G. Glioudliury, £Xj Hi P» 347-58. 38 A. s. Alldcar, The State and Govetrnraent in Ancient In^ia, Banaras, 1949, p. 156. 89 1^, XVIII, p. 135. 91) P. G, Gliouclhory, HGPA« p, 223. 91 M. M. Siiarraa, IAA« p. 142- 32 Nowgong Grant of Balavarman III, line 33, XM> P« 146. 93 M. M, Siiarraa, lAA^ p* 149. 94 Ib3^., p. 313. 95 UlubTlrl Grant of Balavarraan III, line 37, JMi P« 314 . 96 IblfU^ line 54, iA^, p. 315- 97 Ibid., line 54, IM, p. 316. 98 JABS, ggiMctHgy gi^aryqa gc>ranfinQratlQa..,y p. 511, 107 U)6 M. M, Siiarraa, lAA, p. 173- 106 B. K. Barua, A Cultural History of Assam, Nowgong, 1961, p. 34. L07 M. M. Siiarraa, lAA. p. 179. ioB Gauiiatl Grant of Indrapala, line 36, IAA> p. 3JB3. i(i9 Assara Plates of Vallabhadeva, V,13, lAA, p. 295- 110 pnrbatlyS Graiit of VonanSla, lines 50-51, IAA% p, 119. 111 M. M, Sharraa, xy, p, 300. 11-^ LOG, clt. 113 M. M. Siiarraa, lAA, p, 193- 114 Guwakuchi Grant of InclrapSla, line, 34, IAA< p. 197, 115 ibid.., lines 60-61, lAA^ p, 199. 116 M. M. Siiarraa, 1M> P- 201-202 . 117 iocj-CU- 118 ioc^sJJi. 119 lfi .iib lUianamuklx Grant of Qliarmapala, line 29, X44, p. 228. L ^-> SubliaiikarapSl^alta Grant of Dharraaplla, lines 31-32, i4^, p. 244. X27 M. M. Siiarnia, lAA.. p» 256 . 138 Paspabliadra Grant of Diiarraapala, line 46, IAA% p. 261. 129 M. M. Sliarraa, XM? P« 0^21. 130 Gaclital Grant of GopSlavarraan, V«31, iM> ?• 212. 131 BargSon Grant of Batnapala, line 40, iM> P« ^^58- 132 Suwalkuciii Grant of Ratnapala, line 30. 133 Gauliati Grant of Indraplla V.19, IAA« p. 183. 134 GuwaJcuclii Grant of IndrapSla, V,19, IAA» p. 197. 135 P. N. Hiattacliarya, ]^, p. 25f. 136 Ibid., p. 251. ISf? P. C. Glioudlmry, HGPA, p. 231. 13B LOG, cll^. 139 Paspabliadra Grant of Diiarraapala, V.20, XAA, p. 261, 140 N, N. Vasu, Social History of KamarSoa. I, Now Deliii, 19B3, p. 174 . 141 P. N. Hiattacliarya, ^, p. 29-34 Gf. P, K, Bliattacliarya. 142 K. L. Barua, EI^, p, 93. 143 P. G. Glioudiiury, HGPA. p. 245. 144 Ii9c, 145 iiaSjL_Sii- 146 M. M. Sliarma, XAA. p. 273- 147 Karaauli Grant of Valdyadeva, lines 4B-49, IAi\y p. 280. 109 Jk M, M, Sliarma, ^AA, p. 291- 149 Assam Plate of Vallabiiadeva, V.V.IS, 19, lAA, p. 295 U>0 M. M. Sliarma, lAA, p. 300. 161 Kamauli Grant of Vaidyadeva, line 47, lAA, p. 280. 110 CHAPTER - IV Appearance oivl Organization of tlxe Inscriptions The Appearance of tiie Insorlptions Til ere are many similarities and differences botli in the appearances and orgaiiizations of tlie inscriptions of Prag;jyotisa-Kamarupa, issued by the kings of tlie land with a single exception, i.e., tlie Tipperali Grant, issued by Lokanatha, Since no chemtcal analysis of tlie Inscrip tions have been made. tlieir diff€£PQi.ces in colour (as noticetl by us in the Assam State Museum, (iSLUliati) indicate tiiat tiiere is wide variation in tlie chemical make-up of tlie plates. The sizes and weights of tlie grants also vary wliich has shown In table No, 2, Hie plate used in tiie DlghallgaS Grant of Vanaraala (12,5" x 8") is tlie biggest whereas tlie plate of Assam grant of Vallabliadeva (8" X 5i-") is tile smallest in size. There is also diffe- r^ices in the numbers of plates as has be^i used in tlie inscriptions of tlie land, i^lve plates have be^ used in tlie Dubi Grant of Hiaskaravarman and in the Assam Grant of Vallabliadeva, sev^i in tlie Nidhanpur Grant of Hiaskaravarman, two in the KuruvabShi Grant of Harjja- ravarraan and one in the Tipperali Grant of LokanStlia, while other grants were consisted of tliree plates, Tlie Table 2 Description of tlie Inscriptions No. of Lines Size of Plate Designation Size Weight Obverse Reverse Seal Plates of tlie Varman Dynasty Naga4 arl»£hanlkar- 5 gaon Fragm^tary Stone Inscription Dabi CP of 5 plates each 236f tolas 1st plate 13 3.4" X 3 Bhaskaravairaan 9.3" X 4.6" (including 2nd plate 13 14 Seal) 3rd plate 12 13 4tii plate 13 13 6th plate 13 13 Nidhanpur GP of 7 plates 1st plate 15 Bhaskeiravaman (one lost) 2nd plate 14 16 each 6"xll" 3rd plate 14 14 4th plate 15 16 5th plate 13 14 or 6th plate 7th plate 11 Tipperah GP of 1 plate 26 31 Lokanatlia loj" X 7i" •« Plates of tlie Salastambha Dynasty Nawgaon GP of 3.4" X 3 Jlvara^a i Fragmentary) iu,re¥ibahl JP of 'iLiittes Bsch 1st plate 2£ 3.7" X 2 -B '7M -•^K: plate 18 Table 2 (contd.) No. of Lines Size o Plate DoalKnatlon size WelKht Obverse Reverse Se HayuntUal CP of Among tlie tliree 2nd plate 14 14 Harjjaravaman middle plate Is available 6" X 11" Dighallgao CP of 3 platesjeach 5*3 Kg. 1st plate 17 6,4" X 6. Vanamala 12.5W X 8" (including 2nd plate 17 17 seal) 3rd plate 12 Tezpur CP of Not known not known Not known Not known Vanamala parbatlya GP of 3 plates,each 258 tolas 1st plate 15 4.7" X 4. Vanamala 10« X 6.2« Cinelading 2nd plate 16 15 seal) 3rd plate 13 Uttarbarbll GP of 3 plates, each 1st plate 14 6" X 3" Balavaraan III 10" X 6i" 2nd plate 14 14 3rd plate 12 Nowgong CP of 3 plates, each 1st plate 12 6" X 3" Balavaraan III 12" X 7" 2nd plate 12 12 3rd plate 13 Ulttblirl CP of 3 plates, each 4200gs. 1st plate 14 3.7" X 4. Balavaraan III 6.3" X 10.3" (inclading 2nd plate 14 14 seal) 3rd plate 13 Plates of the Pala Dynasty •- Dlates.aaci: 1st plate 20 2Dd plate 23 15 3rd plate 14 Table 2 (contd.) Horn oX Lines Size o Plate DeslKnaUoQ M£^ W^fiht Obverse Reverse Se Bargaon CP of 3 plates, each 1st plate aatnapala lOi" x 6|" 2nd plate 20 20 3rd plate 15 SQwalknchi CP of 3 plates, each 1st plate 19 RatnapSla 12" x Si" 2Dd plate 19 19 3Td plate 7 Oanhatl CP of 3 plates,each 1st plate 14 Indrapala 10« X 6«» 2Qd plate 15 15 3rd plate 9 Gaakuchl GP of 3 plates,each lat plate 14 Indrapala 10" X 6« 2Qd plate 19 19 3rd plate IB Gachtal CP of 2 plates,each 1st plate 22 Lost Gopalavarman 9.6" X 7.2W 2nd plate 23 23 3rd plate lost Khananokh CP of 3 plates, eacli 1st plate 16 5« X SJ^" Dharaapala 9" X 6" 2nd plate 15 15 3rd plate 12 Sa bhahkar apa-|faka 3 plates, each 1st plate 17 Brok^ 9« X ei" 2nd plate 16 16 CP of Miairaapala 3xd plate 14 i'u^pabiiadra JP o£ j plates, each 1st plate 15 2nd plate 16 16 3rd plate 10 .114 Table 2 (contd.) No. of Plate Designation Size Weight Obverse Copper plate issued aft Kaaaali CP of 3 plates, each 1st plate ValdyaSeva 2nd plate 16 3rd plate 9 Assam CP of 5 plates, each 1st plate Vallabhadeva 8" X 5ji** 2nd plate 7 3rd plate 8 4tli plate 8 Stii plate 9 116 u.v.beri. of lines in the inscriptions vary markedly from V4*,,, used in the Nidhanpur Grant of Bhaskaravarman (though = »r.^ plate has been lost) to 35, used in the KuruvSbalii urant of HarJ jaravarman, They bear a sufficiently close resemblance to each otlier as they are to be treated as a single class of docu ments. All of thG»n "Were Issued from the royal courts. Their language is Sanskrit, written in Brahml scripts. They are written in mixed prose and verse with the exertion of Assam Grant of Vallabhadeva which is written totally in verse. Furthermore, inscriptions issued by the sane king are almost same in appearances euid organizations* Content and Organization of ti^e Inscriptions The inscriptions of PraeJyoti^a-Kamarupa have four teen distinguishable parts, though many of tliem leave out one or more parts which is sliown in Table No,3. The lengths and contents of these parts ciiange from time to time in such a way that they give a seperate character to the inscriptions of each dynasty. These fourteen parts of tile inscriptions can be grouped into three broad parts, viz, the introductory part, the central part or property trans fer part and the concluding part* The introductory part or preamble of the inscription includes benediction, IDS .j.vucatlQn and description of tiie authority wlio issues the ' juit. The occassion upon which the grant was issued, the •^-.ijiteiit, the description of the granted property consti tute the central part. The concluding part includes address to tiie various officials and responsible persons no respect the grant of property, admonition, conveyance and names of the producers of the inscription. In addition to these tliree broad parts, tiiere are three other elements wliich occur in most of the inscriptions. These are the date of issuing the graiit, issuing c^itre and the authen^. ticating seal* No particulars op^itng formula or words can be found in the inscriptions of PrSg^yotl^a^-KSmarflpa, but the anji sign frequently followed by the word Svastj. meaning success or luck,^ occurs in all the subsequent inscriptions. It is seen in the DlghallgSd, the Tezpur and the ParbatlyS Plates of Vanamala, Uttarbarbil, the Nowgong and the Ulub^ii^ Plates of Balavarman III, the Gauhati and the Guwakuclii Plates of Indrapala, the Khanamukli, the ^bhapkarap^taka and the pu^pabhadra Plates of DliarmapSla, The inscriptions of Bhaskaravsirman bears neither the anJi sign nor the word svasti* His Nidhanpur Plate starts simply with the word OM and the Dubi Plate starts with a salutation to lord ^all^elcliara. The inscriptions of Ratnapala start with the Table 3 A| Organization of tlie Inscriptions of. the Vaiman Plate Benedlc- Invooation Description Place of Oocasslon Reoelplent Designation tion of the issue Nag&Jarl- ft>r gai KhanlkargSon ning fame Eragmentary Stone ins- cziption DaW. QP of Adoration Royal des- Pragjyo- Wearing Dhattapri- ^Sskara to sa^I- yah-Karagh c^t for ti^apura out of sasvanln ;§ekliara. tlilrrteen (known tlie pre- 1/117 * and others g aerations, from the vions 6/117 110/117 seal) charter. Nidhanpur Svasti Adoration Royal des- Karnasu- Wearing 208 BwBi- CP of ix> Sailio" c&fxt for varna oat of minas BliSskara khara thlrte^ ^140 the pre- 76/140 2/140 generations, vious 48/140 charter, Tipperah^GP Adoration Description Not Request 210 Brali- of Lokanatha to Sankara of four stated iQdnas generations saaaftta 20/67 14/67 Pradofa- saxisan* •2i.ae^iBS,ionB 17 liidicatee tr Table 3 A (contd*) Address & Plate DeBlgnatton Injimction iAmniU9n Oaaj^eJaBfefi AithePti Nagajarl- Khanikargaon Fragmentary Stone Inscription Dabl CP of Royal se Hiaskara legend: genealog Nidhanpar CP Informed dis Merit of Qf fleer Koyal se of Biaslcara trict officers giving and Sri Gopala leg&ids and the coarts evil of clear, of Justice in confieating the district of Candrapuri V140 Tipper ah CP Merit of Sandhivigrahi- Qajalalc of LolcanStha giving and lea Praj^anta- seal) t evil of oeva. Knaarai confisca ting Lokanat 1/67 119 I ^ Table 3 B; Organization of the Xosoriptlons of the Salast Plate Benedic- Invocation Description Place of Occassion Recipi Designation tlbn of t*ie Issue ^ authority Ifagaon CP Not clear A Brah of J£va- in ana raJa(Frag-. mentary Kuruvabahi Svasti Adoration Royal des Not Day of A Brah CP of of Hudra cent for stated eclipse ^5/3 Harjjara (Jiva) four gene V34 rations* 5/34 flayoBthal Royal des Hrdapes- CP of cent for vara HarJJara ten gen&> V28 rations* 20/28 DighaJlIgad ^v&fftt itdoratlon Royal de»* Hadapes- Jiat|§ CP of of Lauliit* cent for vara Gallah Vanamala ya Sindhu five gene 17/63 and hi and Lord rations* JElve PJ^nalcI 26/63 brothe iSiva), y63 a^6s 120 Table 3 B (eontd.) Plate Benedic* Invocation Description Place of Occupation Reci Designation tion of the Issue Aathority Tezpur CP Svasti Adoration Royal de». Ha^ape^ R>r reli Brala of of the cffit for vara gious Indo 7ananala Laahitya, five gen^ 17/24 merit of ^3 rations. tlie pare vers verses 23/33 nts of verses the king. Parbattya Svaati Adoration Royal des- Hadapes- R>r increa^ JEb^ah CP of of the cent for vara se of the Cuda Vanamaia Laohitya five gen^ 14/59 raerit and 6/5 4/69 rations, fame of the pare nts of the king and of himself. Uttarbarbil Svasti Adoration Royal des Hai^apes- ft>r increa^ fihat CP of of tlie cent for vara se of the SySm Balavaiman Lauhitya six gene 1/54 merit of 7/ III a/54 rations. the parents 19/614 of the king and of his own welfare. 121 Table 3 Bj Organization of tlie Inscriptions of the iala Plate B^edic- Invocation Description Place of Occassion Reci Designation tion of the Issue Autliority Novfiong CP Svasti Mo ration Hoyal des- Ha^appes- ^r gain Brah of Balavaxnan to the o^it for vara ing wel 3rut III Lauhitya six g ae V49 fare of 9/ 3/49 rations* the king 19/49 and his parents* Ulabaii CP Svasti Moratioa Royal des Hadappes» For galn^ Brah of Balavemaan to tile cent for rara Ing wel IJ^^n III Lauliitya six gen»> 1/56 fare of 9/ a/66 rations* the king 19/65 and his par^its* Table 3 B (contd.) Plate Address & Designation Injunction Aclmonltlon Conveyance Aathentlcation ojT Plat Nagaon GP of Hoyal sealj a Jlvarfija legend: gafia*. (Fragmentary) ra.1adliiraia Sil Jivarajasya Knruvabahl CP Addressed state Not stated Not stated Royal seal; Not sta of Harjjara officials beginn- a legendi lag with Vi^aya- Prafijyptisa^ Jcarana, Vyavaha* 3rl Harjjara HEaTSarmM etc. Hayuntlial CP Informed Malign By prince of Harjjara Sainyapati« Maha^ VanamSla Dvaradiiipati. Malia-Pratihara etc. a/2B Dighallgao GP Not stated Not stated Not stated Royal seal} a Not sta of 7ananiala legendj, Svastl Srlman Pragjyotisadhi" patl Panvaya Mahara.ladhi ra.1a sriT Vanamala- varnadeva. Tezpur C?r i./t stated iiot stated wot stated j:ioyal seal; a of VanaiB,a;.a legend:, svastl SriLmgn DatLi:an2a2S» yayaqdgYa, ma Table 3 B (contd.) "" Aidress & Pro Plate Pes!Ration Injanction Ailmonition Conveyance Autlienti cation of Parbatlya CP of Not stated Merit of Not stated Royal seal; No Vanamaia giving and legend:, evil of Svasti Srlraan cdnfiseat Pragjyotisaahi- ing 2/59 panvayo, MaliSrajadbirSja Srl-yaaamalai^^ Varmmeva. Uttarbarbil GP of infoiTaed .Hraiima^ Not stated. Not stated Royal seal; No Balavarraan III nas, VisayaJca^ legend; Svasti fana^ Vyavaliarika, Sriffl|n_^agjyoti- Rajas, Hajnis e^ s^hijj^wa^o, aaiarajadliiraja tri - .BalVariSaffevali. Nowgong GP of i^dressoA citi- Not stated Not stated Royal seal; No Balavarraan III zcais beginning legend:, with tlie Bralima- Bvasti Sriman nas,, the scribes, Pragj'yotisa^ tne administra dliipanvayQ tors etc. Maliarajadhiraja 4/49 SrI-Balavarma- d evali. vt',d ^ ''Ss ^''' '^i ti•• Hot stated Mot stated Royal seal; zerts b^^ptiiii'iinK legend: , B'^asti Sriraan ^gjyotisa^ -^ >ii panvaya {.ryrs r^tc. • laliHra j adl^r a j a iriLrJalavaxraade- vah, Table 3 C} Organizations of the Insoilptions of tlie pala Dynast Plate Benedio- invocation Description Place of Occassion Recipient Designation tion of the Issue Aitliority Cor&tbaori Svastl Praise of Royal des« Hadapya- For the Brahpana CP of Sahlcara cent fbr ka fame of SiddhapSla Ratnapala and tlie two gen&* a/72 the pare 8/72 Lauhitya. rations* nts of tlie 6/72 17/72 king and for his o«n wel fare. Bargaon CP Svasti Praise of Royal des- Durjjaya Fbr the ralimana of Ratnapala Safikara c^it for ia/72 fane of f Iradatta and tile tw) g^e- tlie par^ 7/72 Lauhitya rations, nts of the 6/72 17/72 king and for his own wel fare, SuwSlkuclil Svasti Praise of Hoyal des- i)urjaaya ijbr the Braliaaj;ia CP of Sahara cent for two 12/64 aeiit of Kdmadeva Ratn£^31a oiid the generations king and 5/64 Lauhitya 17/64 of his 5/64 parents and for gaining fame. uauiiati GP Svasti Obeisance Royal des Durjjaya Not Braliaana > Indrapala to Sambiiu cent for stated Deiiapala lour gene 6/63 rations. 14.^63 X25 Table 3 C; (contd.) Plate denedio- Description Place of Occasslon Recipient U Designation tion Invocation of iflie Aatlio- rity/ Guakuchi CP Sva&ti Obeisance itoyal de*- Durijaya Mot Bralaaana Ho of Xndrapaia to Pa^- c^it for 0/75 stated st pati four gexie^ 2/75 rations* 1V75 Gachtal CP Svasti Adoration Royal des Hadapyaka Not knovn Not kno'wn of Gopaliw. of Visnu cent for ^68 due to due to vaiman 4/68 five g ae tiie loss the loss rations* of tlie of tlie 38/68 3rd plate 3rd plate Klianaiaukh Svasti Obeisance Royal des Not Not Bcabnana Not CP of to Ardha- cent for stated stated Maliabaliu sta Dliarmapala yuvati^ seveti gen&» vara rations* 9/SB 2/3B, 20/68 Subha^ara. Svasti Obeisance Royal des- Not Not Brahraana Not patoka CP to Ardha- c«it for stated stated Himahga sta of'Wi arm a- yuvatis- six gene and pala vara rations* Trllocana 2/ez 2^63 12/63 3vnati ubeisance .\oyal des- Karaarupa- liot Bralimana Not :? of t.0 /i^nti, a^it for nagara stated Madlm- sta j/'56 four gene sudana rations* 20/56 14/^ 026 Table 3 C (oontd.) Plate Address & Designation Inlanotlon Maonition Conveyance Authentication Goi^tbarl CP Infomed 8rah- Hot stated Not stated Boyal seal| legend of Ratnapala manas, JLS^SSt- SvastiL Pra€jyoti9&- karaQa,Vyaval»- dhipati MabarajS- arlka, Rajas, HSjflls, eto« Ratnaoaiavarraad evah 2/72 Bargion CP Infonaed Brahraap- Not stated Not stated Itoyal seal|^ leg end t of Ratnapala nas, Vl^ayalcara- Svasti, Pragjyo- rana, Vyavaharika, tl?adhipati Ha.iss, Rajnis, p Mah?li«j!S3hir5ja etc. ^2 ill RatnapSlavarma devali. Suvalkuchl Informed Bralma- Hot stated Not stated Royal seal: legend: CP of ^ nas, Visayaka- Sveistiy PrSiBjyotisa Ratnapala rana, Vyavahl- dhipatyanvayo Haha- rika, R5J5S, rajaahirSja grf RS^S, etc. R atnapalavanaa- devah. Gauliati CP Inforned Sralimaj^as, ^^^ stated Not stated Royal seal| legends of IndrapSla y^sayakarana, Svasti PragJyoti?a- VydvahaYlka, dhipati Maharaj&- ftc* 2/53 diiiraja Srlmad Indr ap^alavarma- devah* Table 3 C (c-intd.) Plate Address & Pr ;n.1unc1;l.on. Designation Aflpmnl tilnn rk>nvflynnnfl A»itl)f=^nf;1oat1an of Guafcuclii CP Informed Sraiiaa* Not stated Not stated Royal seal; Mo of Indrapala nas, Vlgayakararxa, leg end J Svaati ly YyavahSrlfca, frafijyp^gldhi;.- Dh patl Maliar5.1gU Baja^, Rajhis, dliirS.1a ^rtmaia etc* ijrndrapaiavar- 2/76 raadevali, "" Gachtal GP Infoiraed yigaya- Not iuiowi Not stated Seal lost. Co of Gopala^ karagay Yyayavahnv - due to tlie Ba Vairaan loss of tlie aajHis etc. 3rd plate. KlianSmukh CP Informed Visaya» Not stated Not stated Royal sealj Co of Dharmapala karaga, Vyavaha- legend} Svasti th rika, yyavalia^ pragJyotigadhA: Pr rlka. Rajas, j^Mg^hiraj^ ka RSjnls, etc. y58 Subiiai^ara- Not stated Not stated Not stated Royal seal; Co pataka CP of legend: Syasti tli Dliarmapala fragjypttgadhj- Pr pati MatiSraja- ka Jhj^r54a Sr;^: Stiamapaiavar. maa. • '. •'vroxwc/i yiya,ya» 'Jot stated Not stated Royal sealj Co -^i span; ;.'*;'• legends Svasti tli CP -:•>• Prag:Jpti8gdM. hi jati Srlmad sr ' !faa jaapaii dd ve yarraadevaaya* Vi Table 3 D; Organization of the inscriptions issued after tli Plate B^edic- invocation Description Place of Occassion Recipi^t Designation tion of tlie Issue Autliority Kamauli GP Svasti Adoration Rjyal des. Harasacon- Por gain- Sri Srldha- of Vaidya- to Vasu- c^t for ci ing ra-sarman deva deva two g^e- 1/73 heaven 11/73 1/73 rations, 2r?-73 Assara CP Adoration Hoyal des- Not i?or tlie of 7a11a- to VSsu- ceJit for stated mainte bliadeva deva four gene nance of V63 rations, an alms 28/63 liouse. 129 Table 3 D (Contd.) Plate Desig Address & Aatlientl- Productio nation AdPiPnltlPft Kamanli CP of Infoined culti Merit of Not stated Fbur-handed Composed Vaidyadeva vators, citlz^s, giving and Gafiela seal by Manora Ca^^a, Hia^ta, evil of tlia, engr Vl^aylllalca, etc. confiscating ved by 3/73 Karjgiabhad 2/73 Assam CP of Addressed his Merit of Not stated Seal lost Not state Vallabhadeva successors and giving and future kings evil of ^63 confiscating 14/63 130 m^ (x\ svasti. In tlie Karaauli Plate of Vaidyadeva and in tlie Asaara Plate of Vallabliadeva tlie anJi sign oocars first «i\ich is followec! by tlie word Ora. In these inscriptions tJte word svasti can be found after a salutation to Lord /asudeva. In tlie inscriptions of the Salastarablia dynasty except the Dlghallgfid Plate of Balavarman, tlie anji sign Is sudi - ^ whereas in tlie ^ala plates it is as - es after the pala dynasty. In tlie Assam Plate of Vallabliadeva the sign appears like - 1 • The anjl sign in tlie DIghallgao Plate of Balavarman III is like that of the p.ala dynasty. It has been suggested by D. C. Sircar that tlie anji Sign is the word gjddhaiq wliich means as siddhir = a3tu» 'let tliere be success'.^ Dr. Hoernle read the sign as Om,'^ which is not correct. Beccuise the sign along witli the word Qm occur simultaneously in the Kamauli Plate of Vaidyadeva and in the Assam Plate of Vallabliadeva. Here tiie opinion of P. U. Bhattaoliarya seems to be the most correct one. He is of opinion that the sign does not mean any particular letter or syllable (like QQ) but is tlie sign of the Kundalinlo tlie serpent-shaped divinity that pervades every letter and regulates its pronunciation. "No letter can be expressed through her". The sign, 131 ?. N. iiliattacharya further says "is in fact the creative diierty bringing oat ev&ry letter. In lihatewer form it is seeii at the beginning of any inscription, tlie right way IS to reproduce that form and it will not be correct to put 2a to represtfit the same. ^ is tlie representative of the Vedic Bralima, whereas tiie an.1i is the symbol of tiie Tentric divinity KundaliriT,.." After benediction in an inscription of Pwgjyoti- sa-K5mai5pa we find the occarance of Invocation either to Siva or to Visnu or to the river Leuihitya, Sometime ado- ration to Siva and the Lauhitya occur simultaneously in some of the inscriptions of Pragjyoti^a-KSmaiupa, In tlie Varman Plates the invocatory part takes one line. But in the plates of the Salastamblia dynasty and in the Pala Plates its length increases gradually. It takes five lines in the inscriptions of Ratnapala wliicli is fUU of literary allusions. We may quote tlie following paragraph as illustration • "Let (Lord) Sankara (the great dancer), who is, as it were, the spectator of the wealth of his own dancing art, as reflected in the (glossy) nails of his own, and at the same time is engaged in eadiibiting the ceaseless notion of his auspicious l^andava dance like some one sea ted on a horse of superior bread, and wlio, thusj like the 132 «aprf*ie self Assaraes plurality while remaining essentially *nt, shines in tiifi world with the help of liis irresistible •ill (Prakamya). be the source of welfare for all. (V.l) "Let the world be protected, after the destruction of all the sins, by the sea in the form of the river Lau- hitya (i.e., the river Braiimaputra), regarding the current of the waters of which people may be pleased to conjecture as follows - "Is it the moonlight itself tiiat flows here after assuming a physical form ? or "is it a flow of melted crystals ? or "is it the auspicious power of Lord iankara intently engaged in destroying the wliole host of 6 sins ?" CV.2) Hie last part of the preamble of tlie inscription is the description of the authority who issues the grant. It contains an elaborate genealogical description in conjiec- tion with the introduction of the donor wiiich has been sliown in table No«3« It takes a minimum of 14 lines to a maximum of 111 lines of the inscriptions eixcluding (in most cases) the description of many imaginary and mytlUcal ancestors, In this portion of the inscriptions important historical information are genereilly scattered here and tiiere. But in most cases, they are fUll of vague praise for the king and ills ancestors. This will be clear from a quotation of tlie Dubi G.P, of BhSskaravarman, 133 "Tills Gajiendravarma wlio was similar to Gap^adra \.f!» GaneiSa) and endowed with an escess of prowess had a son wlio was born for the purpose of "torraentlng the enemies 3JK| was, as it were, a lump of alkali to the wound of the itiii^:s (I.e., was capable of adding further injuries to tim already injured kings). (V.21) "This son was similar in iiis qualities to lils father (of all tile persons) in the world. The father who was as powerl\il as Janaka after having duly ^joyed the earth, gathered an assembly of people, placed the kingdom In the hands of Ills accomplished son and retired to tlie heaven.