An Analysis of Psychological Wellbeing Indicators of GNH

Through a Buddhist Perspective

by Tashi Wangmo

Bachelors of Commerce, University of North Bengal, 2003

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MPhil Policy Study (PPE)

in the Graduate Academic Unit of School of Graduate Studies

Supervisor: John Valk, PhD, Renaissance College, UNB

Emery Hyslop-Margison, PhD, Faculty of Education, UNB

Ellen Rose, PhD, Faculty of Education, UNB

Examining Board: Linda Eyre, PhD, Faculty of Education, UNB, Chair

Ian Methven, PhD, Director of the Property Studies, UNB

Jennifer Pazienza, PhD, Faculty of Education, UNB

This thesis is accepted by the

Dean of Graduate Studies

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK

September, 2010

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The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission.

In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these.

While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada ABSTRACT

Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether people's lives are improving or becoming worse over time. Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of Bhutan. This philosophy aims at maximizing human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual and emotional needs of the people. The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the

Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the

Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies. The index comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains: psychological wellbeing, cultural resilience, education, health, time use and balance, good governance, community

vitality, ecological diversity, and living standard.

The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of

happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain, and the coherence of

indicators with the concept of GNH. Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of

the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial, due to the vastness of the

indicators, this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing. Since

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political, economic, and social lives of

Bhutanese, the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the

indicators. Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles.

Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each

of the indicators. The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing

are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH.

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study. I would first like to thank my supervisor Dr. John Valk for his continuous support, guidance, and encouragement. I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr. Emery

Hyslop-Margison and Dr. Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me complete my study on time. I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study. My sincere thanks also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave.

I would also like to thank Ms. Tshokey Zangmo, Researcher at the Centre for

Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my

doubts. I am also thankful to Ven. Lama Mepham, a Buddhist meditation teacher, at the

University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles.

Lastly, I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support.

iii Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables vi List of Figures vii List of Abbreviations viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

1.2 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

1.3 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

1.4 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

1.5 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

1.6 Methodology 14

1.7 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

1.8 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 20 2.1 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

2.2 Evolution of the Concept 29

2.3 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

2.4 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

2.5 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE: THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 3.1 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

3.2 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

3.2.1 The four noble truths 45

3.2.2 The Law of Karma, Principle of Interdependence, and Compassion 47 iv 3.3 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

3.3.1 Generosity 55

3.3.2. Ethics 55

3.3.3. Patience and Tolerance 57

3.3.4. Perseverance 58

3.3.5. Meditative Concentration 59

3.3.6. Wisdom 60

3.4 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63 4.1 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

4.2. Emotional Balance 66

4.3 Spiritual Practices 80

4.3 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

4.4 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92 References 99 Appendix 1 110 Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v List of Tables

Table 1: Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI List of Figures

Figure 1: Map of Bhutan (Source: CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2: Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3: Overcoming Suffering 54

vii List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether people's lives are improving or worsening over time. Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the people. Although GDP mainly measures market production, it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing. The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago, 2006; Stiglitz, Sen, & Fitoussi, 2009).

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing,

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced. GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living, but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen, 2002; Kusago, 2006), and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness.

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission, 1999). This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people. Bhutan's fourth king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck,

coined the term "Gross National Happiness" in the late 1980s when he stated that "Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product" (as cited by Ura,

2008, para.1). His vision was to create a GNH society, which means "the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance" (as cited by Ura, 2008, para.2). Since it was difficult

1 for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people, four major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH: cultural promotion, equitable economic development, good governance, and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission, 1999). These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH.

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH, the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth. The country lacked,

however, a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH. In November 2008, coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan, Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck, the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index. "The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values, set benchmarks, and track policies and performances of the country" (Ura, 2008,

p.l). Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index. The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji, 2009). The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH.

This chapter is divided into eight sections. The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan, its people, economy, and culture. The second section presents

Bhutan's political journey from monarchy to democracy. The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section. The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country. The fifth 2 section presents the research questions and objective of the study. The sixth section presents the methodology of the study. The seventh section lays down the significance and limitation of the study. The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are presented in the eighth section.

1.1 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691,141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook, 2009) and having a total area of 38,394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau, 2007). The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies: India and China (Figure 1). Until the 1960s, Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world. Today, about 69% of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission, 2010). Of the population,

94.5% represent people from the age group of 0-64 years, while only 5.5% of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook, 2009). Bhutan's GDP per capita was

estimated at $2,218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund, 2010). The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level. About 72.5% of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau,

2007), and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60% forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture, 2002). Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

"Hotspots" (National Environment Commission, 1999).

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism. The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism. Under this unique

3 philosophy, Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and traditions. From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972, the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product. According to him, happiness is the ultimate common goal of every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish. He believed that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley, 2005).

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority.

25 SO Km 25 50

G r e a *

S *Gasa Ozong

Toogsa Paro THIMPHU Tashigang Samdrup Phuntsholing Jongkhar

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1: Map of Bhutan (Source: CIA Fact Book)

4 1.2 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet. Through the spread of Buddhism, Zhabdrung was able to unify the country. Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall, 2004). Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan. He was the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health & Education

[MoHE], 1994). He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system, where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head abbot called the Jekhenpo. Zhabdrung died in the year 1651. The official announcement of his death was, however, made only in the year 1705. There were several reasons for this, chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung. During the period 1651 -

1706, the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung, who was said to be in religious retreat, by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung himself (MoHE, 1994). The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal stability and external invasion. Ultimately, in the year 1907, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE, 1994). Since then, visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country.

Bhutan's political system, however, evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional democracy. Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight; the process of democratization was going on long before, but slowly and cautiously. King Jigme Singye Wangchuck continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

' A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5 of the environment and Bhutan's unique culture. Yet, during his reign, there was a steady decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance people's participation in the formulation of development policies and activities, and to strengthen the traditional local institutions. This process started largely in 1981 with the establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs). The people democratically elect all members of these committees. The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers, previously held by the King, was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC, 2008).

On 17 December 2005, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008, and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son, the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck. Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy, the opposite

occurred in Bhutan; people were given power without having to fight for it. The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6, 2008, becoming the world's youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy. The fifth King, like his father, proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign.

He said, "As the king of a Buddhist nation, my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma" (Wangchuck, 2008, para.8). The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH.

6 1.3 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support. The importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document "Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace, Prosperity, and Happiness" (Planning Commission, 1999), which states that its aim is to "maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve their full and innate potential as human beings" (p.41). Reflecting the importance of the concept, the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government of Bhutan [RGoB], 2008).

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development. It seeks to complement inner happiness with outer circumstances. It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing. Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing, one's mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone. GNH supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual.

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it. To this end, GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal; it cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley, 2005; Ura, 2008). Prime Minister Jigme

Y.Thinley (2005), in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax, stated "GNH stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes" (p.7). If a government's

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness, happiness will fail as a 7 collective goal (Ura, 2008). In the GNH context, a government concerned with the happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness.

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism. The Bhutanese

worldview, including its social, cultural, and political ethos, is rooted in Buddhism. The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that "simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture, but will also meet with limited success" (Planning

Commission, 1992, p.66). The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country. This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation.

1.4 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment; it aspires to be one. The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation, and good governance (Rinzin, 2006; Thinley, 2005). These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan. This strategy has been referred to

as the "middle path," which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission, 1999). In November 2008, the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH. The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system, GNH cannot

8 guide practical policies and programs (CBS, 2008). Under the GNH index, 72 indicators were identified under the following nine domains: psychological wellbeing, cultural resilience, education, health, time use and balance, good governance, community vitality, ecological diversity, and living standard. The nine domains of Gross National Happiness are explained below:

1. Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life:

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing. Under this domain, there are 11 measurable

indicators (e.g. frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy, compassion, and

generosity) classified in three areas: General psychological distress indicators, Emotional

balance indicators, and Spirituality practices indicators. This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain.

2. Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time. There are only two

indicators under this domain: the sleeping hours and working hours. The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account.

3. Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community. This domain

intends to measure how strong, active, and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing. It examines the nature of trust,

belongingness, vitality of caring relationships, safety in the home and the community,

and giving and volunteering. The community vitality indicators are: Family vitality,

Safety, Reciprocity, Trust, Social support, Socialization, and Kinship density.

4. Cultural Diversity and Resilience: This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions. The indicators study core values, and perception of

changes in values and traditions. Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that 9 encompasses customs, rituals, religious ceremonies, traditional dress, sports, music, dance, poetry, arts, and code of behavior, among other things. The indicators of cultural diversity and resilience are: Dialect use, Traditional sports, Community festivity, Artisan skill, Value transmission and Basic precept.

5. Health: Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness. The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population, the determinants of

health and the health system. Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health, disabilities, body mass index, and number of healthy days experienced per month.

