CEU eTD Collection

Samizdat and the Ambiguities Resistanceof the in Post In partialIn fulfilment ofrequirements the for the degree Masterof Artsof Submitted to the Central European University Department ofPolitical Science Supervisor: Budapest, Dzmitry Halavach 2014

András Bozóki

Hungary

-

Stalin USSR

CEU eTD Collection regimes authoritarian of elsewhere. opponents the to subjectivity liberal of ascription casual the in power accountable, albeit to its own standards. simply in what the Soviet dissidents said, but in what they did by saying this: holding t not i.e. utterances, their of dimension illocutionary the in lied acts their of power subversive disside Soviet the of distance ideological the but resistance, of means a as generally dissent and samizdat suppress to manage not did regime Soviet the pressure, unrelenting the Despite think. subjects its way u the to testifies discourse Soviet official the on to the encroachment of the system on the individual life samizdat can be seen as a case of an emergence of an alternative public sphere and the resistance and strategies, rhetorical discourses, in Motivated by USSR the in publishing of system official

h mdr saes blt t cntut ujciiy f t ctzn, h tei explores thesis the citizens, its of subjectivity construct to ability state’s modern the The thesis examines the Soviet samizdat samizdat Soviet the examines thesis The

a n

interest in in interest the degree of intellectual freedom possible under a dictatorship and t fo te eie hy hs t ciiie a otn ey ml. The small. very often was criticize to chose they regime the from nts

subject matter of Soviet samizdat. While While samizdat. Soviet of matter subject Abstract –

as a case of resistance to an oppressive regime. oppressive an to resistance of case a as

The The implications of the research suggest caution i

ncanny ability of the state power to form the the form to power state the of ability ncanny –

printed materials originating outside of the of outside originating materials printed

- world, the dependence of the dissident h Soviet the he Soviet CEU eTD Collection 1 Appendix References Conclusions Chapter asa 4. Samizdat ofNationalist Site Contention Chapter 3 Chapter OriginsBackground 2. Samizdat: and ChapterTheoreticaland Sphere: 1. Power, Public Resistance,Foundations Introduction . Samizdat andthe. Samizdat Human Rights Movement

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54 48 44 35 25 1 13

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CEU eTD Collection articulate an independent discourse in their contestation of the Soviet thatresearch: this motivates address major will samizdat puzzle the Drawing (Kind overtones nationalist and sides’, ‘dark ambiguities, its emphasizing critically, more samizdat at looks the Cold War painted issue this ‘really dictatorship perfect no are there Although contested. culture’ Soviet late of field presents aunique opportuni Union Soviet the of history The regimes. oppressive under leaving people the for possible are is the degree of independence of thought and capability for symbolic intellectual resistance that human rights movement post the in collaboration and resistance the of ambiguities and varieties the of descriptions impressionistic of series a produce to than higher aim thesis this Therefore, police. secret Russian the of archives institutional the in deeply buried still are sources priceless many when Union Soviet former the on research of stage resistance, sedition, (dissent, independent society, altern variety conceptual the Even understatement. an be would Samizdat literature Samizdat dissent Soviet the treat to how on scholars among disagreements are there that say To

. Samizdat’s role is currently being reconsidered: while the studies from the time of of time the from studies the while reconsidered: being currently is role Samizdat’s . on these exciting theoretical and historiographical developments, the study of Soviet Soviet of study the developments, historiographical and theoreticalexciting these on - oás 03 Kmrm 20, 02 Osaie 01 Yrhk 2006). Yurchak 2001; Oushakine 2012; 2008, Komaromi 2013; Kovács

thought’ a heroic image of the ‘underground resistance’, a more recent scholarship , and nationalist dissidents ative society, etc.) precludes any unified account, particularly at this – (Komaromi 2007) (Komaromi tyan area. for inquiry this into , the Soviet samizdat presents a unique a presents samizdat Soviet the ,

a body of underground self underground of body a Introduction indicators of what the people living under a a under living people the what of indicators

- where the official discourses and practices werepractices and discourses official the where 1 Stalin Soviet Union, focusing on the samizdat the on focusing Union, Soviet Stalin