(V.22) "He, the son of YajfladevI, Maliendravarma by name, wiio was the vanquisher of the enemy and similar to the king of gods in valour and similar to the moon in lustures, enjoyed the kingdom and protected ills subjects like his own progeny duly, (V.23) "Having conquered the earth with the ocean as the girdle and subduing the enemy through power, the king perfor med a number of sacrifices like the great Ind!pa and also get a Sad - like consort in Suvrata. (V.24) "In the mirror of the king's look (for beauty) she stood as the epitome of the foremost limit of beauty, (or so far as the mirror of intelligence of the king is 134 irOKcerned, she slione therein as an epitome of tlxe foremost viwit of good conduct of the kLnz) and on her own part she was so devoted to the king tiiat she slione like a constant iusture in a moon in the foim of that king. (V.25) "In her, who vas like iditi, N&rayana, the holder of tlie Cakra. was born with a human form and became a king with the same name (N&rSyajia) with a view to dispelling tile demerits of tlie subjects. (V.26) "Que^i DevaraatI attained tlie status of a wife of tills very Sil NSrayanavarraa like Padma Assuming the same status in respect of (God) Narayana. (V.27) "Then he (Narayanavarma), wlio was a seat of good qualities, like the Lord of the Hiatas (i.e., Siva) causing tile birth of Karttikeya in the daughter of the king of mountains (i.e., PSrvatl) for tlie prosperity of the subjects caused in 6rL DevamatI the birtli of Sri MahSbhutavarma, who was a repository of superneil abilities (YibliutiK an ano- tiier great element (maliabliuta). as it were, and finally, he, the destroyer of the vanity of enemies, also installed this MaliabLuta famous for his armour in the form of physical strength, as the king, (V.2B-29) "Having enjoyed most heartily pl^ity of objects of enjoyment and giving gifts to tlie people apto their best 135 «esire, the kine, wlx) was tliough amiable yet terrible to tile ^lemies, wait away leaving behind his corporeal freuae with the help of Yoga. (7.30) "Ihen tills tllustrtous king, who was like the king of Gods, famous for Ills valour, extremely lovely and intelligent, after having received the (kingship of the) paternal kingdom, having defeated, witli the help of his prowess of the couple of Ills own arms, all the enemies duly equipped with weapons, having caused the birth of a son of moon > like face in queen ViJ&avatl, and haviiig performed a liorse sacrifice, retired to the abode of 7 indra." (V,31) In tlie inscriptions of Pragjyotifa-Kamarupa when tlie name of the king is described special weL^htaee has been paid to use artificially internally rliyraing and oma.- tely set metres and to use rare and long ccMspounds of Q words with wore than one meaning, in many cases etymo logy of tlie name has also been made* i^'or example, in the ParbatlylT Plates of Vanamala^Varmadeva, it is stated that he was named Vanamala by the creator on the ground tiiat he was fbund fit to assume the lordship of the whole earth extending upto the rows of forests lying on the sea-sliore.' Similarly, the Bargabn Plates of Ratnapala tell us that Ratnapala was known by that name because his subjects knew tliat this king would protect, with his own qualities, tlie 136 •li'jiij' respectable persons wlio resemble the Jewels. Ev&a •iore Interesting, from tiie stylistic point of view is the iuwakuclii Plate of Indrapala, where eleven lines of prose 9 .^ro devoted to tliirty-two names of the patron king* In tiie inscriptions of Pragiyoti^a^KSmarHpa the donor is usually described as 'Kusalln' i.e., 'in good iiealth* according to the legal etiquette of tliose days, It indicates that the donation was made when the donor was in his full senses aud was not under tlie influence of any desease or intoxicant and that therefore tlie deed issued In favour of the donee sliould have to be recognised as a valid document. In the donative part of the inscription, the purpose or occassion of a grant, wliich was generally for the merit to tiie donor and liis parents, is specifically mentioned in many cases. The Dubi and the Nidhanpur Plates of Bhaskara^* varman were issued as the previous charters made by Srl- Bhutivarman had been worn out. Many of tlie inscriptions do not refer either the occassion or tlie purpose of the dona tion, tliough some of them were made for acquiring religious merit as they were issued on occassions like saftkrantj. an eclipse of the sun or of tlie raocai or a religious festival, Tlie Kumvabahi Plate of HarJJaravarraan was issued on the day of an eclipse. The ^ora^barl and BargSon Plates of Hatnapala were issued on the days of Dhanuh SaAkranti tuod 12f7 oi /i^uu iiaiikrantl respectively. Uxo Komouli Grant of Vaiflyadeva was issued for tlie purpose of gaining heaven on tiie day of an ^adasl. liie recipient, in wliose favour tiie grant was made, sometiraes consisted of a single person aiid sometime of a numb^ of persons. Hie donees of tlie Nidhanpur Plate of Bliaskaravarraan are 208 BrlUimanas in number and that of the Tipperali Grant of Lokanatlia, tliere are 210 BrShmana donees. UiG donees of tiie inscriptions of Pragjyoti?a^Kamarupa were g^ierally Bralimafiaa wliose names are oft^ mentioned along witli tliose of tlieir fatlictps and sometimes also witli tiiosG of tlieir grandfatiiers and great-grandfatliers as well as tiiose of tlieir gotras, pravaras and tlie VecJic ^Sklias to which tliey belonged. In some cases mention have been laade oi tiie places from where tiie donees' families came, Bie donation generally consists of a plot of land or a field or a village or several plots, fields or villages. The location of tlie donated land has always been indicated witli tlie refisrence to tlie various administrative units such as grama, visaya, mai^lala, bhukti, etc. The area of a land is generally specified witli tlie quantity of paddy produced by tlie land, Tlie boundaries of tlie donated land are clearly defined. For marking tiie donated land hillocks, brooks, trees etc, were resortecl. Sometimes by erecting bamboo posts tiie boundaries were demarcated, 138 Tlxe privileges enjoyed by the donees were not exactly Mu- same. In this respect the Nidhanpur Plate of Bhaskara- i?aiinan speaks simply that no tax is to be levied on the iojiatec! land "as long as the sun, the raoon and the earth wili endure".-'-^ The land granted by the ParbatiyS Plate of s^aaiamSla was "free from visits of policemen and the aimymen and also from (the obligation to pay) tlie taxes payable by temporary tenants" The Uttarbarbil Plate of Balavaman III speaks tliat "tliis plot of land consisting of homestead land, paddy fields, ponds and mounds, standing as it is up to tlie bouMaries of its own (as defined below) is re»iderecl free from all troubles on account of fas tiling of elephants, searcliing of thieves, inflicting of punishment, tenants* taxes, duties due to differ^t causes and grazing of the animals such as elephants, lx>rses, camels, cows, buffaloes, goats and slieep as recorded in this charter,"^ In some cases a statement of the use to wMch the grant would be put is seen in the early inscriptions. aevon shares of the Nidhanpur Plate of HilEskaravarraan were allot(^ "for the puiTpose of bali (worship), cam (oblation) ^1^ satra (hospitality)""^'^ Land granted by the Tipperaii i^iate of Lokanatiia was for tlie puxpose of the maintenance oi the daily worsliip of tlie God Ananta-Narayaija witli bali, cam and satra and for the dweeling of Br^iraanas versed in the four Vedas, At tlie startiiig of the concluding part of tlie ins criptions of Pragjyotisa-Karaaifipa we find the occurance of an address to Government Officials, loading persons £ind publics to respect the terms of tiie grant. It indicates tliat tile protection of tlie grant was largely depended apoa their cooperation. In tiie Nidhanpur Plate, Bli3skaravarraan calls upon tlie present and the future district officers and the courts of Justice in the district of Candrapuri to respect the transaction,-^ Tlie royal order regarding the Kuruvabalii Plate of HarjjaravaiT»iaii was addressed to the state officials iieaded by Visayakarana, Vyavaharika, il5j2t- ^<^jlg., Haiiadiiikrta and others like Rajnayaka, HSjaputra, najaballabha etc. Harjjara's HSyunthal Grant was addre ssed to tiie "Mali3-Sainyapati (commander-in-Chief) di^ Gafia, 140 'TO O'^^ligiits the wl]yole world and wlio was like an ornament ;f tile circle of vassels, MalxS^'DvarSdliipati (Gliief of -ha gate-keepers) ^rl Jayadeva, MaliS«.pratlhSra (caiief usherer) JanSrdana, MalilUAmatya (Cliief counsellor) liovinda and Madhusudana, Brahmanadliikara (Officer-in^ vJharge of tlie welfare of Braimarias) JBliat1?a Sri Kantlia %»» In tile Uttarbarbil Plate of Balavarman HI, address wasjaade to the citizens, beginning with tlie foralimanas, tlie scribes, the administrators and other officials like rajanaka, rajaputra, rajavallablia, raja, rajftl, ranaka^in connection with the grant of piece of land. All the addresses ol" the plates of tlie PHladynasty are almost same like that of the Uttarbarbil Plate of Bala- vairaan ill wnich take two lines of each inscriptions. In the Kamauli Plate, Vaidyadeva calls upon the publics beginning with the Catta, the Hia^ta and the Ytfayillaka to respect the grant.^^ Another important part of tlie concluding section of the inscription is tlie statement of admonitionby tiie donor to the future kings of tlie land whetlier of Ms own or of any other royal liouse, to the contemporary rulers and tliose wlio might replace lilm or Ms decendants and to Ms own officials, dependants and subjects. From dynasty to 141 i/r»a3ty it differs to in length and wording. In the «idiAanpur Plate of Hiaskaravarman it is said that the givenr of land rejoices in heaven for sixty tliousand years and he wi)o confiscates lives in hell for the same period."21* further, one who confiscates the land given by himself or by others, becomes worm of the filth and rots with the manes* ^ Similar statement vas made in the ParbatlyS Plate of VanaraUla, Exc^t this we find no admonitory statement or verse in any of tlie inscription of the SSlastambha dynasty. It is totally absent in tiie inscriptions of the paia dynasty- We see it again in the inscriptions of Vaidyadeva and Vallabhadeva, It takes tliree lines in the Kamauli Plate of Vaidyadeva and fourteen lines in the Assam Plate of Vallabhadeva wliich runs as follows t "Whoever be the king in my family coming down from diaskara in sin unbrok^ line of succession to him, or£ Vallabha, with liigiay auspicious words, passionately says - ^Please protect my fame • (V,23) ^And if my own family becomes extinct ajod some other king occurs, wiiat indeed will I not be to liimi who does not obliterate my fame. (V.a4) ^If any person at any time commit any wrong in res pect of what is described here in detail and in respect of the locality indicated with boundaries, and if the sane 142 . strong) f is ascertained by tlie Braiimaijias convearsjDit with the Vedas, thew the Primordial Hog would forthwith mete out jjanisiBnent to then, (V,25) •VVhoever does sometliing favourable, even for a laomcsit and efvcn within liis heart, for this alms liouse, which is, as it were, both a march to the heaven and a march against the enemies, would in tliis life become the abode of all prosperity ai^ would have all the end9d.es defeated, and then in the other life would enjoy the cove ted world of the gods. (V.26) ^Tliose, who are religious-minded by nature and pay attention solely to religious deeds, are liicely to do something (for this alms house). In this life they would enjoy wealth with children and grand-children and in the life hereafter would obtain the various delights of heaven in large measures, (V.27) •^One wlio confiscates the land given by himself or by others, becomes woiw of the filth and rots with the manes. (V.28) ^Lai¥l has been donated by many kings beglmiing with Sagara. v/hoever happens to be the master of the land, gets 23 the result (of the donation)". (V.29) 143 All official called upon to act as a conveyancer or xecutor for tiie gift can be se&i in tlie Nidhanpur Plate of iiiasKciravarman, in tiie Tipperali Plate of Lokanatlia and in the aayuntiial Plate of Harjjaravarman. Tliis official is g^ie- raliy called Ddta or Dutaka (meanine tlie mess^iger) in wortli Indian records and Ijna or Ajflapti or AjHSpti-in -tlie i;rcdits of Soutli India,^^ Most probably Sri GopSla^^ was tlie officer who acted as Duta in tlie Nidhanpur Plate of Hiaskara^ varman. Sandliivtgraliika Prasantadeva acterl as Data in the Tipperali Plate of Loknnatlia. In tlie Hayuntlial Plate of HnrJoaravarmon prince Vanamala perforraocl tlie duty of Duta,^ Lxi tills connection we may mention tiiat YuvarSja (heir-apparcAit) Tribliuvanapala acted as tlie dlitaka in tlie Khalimpur Grant of Dl 1 arm apala, ^ ^ Tlie last component of tlie concluding 'section is tiie description of the persons wiio produced tlie grant, in this connGction in tiie inscriptions of Pragjyotis£u-KSraarupa only tile names of tlie composer and eaigraver can be found. Their names iiave already been raentionofl. in Table No.3. Here, one remarkable tiling is tliat in tlie inscriptions of tlie ^Slas- tamblia dynasty no refereaices to tlie names of tlie composers or tile ^igravers of tlie grants are available. At tlie end of tlie Guwakuchi Plate of Indrapala we find tlie occurance of tlie names Sani, Dkani and Ani. Most probably tlie first two names Sani meaning Sanirama and i)iiani meaning ijliauir5raa were tiie names of the two scribes cum ^igravers aiul tiie name Ani meaning Aniruddha 144 f! Anlr3ha T»as the name of the poet. 29 Another notable poiiit of tliis part that king Dhaimapala of the P5la dynasty iilraself composed first eight verses of his Pu?pabhadiS Grant. Two anotiier important parts of the inscription of Pragjyotisa-Kamaiupa are the date and issuing c^itre of tlie Grant which we have discussed in detail in the previ ous chapter. These two parts occur either in the donative or in the executive section of tlie grant. Generally the description of the issuing c^itre takes one or two lines of the inscription but there are many evidences that it takes 13 - 17 lines of the inscriptions, e.g., the Dlgha^ HgaS, the Tezpur and the parbatlyS Plates of VanamSila and the BargSbn and the Suvaikuclii Plates of Ratnapala. Tlie city of Haiiappesvara as depicted by the Tezpur Plates of Vanamala was as follows : "There the people belonging to all castes and all • the stages of life (airama) are extremely happy. This is the place of residence of innumerable fortunate and honest scliolars, where the broad royal roads remain crowded with kings wlio come to pay homage to the monaroii and go back being seated on colourful elephants, horses and ^Ivikgs (Palkins) and where all the quarters always remain blocked with innumberable military pot^tialtties in the form of 145 dt>phants, liorses and soldiers (lines 1 to 4). This pros- , ef'ous city of Haiuppe^vara is blessed with the presence oi the Lord Lauhitya (line 21), (Tliis river Lauhitya is as follows) t In this river the waters have become frag rant on account of coming in contact with the pollens of the flowers, wMch have been fall^ down from various trees, shaken by the hissing sound of a crowd of snakes, frightened by the cackling sound of tlie eaocited peacocks tixat irnve been reclining in their homes in the tall trees standing on the UdayavelScala (i«e*, the tallest mountain of the eastern region) (lines 4 to 6). (This was tlie river) where the waves are rendered fragrant by tlie clouds foimed by the smokes of black agam trees burnt by the forest- fire occuring in the parks of the city of HarQppelvara, (lines 6 to 7), The regions on the bank of this river remain plunged in the aroma of the secretions of the musk - deer, wlio feed on the slioots of the sopited leaves of the trees growing on bowers of the cliief mountain of the eas- • tern region (literally the region where the sun rises) and wlio move either alone or in herds being attached with love to the chief of a group or in smaller groups spared by the herds of leopards, wiiich kill a number of deer and get over-fed on their flesh (lilies 8 to 10). The curr^it of this river is full with waters wliich have become purer on account of constantly flowing over the slop^ of the 14SL (lountain Kanakuta, at the top of wiilch there is the rosiderice of the illustrious god KSmeivara and the godess MaliSgaurl, wliose foot-stool is illumined by the series of rays issuing from the crest-jewels of all the gods and demons (lines 11 - 13). The waters in this river are iTagrant on account of being addled with tlie mud of luxu rious ladies wlio have tak^ a pluiige* (lines 13 to 14)• The regions adjoining both the banks of tlxis river are embelished with rows of boats (wliich were as follows): (line 30), "Tlie boats, like harlfits, display the bodies, embelished with varieties of ornaments. They were jing ling bells like small girls. They get their speed accelerated by hard strokes like the women of Karnata (wlio get excited by hard assults). Like prostitutes tliey liold ciiowrles (cSmaras). They have red teeth (all round their person) like the damsels of tlie harem of (the ten headed) Havana. They are extremely speedy as if they are consorts of (god) Pavana (l.e*, Vayg). They ciiarm one and all like the beautiful women of DaluliS. Like dancing girls, tlieir trembling increase with 'the approach of dancers. They always desire to remain In higher position (i.e., a higher level of watcsr) like the gods wlio happen to have a downfall." (line 14 to 20)^ 147 There is a beautiful description of tlie city of uurjdaya, in the Bargfion plate of Ratnapala wlilch is the issuing centre of the saicl grant. The^description of tiie city runs as follows : "The heat of the city of Durjjaya was allayed by tlx© shower of the drops of idior flowing from the temples of the rows of the spirited elepliants presented by the iuxndreds of kings defeated by the power of (the kln£*s) aitns ^atangled with the series of rays issuing £rom the sharp swords, (line 28 - 30)• "The city was fit for tlie residence of great men, altliough it was full of the forests of the trees in tlie foim of the arms of tlie strong warriors, ever eager to plunder the cities of all the enemies, (line 30 - 31). Here the orb of the sun used to be covered from view by the tops of the tliousands of wliitewashed mansions, as wMle as the smile of the intoxicated beautiful dames. (line 31 - 32)• The city was tlie residence of hundred of people devoted to enjoyment (blioKir^) like the (sandal) trees, growing on the soil of the mount Malaya, which are infested by hundreds of snakes (bhogins)» Like the sky embellished with (the planets) Bidlia, Guru (i.e., Byali4spati) and Kavya (i.e., Sukra), this city was the place of poetical figures (Kavvalamkaras) created ( or discussed) by the learned men (buidhag) and the preceptors 14& v^urt^g). Like the peak of tlie mount K.aLlai^B, which was i-he abode of Parameivara (i.e., Lord iiva) this city was ;uso tile abode of Pararaesvara (i.e., the kine of the Lord ^iva of tlie local temple) and like the peak of tlie DQunt Kaila^a, inliabited by the eod Kuvera (l.e.^ 71ttGjla), this city was also inliabited by rich men (i.e., Yitte^asU (Une 30-34) "The outskirts of the city of DurJJaya were covered by a rainpart which was like a stout cage for the play-bird in tiie foim of the king of Sakas, a fever for the kii^g of aurjjaras, a Ku^^apSkala disease for the untamable elephant in the form of the king of Gaujla, a bitumen (silajata) for tlie mountain in the form of the king of Kerala, a veritable source of fear for tiie kings of Baiilka and Tayika, a pulmonary consumption for the kings of the Deccani because of destroying the side of the enemies it (i.e.I tiie rampart) was like a (wliite silken) cloth covering tlie door panel in the form of the chest of the king, (line 34-36) "The city of Burjjaya was beautified by the sea- like Lauhitya, wliich was the ronover of the fatigue cau sed by erotic dalliances of the beautifhl damsels, seated on tlie open tops of the palatial buildings with the iielp or tiie particles of water, issuing out of tiie waves very 149 Ligutly stirred by the beautiful breeze mingled with the cackling of the host of intoxicated fonale swans, wlxich ^i.e., the Lauliitya) was like the silken banner carried b> the elephant in the fonn of mount KailSsa, and which was like a bejeweled mirror of the damsels of the heaven, working as an aid to their preparation for amorous sport. (lines 36 - 39) "The city of DurjjayS w«is the object of adoration for innummerable liosts of kings, (Une 39) "In that city of Durjjaya, there used to be Ja^atS (i.e., Liqutdness only in the (pearl) necklaces but never any jadata (i.e., dullness) in tlie sense organsj there used to be canacalata (i.e., fickleness) only amongst the raorikeys but never ajiy canacalata (i.e., fickleness) in the miiids (of the people) j there used to be bliaiSgurata (i.e., fickleness) only in the play of brows but never any bhaflgurata (i.e., undoing of breach of trust) In res pect of deeds undertake there used to be sopasargata (i.e., prefixing of upasargas) only in respect of tlie roots (i.e. dhatus) but never any sopasargata (i.e., illness) in respect of the subjects; there used to be Y&aata (i.e., beauty) only in the damsels (and never any Vamata or crookedness in respect of others)} there used to be Skhalitam (i.e., faltering of steps) only in 150 use of the beautiful women elated through tlie intoxication caused by win© (and never any sklialita or breach of conduct of the people in general); there used to be a sense of apathy Cr^^iorhata) only toward the wrong doers (and never towards ordinary fellow beings), there used to be desire for incessant madliupaiia (i.e., sucking of honey)> only in case of swarms of bees (and nlratyayamadliupanasaktl or interest in incessant drinking of wine was never to be seen in case of the ordinary citizens)j there used to be ecccessiVG allegiance to the beloyod only in case of the caicravSka birds (and never in case of the citizens) and there used to be taking of meat (pisitasita) only in case of the animals (and never in case of the citizens)" (line 40 - 43)^-^ Nevertheless, such a big description of the capital city added considerably to the length of the donative sec tions of the charters* From table No,3, we come to know that the inscrip tion of PragJyoti§a-KaraarGpa is authenticated by a seal which is an essential part of the plate* The plates of the most of the inscriptions are bound togetlxer by a copper ring wliich passes tiirough a hole in the middle of the left margin. The two ends of the copper ring are joined toge ther and a ladle-sliaped lump with a hollow interior 151 !• idered on it. It is tlie royal seal nlvich in jaost coses o\/ai in size. The hollow surface of the seal is divided luto two halves by a horigontal ridge* The upper part contains the counter-sunk figure of a facihg 'front of an "tlephant, being the royal insignia of the Kainarupa kingS} while the iDwer part contains the legend of the dorbr. At the starting of the legend of tiie seal, sometimes we find An.1i sign which is same to the An.1i sign of the bene dictory part of the inscriptions. Generally, the legend occurs in three lines. Bat the legend in the Dubl Plat© of Bhaskaravairoan occurs in eleven lines containing the genealogy of the Varraan dynasty. The seal of the Tipperah Uraiit of Lokanatha is different from tlie royal seals of Pragjyoti^a-Kamaiupa which bears a figure of the god ess ' 32 Lalt^tenl or Sri, standing on a lotus of pedestal. Two elephants on the two side of the deity sprinkling her with water from two jars lifted by their trunks,33 i»o atten dant figures, seated cross-legged at tlie two sides of the • god ess, are in the posture of pouring out something liquid from two round pots,3^ The diametPe of the seal measures about four inches,3S m the reverse there is a fhlL-blown lotus,36 Below the pedestal of the godess there is the legend,*^ 152 Motes and Heferences Or. R, D. GJioudMry, The Director, Assam State Museums, Govt, of Assam, Gauhati kindly supplied me with this information. 2 Barrie M. Morrison, political Centres and Cultural Regions in Early Bengal, Delhi, 1974, p. 69. 3 D, Q, Sircar, Indian Epigraphy. New Deliii, 1964, p. 127. 