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices. The health indicators are: Health status, Health knowledge, and Barrier to

health.

6. Education: In a GNH society, education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness. The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime. It includes historical, cultural, civic,

ecological, and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally.

The education indicators are: Education attainment, Dzongkha (national) language, and

Folk and historical literacy.

7. Ecological Diversity and Resilience: This indicator looks at people's perception

of ecology. The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are: Ecological degradation,

Ecological knowledge, and Afforestation.

8. Living standard: The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels, sense of financial security, room ratio, food security, and

10 house ownership. Thus, the living standard indicators are: Income, Housing, Food security, and Hardship.

9. Good Governance: The domain of good governance evaluates how people perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy, honesty, and quality.

The indicators include human rights, leadership at various levels of government, performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and corruption, people's trust in media, judiciary, and police. The indicators of good governance are: Government performance, Freedom, and Institutional trust indicator.

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires. The GNH index, however, was developed based on the result of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS, 2008). A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey. The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH, roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above. CBS (2008) states that the nine domains were selected on "normative grounds, and are equally weighted, because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness" (p.l). Within each domain several indicators "that seemed likely to remain informative across time, had high

response rates, and were relatively uncorrelated" (CBS, 2008, p.1) were selected. For example, in the psychological wellbeing domain, the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger, guilt, selfishness, pride, calmness, compassion,

forgiveness, disappointment, jealousy, and frustration. Respondents were also given the 11 option to list other emotions that they often experienced. From the survey results, only eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain. In total 72 indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1).

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country. A survey is currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan. Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji, 2010). Several structured, semi-structured, and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains. Any individual having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered "happy" (CBS,

2008). Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data, the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment. For example, the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data. The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point. Those

elements which are regarded as 'regrettable' are deducted — for example, cost of crime,

accidents, and pollutions. Values of leisure time, unpaid housework, parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman, 2008a). All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values. The GNH index, however, is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data. According to Diener and Lucas (1999), the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability. The GNH index

is calculated in two steps. The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains.

12 The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula: GNH = 1- Average squared distance from cutoff.

1.5 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH. The GNH index is an attempt by the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically, socially, and emotionally. The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan. However, the

resulting question is: To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators? Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles? Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH? The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH.

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial, due to the vastness of the indicators, this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1). I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education, health,

living standard, time use, ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP, Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI), Human Development

Index (HDI), and Quality of Life. The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS, 2008). Since the measure of

13 psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator, it would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators.

1.6 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles, and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness, on the indicators of psychological wellbeing, and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH. This policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze the indicators. Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature, causes, and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social problems. Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses: determining what causes the policy, determining what policies they are responsible for, determining what affects them, and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a given goal. This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the government's policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH.

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political, economic, and social

lives of Bhutanese. It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan: Gross National Happiness Index. The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness. This is done for three reasons. First,

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism. This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two). Second, Bhutan is

14 a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA, 2009). As such, this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced the indicators. Third, scholars such as Lokamitra (2004), Hewavitharana (2004), and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH. This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them.

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed. The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored. Government documents and reports, and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH, serve as important sources. The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS. Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness.

The indicators consist of positive emotions, negative emotions, and practices to

overcome negative emotions. In a research design, it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell, 2007). To this end, I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness. Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed. In particular, the key principles such as the four noble truths, law of Karma,

principle of interdependence, and compassion will be discussed. Further, a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas.

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15 and direction of this study. Overall, the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will serve as a basis for assessing the indicators.

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country, the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined. The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text, Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source. This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369). The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from hundreds of volumes, and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings.

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan. In particular, the six paramitas will be used for the purpose of this study. The thirty-seven practices were written to help every sentient being achieve genuine happiness. Therefore, this study will examine the teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected in the psychological wellbeing indicators. Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used.

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma, which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings, is also referenced for the analysis of the indicators. The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche, thoughts, thought- processes, and mental states. The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty- one secondary consciousnesses, representing the working of the psyche from an ethical standpoint. Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions, as well as how they arise. Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing indicators, the text is appropriate. However, only those emotions which correspond to the indicators are referred to for this study.

16 1.7 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study. First, the theme of this study focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators. Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives.

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism, it is most appropriate that the indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles. Further, there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness. The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo, the Dalai Lama, and Sogyal Rimpoche.

Second, the GNH index is still very new. A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country.

As such, the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available.

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed. Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed.

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons.

First, there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far. This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism.

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers. Scholars interested in studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH. Only one domain is explored in this study. The remaining eight domains could be an area of future research. 17 Second, the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH index. The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the design, implementation, and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of the direction their society is taking. Since what is measured affects what is done, it is important that the right indicators be used; if measurements are flawed, decisions can be distorted. (Stiglitz, Sen, & Fitoussi, 2009). Therefore, it is important to determine whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept.

1.8 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study. The chapter began by looking at

Bhutan's culture, economy, and political history, including its transition to democracy.

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators, the objective, the

methodology, limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter.

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH. It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated. It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH. Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed.

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators. The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined.

Specifically the four noble truths, law of Karma, principle of interdependence, and

compassion are presented. The Mahayana Buddhist text, Gyalse Lagin: the 37 practices

18 of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness. Specifically, the teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles.

Chapter Four presents the core of the study. The indicators of psychological wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three. Each indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles. It highlights the extent to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH.

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future studies.

19 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH) is drawn from Buddhism, but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather implicit. This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic construction of GNH until recently. When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in the late 1980s, it was just an abstract philosophy. The concept has now gained more depth and dimension through analysis and discourse. While scholars such as Tashi (1999;

2004), Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH, others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH. This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH. Specifically, the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored.

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators, the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH.

The review is divided into four main sections. The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related. Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence, Karma, and the noble eightfold

path, are linked to general themes that promote GNH. The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved. Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century,

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored. This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment, thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH. The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20 GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index. The final section of the review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH. The chapter concludes by questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure people's

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH.

2.1 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy. This

is a common misconception. The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness. Since all humans

value 'happiness', the government of Bhutan takes the view that "it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings" (CBS, 2008, p.l). In the GNH

context, the government should create, by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people, an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness. Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains, and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individual's and the society's values. Happiness indeed depends on our social values.

In Bhutan, people's social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism. GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values.

Priesner (1999), Tashi (2004), and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked. Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism. Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a "summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21 harmony and compassion" (p.377). Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism. The term 'Mahayana' and 'Vajrayana' is used interchangeably in Bhutan.

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development, rather than material rewards, compassion for others, tolerance, living in harmony with nature, and the importance of making the right choice. Based on these values, GNH seeks to achieve and pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life, which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo,

2009). Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path. The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life. Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states, "Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan, which promotes the principles and values of peace, non-violence, compassion,

and tolerance" (p. 9). Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice.

According to Buddhism, the main purpose of life, the heart of being human is

happiness; what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB], 2008). The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness. Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism. Buddhism states that wealth, pleasure,

and power are all sought for achieving happiness, but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness. As humans strive for happiness, the end goal is

often forgotten, and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake. In the

process, humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness. Happiness in 22 Buddhism depends on our actions, and how we view and interpret the world. Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world, it is always possible to change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB, 2008). Buddhist teachings stress the importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities, such as altruistic love, compassion, inner peace, and inner strength.

Similarly, the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and economic development is just a means to achieve happiness. GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people. Prime Minister Jigme Y. Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer, 2010). This view is influenced by Buddhist principles; Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life. Although, GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people, the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in people's lives: is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values? When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961, it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji, 2007a). In their pursuit of development, however, many countries had lost their

forests, cultures, and much more. In the neighboring region of Nepal, for example, the

government's policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation. Pandey, Chettri, Kunwar, & Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs, increase in drug abuse,

theft of antiques and cultural property, and prostitution. Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization. 23 Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan.

Similarly, Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values. Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a society is morally and psychologically strong, GNH cannot be achieved. He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism. Tashi, Prakke, & Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture- specific. They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures. Buddhist values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist.

Tashi, Prakke, and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH. Overall, the Buddhist belief of'interdependence' has inspired the four pillars because environment, culture, economy, and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley, 2005). Maintaining a balance among these enhances the quality of life for the individual, for society, and for the environment

(Rinzin, 2006).

1. The First Pillar: Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness, few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness; our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley, 2005). The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world.

24 Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission, 1999). Tashi et al. (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy. The relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally different way. The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an independent existence; rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all dimensions of environment. The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of conservation, which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley, 2005).

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains, deep ravines, ancient trees, and

rocks are the abode of spirits, gods, and demons. Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck, sickness, and death to families. Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck, peace, and prosperity (NEC, 1998; Rinzin 2006).

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system.