. The gene -

published texts texts published

ral ral puzzle that motivates this study were the dissidents able dissidents to were the power means – ? ? More broadly, the

was an ‘unofficial an was for exploration of exploration s no no s ,

CEU eTD Collection paper seminal A fromexpression the Solzhenitsyn’s lecture) Nobel world wholeoutweigh the will that truth of wordone this for with, start to point surro demon, Cartesian a of romantic image of uncertain Brodsky distrust. general of atmosphere that in suspicion the Even provocations. fewestablish reliability ways to ofthe documents. cross such specialists, Western pers as was the case with the Latvian religious Iosifdissident credibility for samizdat sources was the news of their imprisonment in the official Soviet press, trea initially samizdat of receivers publications, was initially regarded as a KGB fabrication 639 1999: (Gordon West the to them sent and pieces those concocted that KGB the probably was it that and exist, not did Solzhenitsyn that said years, for who, people publication samizdat the behind people was the therole of what and was, polity Soviet the stable how understand to desire the by stimulated is research onal relations with the producers and distributors of samizdat were unavailable to the the to unavailable were samizdat of distributors and producers the with relations onal The creators of samiz of creators The samizdat Initially The current scholarship of samizdat starts The current of scholarship

(1986)

–

o eahd n ioae te ie n h US cud be could USSR the in life the isolated and detached so , s ometimes the resistancecollaboration and - Te erfig iir o Samizdat’ of Mimicry Terrifying ‘The 40)

Soviet dissent Soviet prevailed. . The Chronicle of Current Events, Current of Chronicle The

etce Welle Deutsche was treated with great suspicion great with treated was

the very existence of the world outside of the Soviet Union seemed unded by the sea of falsehood and looking desperately for a firm a for desperately looking and falsehood of sea the by unded dat themselves were also on a constant watch against the police police the against watch constant a on also were themselves dat - referencing of official and non and official of referencing ted it with g with it ted s was uncertain. For instance, ‘ instance, For uncertain. was s

and the the and 2

A in its history.in its reat suspicion reat

to look at it from a more critical perspective. critical more at from it a to look dissident dissident posed as a heroic individual in grip .

oc o America of Voice codn to According

Bondarenko

(Kind o ofs Wsen ulc opinion’ public Western confuse to

in the West the in one of the most important samizdat important most the of one

. Sometimes, the only source of of source only the Sometimes, . y ege Oushakine Serguei by - - official sources was one of the of one was sources official Kovscs Kovscs 5) 2013: h recollections the

(Feldbrugge 1975: 2)

. Even th Even . . In this this In . broadcasts were under under were broadcasts in America there were were there America in e reality of the the of reality e

a . The Western (to borrow an an borrow (to tmosphere

of

Joseph (2001) . As ,

a

CEU eTD Collection pre of structures the to similar texts, to the slogan ‘ according organized is life Union Soviet the in that observed also allegedly, Akmatova, Anna Osip sense, we really do live in a pre extra an was samizdat Essentially, culture. textual of form alternative an embodying resistance of objects. textual own one’s produce to even or Mauss: the spirit of the gift impelled the receiver passto the gift further, to sendgifts in return, samizdat articles operated in a way similar to that described by a French anthropologist Marcel of giftgiving,enjoyedIn and thesuccesscirculation. inits thepiece samizdat analysis, her the trustworthiness of the published material was a function of personal networks, the relationships dissidents soviet of networks personal the in circulated texts the of validity The instability. epistemic of conditions the in by being in . . real. be to exercised; elsewhere from come to arehave not does power power to resistance of relations where point the at right formed are they because effective ‘mimetic resistance’. AccordingFoucault, to a Foucault, following calls, he what of example an be to samizdat the considers He reject. suggests he resistance, on perspective Foucauldian the Employing it. mimicking to resorted effect, in and, discourse Soviet the of outside locution of place peculiar a negotiate to manage not lies versus dissident truth to a state the of opposition binary the from away scholarship the of move general the exemplifies