4 Cited in p. N, Hiattacharya, The sign IJO. M. M. Siiarraa, lAA, p. 53, 11 Ibid., p, 124. 12 Ibid., p. 147. 13 IMd., P. 286. 14 Ibid., p, 53. 15 D. c. Sircar, QP. cit., p. 303. 16 M. M. Sharma, lAA. p. 53, 17 JARQT XXVI, 1981^2, p. 4. IB M. U. Sharma, jCAA, p. 93. Tile list is incomplete due to the loss o£ the last plate. 19 Ibid., p. 135. 153 ^i' Ibicl., p. 286. 2i itici., p. 54. 32 Lo P» ^4. 26 D. C. Sill-car, op. cit«, p. 303. 27 M, M. oliorma, lAA, p. 92. 27a Si, IV, pp. 248 ff; also A. M. Glioudliury, Dynastic History of Bengal, Dacca, 1967, p. 32. 28 Guwakuclii Grant of InclrapSla, line 72-74, lAA. p. 200, 29 M. M. Siiarma, i^, p. 194. 30 Ibin., p. 103 - 104. 31 Ibid., p. 162 - 164. 32 Si, XV, p. 302. 33 l^S, cU» 34 ipQ, cij^. 36 Loc. cit. 37 LOG, cit;. 154 CHAPTER - V fixe Donors and the Recipients in all tile available lai:id transferring inscriptions of PrSgjyoti^a-Konarnpa, tlie donors were tlie kings and tlie reci pients in most cases, tiie priests or learned BrSlimanas to "wliom the former granted tax-free lands. Along witli tax-exemption, the grmitod land was oft€*i reixlered free from the visits of poiicem^i and armymen and also from tlie obligation to pay tlie tv-ixes payable by tenijorary teaiants. Moreover, from tlie ninth c<3iii-.ury onwards maiiy administrative functions and judicial powers T/ere also conferred on tiie donees which continued till the twelfth ceiitury, One of the reasons for allowing such privileges to tlie .jrTlivuuiti flonGes was due to sorae injunctions of the law books (gnrtig^ onri to a loss extent tiiat of tiie works on polity i,i.^Iti). /a^is^ia wiiile reconiriending tliat the king may take one-sixtii of tlie wealtii from his subjects, makes an exemption 1 in favour of tlie Braliroai.ias. Like Vasistlia, Apastambha includ-es the learned Bralimanas in a list of persons exempted from taxa- 2 tion. In tliis connection Manu says tliat ev^i at tlie time of economic hardship of tiie king, he must not collect taxes (Kara) from learned BrSlimaiias, and no Braiimana living witiiin iiis king- 3 dom sjiould suffer from iiunger. We find a similar expression in tlie Arjfeha S5stra wiiich stated tiiat " tlie king wlio is about J > "f - p •< ? i 3 p tt I 'J T N X 5 t ©©®@©®c3»0(g)i3® a 136 > ritie a new or resettle an old territory, as making grants jf land, tliat are imnune from taxes and fines and acconpaiUed itli rich gifts, to certain classes of Bralunanas t tliose com- Pise tile sacrificial priest, tlie spiritual preceptor, tlie 4 o:haplain (furohita) and tlie learned Br?tlima3gia»" The land donated to the BrSIiraanas by tlie kings of .rngjyotija-KnrarTlpa were different in size, SometinG it was c;oiisiste<:i of a small piece of land capable of yielding 2000 units of paddy e.g. the land donated by tlio Uttarbarbil copper plate of Balavarman III. On tlie other hand, tiie donated land was consisted of a big area evident by tile Assam grant of 6 Ki3igs of tile land wgre responsible for tiie maintenance oi pGOce and order in his realm. In tliis matter, it appears tiiat tiie icings of Pragjyotisa^Kamarupa were assisted indirectly by tiie donee ijralinialias wlio were linked with the temples. These 157 £rJikii£iiiiii utilized religion to support tlie king and carried c - j/ropagaiKla in favour of tlie ruler in tribal societies. In a'':or,!ior way, it may be said that tlie kings coiiiferred lionours J id transf esrrecl material resources to tlie Bralimanas and tlie leaples; t^nples conferred lionours on the Bralimanas; and tlie jiralimai:ias conlerred lionours on tlie kings, Tliis propeicty transfer to tlie Br51iraanas by tli© kings of pragjyotisa-Kamarupa can be found in the central or execu tive part oi' tliQ copper plate grants where a detail account oi giving and receiving of property are described. By the Nidhanpur grant,Bliaskaravarman transferred a Inrro tract of land in the MayGral!llmal5graliara - Kgetra in , . 11 ZiiQ oaiiarapuTi vigaya. iictually he re-issued tiie grant as tiie donated land had become taxable due to tlie loss of pre vious charter made by Bliutivarman, The donees had be&i already enjoying the grant in tlie maimer of bliuml-ccliidra. In tlie' grant tlie words agrali'5ra and bliumi-cclildra have been used in ordar to describe tlie condition of tlie land. According to D.CSircar the word agraliara means a rent-free land given to the Bralima^ 12 nas. But V.B.Misra takes it to mean a. tahsil i.e., an admi.- itLstrative unit, smallefr tlian a visaya.-^^ B.M.Morrison has suggested tliat the term aforaliara means a land free from all taxes and liabilities in perpetuity as a religious 5*^fe>^*^^'l'^'* But '). Sliarma holrls the opinion tliat the term Af^raliara meaning a ront-free village in tlie possession of Bralima^ias was more 158 Table 4 Donation of Land under tlie Varraan Bulers I-late Designation Donor Granted Propecty LI .;agSjarI Kiianik^gaon Unknown Unknown otone Inscription iJUDi o.p. Bliaskar a Varraan Uhknown NidhaJipur C.P. HiSskaravarraan Exact extent luiknown, granted asraliSra land was divided into 166—2, parts. 16 "^ "ii)p.3!rali C.P, Lokanatlia Not known exactly 159 Table 5 >• the JiouGos mid tlioir rospoctivo shares as alio ted Ilidiianpur C.P. of Hiaskaravarraan.^ -1-,i-..- after any nca^o stands for tlie word swarai) :\ -M iiOiiQS Ul tli9 JQUeG /ocla Gotra i\msa SMhJir.ojia S Vajasaneyl Pracetasa (Yajarveda) •.-o. ^rlvasu and his Do Do 1 3 brotlidTs Sonovasu and Do Do i br o til &r iianoratiia S GhSndo ga Katyayana H (Sanavedi) •J. Visnugliosa S Do Do i 10. Voclagliosa S Do Do 1 11. Danad eva S Balivrcya Yaska 1 CRgvoda) IS, Ghosadeva S Do Do i 13. N and ad eva S Balivycya Yaska i (REVO:! a) 14. Arkadatta along Ghandoga Hitoadvaja li viith his cloJi lo. justidatta d Do Do i • * 16. Rsidana S Vajasajieyl K5/yapa 1 17. Subliadarna S Do Do 1 18, Sanaiscarabliu Do Kausta 1 witli clan 19. SaAlcar^ai.ia S Balivrcya Gauratreya 2 20. Nara S Do •Do 1 21. Harayaiia S Do Do i 160 • '•>'-•>, ijame ol" tlie Donee Veda Gotra Amsa '•CM» Vlsnu S Balivjpoya Gauratreya 1 • • Qb. Saclarsana S Do Do 1 "•'''•' i- * Gop^idra S Do Do 1 . . ^i i\rka 3 Do Do i ? •Jt'-) . ...cttiimsoiia 6 Vajasaneyl Kaundinaya 1 i,L, jJiiruvasoraa S Gliando ga Gautama 1 •i - •^ /isnusoma S Do Do 1 <•<, /i simp all t a s Vajasaneyi Hiaradvaja li •yk. oucipalita S Do Do 1 -io^au, itii tr ap ali ta and Do Do i ArtliapTllita 37. Prajapalita S Do Do i 38. MacUiu S Do Gautama 1 39. dialer a:leva S Vajasaneyl Gautama i KusnSiidapatra S Caralcya Vats a (Yajurvadiya) 4 41. isVa^jadatta S Caralcya Maudgalya 2 42-43. Sudarsana and Vajasanej^ Do 1 Dinakara S 44, Yajnnkimda S Do Sauhliaka ox* li Saunaka 46, x'asaiilcLuida S Do Do H 161 , .. .ru'ioLi ol' tiio Ajonee Veda Gotra ^sa «.-•.' « Sr3dclhalcmida S V5Jasaiiei^ ^aubliaka or 1 • • Samiaka o 4'/ . K Sr ay aiiakuiul a S Do Do 1 'ics. Isvaralcuiida s Do Do ^ 49. Saktikuiida S Do Do i 50. Tosakuiida S Do Do « « 51. Salhu S G3rakya Paras§rya 1 02. ijoAga S Giiaiidoga AslSyaiia 1 53. I-^ara S Balivrcya Varalia 1 54. Pravaraiiaga S Do Do 2 4 56. Apaiiaga S Do Do 1 5G-57 . Tosajiaga and Do Do i Hnrapin?Tga S^l. ^'rLnrif^hosa 3 VajasruioyI Kasyapa 1 o.j, vjCU'j_jiiii o Giiaiido ga Vaisnavrddhi 1 * • • GO. Janorclana S Do Do l' <3l, Arka S Baiivrc ya Kausika li 62. Srcdiiadasa S Do Do i '•)3. S-oJiataiia 3 Vajasaiioid! Gautama 1 ,*34, llar?aprablia witli VajasaiieyT Do Glaii i tjO , Kliaijdasoraa S Do Kautilya -^ 6(5-G 8 . Sreyaskara, Gati Do Do 1 aiid Gaurlsoma 69. Vaitulasoma S Do Do 162 . - i. » ' s O • Uames of tlie Donee Veda Gotra Amsa A;-VI. Dliritisoraa ajid Vajasanei^ Kautilya - i ' '/ iBliayasali S Do Krsnatreya i 7 3. Yajna S Do Do H 74. Daiva S Do Do H 75. Dnrdi S Do °Do i 7o. i^radyurana a Do Do li 77. Vl"ddlii 3 Do Do 2 • 7b-o2« Daivaliora, Hari, Do Do 1 iidhliuta, Tvastu aiid TosanSga*" 83. Moilia S Do Kavestara 1 84. Dlirti S witli clan Do Maiidavya i S5, K osava S Do Do 1 36. Gourl S Do , Do 1 87. Sucarita S Do Do i 88. Vappa S Do Do 1 By. Karkadatta S Balivrcya Katuidinya 1 90. iJd ayaiia S Do HiaradvSJa 1 'U. Mepudatta S Do Vaslftlia 1 '^P^93. Narcaidra and VSJasaneyT Agnivesya 1 04. J iGxlhaialiuti o Do Do t .-'0« jixaJidrapalisa S carakya Sankrttyayaiia 1 •Jb, iv.ali S Balivrcya Yaska 1 ://. ( ? ) SvanI Do Do 0^ 'J'd> m Blittinaliesvara S Do Do i 163 Ci -Jo, .luif! or tile I^onse Peda Gotra Amsa oq^ • •op'l-raioiirU S Balivrcya P5rasarya 1 _^.c. /ilvaiixati ci Do Hiar gava 1 . ..-1:J2. Suranjita aiid Do Do i Sucarita S • '•-it 3i vagana G Taittlrlya Bliaradv5;Ja 1 U'-t-107. VasusrI S aiid Balivrcya KStyayana 1 bro tilers 10b . VirabiiUti S VaJasaneyT Kausika 1 luy. Visnubliiiti S Do Do i 110. pramodabliuti S Do Do 1 111. Visnudatta S Do Bi'Sradvaja 1 112, Brhaspati S Do Kauiidinya 1 llo. IIorscKleva s Balivrcya Yaska 1 114. Hoclha S Vajasaneyi Jatukarua 1 116. Krsna S Do Do 1 « « * 110-117. Iladhava and Ilari Do Do 1 lis. J 0)1 nr d cm ad o v a S GliandoEa Hiaradvaja 1 llt>. Visiiusoraa a Vajasaneyi Maudgalya 4 * i 120, Dliajiasena S Garakya Gargya 1 121-122. Praraodas^aa and Do Do 1 Ghosasena 123. Somas &\a S Do Do 1 124. Biaskaramitra S Balivrcya Gautama 1 125. Madhuraitra S Do Ito 1 12G-127. SJSdharanamitra and Do Do 1 S^lhU/nitra 164 .^.'•', Ivo/'JC' oi' tlie DoiiQQ dTeda Gotra ABsa 12P, DJiXtiMiti'a S BSlivrcya Gautama 1 jro ^ Jukrabiiava S Do Hiaradvaja i a-.L^j., Juclars'aiia aiid Do Pautrimasya 1 Iliane^vara ij:;, Havi G 7aj as ail eyT S5ndilya 1 i3o. 1'nfllui S Do Do 1 .134. T'nliidhnra S Do Do 1 .Ii:i6 . -iuitt^tnalie^vara S BaliVEcya pauriiiia 1 • * • « I'dG, iiliattimatr S Do Do i IS/, Hudrabliatti S Do Do i i'dS. Mrivilepaiia S GhSiidoga Kausika 1 13!c>, Gorainaga S VSjasaiieyl SSvarnika 1 140. Surya S Do Do 1 141. Hiavad eva S Do Do 1 142. Sarvedeva S Do Do 1 143. Goraid eva S Do Do i' 14-1. Savi trad eva S Do Do 2 146. Ark ad eva S Do Do i 146. Sadharaiia S Do Do i 147. Damarata S Vajascuiey? Gargya 1 148. Vasud atta S Do BliaradvSja 2 149. Yagosvara S Do AlarabSyaiia 2 160. Vis'es'vara o Do Do 1 151. iJivyesvara S Do Do 1 155 . . . . tMic oi the Donee Veda Gotra Ms a ; ' - -V • Gajif^svora S Vaj as ail eyT AlarabSyaiia 1 iOo. riixudesvara S Do Do 1 Lo4- ipo. J at es vara and Do Do 1 ibb, iiiiaiitosvcra S Do Do i 167 . Magliesvara S Do Do •i JjOo. Jaiinosvara S Do Do i 169. liaiidesvara S Do Do 1 IGO, Damabiiuti S Do Aiigirasa 1 1G1-1G2. PraiiSs'asvara S Baiivrca Kasyapa 1 w.ltli brotlio:' 163. Gayatxipala s 75jasaiieyi Yaska 1 164. SSntasarma S BnJivrca ParSsarya 1 • 165. P ad n ad as a G Do Kaustka 1 witii ciaii 1G6-169, Govardliaiia, YajHapala Do Do "1 Paiui ajid Sudarsaiia S 170. Gopala S Giiaiidoga Paiikalya 1 171. Jgradatta Taillirlya Kasyapa 1 172. Hiattinanda s Baiivrcya BSrhaspatya 1 173. Saclhu S Do Do 1 174. Devakula S Do Do 1 175. Jaiiardaiia s Do Do i 17G-17B. Sunyayima, Narayaiia Do Do aiid iSrddhi s i 179. IsvarabJiatta S Do Gautaraa 1 156 i: J, :•! o , name of tlie Donee Veda Gota'a Amsa 18a. Blipgu S BSlivrcya Gautama i IBI. Budragliosa S Do HiaradvSja 1 1B2. Kau^isona S Oarakya Katyayana 1 183, Prabliakaraklrti S Vajasane^^ Gautama 1 3B4. Ananta S Do S3iTdilya 1 185, Gatibhatti S B51iirrcya Saunaka 1 • • 186 . Te;3abliatti S Do Do 1 187-189. Maiiaglio?a, Tejabha ^ti Do Do i and Naiiclabhuti S r^'u. Jci/aabhatti o Do Do 1 • • 191. Moclhabiiatti S Do Do 1 * • 192. SLunatibhatti S Do Do 1 193, ouyogablia'^-^i S Do Do 1 194. Sasvataclama S Do Vatsya 1 195. Tosa S Gliaiido ga Gautama 1 • li-JG, iiiiattiliara S J3alivrcya Varalia 1. 19? . U agori atta S yajasanoyl HiaradvSja i Idij- XJ'J , ijurvesvara S Do Alambayana v;itii brotlier i 200. Repaclhya S Do Hiaradvaja i '»1-202. Gaiulrcidasa ai^cl Bali"w:cya Kausika 1 yinardaiia S 203, Supratistliita S vajasanoyi KSsyapa 1 204. Naiidaiia S Do Gautama 1 205. '^sa S Do S5ka-J;ayaaa i 167 :? H5, Na--'' of tlie Donee Vocla Gotra Awsa "i ,^'i', . S.u'cisa c\ncl VajasQiieyl Gautama aiid 1 /Cupula S KS^yapa :>>^. /ifiiasa S Do Hiaradvaja j^ For tlie purix)se of ball, Garu and Satra 7 Total ^6-—parts 16 Table 6 Karnes3 of the Donees and tiielr respective shares as alio ted by Ipkanatha* Name of tiie Donee Portion i Hame of the Donee I Eliatta inantadevi^ P^takas 9 5 Kapa i ' * Svanin ji VlSva i It CtiarmSdaaa Pa^aka 1 i Klia^ga i It Haladatta tt n 5 y£dara ii TLcaksana 9 II Kesava It tt 5 Pati '(?) 5 II Gi^a(7) nandin It It 5 Govardhana 8 II Medliasoma It tt i Prabliavarisa i 7isnu \ ti Ddayacandra II II \ AndasQrl 8 It Manojnacle^^a II It Pltrikesvir 5 It JayasoEiEu. S vamin 11 It Antacara 5 HarsaHiatl 5 ti PornadSma Dcopas 20 I - _ X Subrata 5 It Tlflesa 11 20 A 5 Bianda i 11 Yajnadeva 11 5 11 .acioradeva ti Har§a ^ II Lair a (?)-Svarain " "(?) Modra 8 5 Kiialisa 8 11 purnagliosa II ;• ti II Ugrasoraa tt Widdhiflroha II Manor atlia 5 ;N '/IdagcUm aiid II Ravi (?) la i 1 o-'iieirs 11 RasaHsc^la J (Jointly) 5 is.Cikica ri Blilksata 8 Pa^akas 2 lAoiiesa (V) 5 fi H'a\i3arman i?roiias 10+7=17 u ^'ea^ 8 It •jai.'iasoma !l 10+5(?) ==lo i Sona joiriardanc. i •t \ a;' a n ft ^ .uid- '-ib.SJrtU ;• ID \-n i « .> .J..' viJi., o u fi o o WSOOt t^MM K3< MM >OI )^ K9« X3( >0< MSI MM a 'ID s rt TS 4^ c3 rt <-^ rt .—N C^* /"-N c« ^ o» ^ c- •a §• •._i* Pf^ g- ri •^tf v^-' o •i-i c^ c3 0 r^ •o >^3 rt433 D,g 0). I > o h> «io >• >-j a « 00 >• o i4 t»tat»ot>0<>o«»^>e»fcj«o< H o 3 •P At a. Q >» H H <-< •P •P O •-I •a 4J O •Pt O o not >0« KM tot >OI >al tOI )OI» o a« •—t o Ol O +> o c o m ^ a c r-I o o a M •P ft -p 73 •,-1 u •p +> o o o o o id Id f-3 a* >-3 a, a, a! 1i«?M VCK-<7* )«H >^ lOM ii^ >CM >0^ X3M #CK >^ MCM >^ lO« wrK HfTM «=M K3« VCyb^M o CiJ o 53 a a :i:i ,h c:! •p 1:3 a > > u +>3 c3 +^C0 rf g o «;}C]-HC3Ncaddc> •p u ^ - ^ • ^^ '^ •;-•• c3 C rt iC3 St irf rt -c? o »J"Hq QM pi» ata u.ci ra :2, cJ.rn ^ ,M r; f' O s ?-• c * h»Q CliQ 6^r:> ,.t: •A tves* >0* -"^ ^c*i >;3»i vr>» -:_-. - >oi«xa«>c» CJ o 4^ u o 8 a Wl to I w O I o o ^ PI O ® )0«>a«>eM>4eM>cM>eM>4SM •cs* >4!rM ^ot .MI^M >«»i >CM *OH yrM.ye-M,-) -'J rt O •A O .;j ..'1 IT; >CO a i m Uanio oi tile .JOJU;:!;, i -.amc oi fhr '^K.-. 1 Warayaiia J 'i Madhu (V) liar id eva I (Joi:itiy) Pat^ij.::,. 1 ^ Laitsaiia i Candraliosa j i Dhaiiaiiajid a i i Parasala ^ Bliatta Suta Jroiias 10 i Usa y Indra " Pincliod eva Zatalia 1 Ilari , ;. Dlirlti 'i Naiidagopa 5 } Iccha I Vananali I 5 Deva \ Portions not iaiown, \ Gana \ Klionya i IS Maliaraja \ \ Dadhibliata \ f Pujisnu 5 Jointly (?) Patnkas Hiof^in 'BmvoAS.sa Al2i ' 5 4 •., Svanin 5 I ^acaka Vasu Sararidha i i Sangha i t Racaka SudUaraeC?) Santosa H Portions not knovni. Jayasarman I Vira (?) lia Daidava 5 lvanti(niii?) I \ Utkliatap-karmana Naravijaya I \ Naradatta Sarabhavijaya J \ Guptajaya I \ Droaas 9 (?) \ sari \ \ Priya Dronas ID \ \ J), K«B«t Many more names has been lost and allotment of portions to iHroper persons, 172 15 bo|>iciar in Soutliern India tliaJi in tlie Nortli. In Pragjyo- tt s'-i-Karaarupa a village was sub-divided into Ksetra or ara ble loJifl, khila or -waste-land, g-o - (nra -) cara-Higpii or and lor cattle grazing and vastubliuml or buildiiig sites, inest'eiore, tiie land donated by tlie Nidhanpur grant was a tax- ireo arable land of LlayuraislraalS village of Gandrapurl visaya. u,M.Morrison wants to moan the t&cm blmcchidra as a iruvi unfit for cultivation, which is exempt from any tax (leraand. 17 According to D.G,Sircar, tlie terra speaks of an oM custom by -vvhicii a pea:son wlio brouglit a piece of fallow or jungle land under cultivation for tiie first time Tsas allowed to enjoy it without paying rent. The custom was basei on the principle tliat tlie hunted deesr belonged to liira wlio liit It first. 19 The Qchidra in tliis case seems to have originally rol'erred to the furrowing of tlie land. Gradually, however, "tlie expression bhumi-cchidrq acquired tlie meaning of uncul- 21 tivable (Krsyayogya) land ... » YSdavaprakSsa in his 22 Vai .1 ayanti says that the tGsrm means an uncultivable land, 6uca Imia remained tax-free when it used to be brought under cultivation for tlie first time. But R.S.Sliarraa by referring nine inscriptions from Gujarat and Maliarastra of 5th to 7th cejituries, iiolds tliat tlie term bliiSmicchidra have been used in cases of tliose villages and plots of lands whicli were settled 'UKi cultivated. One of tliese inscriptions from Gujr at/gran- tod lajxl wiiich included a farm-liouse (I all bar am'^ indicating PS thrit the Irdid was cultivated, Th€2?efore, it appears tliat 173 iAiQ tdrn will mean tliat juit- B.s no assessment of taxes is •uio on unarable land, so al;:3 no assessmeait is to be made 26 'or til esc donated lands. •Ve do not get any clear idea of tlie quantity of laixl, (lonatod by tlie Nidhanpur grant as no unit of land raeasuro- /nent has been stated in the grant. Tliere is only a refer^ice oj' division of the granted land into ll6^parts. But in the TippGirali grant of Lokanatlia we find tlie term Patakas and •J_ronns; ns the units of land measurement. V/e shall get an ideci ji- tuiGSG units of land measLU'ement from a quotation of j.y.lkjvrj.Qon, "The total Valiiyagupta grant is for eleven ija^vucasy wiiiciii ore mode up u.'. ciixffsreiit sized plots measuring soveii pa^altas and nine dronav" ;!ar-, tv/enty-eight droi.iavapas, tJiirty-tliree droi^avapas, tiiirty dronavapas and two patakas less ono-quarter (padona -- pa^aka - dvaj^a - parima^ia - kgetra _- khaiidasya). If we take expression ' t^f9o patakas less a quarter' to moixii one and on&-iialf paljakas.^ then we have the relation ship that eleven pai^aka,s equal eight and one-half p.a-^^akas plus Olio hundred dronas. Therefore, forty droijias equal one p.5.-^aka. Moreover, if tJie dronas in tlxese plates are tlie same as tliose in tJie district grant, tlie five Kulyavanas equal one pa^alca> for in tlie district inscripjions it had been estah'ilshed that eir'ht dronas equalled one Ku ./.vvapa."^ 174 H<;a.'« wa see tiiat in tiie Uupta inscription, a pa'^aka is quivaiant to forty dronas. Tlie tern droha means an area on 29 . .' oii oiio droha oi seeds could be sown. But iiow much quan- ...Ltj of groin contained in a drcjj^ to any known unit of raea- siare - it is not known, D.G,Sircar points out tliat tlxe term droijia was also knovm in certain regions outside Bengal aixl 30 its noigiibouriiood. But tlie area donated by tlie terra differ- 31 ed frojn place to place even in Beiigal. Similar also is tlie 32 i:iase witli the denotation of the t<3rra pStaka. In Sanskrit i-e-xicoiis tile weigiit of the cent (aits of a drona is variously 33 ?:iv€ii e.g. 80 -, 64 -, 32 -, :30 -» and 16 seegrs etc. At ovfis^nt in Assam tJie measure of a Droijjia ( dona In Assamese) is equal to 5 seat's or 4.28G7G kgs. in case of rice and. 3^ seers or 3.f^l507 kgs, in case of grain. It has been suggestoi by i^.J.Jiioudhury tliat a plot of laiid i^roducing 2000 Assa^aese dona of parldy should roughly measure 5 bighas of land according to the prevailing land measurement in Assam. 175 Table 7 Donation of Land uiider the ^Slastarablia Hulers Plate Designation Donor Granted Prop€3?ty 3T1 JIvarSja Wot known • vuruvabaiii CP liar j jaravarraan Land producing 4000 Pu'^paka of paddy and also a laiid yielding 2000 units of paddy. ilayunthal CP ilarj JaravarraaJi Not known DiGiiallgSS GP A kliaiidalaka of land Vanamala divided int'> some anssas Iezpur CP VanoBala A village, named Abliisu- ravataka containing land and wateo' parbatlya GP Vanamala A village, named Haposa- grama Uttarbarbil GP Balavarraan III LaJid producing 2000 units of paddy Wagaon CP Balavarman III Land yielding 2000 units of paddy Jlubarl CP Balavarnan III Land yielding 2000 units of paddy 176 in tills group of land grants vte find tiiat all tlio ,;raiits were issued by tlie kings of tlie land and no grant was issued by any subordinate ruler. Secondly, all tlie recipients ox tills group are individual Braliraanas except tlie DIglialEgaD grant of vanamlla where tlie recipients were BraluaQjj.^ Galla- hax6. and his five brothers. Thirdly, tliere are references of tlie donation of a village in two grants of tliis group for tlie first tine. Fourtlily, some nefw terms have been used in tliis group in connGction with the donation of lands, ijy tiie Kuruvabalii grant, liar j jaravarman donated a plot of land yielding 4000 pul^aka of paddy along witli a land pro- duGing 2000 units of paddy. In no land grants of our period we find tlie tern. «putalca' but see the expressions such as dhanyadvisaliarsa (Uttarbarbil GP and Ulubarl GP of Balavarman III, Bargabn GP of Ratnapala and Guvakuchi GP of Indrapala), dlianyacliatusaliasra C Nowgong GP of Balavarman III and Gauiiati GP of indrapSla) dhanva^atsaliasrlka (Klianamukli GP and Subliah- karapa-^aita OP of DliarmapSla), dhanya^tasaliasra (Gaclital GP of Gopala) and dhSJiyadasasaliasra (Pu§pabliadra GP of JDiiarmapala) etc, indicating areas yielding two thousand -, tliree tlioii- sand -, four tliousand -, six tliousand -, eight tliousand and ten thousaiid units of paddy respectively, Hie e3cpr«?gsions have be^ made in such a manner tliat it appears that the par ticular measure or weight was most papular and tlius a standard 177 on-^. TTost probably tliis popular measure or wjeight was droya. The term pujai^ occurs again in tlie KilScala grant of Mariliavadeva ( G. 15tii G^i, approx,), Hayagrlva Maihaba graJit (,G. 1677 A.D.) and in tlie Lepatkata grant of tixe time of 35 Rudrasinglia (G. 1701 A,D,), Again tlie word pu^l have been used for tiie sane purpose in the Qiiamkiiana grant of king oatyanarayajia and Prat yaks aMiarayana (G, 1392 A»D.) and in the Ghilamara grant of king Lak§minarayana (G. 1401 A.D.), It lias been suggested by Dr, D, Ghutia tiiat both the words putaka and puti are used to indicate a particular laiad measure, supposeclly equivalent to a Assamese Pur a, a measure equal to 37 four Assamese bjghas, one biglxa measuring 4800 sq, yards, The term pu-^ialca may also imply a land and grain measure, equalling four bi ghas in c^se of land and tliifee donas ( 38 drona) in c^se of grain. At tiie time of describing the nature of grant, most of tlie inscriptions of tixe Sfilastarablia and Pala dynasty use tiie similar statement of tlie Kuruvabaiii grant of Harjjaravarmaia wliich says tliat it is givcai along witii its land, waters etc, wliioh oaya-tliat it-io given along wltli ito lojid, waloojo vjto^ wiiicii is free from all troubles on accoujit of fast^iing of elepiiants (liastibandha), fasteniiig of boats (nauklbandha), QJiourodiiaraiia* uparikara* utkliet^ana and grazing of animals sucii as elephants, liorses, camels, cows, buffaloes, goats and 178 39 sheep. In tiie Kowgong grant of Balavarman III we find tlie terra auparikara which is similar to tlie term uparikara of 40 the KuruvabSlii grant. In Wilson's Glossary tlie word uparikara means 'a tax leviefl on cultivators having no 41 proprietory right on tlie soil. According to Hbernle "uparikara is a fiscal tejrnij tlie rent or tax (kara) paid by an uparl. or tenant vfho does not reside or has no occupancy 4? rights in the land. " L.D.Barnett tiiinks uparikara as the 43 Tamil raelvarSm or the king's share of tiie produce., In tiiis regard the suggestion of P.G.Clioudhury seems to be the most correct one. According to hira "upari" is clearly a preposition witli tiie sense of Latin super or extra, and upar^kara,^ tlierefore, means an extra revenue derived from all 44 classes of cultivators, botii permanent and temporary, Utkixe-^ana was also a tax levied on special occassions 45 as an eraergency measure. R.D.Baiierjee takes tlie term chourodhara^i£^ in tiie sense of tlie right of extirpation of 46 robbers. But U.N.Gliosal tliinks it as an oppressive tax 47 imposed upon tlie villages for protection against thieves, It -was levierl for the maintfiance of the village police and 48 was assigned to the donees along with tiie land itself, It appears that the donees were exeripted from any provision to pay anything and provide for tiie raaintonance of police wlio mi gilt enter tiieir lajid in coimection witli tlie appr divi sion of tliievas,^ 178 Table 8 Donation of land under tlie Pala Rulers