The government, therefore, has adopted strong environmental policies. As per the

constitution of Bhutan, the country must always maintain 60% forest coverage.

2. The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutan's development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission, 1999). The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture, which are typically Buddhist.

Within such Buddhist cultural values, there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25 doctrine of Karma (Gurung, 1999). The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary rules, norms, indigenous knowledge systems, and institutions, in addition to a rich religious heritage based on Buddhism. It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha, which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity. In addition to

promoting national dress, driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist, and emphasize strong kinship loyalty,

community-oriented behavior, hospitality to guests, respect for one's parents, elders, and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled, parents and children, and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994; Rinzin,2006; Chophel 2008).

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006), it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be 'very important'. They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity, sense of security, and conservation of a

way of life. A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities. Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values, the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition.

3. The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development.

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence, cultural diversity, and environmental integrity, the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social, cultural, ecological, and human costs

(Priesner, 1999). Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself. If we look at the world today, there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety,

26 insecurity, stress, and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan. Economic development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty, but it is easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness.

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys, the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources. However, the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods. Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources, and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods, the government has identified three avenues for

economic development. These are hydropower, tourism, and agriculture (NEC, 1998,

Planning Commission, 1999). All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable. The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddha's eightfold path called the 'Right Livelihood' (Schumacher,

1989). Right Livelihood entails that one's means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings. Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey, 2000). This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path. Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles. By

following the path of 'Right Livelihood', the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment, culture, and society.

4. The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state. Good governance means "exercising of authority in managing a country's

political, social, economic, and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent, 27 accountable, and responsive to people's needs" (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC], 2009, p.56). The fourth king, His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck, asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH. During his reign, decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations. All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008. The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose. Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach. For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise.

Thus, democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH. Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH.

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country. Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust, respect, and cooperation between the government and its people.

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma, which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path: Right View, Right Intention, Right

Action, Right Speech, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Concentration, and Right

Mindfulness. The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is "based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws"

(as cited by Nishimizu, 2008, p. 40). The ten virtuous actions are 1. Avoid killing, 2.

Avoid Stealing 3. Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action), 4. Avoid lies, 5. Avoid divisive talks, 6. Avoid harsh speech 7. Avoid Gossip 28 (these four fall under Right Speech), 8. Avoid covetousness, 9. Avoid harmful intent 10.

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as cited by Powers, 1995).

Tashi et al. (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors: body, speech, and mind (lii, ngag, yid). These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects. Any individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the three doors: Right Mindfulness, Right Speech, and Right Action. The three gates are like the neutral ground, which can be used for good, neutral, or bad action (Tashi et al., 1999).

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working with the mind directly is considered too illusive. With 'Right View' one needs to understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion. Right View is the path that refers to wisdom, which means seeing emptiness; realizing that appearances in the relative world or the world in which things change, lacking permanent existence.

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe). Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind, Right Speech, and Right Action. The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities.

2.2 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s, but the concept itself is very

old. According to Priesner (1999), this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959, a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29 set of values. Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century A.D, but made little impact on the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE],

1994; Dargye, 2008). Prior to the 7th century, Bhutan was called the land of Monpas, the land of darkness or no religion. Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism, an animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri, 2004). Bon rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan. From the 10th century to the beginning of the 17th century, Buddhism started influencing people's way of life, culture, and customs. During that period, many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism in Bhutan. They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE, 1994).

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651), a Tibetan monk, who formally instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE, 1990; MoHE, 1994).

Therefore, the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history; Bhutanese development policies stem from this period. All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrung's era were monks, and the government's primary function was to support the religious establishment, which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the lay population (MoHE, 1994; Ura, 1993 as cited by Priesner, 1999). In other words, the government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism. The Bhutanese legal system, codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism, is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu, 2008).

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing, this clearly indicates

30 that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrung's reign. Prime Minister Jigme

Y. Thinley (2004) writes,

Traditional polity in Bhutan, drawing much on the Buddhist culture, was certainly guided towards GNH. A Buddhist equivalent of a 'Social Contract' declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent. The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p. 2)

Until the 1960s, Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the country (National Environment Commission [NEC], 1998; Planning Commission, 1999).

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh. There was no electricity, telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world. There were

no motor roads and money was unknown. The health infrastructure was poor; life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years. Western education was

considered unnecessary. The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains. The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers, totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival. People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes. Bhutan's traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance, which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner, 1999; Gurung, 1999).

Due to the lack of foreign influences, Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge. Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner, 1999). The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was "to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance" (Kuensel Vol. 2, No. 9 [May 1-15,

31 1968], p.7 as cited by Priesner, 1999). Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king, Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE,

1994). However, Bhutan's decision to embark on modern development was not voluntary. During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958, the Indian Prime Minister expressed his concern about Bhutan's security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India, offering at the same time financial and technical assistance. To avoid increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance. Nevertheless,

Bhutan's attitude changed during 1959, a consequence of events in Tibet. In 1959, the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese, which resulted in the flow of several thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan. At the end of the same year, Chinese actions began to be directed against Bhutan. A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan, through which the most important trade route from Bhutan to India ran, was sealed off (Galay, 1999; Priesner, 1999). In the following National Assembly session, the construction of roads became the main issue of discussion. As an underdeveloped country, Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources and India was the only possible source of aid. Thus, Bhutan took the first step towards development cautiously. Later when Chinese aggression declined, measures of cultural preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of modernization (Priesner, 1999).

Since 1961, Bhutan plans its development every five years. The third King always expressed his priority as making "the people prosperous and happy" (Kuensel,

1968 as cited by Priesner, 1999, p.7). Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the third king's address on the occasion of Bhutan's admission to the United Nations in 1971. 32 Further, the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH.

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the country's socio­ economic, historic, and political circumstances. The concept of GNH is thus the translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner,

1999). To sum up, the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique development concept are the absence of foreign domination, the desire to preserve national identity, Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security, and deeply embedded Buddhist beliefs. The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the term 'Gross National Happiness' was coined.

2.3 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by the current Prime Minister Jigme Y. Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998. His keynote speech was later published in the country's national newspaper, Kuensel. Many scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore the conceptual foundations of human happiness. During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation: First, can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development? Second, what are the main ingredients of happiness? Third, what would be the main indicators of happiness, if there were any at all?

33 Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified. Others suggested that it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience, and would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification. They expressed their suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH.

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged: one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH.

On the philosophical side, scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness. For Stehlik (1999), the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary, and even less to measure it. The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable. The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results. The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title, Gross National Happiness: A Set

of Discussion Papers.

After a gap of five years, the First International Conference on GNH,

'Operationalizing Gross National Happiness', was held in Thimphu, Bhutan, from

February 18 to 20, 2004. The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of 'happiness' as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change. The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing. Dr. Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotia's Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI,

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality, natural wealth, population health,

livelihood security, equity, free time, and educational attainment. The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan. Colman and Sagebien suggested a 34 potential framework for measuring GNH, proposing indicators such as education, basic security, respect, and care for all beings. Although the conference did not come to any definitive conclusions, Prime Minister Jigme Y. Thinley (2007) stated that the conference was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

'happiness'. Further, the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period.

The Second International Conference on GNH, 'Rethinking Development: Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing,' was held in Nova Scotia, Canada from June 20 to 24,

2005. The conference focused on the exploration of practices, the sharing of actual

experiences, and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH. The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable, it must first become measurable. By the time the third

international conference was held, Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index.

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok, Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH. The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies. Just a week prior to the fourth international conference,

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index.

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28, 2008)

was 'Practice and Measurement' of GNH, indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies, and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress. Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators: 35 psychology, environment, community relations, education, health, living standard, governance, culture, time use, and economy. Rosellini (2008) says that some of the indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the missing dimensions of poverty. Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners.

The fifth conference, held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23), was a revelation

for the Bhutanese. While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level, the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS], 2009). There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system. Further, GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions, businesses, and at the community level.

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics. Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH. One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions. Likewise, Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel, 2009). This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan.

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil, the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the 36 education system. Following this, a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH infused education system (Kuensel, 2009). The education ministry has come up with a road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles into the school system starting in 2010. The education minister stated that every school in the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material. The latest reports state that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum.

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson. Many schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer, March 2010).

Many students were quoted as saying that "Meditation somehow helps to relax and concentrate more on their studies," (Business Bhutan, 17 April 2010). This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH. Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level. The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has, however, raised many questions.

2.4 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH, the United Nation's

Human Development concept and its measurement, the Human Development Index

(HDI), was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC], 2008). The HDI fails, however, to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI: health (life expectancy), education (adult literacy), and wealth (GDP per capita). Owing to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37 philosophy of GNH, Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index. Karma Ura (2008), president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies, writes that "as many contemporary indicators of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately, the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index, which will provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development" (p.l).