- Mandelshtam, did not really make much use of Gutenberg invention in the Soviet times. Soviet the in invention Gutenberg of use much make really not did Mandelshtam, Gutenberg phenomenon. Nadezhda phenomenon. Gutenberg Ann Komaromi Ann with power of relations no are There that the samizdat discourse came to resemble the official discourse it purported to purported it discourse official the resemble to came discourse samizdat the that the same place142). as(Foucaultthe same power 2001: Down Down with Guttenberg ( 2008 ) more nuanced approach. Oushakine argues that the dissidents did was not a given because of widespread KGB fabrications. The The fabrications. KGB widespread of because given a not was

- treats samizdat texts as an extra an as texts samizdat treats Gutenbe ’. ’. This alternative network of circulation of self - printed press era, was an embryonic form of the true true the of form embryonic an was era, press printed rg era’ and that her husband, a celebrated Russian poet,

Mandelshtam (1970: 380) once observed that ‘in a a ‘in that observed once 380) (1970: Mandelshtam out resistances; the latter are all the more real and and real more the all are latter the resistances; out

Komaromi t Komaromi 3

akes samizdat to be a peculiar form form peculiar a be to samizdat akes - Gutenberg phenomena created created phenomena Gutenberg

It exists all the more the all exists It - published published

CEU eTD Collection in archive Institution Hoover and Moscow in archive organization Memorial the at available repositories Open the of 300 Fond the in stored of the important sources most ofdissent. T own. my surpassing far expertise linguistic a requires USSR the of groups ethnic the all from by determined is texts Russian st My republic. federal own their without USSR the in nation large only the were instance, for Russians, The empire. Russian refurbished a simply not was USSR the that and state, Soviet the against grievances fa the omits USSR the of nation biggest non on focused traditionally has Union Soviet the in dissent national of study the First, reasons. of number a for study this of focus primary the as into partly regimes. authoritarian defeating in often are blogs described as digital Internet samizdat, and the study is connected with the literature contemporaryon the role of media fact, In regimes. authoritarian other study the for means cultivate to t the publis official the when situation the In Union. Soviet the in society independent hird, being the largest ethnic group in the USSR, the Russian population was potentially one one potentially was population Russian the USSR, the in group ethnic largest the being hird, Gosizdat politics of politics descriptive in nature, the evidence it will furnish can be used for further causal inquiry causal further for used be can furnish will it evidence the nature, in descriptive The study makes use of the samizdat material from the Soviet Union from 1956 to 1991, account,R into aretaken texts minorities’ nationalAlthough, intellectualtheSovi The resistance ofsymbolic study in

, was dominated by texts texts by dominated was , of samizdat materials in the world, although many relevant sources are also also are sources relevant many although world, the in materials samizdat of

authoritarian regimes. he aesthetic and culturalofahe aesthetic significant tastes udy will attempt to compensate for this omission. Second, omission. this for compensate to attempt will udy convenience motives: a comprehensive study of publications publications of study comprehensive a motives: convenience utemr, lhuh h pooe rsac poet is project research proposed the although Furthermore,

Society Archive in Budapest. It is is It Budapest. in Archive Society that

t ht ay usas a ter w nationalist own their had Russians many that ct were mediocre at best, the samizdat samizdat the best, at mediocre were 4

- Russian republics. This exclusion of the of exclusion This republics. Russian et Union has a wider relevance wider relevance aet Unionhas part ussian samizdat is chosen is samizdat ussian

of Soviet n o te largest the of one society provided the provided hing system, hing the focus on on focus the .