Plate Designation Donor Grant property ::oratbarI GP Ratnapala Land capable of yielding 4000 units of paddy liargSoa Of Land capable of yielding 2000 uiUts of paddy c>uwSlkuclii GP Land capable of yielding 3000 units of paddy •iauimti CP Xndrapala Land capable of yielding 4000 units of paddy Gu5kuclii GP Land capable of yielding aoOO units of paddy Gaciital GP Gopala Land capable of yielding 8000 units of paddy Kiianamukli GP DharmaPala Land capable of yielding 6000 + aooO units of paddy Subliafikarapaipalca GP Land capable of yieldiJig 6000 -f 2000 units of paddy Puspabhadra GP Laiid capable of yielding 10000 units of paddy 130 The terras hastivandha and naukabandha meaning 'roping cnc elephants' and 'tying boats' respectively might have some occassional taxes imposed ujpon tlie people in Pr5gJyotisa^ 50 Konarupa. According to D,C.Sircar, HaukSbandhla ^wa s perhaps 61 u tax levied upon tlxe boatmen at landing places. The donation of laiids under tlie PSlas follow tlio sane tdrrainology of tlie previous dynasty. But tiie distribu tion of granted land in tlie Western part of PrSgJyotifa^ Kanarupa, instead of eastern part unddP the previous dynasty, makes it clear that due to some reasons tiie Palas sliifted their political and cultural activities from east to west, •^his Inferoiice Is confirmed by tlie fact that tlie Pala rulers storting fron Indrap?lla donate:! large amount of lands in that area. The Gauliati grant of IndrapSla, tlie Gochtal grant of GopSlavarraan, tlie Klianaraukli, Subhahkarapa-taka and Puspabhadra grtints of Dharnapala record tiie donation of lands producing 4000, 8000, 8000, 8000 and 10000 units of paddy respectively. It has been suggested tliat tills cliange was due to ei.tlier of two causes viz, 1, The Shan and otlier non-Aryan tribes became powerful in tlie east and tiireateiied Pragjyotisa, 2. tliat in tlie West Gauda kings attacked KamarUpa, It may be tliat tlie rulers of tlie Pala dynasty paid special attention to the west rather tiian tiie east to save the situation, 0^31 Donation of Land aftco* tlio Pala Rulers Tile land grants made aft€ Tlie prose portion of tlie Kamauli graiit of Vaidyadeva is full of deli wo ids. In the seal, tliere is a figure of four iiandeel Gajiela wiiicii can not be found in any otlier inscriptions of Ka/narupa, By botli tiie grants of tlie period donations were made of villages, The Donees under tiie Varman Rulers In the Nagaj'arl-Klianilcargaon inscription we find tlie 52 names of Maliattara Ecalimadatta and Vaji, P.O.Clioudhury 53 tliinks tile forn&c as tlie donee of tlie inscription. If it is so tli^i tliere must be tlie woi?cl Hiatta before tlie word raliattara. According to D.G.Sircar the term Mgdiattara means 54 ~ a member oi' tlie village assembly. Accordingly it may be 132 that jraliraadatta ana /aji were members of the village assanbly. They acted as tlie witnesses of tlie donation or da^aarcation of tlie plot of land concerned, Due to loss of tlie last plate of tlie Dubi grant of iiliaskaravarman "we do not get tiie complete list of tlie Bralimacia donees of tlie inscription. From last portion of tlie fifth. plate we get tiie name of some donees. Here mention have been Kiafle of tlie Yedasa]clias and gotras of some of- tliem. They are t Bliatta Priyankaragliosasvarain, a followesr of tlie Viijasaiieyi (carana of the Ya.iurveda) belonging to tlie Kausika gotra, A-V-isarika Hliattadevaglio?asvarain, a follower of tlie Vajasaneyi car ana and belonging to tlie Kausika gotra, whesre tho shaTfvholdcsrs are Bliattapriyanlcaragho§asvarain, Hia-^tapa^ rasaragho?asvnnin, Bliatt^adliruvaglio^asvamin, BliattJabliuraagliosas- vanin, Dalcs>laglio§asvarain, Sreyaskaraghogasvarain, J3phaspatis- v5min of Maudgalya Kotra^ ... of Maiidavya Kotra. Kabliattas- — ^ 56 varain of Kausika gotray ..." In tlie llidhanpur grant of Bliaskaravarman, we get a complete list of tlie Bralimana donees witli tlioir respective Bharee and Vedic saklias. It is seen in table No, 6 tliat tlie donees of tliis grant belonged to tlie following gotras s Agnivesya, Alambayana, Asvalayana, Aiigirasa, Kavestara, Katyayana, Kasyapa, Kr^.iatreya, Kauijilya, Kaundinya, Kausta, Kausika, Gautama, Gauratreya, GSrgya, Jatukarna, ParSsarya, IB3 ?racQtasa, iiiaradvaja, Hiargava, Maiiclavya, Maudgalya, Y5ska, ^/asi?tiia, Vatsa, Varalia, VSriiospatya, Visnavrddlii, Pautri- raSsya, Paurmia, Savarijika, saiai\kayana, PSi^alya, SSkatayana, 3ai;idilya, Saonaka, Saubhaka (7) and Sankyityayana, Tlieir /0^Uc saldias W€re Garalcya (Ya.iurveda), Ghaiidogya (Samaveda)o Taittirlya (Ya.iurvada^, Vajasaneyl (Ya.iurveda^ and Yalivj-icya (Bf;veda). Tile Tipperaii grant of Lokanatlia transfeirred a large area of land to support tiie service at tlie temple of Ananta- ijaraya^ia and to help sustain tlie coraraunity of over two hun- drefl Bralimai:ias who were associated -witli the temple. But tiie grant is silent about the f^otras and vedic sakli'as of tlie •m 57 donee Bralimarias. Hern we see that all the grants of Varman period donated large tracts of land to tiie Braluaagia coiaraunities and not to individual BrUIimafias. It may be tiiat the donated lands of Varman period were situated on the edge of cultivated areas whicli were for some otiier reason difficult for tlie individual cultivator to bring under profitable cultivation, For example, the land donated by the Tipperali grant was a ounglp oreii having a thick network of bush ai:id creepers, wiiei'e aeer, buifaloes, boars, tigers, serpents etc, enjoy, according to their will, all pleasures of horae-llfe ..,". Th€ire might have some strategic reason also. In ordcDc to straigtlieJi tlieir position in a newly conquired area tlie kings 184 ot i'raejyotisa-Kamarupa had done so. Here "we may remind tliat iJiH donate:! land of the Nidhonpur grant was located at tiie outsicirt of the empire of Bliaskaravarman, Tlie Donees under tlie Salastambha Dynasty In tlie fragmentary copper plate inscription of JIvarSja we find a rei'ereaice to a Br51iraa;ia faniily of KSraarQpa, Most probably tliis family was related to the recipicait of tlie 58 chartdT. Besides this, notliing is known about tlie donee of tliis inscrintion. By the Kuruvabalii grajit of HarJjaravarraan, thr: ionntioii v/as made in favour of a .draliraafia, named JJiiaresuta, son of iiiia"vadeva, who again is tiie son of famous Kumara-dvi.la beloneing to the Nnidiiruva-Pravara of the Kauiidinya-F;Otra, 69 and followdT of the Kanva^salcliS. of the Yajurveda, . Due to loss of tlie last plate of the Hayunthal grant of Harjjara- vorraan we know notliing about tiie recipi^it of tlie graiit. The recipients of the DTghallgao grant of Vanamala are Bliatta Gall- aliara and his five brothers viz, Hia'^ta Gayahara, Payohara, - 60 - / Balaiiara, GaiiaraSna and Katyayana. Jataveda of Kausika gotyg was tiieir father; . The donee of the Tezpur grant of Vaiaaraala - 62 >' was a Bralimin named Indoka, Hiiojata of SSiidilya Kotr;^ was his fatlior who studied the wliole Ya.lurveda along witli tlie ancillaries. The name of Indoka's mother was Sabliayika. 1S5 arahmavia Gudamani was tlie donee of tlie Parbatlya grant of 66 /ananala. Hiatta Jejja-^a was donee's fatlier who belonged 66 to the car ana of tlie Samaveda and of San^ilya gotra. By Uie UttorUarDil grant of Balavarnan III, the donation was mcule to a Br^uaagia named Syamadeva. ' Gahliifthira was liis tatiier, 68 Garga of Upamanyu ^tra was Gablii^t^iira's fatlier "wiio was a master of entire vedic lore, reputed tlirough tlie perforraaiiGG of several sacrifices, a follower of tiie KSnva 69 school of Veclas, and tlie veocy repository of Yajurveda," Balavarraan III donated land to Hiatt;a Syamadeva for tlie m^it of his parents and for his own welfare on tlie day of annual celebration of Sakrottliana. The donee of tiie ci.; Nowgong grant of Balavarraan III was Braliraacia Srutidliara. 7? '7*5 Devadhara"^ was liis fatlieir and Samayik3' was Iiis motlier. Mal3dhara Bliatta was tlie fatlier of Devadhara wlio was a / 74 follower of tlie Kanva salclia of Vedas and of Kapila gotra. Hero Balavarnan III donated land to Srutidliara for the cause 75 ol his priTents gaining weli'are in tlie otlidr world. B'j the Ulubrirl grant of tiie sane king, donation was made to BrSlinafia Hiavadeva at tlie lioly juncture of tiie Sun's passing into tiie 76 nortii of tlie equator for king's own welfare. Hie names of 77 78 Bliaaradeva's pareaits were Budhadeva and U^a. Vl^nudeva was Budhadeva's fatii^ wlio was a follower of tlie KStiyas&klia 79 oi" Ya.1urveda and of Parasara ^otr^. Here we see tliat under tlie Salastamblia dynasty all tlie 1S6 jr'a'ojits were nade to individual Braliraafia except tlie Dighaligao i-Niiit of Vaiiaraala whore tlie donees were five brotliers, Second- So • ly, und^ tliis dynasty, tlie use of pravara by tlie Bralimafta donee is found for tiie first time in PrSgjyoti§a^Kaniarupa, in tlie Kuruvabalii grant of liarjJaravarraan, i^ravara of donee's grruid fatlioT has beQi mcaitionod along with his KOtra and .v§dic s;Udia. 'Pliirdly, some of the grants under tli© Salastarabha dynasty wcrn made for earning punya not only for tlie donors but also for tlieir parents, e.g., tlie Tezpur ajid Parbatlya grants of Vanamala, Uttarbarbil, Nagaon and Ulubarl grant of iiaiavtirraan III. Some of tliese donations were made on tlie occassion of auspicious days. In tlie Uttarbarbil grant of Balavarraan, tlie gift is recorded to have been made at tlie • Q-I time of annual worsliip in connection witii Sakrottliana. The gift recorded in tiie Nagaon grant of Balavarman has he&i made at tile time of Vishuvat (K51e Vishuvati).^^ The time of malting tiie gift in tlie Ulubai^I grant of Balavarman III is 83 ' givcai as Udaksaralcraraai;ia. Br^iraana Donees under tlie Pala Dynasty Tlie donee of the CoratbSrl grant of Ratnapala was Bralimai^a ciiddhapala who was a master of Yajurveda> Siddhapala was tlie son of Nidliipala who again was tlie son of Jayapala belonging to Gautama gotra and follower of Kanva 1B7 uSiaia."''^ .£110 donee of tlie Bargaon grant of tlie same king was '/rrailatta. Sadgaiigadatta was donee's fatliesr and SyHnaylka was donee's raotiier. Devadatta was donee's grandfatiier belonging to ir^arasara F.otra aJid followdc of tlie Kai;i7a sSldia of tiie \/a,iasanoyX safiUiita (of tlie Xa-lurvedaU^*^ RatnapSla donatocl uuKi to Vlradatta on tlie auspicious moment of tlie Y^?fim^Q<^^ 88 safekra)iti for tlie fame of Ms par^its and for liis own merit. 89 Tile donee of RatnapSla's Suwalkuclii graiit was Bralimafia K^odeva, /asudeva was donee's fatlier 90 and Gcliepp2.yiica was donee's 91 raotlier. Yaladeva, tlie donee's grandfatiier was well-versed in Veflic lore and bolonged to tlie VajasaneyT saMiita of tlie , 92 Kaiivasalcha. King RatnapSla made tliis donation to Kcimadeva 93 for tlie mcfl^it of Ills par^its ojid of liim and for gaining fame, By tho Gauhati E^caiit of Indrapala land was donated to Bralimana Desapala vviio was tlie son of Savarapala, Saukliaylka was 96 - donee's juotli^. iiaripala was donee's grandfatiier belonging to Kasyapa go tea and follow ea: of tlie Ya^urveda* Bralimacia Devadeva was tlie donee of tlie GuW51cuchi grant of the same 98 - - 99 king Vasudeva and Anoradha were tlie parents of tlie donee. ooraadeva, tlie grandfatiier of tlie donee lived at Vainama, a village in Savatlii, ^^ He was a follower of tlie KanvasSklia of tile Ya.lurveda- No mention has be 1D4 •aiiojia was his grandfatlier who lived in Madhyadesa and o eiojigefl to tlie Kasyapa Eotra. He was a follower of tlie K.^ivas^dia of Ya.iurveda. Tlie donee's of DharraapSla* s Subhan- 105 iirtrapa'^nlca grant was BrlUunayia IlimTlfiga and his brother TTilocann, ' Bliarata was donee's fatiiar and Pauka was. 107 donee's motiior, R^adeva wlio was donee's grandfatlier 108 lived at Krosdnya - a village in SravastI, He was a follower of Kautliuraasaidia and belonged to SaJidilya gotra. The donee of tlie Puspabhadra grant of the same king was BralinaQa •> 109 110 «, Madhusudana, Patra was his v/if e. Sutanu and Netra y^ 111 wea:'e tlie parents of Madhusudana. Bliasvara and JIva were 112 again tiie par^iits of Sutanu, Naravaliana was tlie fatlier of Sutanu who lived at Kliyatipali where Bralma^as of pure Maudgalya gotra having the pravaras of Autatliya, Maudgalya 113 and Angirasa Hved, These Br Slim anas were tlie followcO'S of MadhyandinasaidiS of Yajurveda. In the land grants of tlie Pala dynasty, it is seentliat most of the donees were followers of Kaj;;ivasaklia of Ya.iurveda. Secondly, the land grants after RatnapUla are silcffit about tlie purposes of donations, Tiiirdly, in tlie land grants under previous dynasties we find no any mention of tlie original liome of tlie donee. But from tlie time of Indrapala it is seeii tliat aljnost all the inscriptions ra^ition tlie original liorae of tlie donee. 189 The Donees After tlie Pala period Sri Sridhara, "'••^^ the donee of the KamaalL grant of A-artyrnleva, belonged! to tlie Kausika gotra.-^"^ YUdhi^^aiira uKt pai were donee's parents,-^-^ The name of tlie grandfatlier of donee was Bliarata wlio lived in tiie strongly aarainistored 117 village called Hiava in the Yareiidrl region, Vaidyadeva made tliis grant to Srldhara on tiie Visuvati (sainkranti) on Vaisaldia on an Ekndasl (titlii) for gaining heaven. Vallabhadeva in his Karaauli grant donated sev^i villages for tlio maintcaionce of cm alms house, established by him, for the hungry onos for his mother's obtaining tlio heaven for under tlie previous dyiiasty we obs^ve tliat tlie land grants after Ratnapala do not mention the purposes of dona^ tion. But in the inscriptions of Vaidyadeva and Vallabhadeva tiio purposes of donation are mentioned. In tlie inscription of Vallabliadeva tlie donation was made for tlie maintenance of an alms house, 190 Notes and Refer one os 1 Gitocl by U. N. Gliosal, Contributions to tlia History of Hindu Revalue System, p. 182. 3 Xb3.d. P. 184. 4 ib|xl. p. 183. 5 Bar goon Grant, lino 37, IAA< p. 132 , , G iLSsa/a Grant, VY. 15-17, lAA, p, 298, ? Hidixanpur grojit, lines 60-53, JLM> P» 43 8 H, M, Sharraa, XM> P- 76-81- 9 R, G. Basalc, J^., Vol. XV, p. 312-315. 10 Ibid., P. 315. 11 Nidhanpur grant, line 51, lAA, p. 53. 12 D. G. Sircar, EpifTapliical Glossary, New Dellii, 1963, p. 10. 13 V. B, Misra, Tile Gur.iara>-Pratilioras and tlieir times, New Dellii, 1966, p, 65. 14 B, M. Morrison, op. cl,i;«, p» 93. 15 D, Shnrma, Kgmargpa ^5san5vall, p. 125, IC S. GhattopadJiyay, CH^, p. 236. 17 B, M, Itorrison, op. cit«, p, 93. 18 D. G, Sircar, X*S»> P- 397-398. 19 UC. Cit. 21 toC.ClK 22 IdJajraniT, Hiuraikliaiida, Valsyadhyaya, V.IB, 191 23 jpOC.M-t. 24 R, S. Sharraa, Indian Feadallsm, New DelJii, 1986, p. 30. 26 D. Sliarina, op. cit.^ P» 125» 2? M. M. Sliarma, j[^, p. 81, 28 B, M, Morrison, op. cit.« p. 91, 29 P. G. Glioudhury, HGPA, p. 280. 30 D. G. Sircar, Ixfi,, p. 414. 31 Lcc.cii . 32 H. K. Barpujari, CHA« p. 188, 33 JARS, XXVI, 1981-82, p. 10, 34 P. G. Ghoudhury, Asom Saliitya Sablia Patrika, Vol. 15. Mo.3, p. 187-94. 36 D. aiiutia, JAHo, Vol. XXVI, 1981-82, p. 10. ^6 L-OG.e-it- 37 L^Cj,.crf , 38 .Loc.cii. It must be noted tliat at present in Assam a tiasket or a vessel made eitlieff" by bamboo or cane shreds or of a particular type of leaves is used for measuring grains which is called doya, 39 KuruvabSJii gprajit, lines 19-21, JARS. XXVI, 1981-82, p. 7. 40 Nowgong grant, line 38, iM> P« I'lG. 41 Cited in D. C. Sircar, iE, p. 394. 42 Cited in M, M. Sliarma, JJ^, p. 125 . 43 1^B§, 1930, p. 165-66. 192 M P. G. Gliouclluiry HCPA, p. 275, ^46 R. D. BaJierjeo, EI* XIV. 47 TJ. N. Ghosal, IH^, V. pp. 277-79. 4s tpc.cii. 49 P. 0. Ciioudhury, j^gfi, p. 152. 50 II. K. Barpujai'i, gH^, p. 191. 51 D. C. Sircar, U^, p. 213. 52 NagajSri-Khanikargaon Stone Inscription, line 2, lAA, p. 304. 53 Cited in M. M. Sharma, IM, p. 304 . ^4 Ibid.T p. 305 . 56 JLoc.cif • 66 j;bid., p. 28. 57 R. G. Basak,'Ei XIV, p. 311. 58 D. Cliutia, JAI^S, XXXI, 1989-90, p. 108, 59 Ibid. XXVI, 1981-82, p. 4. 60 Ibid. XXIX, 1986-87, p. 42. ^1 Ibid, line 57. 62 Tezpur grant, V. 32, lAA, p. 106. 63 Ibid^ V. 30, iM> P» 106 . ^ Ibid* V. 31, iA^, p. 105. 65 Parbatlya grant, V. 26, iM> P» 124- 66 LOG, c if- — T — 67 Uttarbarbil grant, V. 29, lAA, p. 136 . 68 Ibid., Y. 27, iM> P» 125. 193 •^^' Xbicl., V. 26, IMi P» 135. :''.• ibi^., V. 30, IM, p. 136. 71 Wowgoug grant, V, 30, IM, p, 148. 72 Ibid., V, 27i iM> P» 147. 73 UMi V. 28, jEM, p. 147. V4 Xb^d, V. 2G, jjy, p. 147. 75 IbicU V. 32, iM» P- 148. 76 TTlubnri ppfoiit, V. 30, lAA, p. 316, 77 Ibid^ V. 27, iib\, p. 316 . 7b 4,Did, V. 28, lAIu p. 316. 79 Ibid. V. 2G, lAA, p. 315 . 80 Regarding the practice of pravara Jolm Brougli vsrites "a ma)i raay not marry a woniaji wlio has tiie same pravara as himself. A pravara is a stereotyped list of names of ancieiit rsis or seers, who are believed to be tiie remote founders of the family. This list is regu larly recited as specific points in tlie sacrificial ritual. In the Sutra appendices, these pravaras are classified according to the main eijcogaraous gotras, and in effect tliorefore tliis last prohibition is precisely the same as the restriction as to gotra, since those prevented fron marriage by considerations of prnvara are also menbers of tiie same gotra. It would in fact soera that tiie sole reason for the pravara rule in marriage was timt it foined aji infalliable test of tlie 194 rxop,cmous group to which a naii belonged, -when the , rohibitioii. cis to fciotra was gradually coraing to Do insLii'i'loiciit by itself, since in the course of linguis tic development the word came to be applied loosely to viirious subdivisions of the exogaraous classes, and ev^ to individual families," C.1 Uttarbarbil grant, Y, 30. Tliis ceremony is possibly same as the popular Hiatheli festival, in connection witli which the vedic custom of worship of Indra setting up 3;ndradhva.1a still survives in Assam, B2 Nag!lon grant, V. 31, XM» PP- 145-47. P. U, Bliattacharya points out tliat tliere are two sucli auspicious days vihich may be referred to as vlshuva k5le^ viz, the last day of Asvina and the last day of qliaitrn. Here probably the last day of Ghaitra is meant, This corz*esponds to tlio popular iissamose festival of BoliaK Biiiu wiiich is even iiow treated as the right occa- ssion for malting gifts, 8ci aiubarr grant, line 61, lAA, p. 315, Most probably it is the time of Maf:ha Bihu. 84 Coratbarr grant, V. 22, lAA, p, 0.24. 85 Ibid., V, 19, ii^, p. 0.24 86 Bargabn graiit, V, 19, JAA, p. liS5- S7 Ibid,, V. 16, XAA. p. 165 SS ibid., Y. 20, IM, p. 1G5 195 Juv;alkuclii g^ant, V. 19, XMJ P« 17^ • 90 ibid., V. 17, lAA, p. 176. 91 Ibid., V. IB, IM, p. 176. 92 Ibid., V. 16, lAA, p. 176. 'J 3 Ibid., y. 20, lAA, p. 176. 94 Crauhati rrraJ-it, 7. 23, JJi^, p. 188. 95 Ibid., /. 21, I/^n, p. IBS. 96 loid., ]}. 22, IMJ P» -l^S. 97 Ibid., V. 20, iAA, p. :iB8 . 98 Guwaiiuchi grant, V. 24, lAA, p. 200. 99 Ibid., V.V. 23-23, JLM> P« 200. 100 ibid., V.V. 20-21, JM, p. 200. 101 iUianamuMi grant, V, 21, lAA, p. 233. 102 Ibid., V. 19, IM? P» 233. 103 Ibid., V. 20, JMi P* 233. 104 Xbid.., V.V. 16-17, JMi P- 232- 105 ^ubliaiilcarapatolca grant, V. 20, XAAy P» 247. 106 Ibid., V. 22, iAA, p. 248- 107 jbid., V.V. 3B-19, IAA, p. 247, 108 Ibid., V. 17, IAA, p. 247. 109 Pujpabhadra grant, V. 23, IAA. p. 266. 110 Jjbid., /. 19, l^A, p. 266. 111 ibid., V.V. 16-17, IMi P- 264^ 112 ibid., V.V. 14-15, iAA, p. 264- 113 Ibid., V.V. 9-14, iAA, p. 263-64. 196 il4 kojnauli grant, V. 25, lAAi p. 285, 115 Ibid., V. 21, lAA. p. 285. J.1G I bid., V.V. 23-24, JLM> P» 285. 117 ibid., V. 22, IMr P» 285. 118 ibid., V. 28, lAA, p. 286« 119 Assam Plate, V.V. 13-15, J^A^, p. 298 197 CHAPTER VI Aspects of Society and Economy Varna System Tile division of society into four V&rfias, namely, Brahmai;>as, Lgatriyas, Val^yas and Sudras, is the keynote of tlxe whole systoin of social life in tlie Smyitis. It is evident tiiat the kings of PrSg^yotisap>KSraarC[pa took special care to protect this Varna system. In tiie Nidhanpur Qrant, HiSskara^ vaiman is described as "being created for the purpose of re-establisliing the institutions of classes ^and orders, which has for a long time past become confused*** in the Qauhati Grant of IndrapSla, it is said "When polite and valorous IndrapSla became tlie king and effected a proper division of the four asramas and tlxe four Varnas, it appeared as it were, that tile earth, as a wislx-yieMer and a source of pleasure to all tlxe people, once again became celebrated with prosper rity as it was under (king) Pftlxu".^ But, in course of time the caste system took the place of anci^it Varna system. Numerous castes £xnd sub-castes were formed due to the developm^it of differ^t arts, crafts and professions. According to Risley, various tribal, racial and religious factors were also at work in gradually adding to 198 Uielr zuimber. Gradually, the caste system became more rigid than what we come across in tiie e&rlier periods, in its extrwe form, it made tlie lower castes untouchable to tlie higher. In fact, ancient Var^a system was the nucleus, round whicli caste system grew in later ages« A late hymn of the ^veda - purusa Sukta refers to the origin of fojaryarpas, It is said in the Sukta tliat wh^i the gods divided the creator (Purusa), tlie Bralimana was his laoath; tlie BSJanya (Kgatriya) was made his arms; the Yai^ya was his thighs; and tlie §udra sprang from his feet. Here, we see that while the first tliree Varijas were identified with the limbs of the (Jreator, the ^udra merely sprang from his feet. Ihus, an inferior status is definitely assigned to the ^udras and a distinction is made between them and tlie first tliree Vargas, Brahmaqias Almost all the inscriptions of our period testify to tlie fact that Beghaai^as received both gifts and respect at the royal court of PragJyotifa-KfimarQpa. It encouraged many Brfflima^^as to migrate to the land from different places. This migration of tlie Br Sim an as occur ed at a time wh^ the Gupta 1S9 HiMpire was on its way of decline and the influence of Kamarupa increased over nortlwweotern India. Hie social organisation of the Brihma^ias was dlstin- euished by gotras, pravaras and veda^sakhas of which they attained, mastery CSupra Chapter Y), These were iajKirtant fmad am vitally in matters relating to inheritancei marriage, worship, sacrifice, the performance of daily sandhya* prayeirs.^ a3ie gotra denotes all persons who trace tiieir descent in an unbroken male line from a common ancestor wliile the pravara is associated with the priest or sage 7 whose name constituted tlxe pravara of that gotra* Oeva, Sarman and Sv5min are the titles of the Brah- mapas wliidi have be^n motioned in tlie epigraphs* Hhe surnames wliich are generally found in tlie epigraphs are Hiatta, DSma, Deva, Dhara, PSsa, Dutta, Ghoga, Kara, Kunda, Mitra, Nfiga, Nandl, Patila, Sena, Soma, Nagara etc* These, surnames are not generally found elsewhere in India except in Kfiwarupa aiid B^ieal* These surnames have the similarity to those of the Magara BrSlimafj.as, wixo are supposed to have originally migrated from Hagarkot in the Punjab to different places of the country* This has led some historians to take tiiat tlie BrStimanas, wlio were granted land by the Nidhan- pur Grant of Biutivarman were of the same stock a^ the NSgara Brahaa^;ias who are said to have migrated to Gujarat about the 200 same time with the rise of the Vallabhi kings.^ HfPe, It is important to note that tlie BrShiaag-as of Assam like those of B^igal tarace theLr descent from the BrSaaafias of KSnyakubJa (Kanauj.).