In his first international speech, the Prime Minister of Bhutan, Jigme Y. Thinley

(1998), stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown. Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively, their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago, 2006). Similarly, Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent), much is known

about the material conditions of people's lives, but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing. It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people.

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that "indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions" (p. 2). He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes.

Many are skeptical, however, and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable. Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji, 2007b).

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human 38 happiness. Nonetheless, if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness of its citizens, it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing. Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently quantified, Daly & Farley (2004) state that "It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong" (p.243). The policy makers will at least get an idea of people's state of wellbeing.

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history, as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals. A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks, 2008). The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH. Lastly, there is hope that 'Gross National

Happiness' will not remain as a mere catchphrase.

2.5 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH. The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses. The key principle of GNH, which focuses on 'happiness', is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism, which states that the main purpose of life,

the heart of being human, is 'happiness'. The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism. The law of Karma, the principle of

interdependence, and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39 of living and thus the concept of GNH. The Buddhist values of interdependence, equality, and compassion are inherent in GNH.

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries, when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life. Buddhism therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH. Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH. Like many developing countries, Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration, poverty, and unemployment, thus

challenging the goals of GNH. The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes. Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH,

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development. The country did not

opt for economic activities, which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health, environment, and culture. Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner, 1999). However, it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people. The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness. The question remains, however,

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles.

40 CHAPTER THREE: THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering. Many of us support the importance of moral values in making our lives happier. Buddhist principles emphasize that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life. Yet, there is a general assumption that income and happiness are directly related. Happiness research findings defy this generalization, and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by increasing happiness (Hirata, 2006).

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago. The Buddha did not reject the idea of possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness. He rejected greed in accumulating wealth, being enslaved to materialism, and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa, 2009). The Buddha's teachings are based on the key

problem of'suffering'. Since Buddhism focuses so much on 'suffering', it is often criticized as being pessimistic. But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in our lives. It teaches the way out of suffering, and shows the path towards genuine happiness. Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts that for a layperson, a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life. Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism. The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness.

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter.

The principles that will be discussed here are, however, not definitive boundaries because 41 Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness. In this chapter, the framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six paramitas. Nonetheless, the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path.

This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section begins with a brief introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness. Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism. The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble truths, Karma—the law of cause and effect, the principle of interdependence, and compassion. The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas. Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness. The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness. For the purpose of this study, Thogme

Zangpo's text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin), and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework.

3.1 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants, 2009). The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan, 2007). Therefore, it is

42 commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic. Buddhism is a series of practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha. Buddhists are strongly influenced by Karma, the law of cause and effect, with the implication that there is no creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra, 2010).

The word Buddha means "to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread one's intelligence to everything that can be known" (Dalai Lama, 2000, p.2). The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven. The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism,

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness.

In his book 'An Open Heart: Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that "the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness" (p.30). Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness. Sogyal Rimpoche,

a renowned Buddhist teacher, states there are two kinds of happiness: one based on

material comfort and pleasures; the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji, 2010).

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness. The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role. For example, in a very pleasant environment,

if we are mentally depressed, the surroundings will not make a difference. Similarly, if

we have inner peace or mental happiness, it will be easier to face any challenge. This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama, 2001). Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind. Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions, the results frequently are negative actions, which in turn

cause suffering. The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame, to transform, to conquer 43 the human mind, for it is the root of everything— it is the creator of happiness and suffering. The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft, 1997, p.41):

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady. Attracted here, there, and everywhere. How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still, how subtle the delusion of the thoughts. To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36).

There is a significant similarity between the Buddha's teachings and Aristotle's ethic. Eudiamonia, the Aristotelian term for 'happiness', is very similar to Buddhism.

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy, we should cultivate and practice virtues through wisdom. He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards; sudden disaster can reverse happiness, no matter how virtuous one's life has been

(Annas, 1999). This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago. The Buddha's

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds. Most of Aristotle's ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness. Aristotle describes happiness as "doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action" (Irwin, 1999,

p.3). Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety. This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddha's teachings. The Buddha preached that fortune, power, possession are all

materials and subject to change. They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering.

44 His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary happiness but for long-term results. They are concerned with life after life. This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana, the cessation of suffering, the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death. He further adds that spiritual practice, the practice of dharma,

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama &

Hopkins, 2000). Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels. Being on the

Bodhisattva path, the path on which all sentient beings can receive help, can bring us

happiness. Powers (1995, p.91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment. Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion. Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa, which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese.

3.2 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

3.2.1 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life, the Buddha discovered the four noble truths,

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs. The Buddha's four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it. The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence: suffering from birth, old age, sickness,

and death as well as the pain from separation, grief, and despair. The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering; craving for pleasure, for

individual existence, and for release from our present situation. The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire. The fourth noble truth 45 prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft,

1997).

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because, as the first noble truth

states, "Life is suffering". This means that as long as humans exist, there will be no end

to suffering. Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types. First

is the suffering of misery, which includes physical and mental sufferings. Second is the

suffering of change, where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change. Third is compositional suffering; the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers, 1984 & 1995, Negi, 1999).

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance,

which is called Klesha. Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi, 1999). Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused. By following the eightfold noble path, one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness. Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path: Right Understanding, Right Intention, Right Action, Right Speech, Right

Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Concentration, and Right Mindfulness. Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path. The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices: Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues, Concentration (Samadhv, meditation), and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama, 2000 & 2001; Harvey, 2000; Gomes, 2004). Right Understanding and Right 46 Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit: panna). Right Action, Right Speech, and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics. Right Effort, Right Concentration, and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind.

Moral virtue, meditation, and wisdom form part of the 'six perfections', which are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism. The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path, the state of genuine happiness. This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness, which will be explored in depth in the third section.

3.2.2 The Law of Karma, Principle of Interdependence, and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit: Kamma). Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause. The law of Karma can be simply related to Newton's

Third Law, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life. Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth,

certain key aspects of a person's next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined.

These include the family into which one is born, one's social status, physical appearance,

character, and personality. Karma does not, however, claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined. Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen. Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior.

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism, but fate and

Karma are different. Humans have freedom to choose, and their present action is not the

47 entire result of their past Karma action. It does, however, influence a person's action because of the character a person has developed (Harvey, 2005).

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of one's act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche. It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on one's

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positive/negative merits), one will experience happiness/sufferings of various types (Gaylag, 2004); good action leads to pleasant effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results. Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life, which is supportive of compassion and respect for other beings. In Buddhism, if you want happiness, you need to sow the seed of good merit.

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma.

Actions motivated by greed, hatred, and delusion result in bad Karma, while actions motivated by their opposites - non-attachment, loving kindness, and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma. Good intentions, therefore, must find expression in right actions, and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either oneself or others. Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy, our actions can be summed up under three principle causes : 1) Developing the attitude of not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance), 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others, and 3) Being Content.

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism. This principle is actually an elaboration of the law of Karma, which states that all things are interdependent, and

48 everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi, 1999; Flanagan, 2007;

Doiji, 2009). In other words, since a whole is dependent on its parts, any existent thing is composed of its parts, therefore its very existence depends on its parts. Buddhism states that human beings in particular, are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates. The physical body is the material aggregate, and the mental aspect is made up of feeling, perception (awareness, recognition through senses), mental formations or thoughts, and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama, 2000 & 2001, Harvey 2005). Since we are made of these five aggregates and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence, there exists no permanent self. Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things, including human beings, have permanent selves. As we are all

interdependent, there are no existing phenomena, which is not the effect of this. What we

do affects those around us and vice versa. People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them. To create

happiness, it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships.

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart: a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings. Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama, 2001). Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 & 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion. In Buddhism, it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart. It is

49 through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all humans, animals, and the environment because they are all part of the same world.

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering, Buddhism states that we can develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama, 2001). It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 & 2001), and in that sense

also makes happiness possible. The four noble truths, the law of Karma, the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview. The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness,

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines.

3.3 The Buddhist Happiness Framework This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhism's teachings on the six perfections {paramitas). Thogme Zangpo's 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva, especially his verses on the six

practices, were referenced ( Hopkins, 1989). The six perfections or paramitas are :

1. Dana Paramita (generosity) 2. Sila Paramita (ethics/virtues/morality) 3. Kshanti

Paramita (patience/tolerance) 4. Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5. Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6. Prajna Paramita (wisdom). These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation, which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright, 2009). The first five are

methods or practices and the last, wisdom, is necessary for any of them to function. The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people. Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities. 50 However, meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay people.