CEU eTD Collection in preserved (or service intelligence and police by destroyed and confiscated materials, these t because available longer no are texts study the whole population of samizdat texts is impossible for a number of reasons. First, many for research. this the ‘sample’ was created. In effect, the social and political processes truncated the Therefore, the problems of validity and reliability remain pertinent because of the specific way particularly high a numb suspect to us lead will service, the of analysts the by collected or abroad send materials only include which Liberty) Radio / Europe Free Radio the of archives (the us to available included in the ‘Unpublished Samizdat Collec were others the while Register, Samizdat the in include were genuine deemed materials Only them. to sent samizdat of pieces the evaluated and examinations thorough conducted Europe origins its of irrespective literature, underground exchanging persons the of network in the in success circulation to due status samizdat acquired material published a perspective, another s the of concept the of attribute necessary a is material published the of origin ‘independent’ the as long as only problem a represents this However, are. material samizdat the it material, of nature the to Due provocation. of means a as police the and KGB the by produced ascirculated excluded is well (see Union, inthe Soviet Steiner 2008). ( recordings video and audio Homemade included. not are Europe Eastern the from materials Stanford (Zaslavskaya ‘magnitizdat’ There is a possible problem with the representativeness of the archival ‘sample’. To To ‘sample’. archival the of representativeness the with problem possible a is There were sources many First, numerous. are reliability and validity with problems The (Komaromi 2004, 2008) 2004, (Komaromi

is hardly possible to establish exactly what the origins of a particular piece of of piece particular a of origins the what exactly establish to possible hardly is ) are excluded. The so The excluded. are )

er of fabrications among the samizdat materials preserved in the archive. 2008). The time frame is dictated by the availability of sources. Samizdat . Moreover, the archivists and archivists the Moreover, . - called hey were destroyed by the producers and/or readers of of readers and/or producers the by destroyed were hey ‘tamizdat’ tion’. tion’. However, the peculiar nature of the sample 5

, i.e. the materials published abroad a abroad published materials the i.e. , the analysts of the Radio Free Free Radio the of analysts the

amizdat. From amizdat.

data data available nd nd CEU eTD Collection netw personal in circulation its is samizdat of attribute Another verified. be cannot origin the samizdat, of pieces some of generality, exa to,for metaphoric nature. To facilitate conceptual traveling, the researcher needs to move up the ladder a has etc.) software’, ‘samizdat samizdat’, (‘digital phenomena similar other to application Its concept of samizdat is relatively low on the ladder of genera self Soviet the to mainly applied meaningfully be can it extension: over intension prioritizes ‘samizdat’ of concept the terms, Sartori’s In phenomenon. particular the ‘low a as employed is here Samizdat materials. textual to only referring way, narrow and specific more a in it employ I However, self Eastern Europe. Samizdat is sometimes understood as general term for all kinds of underground number ofthe document. study. Samizdata are collection this of materials The Liberty. Radio the of archival whichforamount ofmaterial make boxes, aa substantial for research. sub the in available is material whatever with do make to has researcher a sampling: convenience to closer procedureis actual the and sampling, randoma achieveto impossible is amount of tim the available, were materials the all if even Second, reach). of out are which archives their - - fond 85 of the fond 300 of the Open Society Archives reproduced m reproduced h tx o te hss il ee t tee documen these to refer will thesis the of text The The necessary attribute of the concept of samizdat is its individual, non Samizdat is conceptualized as underground self The Samizdat Archive (

(Collection of Samizdat Documents), which constitutes the primary source for this this for source primary the constitutes which Documents), Samizdat of (Collection e and effort to read them all would make such study unfeasible. Unfortunately, it edia, including audio and video recordings ( recordings video and audio including edia, mple, theconcept‘underground media’. of

rs f rdcr ad edr o tee aeil Hwvr i is it However, material. these of readers and producers of orks Arkhiv

- Samizdata level concept’, tailored to capture the idiosyncrasi the capture to tailored concept’, level 6

) was put together by the Resea - published published texts in the Soviet Union and , ‘Samizdat Archives’,

published in published s y h A abeito ad the and abbreviation AS the by ts lity lity (see Collier and Mahon 1993). magnitizdat

Sobranie - published texts. The texts. published

or - state origin. For rch rch Department roentgenizdat contains contains 1587

Dokumentov archive. The archive. es of of es ).