-''^ It would not appear surprising that a nombdr of them might have migrated from Poi^ravardhana and other parts of anci^it Bengal* The case of Prahasa, the celebrated scliolar of BalagrSma situated in the Tarkari of IP aravasti region of Puiidravardhanabhukti, wlio migrated to Kamarnpa as motioned in the Silirapur Inscription, may be cited as aii instance in tills point* 3ie Bcalimanas of KSmarQpa most probably 1^ their Uf e in « conformity with the canonic:^ texts* From the pu^pabliadra errant of Dliarmapala, we come to know that the village of KhyatipSla was inhabited by ideal Brahma^^as who performed Yajnas, fire oblations, trisandhyS muttering of prayers in the morning, at noon and in the evening, and 14 read tiie four Vedas. We further find reference to a Brdhmai^a of this village who was well-vdrsed in &rttti, smriti and mImMsS, whose son Sutauu was always engaged in bestowing cliarities on otliers* From the ^abliafikarapat;aka Grant of tlie same king we are informed that in a village called Kro8an;ia in Sravasti lived Brahmagias versed in the SSae Veda. According to D.C.Sircar Krosafija or Kro^aiija of SrSvasti of the SuUiankarapS-taka Grant was situated in the Hili-Balurghat area of Kortii Bengal i.e., within 201 17 panrtravardhanabliukti. One of tiiose Bralimafias as has been ;esci"it)ed in the SubhaiMcarapal^aka Grant waB ©ogagod in six^- ioM duties viz, Yajana, Yajana, adhyayana, adhyl^ana, d&ia and pratigraha.^ Tlie otlier epigraphs of the land also give the hints of tlie existence of many such Brahmagiaa« The normal basiness of the BrSlimanas was to study and teach the Vedas and allied subjects and to act as the jpurohita."^ The epigraphs of the land mention three Vedas, M£aaAsa, which was tiie most ortliodox sciU)ol of Vedic theology was studied in Pragjyotica-KSmarQpa. S. CShattopadliyaya has suggested "the study of aliaafisfi and refdrence to tlie Yajnas prove tliat the oblations performed at that time were not of Tantric character but pertained to the Vedic metliod although in tlie Hevajra Tanti'a, composed aboat 693 A.D., according to Benoynath Hiattacharya, Kaharupa was a c^itre of Tantricisin while KSmakhyS, one of the earliest fourlantric Pithas, was locatei there."^"^ Besides tlie study of Vedas, Bramaapas cultivated various sci(3nces and arts* Tlie Pu^paUiodrS Grant of Dharmap&la informs us that BhSsvara, the grand father of the donee, was 22 duly gifted with skill in arts* He had an epithet ' ca^akyam5i>ikyabha' whicli possibly indicates tliat Bliasvara studied tlie Arthalastra of C5nakya,24 !Qie epigraplis give the hints that the BrSlimanas of 202 riamarapa sometimes took other iirof essions and maintainecl their liveliliood. In tlie Nidhanpur Grant of BhSsk-aravariftan mention has been made of a Bralunapa JanSrdana Svaiain wlio 25 acted as a nySyakaranika TJie tefrm means an officer» responsible for settling disputes regarding tlie gift of land, Tile Subliafikarapataka Grant of Dhamapaia refers to a Braiiraang HimSAga who "accomplished all the (martial) acts like pada (!•©•> piercing tiirough the target) in a oom;a end able raam:ier, -vho "was used to tlie hard and ctifficult acts concerned witli tlie picturo-like arraiigeraents of the army (Cltra), and who was experienced in the matter of 27 velocity, striking and effects of a drafted sliaft." Besides these liigh adxainistrative posts the Bralimai^ias were sometimes appointed as tlie court poets and Ministers of the 28 rultfs* Otlier castes From the inscriptions of PrSgJyoti^a^Kanarapa it is learnt tliat besidee the Kaivartaa, Koabhakgras, TantovSyas, Naqkl, Dari Anotlier allied class, motioned in the ^igirc-plis, is L^iaka - meaning a scribe. Sumantn, who is quoted in the Par&sara MadhavXya, considers food of a Lekliaka as unfit for a Bralimai^a.'^ T5ie Smyiti CandrikS of Brimspatl speaks 204 ,1 tlie Gai>ak:as and Lejdiakas as dvijas and it is prescribed 40 cnat tliey are to be associated witli justice in a court. Regarding tlie Gai^akas aiid tlie Daivajilas it is said in tlie Census Report, 1B91, tliat "In the Surma Valley, as in Bcsneal, tlielr ranKis so low tliat the Nava^SkliSs refuse to take. tliplr water, but in tlie Braliraaputra valley tlieir position It^, one of mucii greatciP respectability. Here tiiey claim to rank as iiralimaji^as still, but •.. tliey can not act as priests, Tiieare is, however, no doubt tliat altliougli socially inferior to Br31 imanas, tliey rank above all other castes, tlieir liigli position being doubtless due to tlie favour in wliich tliey 41 were held by tlie Aiiom and Koch king." Prasthanakalasa, tlie composer of tlie SubiiaAkarap^taka 42 Grant of Dharmapala was a Vaidya. P.N.Hiattacharya does not 43 believe tiiat tlie term ' Vaidya' was tlie name of a caste. But in tlie 8tli century, tliere existed a caste named Vaidya In 44 Soutli India, The Mbasjhas, otlierwise called Vaidyan of tlie Tamil country, follows principally tiie profession of tlie barbar and surgeon; but he is usually regarded as nasi.vein (bad luck), He has no ^itrance in tlie houses of BrSlimaijias on ome speci fied days, Tlio name AmbastHia-^becomes Ambatta)i in Tamil spelltHg 4S •Bliisalcaand pronoanciatio, anotlier nclas ansd meanof physicias a barban ir s inagai tline mentioneTamil languaged in tli. e 46 / Nag Son Grant of Balavarman, According to Usanas, tlie Hiisaka 47 was tlie offspring of a Br^imayia fatlier tlirough a Ksatrtya wife^ The Hiigakas had to learn tlie Ayurveda in its eight parts or astronomy, astrology and matliematics. 205 Book Inscription of HarJJaravarman refers to Kalvartas Miose duty was to collect tols on the riveirs. According to Manu a Kalvarta is tlie offspring of a Wlgada father through a Ayogava wife. A.N.Bose has suggested that tlie Kalvartas are identical with the Kevattas of tlie Pali textsf-^ Yfliatever their origin, they have been Included aniong the Sudras. In tlie 19th century they were divided into several classes. The two main divisions of them are ^® Halova Keyots and tlie Jalova Keyots, aSie former are Co mainly cultivators, wliile the latter are flshermtfa. From the epigraphs we come to know about the Kumbhakaras and the Tantuvayas. Ihe origin of the Kumbha- karas is not definitely known. Usanas thinks that tliey are tlie offsprings of a Bralxmafia and a Yalsya woman though y 53 Vedavyasa and Devala include them among the Sudras. Now in Assam tliere are two classes of Knmbliakaras « Kamaras and —————— ' g^ Hldas, the latter being regarded as inferior to the formed, Marriage is not allowed between these two classes. At the time of making pottery the Kumaras use wheels but tlie g5 pottery of tlie Hidas is hand-made. As tlie Tantuvayas ore excluded from the sacrificial rites, they are regarded as Sudras by Patanjali. But at preset in Assam the tgrm TatI I.e., the Tantuv^a is regarded as a professional class. Now, even tiie members of higher class group take to this profession at leisure periods. 206 73ie Pu^pabhadrS Grant of Dharmapala refers to the eg term antaja meaning low caste. There is another reference 111 tlie said grant Dij jarati»Hadi» B.K.Barua has suggested that the t^rm Hadi may mean the USri oaste of to-day who are linked with the poma and tlie Can^Sla* How In Assam tli^r position have been improved mudi as they have taken CO largely to trade and to work in gold, Economy : Rlvefrine Character of the Settlement The people of prSg4yoti§a-K5narupa wepe mainly agri cultural, tliough cattle breeding, forest products and industry helped to the development of economy of the land. Cultiva tion of rice was their diief employment. But as the pressure on land increased day by day, perhaps due to increase of population, demand for more cultivable land was felt gr^viua^ lly. As a result, people of PragJyDtifo-KSmarOlpa were forced to bring waste lands, Jungles, mountainous regions under 59 cultivation. But interestingly enougii, most of tlie inhabitefl and cultivated areas of PrSgJyotisa-KSraarHpa, lay within the valley of Bralimaputra or by tlie sides of otlier rivers which is evident from tlie epigraplis. Hayurosalmalagrahara wliich was granted to more tlian 200 BcalimaiQtas in the 7th century A.D. was marked off almost fully by the Kausika and the 207 ..dn:,xiil river beds, Guiiesvara Dig^ola vj-ddlxagrama, as mentioned in the puspabhadra Grant of Dharmapala, was surro- ondod by tlie rivers Jaugalla and Bckkasu^ka and the jolis or Z 61 streams like Garayala, NekkadeuU, Sihga and tlie Dljamakka. tnie land donated by tlie Guwakuchi Grant of Indrapala was mark eel off by the rivers Kaliaravijola, Sakhotakajola, 62 Srotasljola etc. There are many other instances wiiich prove the riverine cliaracter of the settlements of Pragjyo- tifta^Kamarupa. AiLong with the cultivated areas, the capitals of tlie rulers of tlie land were situated by tlie side of the river Braliraaputra, PrSgJyotlsa or Pragjyoti§apura irtiidi was tlie capital of tliG kings of Hiauma-Naraka dynasty and of tlie legendary king Naraka, was situated near tlio Brahmaputra. Hadapesvara, tlie capital of tlie rulers of Salastambha dynasty was located at tiie site of modern Tezpur town on the north bank of tlie river Braliraaputra6. 4 Durjjaya, tlie royal capital of Ratnapala and Indrapala has beai id stifled witli tlie old 65 city of Pragjyotisa. Karaaruponagara, tlie capital city of Dliarmapala of tlie Pala dynasty stayed in North Gaoliati Just 66 opposite PrSgjyotifapura^or KSaatSnagara (KSmatapur) in Western Kamarupa by tlie side of tlio DharlS river. Hie political centres of pragjyotlfo-KSmarQpa changed from time to time witli tile change of dynasty from lower Assam valley 4T5 u-ppen. A-ssavTv vcjle-^ (^and from east to west, but tiie location of tiie capitals near tlie river remained unchaiigefl tliroughout tlie period* 208 Ownersliip of Land From tlie inscriptions of tlie land it is learnt tliat land was tlie backbone of the economic life of PrSgJTotifa^ KSnainlpa which was divider! into tliree parts - (1) Janapada (countryside), (2) pura or nagara (city)p town) and (3) vana U'orest iaiid). The Janapada or tiie countryside was divided into ergpaas or villages consisting of kgetra or arable land, khila or waste land, go-(pra) - carabhSmi or land for cattle grazing which was evidently located at the outskjbrt of tlie . - 69 , village and vafltubLiuni or building sites. But Uie inscrip tions do not provide a great amount of data on tlio systga of landliolding or ownersliip of tiie land, According to Manu, a field belongs to kia wlio first clears it of tlie weeds* It indicates that the J anas or people weare tlie owners of Janapadas, Kau^ilya made distinc tion between Crown's land and privately owned land over tlie 71 later of wliich the king had only a protective control, B.K.Barua, in this regard, holds the opinion that "tlie Kamarupa kings, following g^ieral northern Indian tradition, claimed tiiat all land beloioged to tlie crown. Not only did tlie king exercise this riglit on tlie lands, cultivated or waste, bat he exteaided iiis prerogativo ownersliip ov«^ all woods, forests, ferries, mines etc. But tlie recorded 209 procelure of granting land to the Brahmai^aa, as described m the copper-plates raises a very important issae regarding the Indian tiieory of crown ownership* In certain cases, king, when giving away land, comaanicated the order not to tile state officials concerned but to tiie Brldunaijas and leading men of tlie district (Saiaupastiiita-Br5iinana3i •,, pranaklia Janapckdan ••• yath^ala - bhSvinopi .. sanaananSpur - "• • • •••.•• • • • ^ i^n-iyg Tvamraanayati bodhayatl samadliisati ca)" But repudiating «3acasdrsK«.-the above tlieory^ Barua iilmself remorlcs elsewhere **tiie major part of the cultivable land was held by tiie agriculturists wlio farmed it ••• !5ie riglit of occupation was hereditary, subject to the payment of dues and taxes to tlie Icing's offices or r^resenta^ tives,'^^ Actually in AnC'ient India tiie question of ownersliip of land by the icing and individuals differei?r^»rvplace to place and in time to time. It has been aoggested that in practice tlie tillers of tiie soil were tiie ultimate owners of lands, tiie icing's rights being normally confined to 74 eviction for non-payment of taxes. King's proprietory riglit seetns to liave exrtended to his own estates. Including liis riglit over forests, mines etc. Tliere is in fact no genuine evidence of ascribing to tlie Icing tlie ultimate ownership of tile soil. 1110 king's relations witli cultivators can be 210 better explained by rofarence to his duty of protection of tiis subjects, in return for which he received revtfiue from the cultivators, and so long as the latter paid tlieir dues, tlie ownersliip of tlie soil remained with tiiem. It is true tiiat there is no clear evidence to slxow what view prevailed in Ancient Assam, but it appears that the royal claim to ultimate ownersliip, as in other parts of India, if made at all, had no effect on tlie peasant, wiio paid Ms dues to the State and who was, tlierefore, tlie real owner of tlie soil, iQierefore, whenev^ a king donated a land to any individual BrBliraaiia or a group of BrSlimapias, he did so from liis own estate. In caSe of public land, he normally had no right to hand over it to others. H^ore, he might alienate only his right of exacting tax from tlie tillers to the donee, IIIG epigraphs of Pragjyotisa-KaraarQpa are silent about such type of the donated land, Keith has suggested tliat when the king donated land, he granted not ownersliip but privilege, such as the right to receive dues and main^ tenance from the cultivators. 75 If it was so, then the lands donated by the kings of PragJyotisa^KSmarupa were public land, Besides tlie Crown land and private land, there weore also tribal lands on the fringes of the land whidi was hardly influenced by Aryan culture. It appears that the communal or tribal ownersliip of the land sub-divided into family owner- 211 snip, prevailed aniong tliera. T^s the Angaml Nagas KIIO are tlvided into tliree main divisions are again sub-di¥ided into more than tlilrty contramiities known as Kliel wlio are exDgamoas and not unoften engaged in blood feuds, rfliis proves that each Khel hart under It a particular portion of territory which tliey jointly owned among differ^it Khel families.' ii^ain, among the Ao liagas, eocli village is a araall republio and tliough tlie village headmen exists, tlieir autliority is very weak* 'BXQ Sema Nagas, however, exhibit a different cliaracter. In tiie Sana territory, tiie hereditory village diiefs are tiie real owners of tiie land and their subjects cultivate the land for notliing and only get what tlxe ciiiefs are pleased to bestow on tlietn. And it is not unlikely tliat such systems prevailed among tlie tribes of Assam since the early days, 77 Mode of Cultivation Before the use of plough, agriculture In Pragjyotl^a- Karaa3r5pa was carried on tlirough tlie metliod of »Jhuraing* or 78 shifting cultivation. There are still several regions in India where people depend mainly on this system of agricul ture. Some of tliese are Arunachal Pradesli, the Naga Hills (Miso), tile Oaro ILLlls, tlie Kiiasi Hills etc. in Assamj TTipuraj Slkkimj Bhutanj tlie mountains of Keonjhar and Koraput in Orissaj the Abujhraar Hills and Mandla District 212 79 la Madhya Praieslij some of tlie Hills of Kerala etc. We have a clear picture of the process of Jhaw- Jaltivation in the following paragrapli : "kHi&a. a piece of land is selected, the trees or buslies are cut down to a certain extait, allowed to dry and tli€fi set on fire. In the land cleared, seeds are sown in little lioles dug in the groui>d or tliey are broadcast. here, no plough is used and no animal is employed ••• Such a field whicli is not repl^iished by manure (except tlie ashes obtained from firing) gives a diminishing return and is practically exiiausted in two or three years' time. OSien the farmer moves over to a new patch of jungle, and allows plaats to grow on tlie abandoned field... Vftien the abandonel fields are once more covered by an adequate cover of plants, 80 tile farmer may return to it for cropping again." A more complicated process of cultivation started with tlie introduction of the use of hoes and plouclis. This process of cultivation has been reflected in the epigraphs of the land - particularly in tlie agrahara settlements. "^ References of ploughs indicate tliat iron ploughshares, as prescribed by Bfhaspati, was in vogue in Prfigjyotifa - 82 KSmardpa as in other parts of India. From writings of Coamas, it is learnt tliat some people used thick rhinoceros 83 skin in tlieir plough instead of iron. As rhinoceros is found in large number in Assam, we may tliink that such 213 practice «as also followed in Fragjyotisa^KaraarQpa, though 84 tiiere is no any referesice, As we have seen earlier that most of the agricultural lands i»€Pe situateJ by tlie side of any river, specially tlie BralMaaputra, people of tiie land toolc due oare against tlidr plouglu-land from becoming overflooded causing damage to the crops. 85 Agricultural Products mid plants of Pr5g jyoti9a-K.5marQpa Rice seemed to be the dominant crop of the land, Tlie eoct^istve cultivation of paddy in Pragjyotifa^Karaarfipa is proved by tlie fact that wh^iever a lai:id grant of tlie region describes tiie areas of a donated land it is expressed in terras of the measures of paddy it produces. Theare are three kinds of rice vix,, sail, bao and aha, ^all Is a winter crop wliich grows on low lying land, Bao grows mainly on marshy land in de^ water while aliu is usuallyisHfcJclcast in spring time giving coarse rice, Tlier© are references of more tlian hundred varieties of paddy in the early Assamese literature such as jailing5, malbliog, bagXtara, cakowa, rahgi sail, raagnri, sfigar £^'11 etc, Ihat sugar cane was also cultivated in pragjyotisa- Karaarlipa is evident from tlie fact that the presents of 214 iiiiasJtara to iiarsa included guda (molasses) - a preparation 86 from sugar cane. According to Gazim, the sugar cane of Assam "excels in softiiess and sweetness and is of tliroe 87 Goloursi rod, black and white. The Bargaon Grant m^itions labttkutiksetra meanij-ig a land for cultivation of gourds, ^Tom this we may liold tliat cultivation of gourd was well- known in the region. Besides rice and sugar cane, there were plantation of various fruit trees which has been mentioned bo til in tlie inscriptions and literature. Bie €4>igraphs mention KantSpliala (jack fruit), Amra (mango), Jambu (eugenia jambollana), ^Iphala, Durabarl (fig), Sakho^aka (walnut), Badari (Jujube), Lakuca, An^aka (a kind of bread-fruit tree), Betasa (gamboze) Puga (betel nut), Coraka (a kind of wild palm tree), "Rudraksa (bead tree) and various kinds of citron 88 trees. Yuan Gliwaiifi states tliat in Kaiaarupa "the jackfruit 89 aiicl coconut were in great esteem tliough pleiitiful." The escteiisive cultivation of areca nut and betel vine is proved by botli literature and inscriptions. 90 From Gazim* s record it is known that "Assam produces mangoes, plantains, jacks, oranges, citrons, limes, pineapples and punialeh, a species of amleti which has such an excellence of flavour that every person who tastes it, prefers it to the plun. Hi^c were also coconut trees, pepper vines, areca trees and sadiz (malabothrum) in great quantity," In tlie Ybginl Tantra mention has been made of haridra (turmeric), ardraka (gingey), Jiraka (cumin), pippaJlyaka (long pepper), marica (pepper), 215 sari§5 (mustard), Karpura etc, 92 Hiere are names of some trees Including sarala (pine), sal, c and ana and aguru in the KaJlka Poraoa,^'^ Among the trees found in forests mention may be made of 1^^ (Fiscus Indica) alternatively also called Asvattha,^^ It is used by tiie people for many religious purposes, Maclhu- ^ 96 rfiavattha is another tree, used for rearing lac insects, S^^all is tlxe silk-cotton tree. Other important trees, mostly found in tlie forests of the land are K^^imbala, Bevadaru, SuvarQadSru, Khadira (acacia catechu), Odiamma (bischoffiajavanice), Pam5, Klioi;an (durbanga soneratioides), Gamarl (gmelina), Tltacampa (micheliachampca), Hijal, Padali 96 (p^tali) and various kinds of bamboos, Industries and Grafts Tlie development of differeiit industries and crafts in PragJyDtisa^KamarHpa is evidcaiceS by Utcarature, foreign accounts and epigraphy, Tliese meiition people of various professions such as weavers, spinners, dyers, smiths, workers in ivory, metal, wood, cane, bamboo etc. Among different industries weaving was an important one which develop eel in the region from very early times. In tlie Kalika purSpa and in the Harsacarita, tli^e are references of Karpasa (cotton) 98 garments. The former, furtlier mentions tlie manufacture of 216 «oli€«i garments (kambala), bark cloths (valka), silk (kosaja) 99 ——— and h«ap clotli (sanavastrah). Uie art of sericulture and rearing of cocoons for the manufacture of varied silk cloths were known to tlie j^eople of PrSgJyotisa-KamarlTpa from the time of the Ramayaijia and the Artlia^^astra, The former has m«itioned Magadha, Aiiga, puiidra and the • country of Cocoon 100 rearers' which was none but Kamarupa lying to the east 101 of pundra. Tlie classical sources Including tlie f^eriplus 102 refer to botli raw and raanufactiared silk from Thlna or 103 Assam, According to Schoff tlie silk industry originated in China and from tliere it readied to Assam and other parts 104 of India. But Watt thinks it originated first in Manipur 105 and til en readied to Gliina. Hi ere are three varieties of Indian silk known as Pat a, Endi and MugS. The Uugli silk originated in Assam had a world-wide reputation and had a foreign market. Hie Endi silk is very warm and suitable for use in winter is manufactured in Assam. fi€»sides weaving, gold washing and manufacture of jewe llery was another important industry of PragJyoti§a-Kamarapa. Gold was found in the rivers of the land, namely, Sabhansirr, Dikliau, Jaglo, Dihong, Hiarali and Dliansirl. Tlie Tezpur Grant of Vanaraala says that tlie river Lauliitya carried down gold- dust from tlie gold bearing boulders of Kailasa mountain."^ flie Slllrapu* Grant mentions that king Jayapala donated gold equal to his own weight to a Brlilina;ia (tulya puruj^ad3ha) along 217 *itu nine Uundred gold coins. From the Tabaa5t » i - NSsiri It is known tliat tliere was numerous idols botli of gold and ^ silver, m )mi»l^0^tim^ a huge image of beaten gold neighing •- — 1D8 two or tliree thousand maunds in a temple in Kamarupa. Bobinson and Hunter find some traces of silver in 109 Assam in minute quantities. K.L.£arua thinks that Gaulika located by JBha-^^asvSroin in Kamarupa is probably Gulla or Ghulla in tlie Goalpara district which produced silver.^^ iSie existence of copper is indicated by tlie BargSon Grant of 111 RatnapSla where we find the occurance of tlie term 'Kamalakara' Die term ]|^amala means copper. 112 The eodLstins remains of tlie copper temple of Sadiya is a proof of works on copper. Besides copper plate inscriptions of differ^t kings of FragJyoti?a - KamarBpa is anotlier proof of tlie eocistence and use of copper. i?'rom tlio Bargaon Grant of Batnapala, we come to know that til ere were many siiops of merchants wliere varieties of omam^its were available (vipaiiivaddliyitapadmaragagitsobliishta (Jbhota) vira vapijam nikaraih praklrnS).^~^ Besides, use of ornaments by the people of the land is proved by many sculp tured coins of our period. oJie Kalika PurSt^a refers to orna^ ~~7" 114 ments of gold, silver, bellmetal and even of iron. The best example of the art of Jewellery may be visualized in the list of presents sent by Hiaskara to Har§a whicli included the abhoga umbrella, ornam^itad witli Jewelled ribs; ornaramts, whicli crimsoned tlie heavenly spaces witli the light of tlie 218 finest Jeias} sliining crest Jewels; pearl necklaces wliich seemed tiie source of tlie milk-ocean's wliiteness; quantities of pearls, shells, sappliire and otlier drinking vessels made by skilful artists; bright gold leaf-work; various birds with the necks bound in goldcai fetters and eiiclosod in gold painted cages.