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (n.d) text begins with the following statement:

The perfect Buddhas, the sources of benefit and happiness, arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine. That in turn depends on knowing its practices. Therefore, I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p.1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist. The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues. Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness, whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma, which means the

practice of virtues. Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha, but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings. He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma. The highest is to

reach full enlightenment, Buddhahood, in this life. The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings. The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life. Thus, Buddhists aim at one of these three. Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy, virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms.

Thogme Zangpo's teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds. Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness.

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings. Everyone wants to achieve happiness; the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a 51 blissful state devoid of all suffering. Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism, it is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering. According to

Buddhism, ignorance, desire, and hatred are the main cause of suffering. Our own afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering.

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of life in Buddhism. The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner psychological cosmology. This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan. The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig, rooster, and snake. These three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance, desire, and hatred (anger) respectively. They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama, 2000). Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes, which are within oneself. When one understands the nature of suffering, one will work towards ending such causes. However, Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings. Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering. Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering.

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth; misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama, 2000). The principle of dependent origination (Section 3.2.2) as explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own. Thogme Zangpo's

fourth verse states the following:

Long-associated companions will part from each other. Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind. Consciousness, the guest, will cast aside

52 the guest-house of the bodv. Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas 'practice (p.l).

The above verse states that our body is not ours. The mind or consciousness leaves the body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse. However, we live as if we are going to live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred. Ignorance thus comes out as greed and hatred. Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance. The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance, desire, and anger are impossible. These disturbing emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering, as are the karmic impulses that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions. Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness. It shows that the root causes of suffering are ignorance, desire, and hatred. These emerge through three doors— body, speech, and mind—as non-virtuous action generating negative Karma, which causes suffering to oneself and to others.

Figure 2: Suffering and its causes

53 Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will receive many fruits if we practice Dharma, meaning the practice of virtue which results in the fruit of good Karma. However, all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue? Buddhist teaching states that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six practices. When a person wants to reduce weight, he/she goes through physical training and dieting. Similarly, in Buddhism, if one wants happiness, one must practice the six paramitas. This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness. This is represented by Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Overcoming Suffering

54 3.3.1 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic mind. The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity. In the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva, the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even one's body while aspiring to enlightenment, what need is there to mention external objects? Therefore, practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas' practice (p. 3).

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness. Generosity can be

practiced by anyone. This practice refers to unconditional love, a selfless generosity, and giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation. Internally, it means overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others; voluntarily giving one's material goods, time, or wisdom to others (Das, 1995). Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed, miserliness, and possessiveness. The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35), a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity: the person will be liked and

admired by everyone, will have a good reputation, will have lots of self confidence, and

will have a heavenly rebirth. Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth. Generosity therefore is a very important virtue,

bringing happiness to oneself and others.

3.3.2. Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics/ morality/virtue.

Right speech, Right action, and Right livelihood, which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice. This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality 55 of virtuous and ethical behavior, morality, self-discipline, personal integrity, and never having the thought to harm any sentient beings. The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists, "ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions; acts done by the body, speech and mind" (p.34). It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by our practice of ethics. Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions; killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, gossip, greed,

malice, and wrong views. The first three (killing, stealing, sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action. The fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh (lying, malicious words, harsh

language, useless talk) correspond to verbal action. The last three (covetousness, ill will,

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama, 2000 & 2001). The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering. Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness. We can enjoy

greater freedom, happiness, and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others; we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts, speech, and actions. Thus, in the 26th

verse, Thogme Zangpo writes:

If, lacking ethical conduct, one fails to achieve one's own purpose, the wish to accomplish others 'purpose is laughable. Therefore, guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas 'practice (p. 3).

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior, one cannot achieve

happiness. Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness. For

example, a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56 be a cause of suffering for himself or herself. His 34th verse stresses the importance of avoiding harsh words.

Harsh words disturb others' minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattva's behavior to deteriorate. Therefore, it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p. 3).

By cultivating ethical behavior, we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity; we cause no harm by our actions, our speech is kind and compassionate, and our thoughts are free of anger, malice, and wrong views. Through the practice of ethics,

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions; we have nothing to hide. Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness. This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path. The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition; this is how we become better human beings. The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical. Thus, we will experience happiness.

3.3.3. Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance. It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese: Bzod pa). Thogme Zangpo's 27th verse states the importance of

patience.

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue, all those who do harm are like a precious treasure. Therefore, it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p.3).

57 Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility. Bodhisattvas are challenged to endure, tolerate, and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative thoughts. Through endurance and tolerance, we gain strength to overcome any afflictive emotions. The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma. He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger. When the Buddha was

deep in meditation, demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him.

Through his patience, however, the Buddha remained calm and undistracted, and finally

attained nirvana. The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism. With the

strength of patience, we can overcome anything. The mind will be calm and clear, and

this enables us to make better decisions. Through the practice of patience, we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances, and thus experience genuine happiness.

3.3.4. Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance.

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit, and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal. The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpo's teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers, who accomplish only their own welfare, strive as if putting out a fire on their heads. Seeing this, taking up diligent effort - the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas' practice (p.3).

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

one's own head, one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58 suffering. Our body, speech, and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability.

Without putting in right effort, we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal.

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance, we regard failure as simply another step towards success, danger as an inspiration for courage, and affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion. Thus, to achieve happiness, one must put in right effort to be compassionate, to be virtuous and ethical at all times.

3.3.5. Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration. It is called Dhyana

Paramita. Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and overcoming the three poisons. The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva is on meditation.

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained, ceaselessly hearing, pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas 'practice (p.3).

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body. In Buddhism there are six realms: god2, demi-god, human, animals, hungry ghost, hell beings. The humans in comparison to the other realm is very rare. It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a human. Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings, meditating day and night, and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion, sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives. Their lifespan eventually ends. When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma. 59 can be liberated from suffering. Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it. Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering and providing an antidote to them. Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving happiness at the individual, national and global levels. The perfection of meditative concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do. We stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation, by being mindful and aware in everything we do. When we train the mind in this way, all mental distortions and misperceptions are eliminated. We achieve focus, composure, and tranquility.

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us directly experience inner joy. Thus, Thogme Zangpo's 29th verse states:

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding, to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas' practice (p.3).

3.3.6. Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom, called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit.

Wisdom is the key to everything. Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness.

Without wisdom, one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be disillusioned by the three poisons. Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices. Thogme Zangpo's 30th verse points out:

If one lacks wisdom, it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections. Thus, cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesn't discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas 'practice (p.3).

60 Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding. It is beyond that. Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our habitual negative patterns of thoughts, speech, and action because the intellect serves the ego. He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of ego. Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble paths) of reality. This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons. Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous. We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity; our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence.

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind. It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink, 2010). Thus, overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity, morality, patience, and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism.

3.4 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance, desire, and

hatred enveloping the mind. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing. They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us. It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness. Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act. John Milton said, "The

mind is its own place and, in itself, can make heaven of hell, and a hell of heaven" (as

61 cited by Williams, 2008, p.24). Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three poisons, and practice generosity, patience, mediation, and morality, we can experience inner joy in this life. This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of attaining nirvana. The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time. Buddhism thus accords the highest authority to experience, with reason second, and scripture third

(Flanagan, 2007). Some may wonder, however, whether a focus exclusively on getting rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress. The path to overcoming attachment and achieving worldly progress, such as accumulating wealth, are indeed poles apart.

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life. It stresses more the importance of having a good heart, of never harming others, of being compassionate, of being morally disciplined, and of possessing loving kindness, generosity, patience, and a joyful desire to practice virtues. These positive qualities can reduce one's suffering and give happiness to oneself and others.

62 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of effects on their wellbeing. To know about people's psychological state, something must be known about their subjective experiences. The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses people's subjective experience based on eleven indicators:

Meditation, Prayer Recitation, Taking account of Karma, Jealousy, Selfishness,

Frustration, Generosity, Calmness, Compassion, Suicidal Thought, and General Mental

Health. The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress, and the prevalence of practices to avoid negative emotions. The main purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH. This chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH.

This chapter is divided into five sections. The first section briefly highlights the meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it. It also highlights similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on the understanding of psychological wellbeing. The second, third, and fourth sections analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad categories: Emotional Balance, Spirituality Practices, and General Mental Health. The chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings. 63 4.1 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a person's

mental state. It deals with emotions and feelings, which are subjective experiences. The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people. A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive. As Larsen & Fredrickson (1999) point out, "the content of a

person's emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life"

(p.40).

From the Buddhist perspective, happiness depends on our mind. Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind. Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness. The term ishepa\ which means the 'mind', refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences. In the Buddhist diction mind {shepa), awareness (rigpa), and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma, 1987; Negi, 1999). The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual, conceptual, and emotional states, both conscious and unconscious (Negi,

1999). The emotional/ mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences.