CEU eTD Collection andRussian, vice versa. materials of national circles that operated in the Russian part of the USSR are classified as non politicalconstitute acts. then religion, and church eradicate to out sets state unclear: the ‘religious’ and if is ‘political’ between boundary was the political. Similarly, everything entirety, its in citizens its of life the regulate to aspired that state a for problematic: 572 2004: (Joo religious 1981) according to many play they in justified: role theoretically big is disproportionately intellectuals nationalist and intellectuals on focus explicit, made and recognised is bias this that provided, and, society, Soviet of student the to available are that best the among is indicator this However, large. at population the of representative necessarily not are views created usually were materials These naïve. be would thought’ police and often intodifferentpersecution, including forms of legal. activiti such usually jure, de prohibited not was texts of to answer because of a very peculiar nature of legality in the Soviet Union: while the publishing self thatcirculated texts wer inthese confiscation,andwere networks circulated notall due to not samizdat of pieces interesting most the of some attribute: necessary a nor sufficient a neither - published. The question of whether illegality is the necessary attribute of samizdat is hard is samizdat of necessaryattribute the is whetherillegality of question The published. .

‘Russian’ and ‘non ‘Russian’ and The ‘really people Soviet the what of indicator unproblematic an as texts samizdat use To

studies of samizdat use samizdat of studies theorists theorists of nationalism

- - 4. oee, h dfnto o ‘oiia’ n h Sve Uni Soviet the in ‘political’ of definition the However, 74). Russian’ refer to the place of origin of samizdat material. Samizdat samizdat material. origin of place of tothe refer Russian’ samizdat materials can and should be used. Furthermore, the Furthermore, used. be should and can materials samizdat protest the typology the

movements, (Conversi (Conversi 1995; Hroch 1985; Kedourie 1993; Smith 7

dividing samizdat into political, literary, and and literary, political, into samizdat dividing

eiiu pooneet n publications and pronouncement religious

seily n ainls movements, nationalist in especially es resulted into an interest from the the from interest an into resulted es

by very narrow groups whose groups narrow very by

n is on e -

CEU eTD Collection a more is fine texts samizdat of topics and composition of analysis The employed. are concept this of o indicators when society Soviet the of researchers from hidden remain resistance of levels low effect, In petitions. mass and strikes, demonstrations, as such forms, visible highly ‘voic of resistance the assessing in employed procedures measurement usual the to compared improvement an only measures indicator This or independence. on behalf of an ethno the ‘semantic (Adcock field’ and Sartori 51 Collier2001:533; 1984: clarifying of means a as dimensions interrelated multiple along conceptualized is contention publications these of character the and publications samizdat in texts study, this of purpose ind contention understood is as a continuous variable ranging from levels relatively (claims of low claim through samizda the in texts studythe in used resistance.indicator Theviolent and protest, violent non contestation, electoral dimensions: main three the along concept multidimensional and a autonomy, rights, cultural group (2010), rights,Saxton and Benson Following independence. cultural individual of claims involving vda clua rgt) o ihr ees cam o atnm o idpnec) Fr the For independence). or autonomy of (claims levels higher to rights) cultural ividual How effectively does the quantity and character of samizdat texts measures dissent? dissent? measures texts samizdat of character and quantity the does effectively How ‘Nationalist text’ is conceptualized as a text making at least o N e’ option in expressing discontent, low levels of discontent were less likely to take take to likely less were discontent of levels low discontent, expressing in option e’ ationalist contention is defined as the political mobilization of ethno of mobilization political the definedas is contention ationalist

in the Soviet Union. Due to the repressive nature of the Soviet regime and high costs - aig eaiu o ethno of behaviour making

- grained indicator intensity tomeasure the ofdissent. - t national national group: individual cultural rights, group cultural rights, autonomy,

it is operationalized through the analysis of the discourse of discourse the of analysis the through operationalized is it –

esrs ny n dmnin f h cnet a ovoet protest nonviolent a concept, the of dimension one only measures one one very peculiar aspect peculiar very - ainl rus Itniy f ethno of Intensity groups. national 8

I conceptualize I

of the concept. However, it constitutes constitutes it However, concept. the of ne of the following claims - 54). nationalist contention as as contention nationalist – . The ethno The . character of nationalist of character