•^•**^ It indicates that working in gold and Jewellery reached almost tiie point of perfection in tlie period under our study. Otli^ industries like iron, salt, wood and minor crafts like leatlier work, stone work, brick work, pottery, ivory, cane, bamboo etc. developed to a great extent in the region, Biis iJidustrial progress not only made tiie people self-suffi cient but also helped the land in its external trade. Medium of Exchange In tlie palaeolithic period, people did not feel tlie necessity of means of exchange as the basis of subsistence was hunting and food gatiiering. But with the passage of time, wh^i tile primitive society developed and tlie political and economic relationsliip among different groapa of peoples and tribes gradually cropped up, tliey required means of exchange in tlieir econoraic undertakiiigs, OSie earliest transactions were made tlirough a systera of barter. For tliis cattle, animal 219 sfeins, garments, rice, cowries etc, were used in anci^it A33am as in otlier parts of India, But we are totally Hi dark liow and when coins appeared as a medium of exchange in Pragjyotisa - Kanarupa, From tlie Harfacarita we come to know tiiat the presents of Hiaskara to Har§a included 'heaps 117 of black and white cowries* We find anotlier r^erence of cowries in tiie Teapur Hock Inscription of Harjjapavarman where mention has been made of a pcaialty of a hundred cowries 113 for tlie infringement of a certain state regulation. Hie existtfice of a coppeff* mine as mentioned in tlie Grant of Batnapala helps us to believe that copper was used for no coinage in tlie region, tlioughc< such coin has so far corae to N our notice. Silver was also used for coinage. In tlie Tezpur region a number of silver coins have be Nature of the Socio-ScoiK)]nic System of Frogjyoti^a-K^arupa In tile post-Gupta period or even before "we find some r#=raarkable changes in tlie socio-economic or politico-economic structure of India. This now structure has been termed as feodaUsra by scliolars like R,S«Sliarma and BDraila/fliaper. 'fliere are some otiiers "wlio would like to teiro it as quasi- feudalism, feudalistic etc,-''^^ Before entering into tixe problem we slxould define the terra 'feudalism* • R.S.Sliarma in tlie licht of Eurppean ecKperience suggests tiiat "tlxe political essence of feudalism lay in tii© organisation of tlie whole adraii\istrative structure on the basis of landj its ecoiiomlc essence lay in tlxe institution of sea*fdom in wliich peasants were attached to tlie soil held by landed intermediaries placed between tlie king and tlie actual tille(rs, who had to pay r^it In kix^ ai^ l&bour to them. Tliis system was based on a self-sufficient economy In wliioli tilings were mainly produced for tiie local use of tlie peasants and tlieir lords and not for market" 124 In tlie opinion of D, Muldierjee 'Feudalism' implies a system of lioL- ding land by means of military tenure and haice it involves 125 a kind of military service. N.R.Hay observes tliat tlie word 'feudal' comes from tlie Latin word feurlalis meaning pertaining to a feud or fief which is syi^nymous witli fee.^^ But D.G.Sircar liolds tlie opinion tliat tliere was no 221 aiiy condition attached to any land grant made by tlie kings of Ancient India to the Bralimaiias which were made only for religious merit and fame. IP*? According to liim there "waa no 128 feudalism bat landlordism in Ancient India, But to Dr. R.S,Sliarma tliere is no mucli difference bet«e^ landlordism and feudalism. According to Ulm "tlie ess^ice of feudalism is the dgotfidence of tillers of land on tile kiiig or tile state in respect of land," He remarks tliat economic self-sufficiency of a country is an essential eondition of feudalism, On tills point S,K,Saraswati suggests that although tile land grants do not refer to any kind of obligation, still the£re must be some inlierent obligations on tlie part of tlie b^eficiaries,-^^ N.R.Ray goes a step furtlier and says, "if We can establish a hierarchy from top to bottom tliere must be some sort of obligations, ©lere are diffe rent types of obligations, e,g,, military, political or 13? economic which may differ from country to country, It may be held that Inspite of the fact tliat tlie type of feudalism in India was not identical with the feudal sys tem in otlier parts of tlie worM and all tlie conditions of feudalism are not satisfied in India, the term may ordinarily be applied to the prevailing economic condition of India. Under tliis background we sliall examine the socio economic set up of Pr5g3yotisa - KSraarQpa and try to Id^tlfy the feudal trends In it. 222 In Pragjyotisa - KSraarupa, kings starting from Hiati- vamjui whose rule started in G, 510 A.D, made many land grants ix) tile iiraLuaaaas. Tiae donated land varied in size from a small plot of land having tlio capacity of yielding 2000 units >f poddy to an area of land large enough to support more tlxan arx) Brralunanas - recorded in tiie Nidhanpur grant of Hiaskara^ varman and tlie Tipper ah Grant of LohanStlxa. The Kamauli Grant of Vaidyadeva, tlie Assam plates of Vallabliadeva granted villages to tlie BrairaaQias, In turn of land grants, tlie BrSh- mai}a donees performed religious services for obtaining spiri tual welfare of the donors or tlieir parents* No secular res ponsibilities were placed upon tliem by the charter. But it may be tliat tliey in return for land grant maintained law and ordfp in tlie areas undeor tiieir diargea and impressed the 133 people to remain obedient to tlie king, Tlie donees did not supply militaries to tlie kiiigs in time of war like tlie bisliops of "^.ngland but tliey played no less important role 13^ by keeping tlie subjects obedieJit to the king. For administrative purposes tlie kings divided tliatr eiapire into bliuktis, maiji^alas, vigayas, poraa, agrahSras (group of villages) and gramas, Hiokti was the largest oirai- nlstrative unit in Fragjyoti§a - Kamarupa is proved by a phrase in the Kumauli GraJit of Vaidyadeva wliich runs as 'Sri-Pr5eJyoti?a - bliuktau Karaarapa - maiTidale Ba^a vigaye* "^^ As in many other kingdoms of tlie time, the Yuvarg.1as wlio 223 Helped tlieLr fathesrs in administrative affairs may have acted as governors of tlie bliuktis, M9J?SSftia wa.s the next administrative unit which was sub-divided into numerous vigayas. From tlie inscriptions of the land we get tlie name of many vis ay as such as Chandrapurl, Dljjti^na, HSpyoma, poraji, BadS, KSnarQpa, Mandi etc, Vlsayapati was the head of the vifaya. From the Nidhanpur grant of Hiaskaravarraan we get tlie name of Sri Ksikuijda who was tii© vlsayapati of Chandrapuri visaya. To carry on tiie administration of Ghandrapurl visaya he (Sri Kstkujida) was helped by many officials,-^^ He had his office or alhikarana at his adhis- tliSna (Headquarter) Village was tlie lowest administrative unit. From tiie inscriptions we get the names of many villages such as Ablii sura vat aka, Hensiva, Trayodasa, Haposa, Biaviga, Kanjia, Guliesvara, Digdola, ChSdi etc,"^^ We have little information about tiie village administration. Most probably tlie village headman, helped by an advisory body or a council of elders carriecl on tiie administration of a village, Villages were divided into pHtakas, koUcI and palll such as KasI pataka, Vai;rtadeva patjalca, Vapadeva pStaka, Devrmikoilcl, Kliyatipalli etc. Tlie ^varajns, Vlsayapatis, village-headmen along with their assistants were all administrative officials of tlie kingdom, Tliere were otlier type of officials such as 142 gachivas« amatyas and mantrinij^s. All of tli«m were mcmbefrs 224 oV a council of ministers. From tlie Kamauli caraiit it is known Uiat these posts were hereditary and tlie BrIBluaaQas only hold riie posts,^^ Tlie BadgahgH epigraph mentions tlie name of Aryyaguna or Avaguna as a visayamStya meaning a minis tear in charge of a district.^'^ From tlie Hayimthal grant we further know the name of Malia^Sainyaoati (command eor-ln-cliief) Sri Gana, Malia^.Dvar^hipati (cliief of tlie gate-keepers) Sri Jayadeva, Malia-Pratihara (Chief usiierer) Janfirdana, Malia^Amatya (chief councellor) SrT Govinda aiid Madhusudana and Br51vaa^ia- dliikara (Officer-ln-charge of tlie welfare of Braliroapas) Hiatta ^ 145 146 Sri KaQj^. Hie Uttarbarbil Grant of Balavarnan III and some otlier grants of the Salastambha and tlie Pala dynasty m^ition tlie names of some officials sucli as rajanaka, raja- putra, r'ajavallabhg, raja, rajnl and ranairn. According to D.G.Sircar tiie title ranaka is title of feudatory rulears and later of tlie nobility.^"^^ The word rajanaka also means a feudatory, smaller tlian tlie ranaka. Hie rajaputra was tlie crown prince but in tlie sense of feudatory ya.l?^.-^^ Raja-' 14S vallablia was tlie title of a countier. In tlie Bargabn grant of RatnapSla, Guwakucht grant of Indrapfila 152 Gudital grant of Gopalavarman and iOiaiiainakli grant of 153 Dharmapaia we get tlie names of more two officials viz. Vigayakarana and Vyavaliarika who were in ciiarge of judicial 154 department. There is no any convincing proof tliat tlie kings paid tliese officials in cash in exchange of their seepvices. At the same time, no charter have yet been found 225 «(iiich will prove tliat tlie kings granted land for tlieir services. But hesre we may tlxlnk tliat wh«i the Braliraanas who gave religious services to tlie kings were paid by grants of land, tlie other officials of tlie state were also paid in the same way like the BrSluaaQas, Ihe law book of Manu whicli was written most probably in tliG second century provides for tiie payment of fiscal 155 officers by grants of land. In tlie fiftii century Brhas- pati wrote tliat when a king was pleased with the services, valour etc. of a person, he grajiito3 him a district or the like. 156 At one place Yuan Chwang stated that tlie governors, ministers, and officials were granted a portion of land for tlieir personal use. 157 Under tlie circumstances we may think that tlie royal officials in Pragjyotifn - KSmarupa were paid in tlxe graiit of lands for tlietr pecrsonal support. The cliartera of land grai^ts to the officials are not available most probably due to tlie perishable nature of tlie material on wliich they were recorded. Besides tlie royal officials, tilere were feudal kings who ruled almost iixlependently in tiieir respective areas and sent annual tributes to tlie king. Lokanatlia of the Ttpperaii Grant was one of such feudal kings. Tiie Nidlianpur Grant of Hiaskaravarman mentions tlie 'riiig of feudatories' meaiiiiig a circle of feudal kings.^^ The feudatories w^e granted tlie revenues of larwJ 225 ^a atretic ally and not the land itself. If tliey failed to iu:ifil tlie terms of the grants, tlieir lands wear© taken back jy tlie kings, '^ Aft^ the deatii of the tenant the granted land was taken by tlie king. But in practice, when control of 160 tlie king became weak, the granted land became hereditary, "The land donated to tlio Br Slim ana donees for religious purposes, perhaps never confiscated by tlie king in any condition wliich is proved by tlie admonitory veffse of tlie inscriptions where in most cases it is said tiiat "wiio confiscat©* the land becomes worm of tlie filth and rots with the manes and vdio respects the grant gets tlie result of the donation". In tiie Nidlianpur grant it is stated tliat no tax would be levied on tlie donated land as long as tlie sun, tlie moon and the earth 161 will endure. The expression also indicates that the donees of the grant were eligible to enjoy revenue pf tlie land and not tlie land itself, Tlie lands of tlie feudatories wear© cultivated by the peasants - generally Sudras who were in practice tied with the land, Tliey gave a fixed share of tlio total produce of the land to tlieir feudal lord, g^lie Braiimana donees also cultivate tlieir land by tlie peasants because tliey could not cultivate land by tlieraselves due to caste laws. The aristo cracy lived on tlie revenue from land. As the peasants became subservient to tlieir feudal lords, the economic and political power jt of tlie state were concentrated in tlio hands of few, 227 Almost all tiia inscriptions donating land in Pragjyo- tisa - Kamarupa were issued by tlie kings ratlier tlian by some local council or provincial ruler. But soraetlwe feudatories «ere also allowed to grant laixU For example «e may refer the donation of land by Lokanatha* LokanStha issued the grant through his eandlilvigrahika Pradofateaan who mode an application to his chief through tlie klng»« son, prince Lak^Sjialnatha as dutaka, granting, him a plot of land In the forest region In tlie visaya of Suvvuhga, The ruler Ins tructed his officer to Issue tlie plate, Hie officer callei upon tlie subordinate administration to obey tlie plate's instruction. Hie plate reads "(from his headquarters) the Kumaramatya ai:id his office staff (adliikara»>a) notJ-fy tlie •^-••niH. 1 Bi nil HUH I ••„„«,„,», present and future feudatories, (maliasamantas), ••• and vigayapatis (district officers) (and adliikarafias) headed by the Bralimanas and Aryas ... witli tlie chief businessman and *"" 163 > *- , people of tlie country," Sandliivigraliika Prasantadeva recorded and presumably made arrangements for tlxe incising of the copper plate. In tliis way Lohanatha granted land to support the temple of Ananta Narayana and a community of ovtfr two hundred Brahmaiias, The donation of tlie Tlpperali grant indicates tliat subordinate rulers often had tlieir own feudatories, tlius building up a liiesrarchy. Records of subinfeudation by reli gious donees are wanting because tliey could not be recorder! on copper plates, 228 Ihe Tipperali grant furtlier signify that lands some times wepe donaterl to tlie temples. Anotlier example of gran ting land to tile temple is tiie donation made by YallabUadeva by his Assam plate. Vallabliadeva establiekod a bhaktasala near the temple of Mahadeva, for tiie maintenance of which he donated seven villages along with tlielr iK>od8| thickets, people, water and land t (sajhata - Vltapa » grSman dSJalas- thalSn dadau)« Tlie feudatories had to attend royal court on important oocassions. Diey were allowed to take many titles ajid various symbols of feudal dignity. l!hese symbols are consisted of tlirone, a fly-whisk, a special designed palanquin, tlie riding of an elephant in state possessions, and being heraHed of the sound of five special musical instruments. Tlie Nidhanpur grant mentions Sri GopSla - tlie officer issuing hundred commands received tlie five great ^abdas (pa?S;hamalia- ^abda). When the king declared war against any otlier king, it was the duty of tlie feudal kings to help his lord by supply- 167 ing army. We get no evidence of it in tlie inscriptions of PragJyotisa-K.amarupa. But from tlie Tipperali grant of Lokanatlia we come to know tliat when Lokanatlia was attacked by another nripa. his own liege lord supplied army to help 168 his own feudatory. From this it appears tliat supplying of soldiers at tlie time of war was a common duty not on part 229 There were botli crown lai:d and laai held in fief in r'ragJyotisa-Kamarilpa, The kings kept a siiiouble area as arown lai:«i under liis direct administration* OJiey gencffally 3€»nt sasanas to the heads and respectable inhabitants of the villages and country parts tlirough tli© vifayapatis for effecting good aaministration. But tlie privileges and powers of tlie feudatories sometimes hampered tlie local autonomy In administrative matters. It is evident from tlie epigraph that tlie kings not only granted revenues of the land to the donees but aiministrative rights were explicitly transferred to then. They were allowed to govern tlie inliabitants of tlie donated places. It is stated in tlie Kamauli grant of Vaidya^ deva that "tliese two villages, dciaarcated by their four bott&- daries, free from liindrances ajid entry of tlie constables (cattas) and tlieir leaders (bliattas), complete with their waters and dry lands aixl according to tlie principle of bhucchidra free from every type of tax, are given to Gugguli Srldhara - Sarman along witli four huiKlred (inhabitant work« ,169 men) Hie royal revenue officials assecsorl cu¥l oolloctofl different types of revenues and special charges in tlie crown land. Besides laivl revenue, tliere were different types of revenues and special charges in Pragjyotiga-KSmarupa such as uparlkara, utklielj^ana, Auparika, C^arodhar&Qa, dues paid by cultivators in connection with the entrance of catta 230 a*^ bhatta«, hAstibaixlha. naukabanclha etc.i whldi "we have discussed elseisrhere. Tills led to tlxe eoonoioio depression of the peasantry. The increasine number of Intermediaries also forced tlie peasants to pay extra taxes who might have exacted new dues for their ovn maintenance* The By Slum mm donees collected all tliose taxes from tlie peasants wliich nere collected earlier by tlie king's revenue officials. This is clear from tlie Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva vhlch states that tlie donated villages were "to be provided witli all sources - . . free of revenue (sarvayopaya aarayuktam) and "to be made^from all kinds of regular and irregular taxes (Karopaskaravar jjttam)*'17, 0 Collection of taxes by tlie intermediaries not only weak^ed tlie position of tlie peasantry but also tliat of tiie kii:ig "who 171 suffered from the diversion of income" It is stated in tiie Bargaon grant of Batnapala tliat when tiie twenty-first kine of tliat line, named Tyagasimha retired to heaven witiiout an heir, tlie liigh officials arKi importsuit members of tlie State i.e., tlie feudatories selected Sri Qrahmapala as the king because of his relationsliip with 172 tlie family of Naraka. It indicates that the role of the feudatories at tliat time was so high in tiie polltlca of the country tiiat tliey even settled such important matter as the selection of king. It may be tliat tlie kings of Pragjyotiiya - Kamariipa from tlie very beginiiing were highly alert of tliis growing power of tlie feudatories. Hence tJiey attributed divinity in tlie kingship. Homila Thapar r«faark8 "the divine 231 .gia of kingsliip was much emphasized during tlxis period, i;^ was also tlie king" s obligation to protect tlie K^atriya c-i3te, which obligation assigns to tlie feudatories a subor- 173 — \xnate position. The kings of Pragjyotl^a - Kamarupa j±u±med tiietr descent tlirough the Boar inoarnatlon of /isiiu. Some of tlieia compared tliemselves with gods* «pu^ya^ yarman was like second VIsm. NSrfiyaijiavarman was -tiie divine gakrapapl in human form, Hiutlvarman was like Indra In power oixl fame) so wetre Sustliitavarman and BralimapSla* B^tnap&la emulated tlie renowned good of Bama and Kygr^iai luid was like Purusottama and Janardana, Valdyadeva la conpared with Varui^a, Kuvera, Brhaspatl and otlxer del ties beoau»e of possessing tlieir qualities, The rulers might have been so compared because tiiereby they expected to receive respect from their subjects equal to tliat of godS| for Mana says that even an infant king should not be despised9 as he is a great god in human form, 174 In order to bringing barren tracts UJkler cultlva- tion, tile kings of Pragjyotifa - KamarOpa ofteii donated large areas of lands to tlie Braliraanas, Perhaps tliey thought tliat such kinds of land would be of no use unless they were brought under cultivation. Thus tlie area of arable laiid was erttfided, it also helped to tlie colonisation of new area, Sie Tipper ah grant of Lokanatlia is an example of @uch policy of tlie ruler. By tlxe grant LokanStha donated an area of Jungle land wliich was Infested by wild animala In the Suvvunga 232 v: y.a^a to more tiiaii two hundred Bramaoas, !iaie botindartea . tuxe donated land were ix)t doaarcatod. It appears tiiat Maliasaaanta Pradosasarman at wiiose initiative the grant waa made, brought tlia JBgi^ima^ia community at tliat place for the 175 worsliip of god Ananta Narayana, But tlie r*al signifi- ntance of the grant lay in bringing uncultivated land under 176 cultivation and new settlement* In tliis oonneotion the donation of land by tlie Ntdhanpur grant of HaSJBkaravarman can be referred, where it is seen that tlie granted land was located in tlie outsldrt of the empire of JQUaskaravarman, In most cases tlie donated lai^s were situated in tlie midst of tribal areas* It is evident from some of tlie inscrip tions which contain mmiy non^-Sonskritio place names, clearly 177 of tribal origin, e.g., tiie Guwahati grant. These Br&lima{ia settlements were outposts of tlie '^hdo-Aryan civili zation and its settled way of life in the midst of tribal lands had a cliastening influence on tlie primitive way of life of tile inliabitants* These Brgliroajia Sfttlers had tlie knowledge of calender, seeds, crops and cattle breeding, tOieir duty was to encourage settled agriculture in a region where fire farming, hoe culture and cliifting plough culti- 178 vation were predominant* As agriculture became tlie main source of income^ prob lems concerning tlie division of laixl and inlieritance gradually became acute. By tlie Nidhanpur grant laixi was donated to 233 vtveral lai-otliars jointly. A good example of joint family .ystaa is foujid in tlie Parbatiya grant of VanamSla under i*iiich tlie four brothers Cu^araani, DetobliS, Oarga and Sambliu ivea togetiisr. But in tlie DlghalTgaa grant of Vanara51a we see tiiat tiie donated laj^ was divided among six brothers - irallaliara, Gayaliara, Payohara, Balaliara, CanamSna and is.atySyaji}a. The inscription mentions their respective shares of the grantoi lani. The most contributory factor for the developffltfit of caste system, which is no doubt a feature of tcudalism, was tlie attitude of supeoriority assomecl primarily by tlie higher classes. The higher classes such as BrSLiraailr^Mi In Pragjyotisa- Karaarupa became powerful by acquiring political power and becoming land owners. Tliey began to maintain tlielr superiority by keeping themselves aloof from other castes. JElom^la Xhapar rightly observes, "tlie desire for exclusiveness on the part of tlie BrSliraanas led to an obsession witli keeping aloof fron tlie lower castes in particular. Not only wus the touch of tlie C^andSla (outcaste) polluting bat even for his shadow to cross the path of tl:e Bralimana called for ritual ablution. Sadi social observances reduced still further the status of the sudra and the .outcastes. Gradually untouohability was extended to ev^i tlie heretical sects of quite high caste but who were opposed to tlie Oralimanaa."^^ Constant slilfting of tlie seats of power was undoubteSly 234 a dislnt^rating factor in the kinedora of Pragjyoti§a- Omarapa. It indicates administrative decentralization typi cal of feudal polity. It might be tliat in order to Impress tiielr power on tlie feudal lords tlie kings of PrSgjyDti^a. KfcarBpa moved tlielr administrative headquarter In different places. i«'ormatiou of guilds and growing poiier of the commer cial classes are otlier features of tlie age. People of tlie same caste oT class like tiie astrologers (Daiyajflas) settled in different parts of tlie country and gave their names to 181 tiiose parts tliey tnliabited. Tiie expressions of tlie 1B2 Suhliahkarapataka grant - CaturvvUnsati tantrajqm bliuslmni TOO and orahgi tantr"aJtiam bliiisimni meaning » boundary of tiie land of Oranettantraa* indicate that the tantuvayas formed 184 f 185 tiies^e soraetiiing like guilds. The bhogiu and Vtttesas of the BaTgaon grant of Ratnapala who lived in tiie city of Durjjaya were none but rich men, most probably merchants (jjagik). The activities of tliese ridi ptsraonff wer« not confined witliin trade and commerce but tliey participated In 186 important political ceffoiaonies such as ablilqekha. Tlius we see tliat tliese guilds, castes aiid olassefl iiad a great influence la the administration of the couiitry like those 137 In other parts of India. 235 Refer ences 1 Nidiianpur Grant of Hiaskaravarman, line 35, JJ^ P« 42 2 Gauhati Grant of Indrapala, V. 18, IMi P* ^37 3 RLsleyi laie Tribes and Casteg of Bengal. 1, p.XV ff. 6 B. K. Barua, A Coltoralr History of Aasaw. Nowgong, 1961, p. 116 6 Lo c-»c'li . 7 Ibid, pp. 117-18, 8 S, GUattopadliyaya, CHA> p. 313, 9 B. K. Bar-aa, pp. cit.« p. 119. ID L o c .cjj . 11 Loc.cif • 12 R. C. Mazuindar,Ced) History of Bengal, Vol I, p. 579 n.l. 13 JSAI.> XIII, p. 290. 