As explained in Chapter Three, Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind;

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful. In this sense, it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically. Ekman,

Davidson, Ricaed, and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64 believe that emotions strongly influence people's thoughts, words, and actions, and that they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions.

The measurement of a person's psychological state is commonly based on the self-report assessment. Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying emotional states and in measuring people's subjective wellbeing. Earlier psychologists who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate people's overall wellbeing (Ryff &

Singer, 1998). Indeed, to get empirical clues of happiness, establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough; positive feelings must also be present (Hirata,

2006). The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions.

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator. A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator. A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if his/her evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point. If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off, he/she is given the full

score. This means a person is psychologically well if he/she makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators. Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness. The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off. This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level. This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor person's experience. Overall this method 65 is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who are materially poor from non-poor (Millet, 2010). However, there is not much information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator. From the information available on the CBS website, it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS, 2008). This still raises questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually been set. Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis, or setting it

based on some assumptions, can lead to questionable results.

4.2. Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance. The indicators can be further grouped into two categories: negative emotions and positive emotions. The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a person's evaluation of life. Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions: jealousy, selfishness, frustration, and

suicidal thought, and three pertain to positive emotion: generosity, calmness, and

compassion. Diener & Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness, they do provide information

about the state of a person's life. Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum, Raghavan, Le, Vernon, & Gomez, 1999).

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own;

there are causal factors associated with them.

66 Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences. The Buddhist tradition therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness. In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text, the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary consciousnesses. Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind, which illuminates merely the general nature of the content. Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content. Both the primary and secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi, 1999). The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses. All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses.

a. Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance, desire, and hatred. Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions.

These are negative because they harm oneself and others. As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or 'I', we get angry for things we do not like, jealous when others

succeed, frustrated when we fail. The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action.

All of these negative emotions, from the Buddhist perspective, fall under unethical

action, action that occurs through the mind. They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused, or klesha translated as afflictive emotions. Jealousy, selfishness,

frustration, and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness, ill will, and wrong view. The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise. These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index.

67 1. Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed. Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship. In Buddhism, jealousy is called dhrag-dog. The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies "jealousy" as part of hostility and calls it "immoral". Jealousy in Buddhism is defined as "a disturbing emotion that focuses on other people's accomplishments such as

their good qualities, possessions, or success, and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments, due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive" (Berzin, 2004, p. 1). Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment.

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism. Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism. In addition to the inability to bear other's accomplishments,

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves. Therefore, envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem). Berzin (2004) points out that

envy, as a combination of jealousy and covetousness, leads to competitiveness. Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves. Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed. Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility. In addition, it has strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin, 2004).

In the Abhidhamma text, jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy.

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that "rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy" (p.l). Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others' success and

68 happiness, and think that they created their own cause for their happiness. Similarly, in a

GNH society, we must rejoice for others' success and happiness. Jealousy disturbs our peace of mind and causes much suffering. We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous of others. Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values.

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of emotions when they are jealous. These include pain, distress, oppression, anxiety, sadness, apprehension, anger, restless, distress, humiliation, shame, agitation, and betrayal. All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing. In order to achieve GNH, it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions. Since jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people, it is appropriate that it be an indicator of GNH.

In order to collect the data for this indicator, the following question is asked of the respondents (Box 1). The sufficiency cut off is set at "never", which means that respondents are given full score when they answer "never". In a GNH state, it is hoped or expected that a person would never feel jealous. Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as non-virtuous and afflictive, regardless of their degree in which they arise. The sufficiency cut-off which is set at 'never' therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles.

How often do you experience jealousy?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never Box 1: Survey question of Jealousy Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

69 2. Selfishness

The second indicator 'selfishness' refers to an unwillingness to share because of craving something for oneself. Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and greed. In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi,

1999). Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as "immoral consciousness " (p.96) and appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view, attachment, and greed. Negi (1999) states that "it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity" (p.93).

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms 'Rangdoed' and lNoe zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively.

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or 'I' from which selfishness arises. As explained in Chapter Three, Buddhism teaches "no-self (anatta) as an essential principle. The doctrine of 'no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego. In one of his interviews with FOR A.tv, the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a rich couple asked him for a blessing. He replied to them "You are wealthy, share your wealth with the needy ones, this will be the real blessing for you." This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy. In particular, the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self- centeredness and to rooting it out completely. The Dalai Lama (2000) states that "the ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial" (p.101). A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva, and thus genuine happiness.

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma, leading one to be reborn in the lower realms.

70 Similarly, since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence, selfishness is opposed to the GNH values.

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH, the participants are asked the following question (See Box 2). For the answer 'never', a full score is given, which means that a person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score. This indicates that selfishness is against the GNH essence. Consistent with the Buddhist teachings, the GNH index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait.

How often do you experience selfishness?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never

Box 2: Survey question of Selfishness Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

3. Frustration The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary defines 'frustration' as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force. There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism, but it can be related to

the term "gopa " which is translated as 'agitation'. Negi (1999) describes 'gopa' as a

mental factor that "disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind" (p.44). Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma. In the Bhutanese national

language 'Ouggam'1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration. Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath; Oug is breath and gam means pressure. When we pressurize our

self, we get frustrated and this comes out as anger, causing suffering to others and

ourselves.

71 Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of mind causing anxiety and stress. Like 'jealousy' and 'selfishness', frustration arises out of attachment and desire. In Buddhism, any emotion that arises out of ignorance, desire, and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous. Similarly, in a GNH society that seeks to maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people, frustration is a negative trait and opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness. Since frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing, it is necessary to determine if such emotions occur frequently among people. Therefore, it is appropriate to have it as a negative indicator of psychological wellbeing.

The question (Box 3) "how often do you experience frustration" is asked of respondents. Since frustration hampers wellbeing, respondents who "never" experience frustration are given a full GNH score. Respondents who "often" or "sometimes" experience frustration are given a negative score.

How often do you experience frustration?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never

Box 3: Survey question of Frustration Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

4. Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in life. According to Buddhism, suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a mind filled with greed, hatred, and delusion (Dhammananda, nd). Killing is one of the ten non-virtuous actions in Buddhism, so any act of killing is unwholesome, and suicide is,

72 therefore, an unwholesome act. The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition. Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its complete and unmitigated power, five conditions must be present: a living being, the awareness of the existence of a living being, the intention to kill the living being, the effort or action of killing the living being, and the consequent death of the living being.

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma, because the one who commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action.

Therefore, suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa, 2005). The Dalai Lama (1981) states that even if we take our own life, we will have to take another body that again will be the basis of suffering. In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience, we need to get rid of the fundamental cause (greed, hatred, and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates that are the basis of all suffering. He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your problems. Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of afflictive emotion.

According to Buddhism, suicide does not end the problem. The famous Buddhist painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and suffering. Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive living, using this life to diligently practice virtuous action, thus changing the present and the future for the better.

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

"elevated levels of anger, anxiety, guilt, sadness, and shame" (Berenbaum, Raghavan, Le, 73 Vernon, Gomez, 1999, p. 279). Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides. The most common factors that push youth to commit suicide, according to Bhutanese psychiatrist Dr. Nirola, are peer and parental pressures, competitive scenarios, and failure

to get a job, among others (as cited by Dorji, 2010). This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons, leading to further afflictive

emotions.

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing. Under the GNH index, a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score, while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores. Overall,

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings.

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide?

1. Yes 2. No

Box 4: Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy, frustration, selfishness, and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals' and the society's wellbeing. Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that "the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic" (p.2). The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society; increasing crime, substance abuse, suicide, and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction.

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states,

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones. Although Buddhism sees 74 ignorance, desire, and hatred as the main causes of suffering, the three poisons come out in the form of various negative emotions, which include jealousy, frustration, and selfishness. Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health, the

immune system, blood pressure, and cardiovascular functions. Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al, 1999). Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions, it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions. GNH as

policy must attend to it them.

Overall, all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators, in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country. Further, all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism.

b. Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones. The three indicators—generosity,

calmness, and compassion—are positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others. The practice of paramitas, as explained in Chapter Three, encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity, ethics, compassion, and meditative

concentration. Similarly, generosity, calmness, and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing.

75 5. Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness. In

Buddhism, the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion. Buddhism maintains that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it, brings happiness to others too. Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive virtues such as compassion and loving kindness, the cultivation of which leads to mental development and spiritual happiness. Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves and help others. The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism. The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

'generosity' a positive emotion of great importance, and a desirable habit. Generosity as an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for oneself and others. The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the collection of data.

How often do you experience generosity?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never

Box 5: Survey question of Generosity Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as 'often', which means a person should frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score. In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76 society, people must help each other and promote a healthy environment. Helping does not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part of your wealth and being helpful in many ways. An example would be a voluntary service to society and charity. Happiness derived by the act of generosity, which does not get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana, 2004), should be included in the evaluation of GNH. Therefore, "generosity" as an indicator of psychological wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH.

6. Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance.

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism. The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita, the practice of patience and tolerance, stresses the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times. Patience in Buddhism, as seen in Chapter Three, refers to having the strength to face the challenges and difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility. In the Abhidhamma

text 'equanimity' (long nyom), which is synonymous with 'calmness', is listed as the tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi, 1999).

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive, states Negi

(1999). When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm. Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding and wisdom grow (Graham, 2007). A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life. On the other hand, constant fear and anger affect our own health and overall wellbeing. Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77 experience inner peace and, as a result, success too. Calmness is therefore a virtue consistent with GNH ideals.

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of data.

How often do you experience calmness?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never

Box 6: Survey question of Calmness Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who 'often' feel calm are given the full GNH score, which means in a GNH society people should experience calmness frequently. Overall, this indicator can be linked to Buddhist teachings, and is coherent with GNH values as well.

7. Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist practice. As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three, it is the most essential and important trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayanists maintain that only through developing a compassionate heart, can one practice the other essential virtues.

For example, without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of generosity. The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness, the law of Karma and interdependence; viewing self and others as devoid of inherent meaning. Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness, and helps to

78 overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred, jealousy, and selfishness, which are considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators.

Compassion, a profound human emotion, can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society. When one is compassionate, the thought of harming others does not arise and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyone's benefit. The CBS

(2008) similarly holds 'compassion' as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society. Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just one's own is important for a GNH society. Further,

scientific studies suggest that individuals, including children, who may engage in

bullying people, and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz,

Lewis, Johnstone, Davidson, 2008). Therefore, compassion, as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values.

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are. The sufficiency cut off, similar to the indicator of 'generosity'

and 'calmness' has been set at 'often', which means a person should frequently experience compassion to get the full GNH score.

How often do you experience compassion?

1. Often 2. Sometimes 3. Never

Box 7: Survey question of Compassion Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall, the presence of emotions such as compassion, calmness, and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing, on decision-making process, and on the

79 potential for leading a happy life. Further, each of the three indicators is clearly related to the Buddhist practice of paramitas.

4.3 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective, the indicators under this section consist of practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions. Practicising them with sincerity can hold negative emotions at bay.

8. Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider 'meditation' a very important method to calm the mind.

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire, hatred, and ignorance). Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states, but trains the mind to see directly and concretely how the mind functions, and using this understanding, tames and masters our own mind, freeing it from afflictive states. Many Buddhist masters prescribe meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind. Tashi (2004) points out that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody, with little or no cost involved. Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor, 2003). Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale, the part of the brain involved with fear and anger. Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80 meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated with better psychological and physical health (Levenson et.al, 2004). The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism, but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings.

Aside from the spiritual connotations, meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor, 2003). Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions. These include stress, anxiety, depression,

poor sleep, and coping with chronic pain. It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation, improved immunity, and lower blood pressure. A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin, West Virginia University, and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation. Lutz, Lewis, Johnstone, and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously. Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful. Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the "gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life" (p.58). He adds, "for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature,

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well" (p.58).

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense. The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people, which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH. Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is putting on the benefits it provides. The following question (Box 8) is asked of respondents regarding the practice of meditation.

Do you practice meditation?

1. Daily 2. Occasionally 3. Not at all Box 8: Survey question of meditation Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as 'occasionally', which means one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score. Although meditation is considered a very important practice in Buddhism, meditation among the lay population is not popular in Bhutan. According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008),

90.4 % of respondents do not meditate at all. This may arise from the fact that Bhutan still does not have any meditation centre for lay people. This may also be the reason why the sufficiency cut-off has been set as 'occasionally' instead of 'daily'. Very recently meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools. It, however, needs to be introduced among lay population too. Overall, the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH values. Further, since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation, the indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9. Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power.

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another. The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength, compassion and wisdom (Lewis, 2006).

The translation for the word 'prayer' in Bhutanese national language is thuen, which 82 literally means the recitation of mantras. Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayer­ like mantras. A mantra is "a word, a syllable, a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a person's head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person" (BBC, 2006, p.1). Mantra

literally means "that which protects the mind from negativity" (Sogyal Rimpoche, 2002,

p.71). Mantra, Sogyal Rimpoche states, is the essence of sound, and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound. Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha. There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

one's mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being.

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times, they arouse good

vibrations within the person; they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength,

compassion, and wisdom (Lewis, 2006).

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh, 2006). In

Buddhism, praying involves two important aspects; the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying. This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha, which involves visualization. The second is regarding

effective prayer, which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love, mindfulness, and

right concentration in prayer. To pray effectively, our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh, 2006). It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying. This is a position that "diminishes the ego, opens one up, and brings one close to the earth" (Hanh, 2006, p. 63). Since 'reciting prayers' requires mindfulness and concentration, the paramita of 'meditative concentration' extends to prayers too. The

83 Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of meditation and practice of inner reconditioning. Similarly, Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques. He calls it uniting the mind with the sound of mantra. When one is nervous, disoriented, or emotionally fragile, reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming its energy and atmosphere. He also mentions that "mind rides on the subtle energy of breath and when you chant a mantra, you are charging your breath and energy with the energy of the mantra, so working directly on the mind and subtle body" (p.71). The practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist.

In addition to reciting mantras, a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to local deities. It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil forces. In a real sense, this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone.

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities. As mentioned

earlier, Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism. Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities. Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features. For example, in Japan, Buddhism, mixed with Shinto, which

worships kamis (nature spirits), created a tradition of praying to the kamis. Bhutan's

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk, 2005). The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices,

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country. However, many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha). For example, in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district, people worship and pray to two sister deities. They also summon other

84 deities and spirits residing in mountains, valleys, lakes, forests, streams, and cliffs invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk,

2005). Similarly, people in the capital, Thimphu, pray to a local deity located in the upper valley. Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers, 1995), it is an age-old tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago. This is now considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture.

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents. A person who prays

'daily' meets the sufficiency cutoff, which means he/she is given a full GNH score.

Do you say/recite prayers?

1. Daily 2. Occasionally 3. Not at all

Box 9: Survey question of reciting Prayers Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although 'reciting prayers' in Buddhism is seen as a method of'meditation' both are given different sufficiency cut offs. A person who meditates 'occasionally' is given a full score, while a person who prays 'occasionally' is not given a full score. The different sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation indicator is intended to be different from meditation. However, prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation. CBS mentions that "those indicators which are highly uncorrelated" were selected, but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration. The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values.

Nevertheless, the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same, because 85 both practices require mindfulness and concentration. In this sense, prayer recitation too is coherent with GNH. To conclude, prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist principles, while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice. Therefore, the indicator of prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs.

10. Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three, Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides the Buddhist psyche. The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of ethics (sila.) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has influenced the indicator. The literal meaning of 'taking account of Karma' is being morally responsible for our own actions. When a person takes account of Karma in daily life, he/she is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result depends. When we understand the law of Karma, we are discouraged from performing non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering. Realizing that Karma conditions and determines our happiness, we will refrain from unwholesome behavior, to avoid the negative effects of these actions. Similarly, understanding that virtuous actions bear the fruit of happiness, one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions. The law of causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life.

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

'daily', indicating that a person who takes account of Karma 'daily' is given a full GNH score.

86 Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life?

1. Daily 2. Occasionally 3. Not at all

Box 10: Survey question of reciting Prayers Source: Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH, it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living, ideal for a GNH state.

According to CBS, "for Bhutanese, an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individual's pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values" (p.l). Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body, speech, and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions. Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life. It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society. The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values.

4.3 General Mental Health (GMH)

11. General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression, anxiety, low confidence, and concentration levels. Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain, the General Mental Health indicator consists 87 of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2). Questions related to one's stress level, ability to concentrate, anxiety, depression, feeling of happiness, and unhappiness are asked of the respondents. The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36. A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing, a median score between 16-20 indicates some mental distress, and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS, 2008).

The sufficiency cut-off is set as 'normal mental wellbeing', which means people should not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score.

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health status of a population. Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect wellbeing. Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase susceptibility to disease (CBS, 2008).

From the Buddhist perspective, psychological distress such as depression, lack of confidence, and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions. Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishing—seeing one's own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody else's. People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I, me, myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama, 2009). According to Buddhism, it is our own

ego, the focus on the notion of "I", that cause us to suffer. The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us. Since cause is within us, the cure is also in our own mind. Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T. Thus,

4 A meditation technique

88 mental distress similar to other negative emotions, are a result of ignorance, desire, and hatred.

Ven. Thubten Gyatso (2009), a Buddhist teacher, points out two reasons why

'selfishness' can cause mental illness. The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative. When we do not obtain what we want, we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others. The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression. The second

reason he points out is that 'selfishness' prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others, being compassionate, and generous.