- nationalgroups, l traditional nly - -

nationalist nationalist nationalist - CEU eTD Collection non individual an concept: radial a as understood be and radial, classical, concepts: of types different employing by stretching conceptual avoid to possible is It data. empirical intensity the prote of the than the of indicator an as texts samizdat of discourse the engaged of use the Therefore,large. at population politically more were who activists of minority tiny a were publishers measurement validity is also an issue because of The 2001). Collier and Adcock (see validity measurement with issues the minimize can back ‘double fitting’ process going of all the way background from concept to scoresindividual and conce sound theoretically analysis, conceptual However, 1998). Shively 1986; Miller and (Kirk involved are errors systematic nor random neither when only valid are scores individual if are scores that believewho those and 2001), (Babbie valid as seen be can even still theyunreliable, that consider who scholars the between disagreement a is of these errors and, if they are random, on the aggregate level they cancel each other out. There to one of the types of samiz order differences tocapture texts. between qualitative different samizdat discou Therefore, question. in haveperiod the changed texts samizdat over structureof topics, and content, Indeed, meaning, (Adcock and Collier 2001: 534), and it is common in comparisons of distinct historical periods. differe have may indicator an on score same ‘the when arises equivalence, measurement of problem the or specificity, Contextual question? in period form in this research: did the resistance and dissent mean the same things throughout the whole Conceptual stretching is an issue in applying the concept of ‘samizdat’ to diverse diverse to ‘samizdat’ of concept the applying in issue an is stretching Conceptual There is a possible problem with the reliability of scoring individual cases as belonging t takes validity measurement of specificity contextual high of issue The st may systematically overestimate its level. overestimate its st may systematically d at . However, if there is no reason to suspect a systematic character rse analysis was chosen as the primary method of the study in study the of method primary the as chosen was analysis rse

family resemblance family 9

the the peculiar character of the sources: samizdat (Collier and Mahon 1993) Mahon and (Collier - state origin is shared by all cases, but cases, all by shared is origin state nt meanings in different contexts’ contexts’ different in meanings nt

pt formation, and the and formation, pt . ‘Samizdat’ can ‘Samizdat’ . he following following he CEU eTD Collection highlyit for study. this suitable very much to the fore’ (M are actions own one’s of result a ashappens whatover hascontrol onemuch how of questions consequence, a as and, clear less are agency of ‘questions Moreover, thought.’ of systems of their own oppression hegemonyabout thinking of way a offered … ‘discourse 30), (1997: development.important this studying for appropriate is analysis Discourse 19 Ito 1991; Husband 1989; Davies 2010; Brunstedt 2002; (Beissinger counter competing – revolut historical the was contention nationalist this of aspects major the of one Moreover, formations. discursive the in ruptures Foucauldian on instead focusing causality, of notion is literature theoretical This 2008). (2007; Berger Stephen and (1996) Nora Pierre of perspective the from studied is narratives historical nationalist and history national of role The 1975). (1962; Austin J.L. and 2001; 2002; 2010), Norman Fairclough (2002; 1992, 1 1979; 1977; (1972; Foucault Michel of works the are reference of points theoretical general the analysis, discourse of terms In regime. the from dissidents Soviet the of independence independence individual from texts, the in made claims of th texts; samizdat the unitof observationan is individual text. and circulation thenetworks in ofsamizdat readers, production and distribution copies, ofmultiple

e thecharacter differenceItand of ondifferent texts. samizdat intopics alsofocus will types the contestation and revision of official Soviet historical narratives and the construction of of construction the and narratives historical Soviet official of revision and contestation the political engagement are some ofthe cases. characteristic only to The study uses discourse analysis. The unit of analysis for both of them is a group of of group a is them of both for analysis of unit The analysis. discourse uses study The Dsore nlss f h smza txs s a t est to way is texts samizdat the of analysis Discourse . - artvs y oiial atv ntoait ciit ad dissidents and activists nationalist active politically by narratives –

without assuming that indivi also relevant because the study is a descriptive one and it eschews the the eschews it and one descriptive a is study the because relevant also ills ills 1997: 30).