14 PuspaUiadra Grant of Charmapala, V.V.-9-ll,j;^, pp.263-64 15 Ibid., V.14 and V.lS IAA> p. 264. 1/5 SubiiafikarapStaka Grant of Ctiarinapala, V.3/S, lAA. p. 247 17 D. C, Sircar, Studies in tHe Geography of Ancient and Medieval Indi^. Ncftf Delhi, aj971, p. 296. IS Subliankarapaitaka Grant of Diiarmapala, 7»I8« 19 B.P.Mazonidar, Socio-Kconoraic History of Nortliern Tndia« Gal. 1960, p. 84. 20 a. I). Ciioudiiury, HACA^ p. 131. 21 S. Ciiattopadhyaya, £Hj^, p. 199. 22 PuspaWiadra Grant of Dliarmc^Sla, V.14, lAA* p. 264. 236 •- Loc, cit. '.^4 jJLjL^.j p. ISO. ab M, M. Sliarma, IAA« p. 64 26 D, G. Sircar, J[EG, p. 222. '>? ^ubliankarapataka Grant of Dliarraapala, V, 20, XM> ?• 247, 38 N. D. Gliouclhury, HACA. p. 132. 29 M. M. Sliarraa, XMJ P» S4» 30 P. G. Clioudhury, A-BR, p. 191. 31 P. V. Kaiie, ^story of Dliarma ^astl'aa, 11,(pt. i), p. 76 32 i/3g, ^X%. 33 Fleet, iJH, III, p. 343. 34 S. Gliattopadhyaya, GIIA, p. 210. 35 Hiaiidarkar, i^, LXI, p. 4S, 36 J, C. Ghosh, j;|i2, VI, p. 60 ff, ar? N. N. Vasu, OD. clt., pp. 179-82. 38 S, Ghattoparlhyayai GHA, p. 314, 39 Parasara M.^dhavjya, II, pt. I, p. 383. 40 P. V. Kane, op. cit., p. 76 41 Census Report, 1991, p. 26. 42 K. §., p. 154. 4^ Ibid., p. 160. 44 xi, K. iSarua, OM, clt., p. 124 46 H, C^, iJircar, Studies in tlie Society an<:I Administration Qi Ancient and Medieval India, I, Galcutta 1967, pp.lOUri, 46 Naeaon Grcait of Balavarman, V.21, i^, p. 145. 47 Cited by B. K. Barua, op. cit., p. 124. "^ Loc. cit. 22f7 49 M. M. Sharma, iM, p. 84. In tliis connection ref erctfice may be mode of the Kalvarttas of Var^idrl under tlieir diiof Dlvya rose Into revolt anrl succeeded In freeing Vlfrendrl from tlie clutches of the paias QITA established an independent itingdom in tlie 11th century A.D. Tlie ^BiJiSTJfe^ Revolt in V&eiKlrt has been mei^ttoned as p^asmit uprising by R,S«Sharma« ^ Msi£Bi X> P* 84. 51 A, Il« fiose, ,§(? 66 .Lo^^"^- 238 «57 P, K, Bhattadiaryya followtng p. N. HiattaoUarya suggests tlii.s m Noviun Organum, Gooohbciiar, June|1986, Vol, y, No.l. o^ S, GhattopacUiyaya, ,23^, p. 236 69 ,L0C »Q\f- 70 Maniu IX, 44 Yi. s, K. Das, tf4,s^ry Qf A^'^ctonl? I"^l§» P- » ^* V'y B« K, BaruaJop. clt.. p. B^^'A:aJi. -p-^--- 74 P. C. Ghoudhury, HOPA% p. STFS, ?t> xveitii, UaraboridKe History of Iixlia. I, pp, 176 ff. 76 S. Giiattopadhyaya, g^, p. 237-38. 77 ..L-OC ,c(i-. 78 P. C. Glioudliury, HCPAT P« 334, 79 S. Bose, gyry^nf; QapofiXXY 9^ ^^^^1 \¥^0r a^U^tt^K Cultivation, Gal,, 1967, p. 111. BO UsdL^*) P* !• 82 Bhhaspati, VIII, 79-80. 33 Cosmos* trans* Mc Crlndle, XI, p. 258. 84 S, Cliattopcdhyay, CHA% p. 240. 86 Loc.c'iK 86 Harsacarlta. (Cow©11), pp. 212 f. 87 Asiatic Researches. II, p. 113. 88 Grant of Dliarmapala, Grant of Balaviirmarit Grant of Ratnapala, K.S. pp. 163 f. n.Sj 109 f .n,2| 115 f .n.2. 89 V/atters, pp. ci^.f pp. 1B5 f. 239 •*r, Nowgong Grant, V. 5, ^silitlc Besearchgg II, 173 f, 91 Asiatic R6Searches« II, p, 173. 93 SWI^a piffAftq> Booit II, Chap. II. 94 HoTfgong Grant, line 49, XM p. 147. 96 1^«, p. 1B2 f,n.4. 96 B, K. Barua, QP. clt., p. 97. 97 P. G. Choudhury, HGPAf p. 338. 98 KalikS Pui'5r^. cliap, 69, V. 2j 68/12j B^gftOff^aLts^, Cowell, pp. 212 f. 99 ^IJLIK^ P"^^MT chap. 69, V.2. 100 Ramavana. Klsklndhyaicanda, 40. 101 P. G. ClioucUaury, HCPA« p. 340. 102 Vincent, 'Rie Perlplus* II, pp. 523 f. 103 Taylor, JASB. 1B47, I, ppr 29 f. 104 .tlig Pgrj^plgs, p. 264. 106 Hunter, Statistical Account of Assm* IfJASB, XVII, pp. 612-21. 106 JASBT IX, pp. 766 f. 107 £1, XIII, pp. 289 f, IDS Bavarty, Ia)?£^qa1ri,-N^sir3^, p. 669. K>9 Bobinson, Descriptive Account of Aflsajq^ p. 35| Hunter, Statistical Account of Ass^y I, pp. 3B0 f} Travels In Ind^fit Hi P« 2B1. 110 K. L. Barua, MSS> VII, p. 34. 111 BargSDU Grant of RatnapSla, Jino, 45, JUA, p. IJiS. 240 il2 S, Ghattopadliyay, GHA« p. 260. 113 Bargain Grant of Ratnapala, linen 25-2(5, XAA> P» 167» 114 ]isyLl5;i.Eazm§, 69/17-23, 115 ifargacarita. Cow ell, pp. 213-16. 116 P. C. Glioudhury, HCPA* p. 361. 117 Harsaearlta« Cow ell, pp. 212 f. 118 M. M, Sliarraa, lAA. p. 84. 119 ii. J. Clioudliury, Paglatdcar Svarija^jaudrlf, I^alnik Aasqn^f Aug. 20tli, 1972, lao P. G. ClioucUmry, ]g~Aff|^« p. 276. 122 SI J XII pp. 289 f.j XIII, pp. 292, 296, 123 Ro/aila Tiiapar, ^ History of India. I, p. 241. 124 R. s. Sliarraa, liidian Feadalism. p. 1. 126 D. G. Sircar (ed,), Lajvl Sygtera and Feudallsci in Ancirjit IMX^i C.U., 1966, pp. 42 f. 126 Loc.Cij - 127 LoC.crt- 12P Loil.g:-''^- 129 LQ e^.c^it . 130 Loq.cii- 131 i-Qc.cil- 132 LoC.clf • 133 R. S. Siiarma, OP. cit.. p. 6 134 JSiSjL^sXJi^ 136 Kamauli Grant, line 48-49, X^ P« SBO. 241 136 P. G. CLoudhury, HCPA. p. 298, 137 M. M, Sharma, IAA« p. 54. 13» P. C, Glioudhury, jaS£Aj P» 229. 140 l]M*9 301. 141 Loc. C1T> 142 KamouXL Grant, V. 10* 143 ?• C, caioudliury, HGPA. p, 269, 144 Loc. clt> 145 Hayimtlial Grant, line 27-28, XAA, p. 9&.0:i. 146 Uttarbarbil grant, lino 38-39, xy, p. 138 147 Cited in M. M. Sharma, JMi P« 140. 148 B. K. puri, Studies in tlie Early History and /idjol no. strati on of Assam^ Gauliati, 1968, p, 60. 149 M. M. aiiarma, J^, p. 140. 150 BargSon gprant, line 64, Xhhr P» 159, 161 Gu^akadii grant, lino 36, XMi ?• 1B7. 152 Gaclital grant, line 64, lA^t p. 212, 153 Kiianamukli grant, line 30-31, lAA. p. 2aB, 154 P. C. Glioudhury, HGPA. p. 262» 156 ilaoai VII, 115-20. 156 R. S. Sharma, DP. cit.. p. 8. Iff? Ibid.T p. 9. 158 M. U, Sharma, JJ^, p, 52, 159 HDffilli Tliapar, op. clt.. p. 243. 160 Loc. eit. 242 M. M. Sliarma, IAA« p« 53, H. G. Basak, £1, Vol, XV, p. .303, it>4 assam i^iates, line 42, p. 295, 165 Homila Tliapar, OP. cit«% p. 243. 166 Nidhanpur grant, line 133, JJ^, p. 49. 167 Bomila Thapar, OP. cit.i p. 243. 168 SLi Vol, XV, p. 304. 169 U. M. Sliarma, li^, p. 236. 170 KamauH grant, Unes, 62, 63, X4A> P» aBl-82« 171 Romali Thapar, op. cit., p. 245. 172 BargSon grant, V. 10, JMt P» 356. 173 itunila Tliapar, OP. cit.^ p. 249. 174 P. C. Clioudhury, HCPA, p. 261. 175 R, S. Sliarma, op. cit.. p. 33. 176 Loccil . 177 A. Gulia, Medieval and Early Colonlnl As saw. Society. Polity and Economy, Gal. 1991, p. 41, 178 ^Loe^.c.ii" " Tlirougliout tlie micient and luedieviuL times Assam rmained a vdicy tliinly populated region, becidise of its difficult terrain, an agriculturally retarded tribal population and its forests and swamps. Of fscme 24,000 square miles of its flat alluvial plains, veo^y limited areas were habitable. The central belt of riverine tract, open to tlie constant alluvial and delluvial 243 process of tlie Brahmaputra and cover»l with reed aiid grass jungles, was unfit for any permanent cultivation and habitation. oSie belt of suttaontano tract, also covered witli reed and grass jungles ard having a sloping surface, was unsuitable for settled agriculture. In both tile belts the fast growtli of irrepresslbl* weeds as a result of heavy rainfall - once the jungles were burnt off - made continuous cultivation on tlie same plot of Iraifl beyond tiie tliird or even the second year extremely difficult aiTd labour consuming. " Only various forms of shif Ung cultivation wei'e suited to tiiese two belts. Peasants shifted every year from one piece of laiKl to another preparing a new clearance by burning off its cover of bush and grass. Land under such cultivatioii must have been held only as a tribal or communal territory. This UxmiVy is supported by the recorded story of constant tribal migrations from place to place as well as, by such practice as are still extant in our times." (P^^J 179 D, Chutia, MS&9 XXIV, 1986-87, p. 42. 180 ft>mila Thapar, OP. cit.. p. 262. aSl P. G. dioudhury, HCPA. p. 303. 182 lubliarikarapataka grant, line, 49, lAAy p. 246. 183 Ibid., line 64-56, JJ^, p. 246. 1B4 P. C. Ghoudliury, HCPA^ p. 303. 1B6 BargSbn Grant, linos 30, 3^i, lA^, p. .I6=j, ljB6 Hayuntlial Grant, V.V. 13-14, 187 P. C. Clioudhury, HGPA> p. 303. 244 Chapter - VII Concluding observations 'Ilie culture of PrSgjyotiSivKSniartlpa was coraposocl by 1 both the Aryan and tlie non-i\ryan people. Bdfore tlie advent of tlio former, diffcircuit etlmic stocks witJi differ€Sit cultu ral groups of people settled in the lajvl fron earliest time. 'T^iis prdiistoilc settlornent in Pran.1yoti:ja-trririarUp.i is proved by both tlic lithic impleraents and rrjanants of Uieir material ouituro. in tiic ecu'l^ centuries of the Christian era, higii class iiryaiis like the Bralunaiias, tins KS^astUttB and tlie Kalitas cane to tiio land from the west and oottled in its 2 diffeai-ent parts. Their sottleraeiit in tile region remarkably inl'lueiiced the culture of the iaiid. In the present work an attempt has beeJ^ made to identify tliis chaug© which has beai reflect£d in tiie epigraphs of PrSgjyotisa^KSnarCTpa. They help us to iaiow that tiiree major dynasties - tlie Varman, tlie S$las- tambiia and the Pala and some independent rult^r* rulofl in tlio roi^ion from tlie 4th century A.D, to tlie 13th century A.D, "ho rulca's of PragjyDtisa-Kaharupa often created ilLTJriilllS sott Ion Gilts for tlio Br'alu^inJ.ias which Were recorderl iu tii' :.^t-!;i;e or copnor plates. Thoy actoi'l ass the doounoTif.a 0-' Icral cij-irr; of j-]ir-) recipients and tlieir families before tiio fLitui'o kin;3S, i-'yuasty-v.lso wo caii gixDup tliese land donating 245 (ti=c-cripLion9 into fuur catoGorios, Tile last catet^ory mcluuo:^ aifj iJiscriiJtions wJiicii v/cre issuarl after tlie P^la vi liisty. .ui excaiiuation of the physical appearances and orgaiiization of tiie inscriptions, the social and political iositioii of tiio donors, tiie nature of property transfer, j.~x)eraphical provenances of tiie granted lands and tiie ciia- ractor of tJio recipients confirms tliis fourfold divisions. Eacli category belongs some special cliar act eristics of its ov;n vviiicii ctui not be eQuat©:! witii tiie otiier, Tliis fourfold Uvisions of tiie inscriptions indicates tliat Pragjyotisa- ivainririlpa witnessed major iiistoric ciianges during tlie period Ol over olglit contories, Tiio inscriT)tions of tiie Varman period nay be distin- guishf-vi rluo to follovHng features :- I. 'rli ^y stc.rt Hi til an adoration of oasiseliiiara or ocuikcj?c^i i»e., oiva ; XI. Tlic dojiations were fiade to Bralunana coru'iunities •Olid not to individual JirZUinaiias in general ; III. Tile donatai lai:ids were situated at tiie edge of tiie ef-ipiro, pei'iiaps for strate^'ic or for otiier reasons. probably, it was not possible for tiie individual iirTiiunavias to bring tiiose areas under profitable cultivation. By donating land at tiio edge of tiie empire wiidre tlie ligiit of .arSimoJiical culture iiacl not yet reachol, tlie Varmaii Icings establishori new Braiiraaj;ical cultural centres in tliose areas, '['liesr. crjiitres were cojicentrated in tiio lov/or Asso/n valley ; 246 ly. The issuim; centres of the grants weff-e Pragjyo- tisapur<2 and Karnasuvarna. However, the admi)iistrative ciojitres of the Nagajarl-KliaJiikargaon inscription and tlie Tipperali grant of Lokanatha are unloiown ; V. Almost all the land-granting inscriptions of Pragjyotisa-xvoracurupa, so far have been discovered were issued by tlie kings of tlie region. But it is under tlie Varman period zax inscription was issued by '3i: sabordinato king i.e., tlie Tipperali grant of Lokanatiia. The distinctive features of the inscriptions of Salastambha period are :- I. They start witli an ajijj, sign which is as ^ j II. In tiiG introductory part of the inscriptions we line tnat an invocation lias been made to Siva along witli tlie river Lauliitya or only of tlie Lauliitya whereas under previous dynasty it was made only of Siva ; III. All tlie donees of tliis period are individual Braliriaijias except those of the DlghallgS^ grant of Vanaraala where the donees are five brotJiers • IV. Sono of the donations were made on tiie occassion of auspicious days ; V. In an inscription of tliis period we find tlie use of pravara along with tlie gotra of Bralimapa donee for tlie * first time; VI, Besides agricultural land, villages were also donatat by tlie kiiigs of tlie dynasty j ^ 247 r[i. „ In i.M.^ /.ui-uvabolri Grant a now unit of land raeasu- J- <^r, 1^. r i:; iir.oji ur.(xi i.e., tiie jsuj^aka whereas uuidcsP previous '•'''*-^^'--' ii£i-'i!i ^'^'" patai.a liave been used in tiie Tipper all grant >A LUkrjiatiia ; /LIL. in a^.scx-i-iJiJic the ixature of tlie grant, inscrip- '•••••:IS vr tills i)Grir)d use tlie statonent as it is giveai along i.. t; its taufi, v;ators etc, which is free from all troubles oa account oi' fastcaiinc of elephants (hastlbajidha), faste^iing of boats CiiaiiisabcmcUia), chourodharajia, uparlkara, ui;dchetaiia asi'i frraKinr of njiii^als such as elephants, horses, canels, cows, bnffnlnes, rents and sheeps. Such expression is also f foujiu iii tiio iiisc3;i.ptions of the pala dynasty ; !.<;. Tne epicentre from where all tlie inscriptions of tiiis dynasty '.vere issiia'l Vi?as lladapesvara - located at tlie site oi raodci'u Toi^ijur tov/n on the nortli banlc of tlie riveo:' jiralunviputra. Thr I'iad spots of the inscriptions, location of tne isauiJii" centre of tiie grants and donated lajvl indi cate tliat tlie political ojid cultural centres of tiiis period concentrated in tlie Darrang-iiowgong area of present Assam ; X. The inscriptions of tliis dynasty do not mention tlic date of issuing tlie grant, Jbollowine are the reriarkable features of tiie Pala inscription :- ^" '^^^'^ onji Sinn of the inscriptions is such ^ ; IL. In tliA preanble of the inscriptioi-^s :^dQ;ration . to • • ^^vo o ^- .,':- rj.vor ^s-uhitya also continued in tiiis period •I' i.'}\-icv:dr. th.o l.nat part oi' the rule of tliis dynasty-We •'ijv-' -hlio iP.vocation of Yisnu which signify growing popular ~~^j of /aisuavisjn in tiie ro^jion; xli. All tiic donated lands are agricultural lands and uo village iias boen cr^aited under tiiis dynasty ; IV. Host of tile donees wore tiie follov^drs of K^jva- saiaia of Ya.iurv.t;d_a ; Y, From tlie time of Indrapala it is seen tliaf tlie i^rants roi'oi" to the or-iginal iiorae of tlie donees which is ...y:- fouiid uiU'cji' tiio previous dynasties j /i. Tao li.scriptioiis are silent about tlie purpose of ,'.! i . I;;' •.a:li-.L surati ve centres of this period are .c:=. a:;y:u;:. i : ;..-;.ic:i2 v/itii lladapesvara, Durjjaya, identified •••'••-• . j"^;:,]7oric;:ir):;;ij cuifi Kapiariapanagara which is identified ;vi^h /; p,:':io- iri '.ortli Gauliati or Kiynatapura (Supra, Cli. Ill ). "'!i" fi:V' .^riots cuid issuinc centres of tlie inscripti- jut.;, ,_,ciJe,r^v^^aj.c-uL proviinaiice of tiie donated lands - all ' ^iidicato tiiat tiio political and cultural ceirtes of tiie Pala porioo rrocluaily Movai from east to West and concentrated in mod em Kcir-irup district of Assam altliough the previous centres under tJie Salastoj^abiia dynasty did not lose its importance, Tile last Li'o'-ip which includes tiie inscriptions issued al'ter tiic Pala period lias been sepdrated ftora otlier groups | duo to its follov/inr cliaracteristics :- I. Moration to Vasudeva i.e., Vis^iu have been made in tlie introduction of tlio inscriptions ; 249 Ix. ijonatious ai,-o eousistai of villages and not of :.ii'T i c a 11ar a 1 1 cu ui 5 III. A separate type of addresses has been raarle under tills group. In tiie Kaniauli Grant Vaidyadeva addresses are riofle to the cultivators cnvl otlier .citia^is begining witli 4 the Gatta, the Hiatta and the Visayillaka. In the Assam pinto, Ynilnb'indevn nade tlie orai:it acldressing his succo- ssors."^ ^Lit iu tile inscriptions of tiie Salastambiia ajid tlie i-ala pei'iod addresses ore made to tiie Braliraanas, Vigaya^ .^ar;i!ia, J/ySv'ciliarika, ]{?>.jas, hajlils, Rai.ialcas, R'5ja4,iyakas, ziajaoati'as, ii"ajavaila;3lia.s etc, ; 17. Tho seal oi tlio Ka-nauli grant bears tlie figure of a searcti iour-hcaiciai uai^iesa wliicli is not found in any otiier iuGcription of rra^jyotisa-Kauorupa, 7. Tiio Assa^ii plates of Vallabliadeva is an exception a-'ious tile inscriptions of tiie region as it has beeii (a) data; a.ccordin;- to Sal:a era, (b) its scripts have close iU'finity v;itli tiie scripts of jJengal inscriptions of tlie sarae period, (c) donation was raade for tlie raaintonajice of an alms iiouse ajid (d) the vvliolo tei'Ct of the grant is in verse ; 71. 7aidyadoya issued his Konauli Grant from TlaAsnlcoflcI v;liich \7a5j in Krjm-'Up district of iissara. The issuing ceiatre of tiio .issa':i plate of 7allabluuleya is unlcjiown.yihe find spots, location of tlie donata'l lands cuid issuing centres of tlie inscriptions 01 tliis group coM'irra our notion tliat the poli tical and cultural centres of Pragjyotisa-Kaharupa gradually 260 .r.iiil'tal iron oastorii pcu't oi" tUe loJid to tlxe western part. ±n this comiGction it is notable tiiat more tlian oir,iity coppea* plates of the iUiom period liave been discov^ecl till now. Llost of tliai have rocorded donations of fflalimattara alia jJevottara lojids and few of tiieri record appointment to difiGi'Giit off ices, v.'hetlieir of tile State or in some temples ajid do):iation of IloJikar laJid to non-Bralimayas. The Aliom kings 6 rulo:! in Assa-a from 1223 A.D, upto tile British ocoupation of Assam in 1824 A.D. The earliest copper plates recording Ci\'ints of lajid by the Aliom kings to BrSliraauas or Hindu 7 trfipics dato fron tho tino to GodTidhnrasindia. Ot-o- kiMf-3 of Assan - imdrasinJia C169G-1714), Sivasimiia C lVl-i--ic; aaiu His coiisorts, i^rcj-iatiiasijhlia C1744-51), Hajes- v:irasir.iiia (1751-69), LaJiolunisiJ'iiia (1769-80), Gaurlnatiasimlia (175;iO-a5), i.ar'ialasvca-asinilia (1795-1870) and" Ghandrakantasiralia (lBlO-13, 1S19-24) aiirt some of tlioir ministers and officers ma.dG ni-U^.Grous lajid grants. The last land-donating copper • plate iiiscription of tiie region was issued by tlie last ind©- pcndeiit iUiom king cuandralcantasiralia in 1744 Saka/lS22 A.D, by "vvJiich tiio king rnado a dh^g-matra graJit in favour of tlie temple AbiWuiti-na-sattra. Host of tlie donated lands as recorded in tilese inscriptions are situated in Karaarup district of Assrjn cuid few of tlic/n occassionally in Sibsagar, Darrang and otlicr dista'icts of tlio said state. It indicates tliat tlie political ojvl cultural ceiitres of the Aliom period was centred 251 in iLanru]) district of Assojn with Gaiiliati as tlie epiceaitrc. Fror; this v;c nay hold, th.at tliG cultural and political c.(^ntv^^c. of i'rn.f-.3yoi-,isa-Knharri)ia from tlie time of Pala rulers in the wc'St'-irn part, of the kincdon remained almost unchan- gai in tile .•Jioi-i poriod also. V/e obsei've a sopd'ato identity of the land donating inscriptions of pra^jyotisa-Karaarupa as a whole when we cornp;ire it witli tliosc of ijencal of the same pdriod. From tlie above discussion, VJC leaiMi tiiat certain political and cultural ccJitrcs cot duo ifiportcuioo undei' tiie rule of a specific dynas ty in prai^jyot.isa-Koincii'upa, Tliose centres lost tiieir irapor- tajice v;ith dynastic ch;:ji{;c. iiut in Bencal we find a different picture. i''ro)^i very ocayiy tliac Bengal was divided into four cultural regions w'aicli survivor! centuries after century. It is ovidrjit iron the nunber of inscriptions issue:! from diffo- rrjit political centres \/ithin each subregion from 5tli century A,L'. to lotli 'Jo]iti-n\y /\.D. For i):istances, in tlie Vnr^^indra , rerioii nine iiiscriiDtiom-, Mere; issuer! in tlie 5tli GfMitury, one in '-hr> r>t!i, t ',) in tlic lotli cav] QUO in 12tii century 41..U. •As'iLica'ly in tixo ijacca-Faridpur area four inscriptions were issiu.ti iji tiic 0th century, seven in tJie lOtii, tiiree in lltli, tfJi in li.itli cjid five in 13tli century A.D, Go fcJT as tile appeca'ance concern it is see-n tliat tlie iiiscriptions of PoJical ai^o generally consisted of one plate. 9 Tile seals attaciicc! to tlio inscriptions are of two types 262 - (..i; x'rc^ccii'>t iJcal sold oi'etl to tlio middle or tlie top of piatc, and (2) oiicravcd seal cut into tiie top ceiitxe of tiio plate. Tiiey boar different type of symbols like Gaja^ 'Oiis/ini, tv/o-arr'ie'i deity witli wheel backgrouiid, bull facing, ti'ioeit, deci' park, .cakra, SodSi^iva, lion in temple, Krisl^ia rjid :j?d,iil::'a v,Testlin£, sun set etc. The numbeir of plates LiSfv. in tJio iJiscriptions of PrSgjyotisa-Kamarupa vary from o]io to six. There is n hole in tlie left side of each plate of an inscription of the roeion for the purpose of tagging th'- h.nndle of plates to tJio elephoJit narked seal, Tlie seal of tjie l.a'i.-'Uli Gi-oiil; oi' '/aidyadeva boars tlic figure of four ncuida; Lrcuie^a. Tne Tippdr'aii Grant of LokanStlia is more sii'iiira- to tiie inscriptions of lieiigal tlian tiiat of PrSgjyo- tisa-Karnai'Upa as it is consisted of one plate and its seal bears a GajalaicsHJiI symbol. f'roji tlic internal orgcuaization of the inscriptions of iiciiigal we know tiiat tiiere cxro two type of inscriptions - (1) The property trcmsfers authorized by tiie district admi nistration cjid (2) tiie royal grants, Tlie first category includes nine fiftJi-centui'y inscriptions, plus tile Vijaya- seiia gr:uit from L'allasai'ul, tlie four Faridpur district grcults of Gopaccmdra, Dharmoditya (tnvo inscriptions) and Sanacl4aradeva, the Damodaragupta Grant from Damodarpur ajid t!ie second ^^iN-jit of Sasoiika from Hidnapore. All tiiese fiftii, sixtli nr.cl early soveJitii centuries plates indicate tiiat tiie consent of district, town or village leadoi'S v;as 253 nspoi-iti,-;i. .fo-' i-,rrdir;forriJiL; propoi'ty. Hei'e, in each case tlie laiKi was actually bou^iit by a person frora tlie local governing 13 bodies I'or his owi use or I'or religious donation.' These persons hold difi'crent positions in tiio society like a district oflieei' (Visayapati).. a city raa^or (na^ora sre^tliln)^ a Jioblo nan (Kulaputralca), a district trade of fie ear (Vigaya- .yyap^Lfa) , oji agent l^MUianika), a priest (Bralimana) ^ clerk- writers (};r}yastiias), r ecord-keeptirs ( pus-^^apalas) , leading n&i ^KiLkiiSiis) -^^ hecdmen (l\iit;;ujiibins). ~ The second category ii-oj.udos 1'J.io rcfnaiiiing iJiscriptions recording grants of land by tiio rulers. 15 Each inscription of tliis category bears a long poetic introduction lauding tlio royal dynasty ai:id tlie i)Ovjors of tlic ruler, a donative section and a condludtng sr>ctiori boarinc a loig list of officers, "who are called uix>n 16 to rospr<;t tlu^ f^rant, a;vl a longtliy admonitory v^ses, Tlin liiscrintion oi' I'ragjyotisa-Kanarupa are sirailar to tliis socjiid catet'ury of i^eiigal iJiscriptions, Ln wost cascs, like Fragjyotisa-KaniarCIpa, tlie roci- piedits of the graiits of iieJigal v/ere Bralimai^ias having diffcsretfit gotras, yedasaldias and pravaras. But soraetimes in tlie Saraatata region of Bei^igal large areas of lands vvcire donated to Buddhist noiiasteries and otiicr religious institutions. Donation of lojid to tiio Buddiiist raonastei'ies is totally absent in Prag- j yo ti § a- i: ahi "o.