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Women's Descriptive and Substantive Political Representation

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Women's Descriptive and Substantive Political Representation Women’s Descriptive and Substantive Political Representation: The Role of Political Institutions. by Grace Alexandra Lore B.A. (Honours), The University of British Columbia MSc (Distinction), The London School of Economics A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Political Science) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) July 2016 © Grace Alexandra Lore, 2016 i Abstract This dissertation explores how political institutions shape the behaviour of women in politics. It asks whether the relationship between the gender of representatives (descriptive representation) and the representation of women’s interests (substantive representation) depends on the institutional context. Using prominent institutional perspectives a theory is offered for how the division or fusion of powers and electoral systems affect substantive representation in both individual behaviour and policy outcomes. When party ties are weakened and internal party competition increased, women do more to substantively represent women, while men focus on other unincorporated interests. Institutions affect policy outcomes, not only by affecting individual behaviour but also by determining how those actions are aggregated. The theory is tested using a mixed methodological approach. Two datasets capture individual behaviour - an international survey of representatives and an original dataset examining representative’s tweets. The results demonstrate that the gap between substantive representation by women and that by men is larger under the conditions of a division of powers and when electoral systems incentives the representation of unincorporated interests. Interviews and surveys with more than 90 legislators from 7 countries provide evidence of the causal mechanisms. The aggregate effect of the number of women on gendered policy outcomes is tested using data combined from a range of sources. The findings results are equivocal: institutions that facilitate individual action can also make policy change more difficult. In short, institutions moderate the relationship between descriptive and substantive representation at the individual level and, to a lesser extent, at the aggregate level. This ‘institutionalist turn’ improves understanding of how, when, and why women act to represent women. The ‘gender turn’ in the study of institutions demonstrates the flexibility of the theories and the broad and consequential impact of institutions. There are implications that extend beyond gender to include other issues and identities not incorporated into the party system, such as ethnicity. ii Preface This dissertation is original, unpublished, and independent work by the author, Grace Lore. The fieldwork conducted in Chapters Five and Six are covered by the UBC Behaviour and Research Ethics Board for the completion of this dissertation (H14-02832). iii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Preface ........................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... xii Dedication ................................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Women’s Political Representation & Women’s issues .......................................................... 6 Defining ‘Women’ and ‘Women’s Interests’ .......................................................................... 7 Testing the Link Between Gender and Representation ......................................................... 9 Preferences and Priorities ...................................................................................................... 10 Discourse and Behaviour ....................................................................................................... 11 Policy Outcomes .................................................................................................................... 11 Women’s Representation & Institutions: The State of the Literature ............................... 14 Clues in the Gaps: Where do we Look for Substantive Representation? .............................. 18 From Self-Selection to Policy Outcomes: Substantive Representation & the Career Paths of Women Politicians .............................................................................................................. 21 Using a Principal-Agent Framework .................................................................................... 25 An Alternative to Personal Votes: Unincorporated Representation .................................. 27 Women’s Issues as Unincorporated Issues ............................................................................ 30 Institutions and The Representation of Women – An Interactive Effect .......................... 33 Outcomes .................................................................................................................................. 36 Looking Forward: A Road Map ............................................................................................ 37 A Note on Methods and Sources ........................................................................................... 39 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 2: Theorizing the Moderating Effect of Institutions ................................................. 45 Moderating Behaviour: The Division of Powers .................................................................. 47 Discourse & Behaviour: Observable Implications ................................................................ 62 Women’s Experiences of Political Institutions: Observable Implications ............................ 63 Moderating Behaviour: The Electoral System ..................................................................... 63 Proportional Representation versus Single-Member-Districts ........................................... 65 Discourse & Behaviour: Observable Implications ................................................................ 70 Women’s Experiences of Political Institutions: Observable Implications ............................ 70 Unincorporated Representation............................................................................................. 73 Discourse & Behaviour: Observable Implications ................................................................ 79 iv Women’s Experiences of Political Institutions: Observable Implications ............................ 80 Substantive Representation & Descriptive Representation: In Conflict? .............................. 81 Combining Constitutional Choices: Division of Powers and Electoral Systems ............... 82 Moderating Outcomes: Presidential and Parliamentary Systems ...................................... 87 Parliamentary Systems: Unfulfilled Potential for Substantive Representation ..................... 87 Presidential Systems: Veto Players and Indecisiveness ........................................................ 88 Moderating Outcomes: Electoral Systems ............................................................................ 90 Policy and Legislative Changes: Efficiency .......................................................................... 90 Parties and Party Systems ...................................................................................................... 91 Institutions in the Real World ................................................................................................ 91 Belgium ................................................................................................................................. 92 Canada ................................................................................................................................... 93 Germany ................................................................................................................................ 93 The Netherlands ..................................................................................................................... 94 Switzerland ............................................................................................................................ 95 The United Kingdom ............................................................................................................. 96 The United States................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 3: Testing the Theory - Substantive Representation in Presidential and Parliamentary
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