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others. In

Buddhism, self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction, but instead causes

suffering.

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body, speech, and mind.

The causal factor therefore lies within us. It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state. Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness, it

opposes the goal of GNH. It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group. Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example, offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness.

4.4 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89 the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH. Findings in this chapter reveal the following.

The four indicators related to negative emotions—jealousy, selfishness, frustration, suicidal thought—do appear in Buddhism. Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an afflictive emotion, while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of'self through which selfishness arises. Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism,

'frustration' is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation, which arises as a result of the three poisons. Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views leads to suicidal thoughts. Jealousy, selfishness, frustration, and suicidal thought thus arise out of the three poisons: ignorance, desire, and hatred. All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha, afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others, thus obstructing the path towards happiness. Similarly, general mental health distress is a result of afflictive emotion. Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to the idea of 'self leads to mental stress.

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity, Compassion, and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation, Prayer Recitation, Taking account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas.

Generosity is the first paramita, a practice towards achieving genuine happiness.

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of the practice of six paramitas. The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita, which entails the practice of patience, tolerance, and endurance. Similarly, the indicator of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative concentration, which is the fourth practice, Dhayana paramita. Prayer recitation, however, does have elements of Bon practices, which have been deeply absorbed by the 90 local Buddhist culture. The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism. Karma promotes the practice of ethics, which is sila paramita that stresses avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action. Overall, all of the positive emotions and practices require wisdom, which is prajna paramita. The core teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators. Thus, it would be appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism.

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH. In a GNH society, it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress. It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions at bay. Therefore, each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or negatively with the concept of GNH. It can thus be concluded that the indicators of psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values.

91 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan, Bhutan chose to ensure the preservation of its culture, tradition, and natural resources. This came to be called the philosophy of GNH, where people's spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal importance to economic wellbeing. GNH recognizes that economic development without spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people. Several workshops and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index, a set of indicators to measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH. The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate all values relevant to a happy life. The GNH index is now the most important tool in guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH. The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH. The three questions that drove this study are:

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators? Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles? Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH, which does reflect Buddhist principles? The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies. The findings from the « study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist principles. The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness. Inspired by this belief, Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of happiness. The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most.

92 The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for people to pursue happiness. The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index measures people's psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people.

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators reflected Buddhist principles, it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles related to happiness. Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to happiness. Specifically, Thogme Zangpo's teachings on the six paramitas were used as a basis to develop the framework of happiness. It was observed that happiness is not only worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind, which can be cultivated through the practice of compassion, generosity, ethics, meditative concentration, patience, and wisdom. This can bring happiness to the individual and to the society. Although GNH stresses collective happiness, Buddhism states that peace must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the happiness of the society. Thus, in the words of Master Shantideva, it is not primarily the outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering, it is our own mind that creates the cause for happiness or success.

Humans experience many emotions, and narrowing them down to eleven indicators is not an easy task. There is a strong relationship between emotions and wellbeing. The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of psychological wellbeing. Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in affecting the overall physical health. Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others. Like the mind- 93 transforming practices in Buddhism, the key to a nation's progress lies in tracing problems and solutions to the root causes.

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure people's emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion.

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness. The relationship between the indicators of psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below.

Indicators Buddhist Principles 1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions): Non- virtuous 2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) :Non- virtuous 3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) .Non- virtuous 4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) :Non-virtuous 5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) :Generosity 6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices 7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) : Patience, tolerance, endurance 8 Meditation Dhyana Parm/to: Meditative Concentration 9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana Parmita:Meditative Concentration 10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) : virtue, morality, ethics 11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions,) causes mental distress Table 1: Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicators—selfishness, frustration, jealousy, and suicidal thought—are found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the three poisons. Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94 deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed. Similarly, selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma. Selfishness is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity. Buddhism teaches no- self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of 'I' through which selfishness arises. Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term gopa, which is actually translated as agitation. Gopa falls under the twenty secondary immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text. Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism are the result of wrong view. Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the problem. Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha). All these negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress.

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion, calmness, generosity, meditation, prayer recitation, and taking account of Karma are the replication of the six paramitas. The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous action such as generosity, compassion, and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself and others, while negative emotions such as jealousy, selfishness, and frustration affect psychological health and decrease happiness. Since each of the indicators can be clearly related to Buddhist principles of happiness, it can thus be concluded that the psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with the concept of GNH. One may argue that indicators such as compassion, generosity, and calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism. However, in the case of Bhutan, the Bhutanese worldview and its political ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism. The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism. It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long- 95 term rather than short-term happiness. From the Buddhist perspective, short-term happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods, while long-term happiness is derived from spiritual, cultural, and social values.

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and cultivating the right kind of habit, which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and happiness. Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the mind. This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004), Hewavitharana (2004), and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH.

Overall, this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and conditions for people, GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically strong. For example, if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy, they will not contribute to collective happiness. In that sense, happiness is inextricably linked to the inner conditions of one's own mind.

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make better decisions. The emotional and psychological needs of people, therefore must be considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH. A study by Sheldon, Ryan,

Deci, and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy, community contribution, and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success, attractive image, and fame/popularity).

By emphasizing human values of compassion, generosity, calmness, and selflessness as necessary indicators of GNH, the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for developing policies that focus on these values. The domain of psychological wellbeing 96 thus focuses on the inner emotional development. Within the concept of GNH, inner non- material development is equally important as external material development.

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of the people. The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness. Further,

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation aimed at collective happiness. It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal happiness. Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH.

Ekman, Davidson, Ricaed, and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a therapy, not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their lives. Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist, 25% are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book, 2009). Some scholars have argued, however, that Buddhism can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall, 2004 & Lokamitra, 2004).

Therefore, extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons, insights, and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values.

As pointed out earlier, there is not much information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator. From the information available on the

CBS website, however, it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS, 2008). This still raises questions because there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually been set. Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some assumptions, can lead to questionable results. Therefore, an in-depth study on the basis 97 for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy makers.

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles. However, it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of emotions and the spiritual practices. It is important that the government not only recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well. For example, the questionnaire notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy, selfishness, and frustration but does not identify their causes. In order for the policy makers to identify effective solutions, the cause must be noted also. Further, the key terms such as generosity, compassion, frustration, and prayer recitation were not clearly defined. For example, the term 'generosity' could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity.

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous: a practice can differ from an emotional state. Similarly, the choices of answers such as often, sometimes, daily have not been defined. These terms can mean different things to different people. To avoid misinterpretation, it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced.

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index. Although a similar study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains, there is a need for further investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as: How would the

GNH index affect the government policies? Does the index give equal importance to the emotional, spiritual, and economical wellbeing of the people? Does the index capture the real essence of human happiness?

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109 Appendix 1

Gross National Happiness Index

Psychological Time Commu Health Education Ecology Good Living Cultural Wellbeing Use nity Governance Standards Diversity Vitality

Jealousy

Selfishness s- Negative Emotions

Frustration

Suicidal Thoughts

Compassion

Calmness Positive Emotions

Generosity

Meditation

Prayer Recitation >- Spiritual Practices

Taking account of Karma

General Mental Health General Health

110 Appendix 2

General Mental Health Questionnaire Ql. During the last year, would you describe your life as- 1. Very Stressful 2. Somewhat Stressful 3. Not At All Stressful 4. Don't Know

Q2. What are your main sources of stress?

Q3. Been able to concentrate on what you're doing 1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know

Q4. Lost much sleep over worry 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know

Q5. Felt you were playing a useful part in things

1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know

Q6. Felt capable of making decisions about things 1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know

Q7. Felt constantly under strain 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 111 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know

Q8. Felt you couldn't overcome your difficulties 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know

Q9. Been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities 1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know

Qll. Been able to face up to your problems 1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know Q12. Been feeling unhappy and depressed 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know Q13. Been losing confidence in yourself 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know 014. Been thinking of yourself as a worthless person 1. Not At All 2. No More Than usual 3. Rather more Than Usual 4. Much More Than usual 5. Don't Know Q15. Been feeling reasonably happy, all things considered 1. More Than Usual 2. Same As usual 3. Less Than usual

112 4. Much less Than Usual 5. Don't Know Curriculum Vitae

Candidate's full name: Tashi Wangmo

Universities attended: Maastricht School of Management The Netherlands 2007 Post Graduate Diploma in Financial Management

Royal University of Bhutan Royal Institute of Management, Thimphu, Bhutan 2004 Post Graduate Certificate in Financial Management (PGCFM)

University of North Bengal Government College Daijeeling, India 2000-2003 Bachelors of Commerce

University of New Brunswick Fredericton, NB Canada 2008-2010 MPhil Policy Studies (Philosophy, Politics, and Economics)