-' u p a. 254 Epigraphs oi" Pragjyotisa-Karaarupa tlirow some lieht on tiio nocio-c-conoriic systcri of tlie land. Society was based oii- y^yrnadlua-Ma and the kings of tlie land took great care to maintain it. Rit in course of time caste system took tlie place of Varnadhrtrna, Nl^mcD?ous castes ajid sub-castos rose into promineaico. Anong tlie lovi& professional sub-castes mention nay bo made of Kaivartas, KiunbhakSras, TantuvSyas, iic,al Gtc. in tlie socioty Br^iiraaiias eii^oyed a hlgix position. Tlie ruloi'S of tlio region took great interest for tlie settlo- meJit of high class BraJLniaJias in tlie land. Teaching of Vedas and performciuiGo of religious activities vidc.e tlieir chief fLmctions. But tliey often took otlier professions ajid main- taiJied tiioir livelihood. Agriculture, industry and trade fornod tiie sinows of economic life of tiie people. There vici'o tiii'ee icinds of land - royal lai:id, land under public ov/nei'ship cuid laJid ujider commLUial possession. Rice "was tlic staple food of UIQ poople ajid so cultivation of rice got tlio liigliest importiinco. It produced highly in tlie fertile valley of tlio Br-alimaputra, Besides rice, diffePeait types of crops and fruits were cultivated in tlie land. Its Jungle products included valuable trees, lac, silk etc. Industries lilco cotton, si 111, metal, wood and minor crafts like ioatlidi' work, stoJic work, brick worl, ixjttery, ivory, cane, bamboo also dcvclopo:] in tlie region. As noticed above besides cowry shells, coins marie of gold and silver were tiie medium of Gxchajige, altliough it would appear tliat coins in precious 255 j'ietn.ls vvexo teener ally moont for gifts and cTonatlons to tlio fiosorvinc poxsona£os and also for foreien trades etc. Along vvitli tliose, tlic bro-tcsr systc/ii raiclit have also beeai prevalent side by side. Tiius wc S0C tiiat tlie socio-economic condition of PrTc Jyotisa-Kamarupa may bo coraparod well witli tliat obtaining in other parts of India in tlie sarao period. Scholcirs like Yi.S, Sliarma ajid Itomila Thapar have observed some characteris tics of feudalism in tlie socio-economic and political system of India during tlio early raedieval period. Those characto- risties of feudalism ore also present in tlie socio-economic and poll tic r,l system of tlio roe ion and or our study, xiut hero We do not fiuci an oxact picture of feudalism •which vjas pre- vail«l in Europo iji tiie niddlo ages. Actually, it vjas a propai'atory stage uf feudalism. The pei'iod was ch::a''acterised 17 by dece^itralization of fiscal :uid administrative autiiority. Society vvas broadly divided into fwo groups. On tiie one haiad tliere was tiie kiJiij and liis secular and religious beneficiaries. The socul:ir bcJioficiaries included tlie persons associated witli tlu) cvlministration like tho rgjas, r5jKls, r^^aaltas, rajaputras, rajavallabhas, £5rii£iJi5£ °'t°» "^^^^ religious beneficiaries were tJic leai')ial Bralimojias to whom tlio king donated lajid for acqui ring punya or for other reasons. On tlie otlier hand tiiero were ''^^'^ JiiLfZ2£ ^'^'-^^ Sudras - tho chief producers of social goods, King T;itli the help of liis arlninistrative machindry established 256 liir. ownership over tJio surplus produco of tl\e Vaiayas nna Gudras and controllfyl its distribution. He did so by imposing different type of taxes upon tliern who wcfl-'e most rouably lei't v.ltii a baro subsistence. The land donato^l to the Bralu'iaiaas were free from all kinds of taxes. But it will not be corroat if we tliink tliat, tlio people attached to tlio donatorl lajid were oxerapted from payinc t::ixes, r'rora nov; on tiiey had to pay all tlie taxes to tiie BrZUimai^a donee instead of tiie king. It greatly affected tiic fincaiciai condition of tiie rulcjc. But it helped him in otiler Y.'ays. Firstly, by doiating land to tiie Braliraanas, virgin soil were often brouglit under cultivation as is reflected in tlio TippciraJi Grrait of Lolcraiatiia, Secondly, it led to the liralunanisation and accultura tion of tile trilinl peoples v/lio got the knov/ledge of better tecuiiiquo of cultivation, laiovyledge of season, scripts, IS caicaider, :a't, litcratLU'c and a now way of higlier life. Tiiirdly, tiio vastness of tiie country and tlie difficulty of comnunication made it iiard for tlie king to maintain law and oix'lci' in liis l:iu[jdora. iiit tiio donation of land to tlie iir~ju:icincis made it easy for tiie Icing to maintain law and order In ills kingdon because v/itli tiic donation of land, he laid upon tio donee j^Jahda^i.^i^ tlio judicial and administrative power of tic do natal land. 257 Lastly, ^t Uelpoa ti.e kmc to keep his UoM oveo: . , . ct-rntcricaviy ironticir' areas. Perhaps, such ,1 tl.e Micllumpur Grcmt of Bhaskaravai«mai.. was tiie caSG o: ^'S/ A Rel'Gii.' oiicos :;. J. lazuridor, IIist:or.y pi\ J-.oii^'al^ I, p. 5G4 f. .:. .1). 'J]iO(K]iuu--y, JIACA, p. 254. p, N. ?iia-f;tac!i:iivya, KS., p. 22- l^l. ''co^, l:::ZJ^^^'' 3?'"£'ii^vall, OauJiati, 1974, p. 12^ : .-; ,• • ^. 1 •"> r", .>-^ •-;!' ^^ . ; p . X-- 'J M. i.ooc vvi-rjiif^ly i.K^itional in ^raciiya-GasaJiavalX in ;;ago 128 as tlie inseription bolongocl to 1750 Salia, 'J J. 11. llorrioou, op. cit. ^ p. 6G lu _^_oi_cl. J p. Oi.}-o5 11 _iJ3id . , p. BO f 12 Loc Ci'if: 13 1.0 CC ;i. 14 liillle, p. yo 16 li>i 17 R.. iiii., iiiandi i and•i », Social Rool'S of Religion in AiiGi p. ::YL 10 Loc _ .c|[ ^ IJ if, S. Siioriaci, Oj,),i__cJ.j^, p. 222 f, APPENDIX 258 Catalogue of Inscriptions ' Magajarl-iaianikargaon Fragmentary Stone Inscription. Gollectecl from Klianikargaon of tiie Sarupatliar area of tile Golagliat Sub-division of tlie Sibsagar district in 1972. Grant ; Not known, Issued from: Not known, Publisher! : P.G.Glioudhury, MM^ XX, 1972-73, pp.3.5; D.G.Sircar, JAIll, VII, 1973-74, p. 245 M.M.Sliarraa, JJ^, Gauliati 1&78, p.303-305; MB^i XaX, 1966-87, pp. 12-21. Dubi Plate:3 of Bliaskaravai'man, Kound near a Siva ternple callocl tile Pnr.isa|*esvara- fievalaya in tlie village of Dubi, about t'lree miles frojii tiiG Patlishala station in Barpeta district of Assam in 1950. ixvimt : Reissue of grant originally made by Hiutivarraan, Hiaskaravarraaa re-issued tile land to certain Braluni{is, Descrip tion of tile land is not known due to tile loss of the last plate. Issuerl from: Pragjyoti$apura, Published : P.D.Ghoudhury, JARS, XI, Nos,3-4, pp.33-23; XII, Nos.1-2, pp.16-33. 259 D.G.Sircar, HJ , XXX, No.47, July 1954j Indiaji Museum Ijulletin^ Jaiiuary, 1969. M.M.Sharma, op, cit., p»10-34, B.Sliarraa, Kamarupas^ai-iavallT Gauiiati, 1961 part III, p,7-18. Nidlioiipur Plato of BiiSskaravairoan. Foand at Nidliajipur Village, 17 miles east and a little south of Sylliet town of Bangladesh. Six of the seven plates have been recovered, Graiit J He-issue of grant originally made by Hiutivairoan, Bliaskaravairoan re^-issued land which was known as MayQras^lmala- t^raiiara to 205 decondants of Braiixaar^as who originally received grai:it, Issued fvom% Kar^iasuvariia, Published : P. K, Bmttacharya, ZJL XII, 66-79j XIX, 116-126} XIX, 246-50; KamarQpa^a- sanavalT, pp.1-43, Karaalakanta Gupta, Copper Plate of Svliiel; I, 1967J Historical aiid Literary Inscrip tions, pp,235-40, M.M. Sharraa, lA/l, pp,38-81, D. Sharma, KamaiQpasasanavair, Part III, pp,161-G6, Tipperali Plate of Lokanatha. Found in Tipperali district in 1905, exact find spot unlmown, 260 Grant : ]Sitaliasamantar Pradosasairman donated jungle land in Suvvunga visaya to support service at temple and to supi^ort comrauiUty o£ some 200 brahmanas. issued from : Unknown, Published : N. K. Hiattasali, I 4 S , XXII, 169-71; D. G, Sircar, JLJL^«> XXIII, 221-41, A, H, Dani, Indian Palaeograpliy, p,133, H. G. BasaJc, £^J.. , XV, p.301-15* Hagaon Plate of Jivaraja (Fragmentary) Found at Kai'aiyani Bajnungaon, Palasani in Nagaon dis trict of Assam in 1988, Graiit ; Jivaraja donated a land at a certain vigaya to a ftraliraafla from KoiacLrupa, Issued from : Unknown, Published : Dr. D. Glmtia, JARS, XXXI, Nos,l-2, 1989-90, pp.106-14. KuruvabcUii Plate of Harj jaravannan, i'bund at XuruvabSlii Sattra in Nagaon district, few miles away from tlie district head-quarter, Grcait : Harj jaravarraan donated a land producing some two tliousand units of a certain moasure of paddy to a Braliiaai^ia, named Diiaresuta. Issued from : Unknown. Published : Dr. D.Ghutia, JjaS, XXVI, 1961-82,p.1-11. asi Hayuntlxal Plate of Harj jaravaLrman, Found one of tlie tliree plates in tlie Nowgone district and now in tJie Mikir district of Assam In 1920. Grant j By tliis HarJ;5aravarmaii made a donation but the name of the recipient is unknown due to the loss of the last plate. Issuefl from : iianippesvara. puulisuod : P. W. Hiattacharya, JAltS* I, pp.lOSf.j Kamaiupasasanavall, pp.44-53, M. M. Sharraa, XAA* P«89-94. D, Sliaraa, Kamarupaaasanavall, Part III, p,36-39« Di£iialiga6 Plate of Vanaraala, i^bund in village DlgiiaH under Kaliabar revenue circle of Wagaon district in Assam in April 11, 1965» Grant j Vanamala made a gift of a Kiianclalaka of land in Purjjika Pradesa on tlie soutliorn bank of tlie Braliraaputra to a Bralunai;ia Gallaliara and his five brothers, Issued from : Hadapes'vara, Published : Dr. D. Chutia, JARS, XXIX, 1986-87, pp.3'?-52} JMv?< ije^iudiiar Sliartaa Gommemo- ration Vol, pp.202-IS. 2(32 TeziAir Plate oi' VaiiaraSla i^ound underneatji tlie eartli noar the town of Tezpur, Assam, nearabout 1S40, Graiit : Vanaraala granted a village to a Dralmana Indoka on the western side of the river Trisrota, Issued frora : lladapesvara. Published : JASB IX, II, 1840, pp,766f; P. N, Eliattacharya, Kamarupasasanavall, pp.54-70. Raiif^pur Saliltya Pari shad Patrika^ No.1, 1321 Bengali sal, M. M. Shamja, IAA< pp. 95-113, D. Sharma, KamarupasasaJiavall, Part III, pp. 173-76. Parvatiya Plate of Vaiiaraala x''ound in tlie village Parbatiya, tlireo miles away from tile Tezpur town of Darrai:ig district, Assam. Grant : Vanaraala donated a village Haposagraraa belongiJig to tilo Svalpamangoka visaya in the northern side of tlie Braiiraaputra to a Brahraajja, named Gudamani, Issued from : Hadapesvara. Published t P. D, Giioudhury, D.C.Sircar, 2^ , XXIX, pp.145-59. I.I. M. Shaitna, IAA> pp.114-26. 263 on tile soutlicirn bank of tlie Bralimaputra to a bralunin Srutidhara* issued fron : Had apes vara, Published : Iloernle, JASB, LXVI, pp,285-97. P. N, Hiattacharya, Kamarijpasasanavall< pp.88-109; BanF.ia Saliitya PatrlkS, No.2, 1317 sal, M. M. Hiattacharya, lAA, pp. 142-51. D. Sharma, Kamarupasasanavall, Part II> pp.71-77. Ulubarl Plate of Balavanneai III Found in a field of No.l Uiubarl village of tlxe Naliai'- bari Mouza in Darrang district, Assam in 1977. Grant j Balavarraan III donated a land capable of yielding two tliousaJid units of paddy which was sliced off from tlie land known ae Diklcura belonginfi to the Manjai vi?aya on the northern bank of the Bralimaputra. The recipieit was a Brali- raona, naraed Bliavadeva, Issued from: Iia4apesvara, i^ublishod : M. M. Siiarma, XM» PP« 313-17. Goratbarl Plate of Ratnapala The find spot is unknov/n. 2G4 Y). Sharraa, Kama ru pas as aiiavalX., Part II, iJttarbarbii Plate of Balavaraian III ibana at tlie village Uttarbarbil of tiie llowraghat area of the present Llikir district, Assam, near about in 1953. Grant : Balavaiman HI donated a land capable of yielding two tliousand uidts of paddy, sliced off from the Yappadevapatalca belonging to tiie Varasepattana visaya to a Braiimana Syamadeva. Issued from t Hadapesvara, Published : P, G. Glioudliury, Assam Saliitya Sabha Patrika, XV, No.3, pp.187-94; R.M. MatJi, ibjd, XVI, No.2, pp.84-88. M.M. Shaima, IAi\t pp. 127-41. D. Sliarma, Kamarupasasanavall ^ Part II, pp.65-70 Nowgong Plate of Balavarman in i-'ound at tlie village Sutargaon by tlie side of tlic river Kalang near tlie small town of Puracdgudam, six miles to tlie east of Nowgong, Assam, in 1B93. Grant : Balavarman 1X1 granted a land, capable of yielding 4000 units of paddy, in an area called Haiisiva, in Dijjinna visaya 266 Grant : Ratnapala granted a land, capable of yielding 4000 units of paddy, sliced off from tlie santidasa pattalca and Hiattaya Pattaica belongine to tlie liavriiga visaya. The Hecipient was a iMi ill • I mil — Braluoin, naa'ed Siddlxapala, Issued from : Hadapyoka. Published j M. M. Sharma, lAA, pp.0-21-0»24 Bargaon Plate of RatJaapsia The find spot is not known exactly. Recovered from a cultivator of the Naliarhabi village of tho Bargaon Mouza of the Tezpur sub-division of tiie Darrang district, Assan, near about in 1897. Grant : Ratnapala donated a land, liavine the capacity of yielding 2000 units of paddy, in the field of Lavukuti, comprising also of a plot of land sliced off from the Maliadevapataka in tlie Trayodasograxna, on tile nortliem side of tlie Braiimaputra. The recipieait was a Braiiraai^a, named vrradatta, Issued fi*om : Durjjaya. Published Iloernle, JASB, LXVII (1B96) pp. 99ff; P, II. Hiattacharya, KaraarQpasa^anavalj;^ pp. 88-109; RanKPur Saliit.ya Parisliad _Patrika, Mo.l, 1322 sal. '66 M, M. Sharma, lAA, Pp. 152-72. '). Sharma, Kanampasa^aiiavair, pp. part li, pp. 78-87. ouwaBcuchi i^late of iiatnapala Found at the village Suwalkuchi of Kararup district of Asscim ill noarabout 1896. Grant : Ratnapala donated a land, having tlie capacity of yielding 3000 units of paddy, in Kalaiiga visaya. The recsipient was a Bralyntn, named Karaadeva, Issued from ; Durjjaya. published : Hoernle, JASB, LXVII, pp.113-32. p. K. Hiattacliarya, Kaniajupasasanavalj^^ pp. 116-29; RanKPur SSliitya Pari shad Patrlka, Hos.2, 4, 1319 sal, M. M. Sharma, lAA, pp. 173-73. jj. Sharma, h>guaarui)asa3a)iavall, part II, pp. 38-90. Gauhati Plate of Indrapala Found at the village BarpSnara of tlio PStidarrang mauja of tiie Gauhati sub-division of tiie KaraarQp dis trict in Assam in sometime around 1B63. Grant : Indrapala donated a land, having tlie capacity of yielding 4000 units of paddy, sliced off from the iiiavisabhumi of tlie KasI Patalca, in tiio Hapyoraa :X7 visaya, on tiie nortii bank of tlio Brali- raaputra. The recipient was a Bralirain, jiamed Desapala, Issue;! froia ; Durjjay's., Published : Hoernle, JASB, LXVI, No.l, 2S97,pp,113-32. P. N. Hiattacliarya, K^amanapasagaiiavall^ pp. 116-29; Han/^pur Saliityn Parisgd Patrika Nos,2, 4, 1319 sal. M, M, Sharraa, JJ^, pp,173-92. D. Siiarraa, KamarUnasasanavall^ Part II, pp. 91-98. Guviialmchi Plato of Indrapala i-'ound at viuMsakuchi village, lyin^ very near to tiio modern Halbari town of the Kamarup district in Assart in 1925. Grant : Indrapala donated a land, having tlie capacity of yielding 3000 units of paddy, sliced off from tlie paiidarl bhumi bolo- ngi)i£ to the district of Mandi, in tlie northern bajik of the Braliraaputra, Issued from • Durjjaya, Publishal : P. N. Bliattacliarya, Karaarupasasaiiaval?., pp. 130-45; ilan/'DUr Saiiif/a PariScyi Patrika, 1336 sal. LI. M. Siiarraa, XM> Pp.193-206, 2bF; Gr.ciital Plate of aopalavarruaji i-bimd at tiie village Gachtal, aoai* Dabaka o£ the Nowgoiie district, in Assam in 1966. Graiit : Gopalavarniaii donated a plot of land capable of yielding eicht tliousand units of paddy sliced off l>rora Kliarikot>Ji-jncl bliiua^, belonging to tlie Barasrojarabuba visaya. The name of tlie recipient is u]iknoYm due to the loss of the last plate. Issued from • Hadapyaica, Published : P. G. aioudhury, JAT^S, XVIII, 1968, pp.55-60. M. M. Sharnia, ^AA, pp.20?-ii4. .J, ^hanua, jxamarupasa^anavalT,, Part II, pp. 103-17, KhcuiohLikli Plato of Dharmapala Found at rJiaiiaraukii, a village of Barbhagia raauja of tl\e Nowgoii^; district of Assam. Grant : Dharmapala donated a territory of the hamlet of Meru yielding aoOO units of paddy in the PurujI visaya, Issued fi-orn : Unknown. Publishefl : P. D. Ghowdliury, JARS, VIII, pp. 113-26. N. K. Hiattasali, ibid, IX, pp.1-3. 260 M. M, Shamia, IM. pp.225-4=0, D, Sliarma, KaroariipnsasanavaJ,!;, Part II, pp.118-23, Subharikr.rapatalca Plate of Diiairoapala Tile find spot is unknown, Grant : Dhanuapala donated a plot of land having yieldinc 6000 units of paddy, in the loca lity of Subhankarapataka, in the Dijjimia visaya. The recipi^its were two Bralxrains - Hiraafiga and his brother Trilocana, Issued from : Unknown. PublisJiod s P, N. Biiattacharya, Kajnar"upaaasanavair> pp. 146-67. K. L. Bania, EIIK^ Appendix III. M, M, Sliarraa, lAAj pp,241«54. D, Shai*raa, Kamaruoasasanaval^^ Part II, pp. 12^1-31. Puspabhndra Plate of Dhamapala round near Uie river puspabiiaclra in Nortii Uauhati, Assaa ia nearabout 1909. Grant : JJliarraapala grajitod a land, capable of producing 10000 units of paddy, sliced off from CrUiie4vara-.Digdola VyddliagrSma, in the PuruJI visaya to a Braiiraana, najTied Madliusudana. Issue^l from : Kamarupanagara. ^770 Publisiied : p, N. Biattacharya, j^araarli pasasaiiavall, pp.168-84. K, L. Barua, J^, Appej:idix IV. M. M, Sliarraa, XM» Pp.255-72. D, Siiarma, Karaarupasasaiiavalj,^ Part II, pp.132-39. Kamauli Plate of Vaidyadeva Found in the village Kamauli, situated near the couflu- eiJicG 01' tile rivers Varuiia and Ganea at Varanasi In 1892. Grant s Vaidyadeva donated two villages Santi- pataka aiid Mandara in the Bada visaya of tile PragJIyotiaa bhuktl of tlie Kama- rupa majidala to a Bralinin Sildharasannan. Issued fro/n Haiisakoacl. Published Artliur Veiiis, E_i II, pp.347-58. S, K. Maity and K. R. Muidierjee, Corpus of Bengal InscripUonSf pp.370-86. A. K. Mfiitreya, Gau^alelciiaraala, pp. 127-46. M. M. Sharraa, lAA, pp.273-90. Assam Plate of Vallabhadeva The find spot is unlcnov/n, ^riiiit : Vallabliadeva granted seven villages, Gadr, DevunikoficI, SajjapIgS, Vaiigaka, 271 Samsraliikonclka, Dosipatnka aiirl Soncrpatalca ajid five assistajits aloiig witii tiieir soiis aiid wives for tlie Maintenance of an alras-liouse. Issuefl from : Unicnown, Pubiishcil : Kellliorn, J^., V, pp. 131-88. M. M. Sliorma, iAA, pp.291-:B01. Z72 BIPiLIOGRAPHY •d.'T.vyri, :;.!' : Asscra cjid NoiKhbouriiip. State, iievj ueliii, 1983 -ajjaai, .jucuiUtulicUi : Gooch Bdiorex- Itihas (Bengali), 1342 B.S, Ale ill u x-'.R, aiici Oliajcrabarti D. K« x 4 SQIITCQ Book of Ind|.gfL /\rchaeolor.y^ New DeUii 1983. .-.Ichiii Raymoucl aiicl Bridget : The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, New DeUii, 1983. 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Explaiiation', JAaS,IlI,193 ; 'Ciay-aoals of Hiaskaravariaan" , JARS, IV, 1937. : ' Tile Kamarupa Era', JARS, II, 1934' . : 'KaLisika or Kausikl', JA^j III? 1935 > : 'Uttarkuladesa" , JARS, V, 1938, 273 -ru: 'preiiistxjric Culture In Assam', iikfig, VII, 1939, A OQ/^iprdietisive ^listory of Assajrn, New Deliii, 1966, ias :ik, R, G History of Nortli-Eastern India. Calcutta, 1967. •H-pperali Copper Plate of Lokanatlia, tlie 44 year, EI, XV, 1967. : RSmacarita by SandliyJikara NaJidl, Calcutta, 19^7 Haattacharya, P.N : Kawarupa Sasaiiavall (Bcaigali), Bangpur, 1338 B.S. : »rwo lost Plates of iUdhajipur Copper Plates of Hiaskaravarraan, Si, XIX, 1927-28, ; »A OSiird Lost Plate of tiie Nidiianpur Copper Plates of Hiaskaravarman, lii, XIX, 1927-28. : ' TliG Middle Plate of liar j jaravarman's Copper Plate Inscription-Hayuiitlial Grant' , JARS. I, 1933. i ' Tlie Sign ^ in AJicieht Copper Plate Inscriptions of Karaarupa', JAP^, The Diamond Jubiles Souv^iir. 1973. 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Clioudhury, R, D : Cataloftue of Inscriptions in tJie Assam State Museum, Guwaliati, 1967* Ciiutia, ijdiax'meswar : «A Fragmentary Copper Plate Inscription from Nagaon' JARS, XXXI, 1989-90 ^ „______: 'KuruvSb^ii (NagSon) Copper Plate Grant of Hca'Jjara(Varma)deva', JARS, XXVI, 1981-82, : 'DlEiiaHgaon Copper Plates of Vaiiowfala- yarraadeva', JARS, XXIX, 1966-87. J 'Historical Materials from Dl^haHgaon Copper Plate Inscription of MaiiTirSjadiiirtlja Sri VanamSlavarmadeva» , JARS, jBenudliar Sliarma Commemoration volume^ 1967. : ' The Location of tlie Dl,,"j .1ii"u\avisaya Meaitionod in tlie Epigraphs of Early Assam' , JA^S, Prof. Krishna Kanta Handjgui Felici- lation Volume, 1982 , : 'Some Observations on the Dt.te of tiie KalikSpurS^ia' , JARS^ Prof. Krislma Kajita HaivUgui Folic Hat ion Yolumf]. 1962 . 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Political Centres and Cultural RoPtions In Early BeaiRal, Jaipur, 1980' 278 ^.uiuiei'Oee, li. N and Hxattacharyya P.K i li^arly Ills tori Qa3, Perspective oi' Hortlx BenKal, Nortli Bengal University, 1987. Muklierjee, R. R & Maity S, K : Corpus of BeaiKal Inscriptions, Calcutta, 19(y7. Wandargikar, G.R : ^a^huvara^a by K5]ldasa. Nandi, R» W i Social aoots of Religion in Ancleiit Indla^ Calcutta, 1986. : 'Gro-wtii of Rural Economy in Early j^'eudal India' (Presidcsitial Mdress) Proceedings of tlie Indian Ills tor y Congress^ 45tli Session, 1985 . Natli, P A Study in tlie TSconoralc Condition of Aiicleiit India, London, 1929. Hatii, R. •Antiquities of tlie Kapili and tli© Jorauna Valleys' , JAM> V, 1937. »i?'urtUer i\nti qui ties of tlie Kapili and tlie Jarauna Valleys', iAfiS, VI, 1938. 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P ^'i^^ia, G. p — • jLOlect T„ ' •'••='"4. ^""^^-^'JiSiaas, Vol -- -SCAnci ^^^^^-suuiaii "°*'= °" tile Jiai-e^v- Sir ear ^ ' '^^acJial Book r ^^cH^Ii-avor.,.^,, ^^ '^ ^^^--^IpUoa or ' ^» ^^^, 1956-56. 281 our, Atnl : CiiGiit;.) Bliarater l^j:it?ltvvi,lc Paa-iciiav^ Calcutta, 19B8. Suryakuaari, A : X^ie Xoraple In AndhradQ^a^ Dellii, 1968. TarkaratiKi Paiicaiiaii : (B^ig.) KSllka pur5j-)a, Calcutta, 1384 B.S. jpadhyay, G, P ; •Br'5Iiraaj:ias in Aiicleiit India, Nev/ Dellii, 1979, Vasu, n. N : Social History of Karnarupa^ I, New Dellii, 1963 (reprint). V^ii s, A : 'Copper Plate Grant of Vaidyadeva, king of Kamarupa', Si, II, 1894. Verraa, T, P J »Tlie li'raejaeJ^tary Stone Inscription from Kiiajiikargaon, JBSI, Vol. 16, 1990. 'vVatters, T. s On Yuoji Qhvicui^* s Travels in India, (tr.), New Dellii, 1973, "Jolseley Ilaig (orl.) : Ga;T3brldf:e History of India, II, Cambridge, 1928, x'iat' X iJasajarl lUiaiUkargaon Stone Inscription JuUiiTESi : M, M, Sliarraa Plate II rubi Grant of Hiaskaravarraan, Seal COtmi^SY : M. M. Shama a a CO o a. Plate IV M Nidhaiipur Grant of Hiaskaravarman, Seal COURTESY X Dr. D. Sliarraa nidnaiipur Grant of Bliasltaravarraan, Seal 2, I Plate V (13) r' •T»'!; S^'fk,:/.^tii yii^nf^'^pA^, Nidhajipur Grant of Hiaskaravarmaii, Seal 2. B GOiraTF.SY : M. ?.', SHi\RMA Tipperali Grajit of Lokajiiatiia 1, A GOUHI^SY : Kpif^rnpiaa Indica rJLi-Hj^ HA. J. f-^ -•.;/.*' Tipporali Grai:it of Lokanatlia 1. B COIJT^T^.SY : Epigraph! a Indie a .-^late Via Nagaon Grant of Jlvariija, Seal COUllTRSY : Dr. D. Gmtta 0% a cd •<-» •r4 irt •P < ft 2 > r$ M h) • «M « o • •p H % •• u o >H to £3 g ^ o s o X 0} •p a, o CO > o ^1 •p O >^ CO to O -P a, a •P o Q CO o o •p r-l Plate XII Kagaon Grant of Jivaraja, Seal COQRTESY : Dr, D. Clmtia PlatG XIII (a) Kuruvabalii Grant of Harjjaravarman 2, A Plate XIII (b) Kuruvabaiit Grant of Harjjaravarman 2, B COURTESY : Dr. D, Gliutia ^ ^ c3 •»-» T^ % ^^ w w «H • O Q •P • § fe F4 O •• •JJ >H CO 'i3 i w o l£ghalIgaon Grant of Vanaraala j Seal COURTESY J Dr. D, GiUtta pq I 3 > o O a c5 a ,9 >^ .-HI M o 6 -^ CO o 3 -P a a, CO a :d 2 o o CO o L_. CO a /^ > 3 '^>1 i:M*^ Plate XA Parbatlya Grant of VanaraTtla^ Bunch GOUllTESY : M, M. Sharraa (31 c5 l'^ a w e % ^ > rH «H 55 o • -p a rj • a^t a o •c |c3 >. X ^ CO c3 ^ J3 § a o OL, a •p Plato .cat u ttarbarbil Grant of Balavarraan III, Seal GWRTSSY J M. M. Sharraa H M M M > 05 o •-J -P O Plato KXIV Nagaoxi Grant of Balavarraan III^ aincli GOITRTSISY : M. M. Sharraa f^ d c3 > d a <-• '-1 c3 Cj rt • S( Ulubari araiit of Baiavarraaii III 1, B Plate XX:vi(b) 1 Ulubari Grant of Baiavarraaii III 2, A GOUITESY : M. M. Sharrua Plato :;cvii BargSon Grajit of RatiiaiDaia^ Seal COURTESY : M. M, SJiarraa • c5 r-\ \^ rt §• r-< g rt»-4 55 of, • «M S O • 4^ fi :s au •• o M CJ CO .§ CiO 11 u a} rt B d CO o Q -p 14 o o CO 5 O oq E O o CO 4-3 o 1 o -p H 1. r xci o u .\JVAJ. Mi^^mM Guvakachi Grant of Inclrapala ^ Soal GOUliTESY : M. M, Siiama eS'i^* .v'- KT tTf iPtT »^^ ,CN Yl^/ •^ cr. H O 5 >^ -3 CO o H > a a H 3 o SI 3 CO •p o M M M o •p C5 r-i •J.ate "CrCIV KlianamuJdi Grant of Dliarraapala , Bunch COURTESY J M. M. Sharnia Plate XXXV ,••;•*-?•.; )M^- - B^v\*' 'V^^ f^Stf'^'.\'^-'"*#- 5iP?i,M''f ;» •8k«^u^ '•\^.'^ Klianaraukh Grant of Dliarraapala , Seal GOUIITESY : M. M. Sliarraa i CO CO o Plate XXXVII Subhaiikarapatjalca Grant of Dhawiapala j Soal JOLTHTESY : M. M. Sii-airoa g M o Plate XXXDC Puspabliadra Grant of Dliarraapala _, Seal GOUI^TESY : M. M. Shanaa cq a iH iCJ ft rf E c3 *-» d s g c^. d 1^ o c3 -p ,w a• a^1 o • ^ irt ^1 »* -g >f CO g cu M w. ^ =i o a, C3 Plate XLKa) mmmrnm^mmiMm n i3ii^a^m^nf^7;smsi%'i^m^t^d^^^r^iB%mim3Hm^^^^^^ J75l>Slw2^Mt»5\^KMGSl :'0>a."i:aafi§iia^J=>^:^)^Kk^^JJ^:>i.-:^^l^T^:>i:SIB^.^^^^ c^>I^^'J ifctMLMfefifciSaar^^ ?:?}ai^gp;m<3anai^:85ii§^-^!f^e^'^^f5^g^^^ • •*• - ••-zr.'? Kanoiili Grant of Vairlyadeva , 1, B Plutc 'Cl.lCb) i Assam Graiit of Vallabha j 1. B COURTESY : M. M, Sharma 1 J" vLri^ A map sl>o«in6 physical feattire a,.d distribut OOORTESY ! Dr. P. C. Choudtary i SIKKLW ^. KIKIMBA u-^M.lboU V 3 ft A PoUtical n,ap of PraEjyotisr>-Kltaarupa A.D. % ', m COTOESiC : Dr. P. c. Olwudlmry