This features of the method of discourse analysis make 10

ihs o oiia rfrs r vn national even or reforms political to rights duals are necessarily simply passive victims 995, 2003), Pierre Bourdieu (1990; 1991)

Discourse analysis usedtostudy is –

people’s compliance in compliance people’s mt the imate 89; Lindner 1999). 1999). Lindner 89; According to Mills Mills Accordingto discursive ion

CEU eTD Collection handf a of writing the prioritize to ground no is there Accordingly, operating. is s/he which in structure discursive the also but matters, that author the only not allo bias. selection minimize to selection random a possibly, fascist group samizdat journal nationalists Russian of manifest the (like of texts importance individual the used: be will rationales following The research. this to applied be also their large a to tailored be Although to seems analysis (2008). Gerring and Seawright by suggested selection case for rationales 60 (Zisserman activists national the of concerns the share texts the samizdat Russian of many Similarly, movement. rights human Russian the of documents the published Lit 46). (AS 1968 in signatures 139 collected had others and Lashkova, Galanskov, Ginzburg, (Zisserman Iskhoda protest against the arrest of Petr Grigorenko en masse and the Jewish samizdat circles ( of letter signed activists Tatar Crimean instance, For versa. vice and movement, rights human or nationally the of Many samizdat. nationalist and and nationalist texts. There is, of course, no hard and fast distinction between ‘right essential taskis forthis anyGe socialinquiry, as scientific - huanian samizdat materials, samizdat huanian 61). ws to alleviate problems with the selection of cases: from a Foucauldian perspective, it is it perspective, Foucauldian a from cases: of selection the with problems alleviate to ws Selection of cases for discourse analysis is based on data availability, and on different on and availability, data on based is analysis discourse for cases of Selection look study This The research also employs the descriptive method. Far from being a ‘mere description’,

n ohr perio other and - Brodsky 2003: 59). The letter of Ukrainian dissidents protesting against the trial of Pamiat ‘Veche’ ); typical (selecting which are); typical representative the texts population); and, of s

); the extr mainly dicals) were also actively involved in the human rights protection protection rights human the in involved actively also were dicals) including at two types of samizdat texts: human texts: samizdat of types two at eme character of some of the texts (publications of the proto - N quantitative st quantitative N

The Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania in Church Catholic the of Chronicle The 11

iented dissidents were also involved into involved also were dissidents iented udy aiming at causal inference, it can it inference, causal at aiming udy The focus on the discourse analysis analysis discourse the on focus The rring (2012) argues. rring ‘A Word to The Nation’ Nation’ The to Word ‘A l f aos dissidents famous of ul - rights movement texts movement rights -

Bro - dsky 2003: dsky defenders’ defenders’ n the and Vestnik - ,

CEU eTD Collection unless a common usage otherwise. dictates Congress of Library the to according transliterated are titles and names of Archive the Samizdat register (AS), with the bibliographical information presented in Appendix 1. in number their by cited are documents samizdat many studies, samizdat counterparts famous provided was thatit circulating inthenetworks. samizdat more of writing the as important as of is letter author humble unknown A otherwise else. everybody of exclusion the to Amalrik) Bukovsky, (Sakharov, T he thesis uses author uses thesis he

- date citation style. In accordance with the common practice in in practice common the with accordance In style. citation date

12

Romanization

Russian T ables, –

CEU eTD Collection of the power as its starting point, drawing on the public the on varieties fourdistinguishes self hegemonic the of outside discourse a is transcript hidden 18) 1990: (Scott seen’ themselves have would they as elites dominant of portrait analytical purposes hidden 12). 1990: (Scott practices domination and power on the ‘public transcript’ interaction of form visible more a on focusing it, ignored largely science social and history Traditional elite. power the of reach of out ‘offstage’, power, of sites official the of outside tr Hidden subversion. and resistance of transcript hidden a is there conformity façadeof the beneath that argues Scott society. over control full a exercise more the menacing 1990:3).However, thicker (Scott thepowerful thepower, mask’ never oppressive more becomes power the as progresses transcript public the of Ritualization relations. power the reproduce to simultaneously and affirm to way the is it powerful, the For group. Public transcr dominated the and elite the between interaction public structured the of language a is Scott, Resistance:and theArt of Hidden Transcripts worksFoucault, of Michelle t major the Therefore, sphere. public of emergence and Chapter 1. Power,Chapter Public 1. Resistance,and Sphere:Foundations Theoretical James C. Scott explores the explores Scott C. James The primary focus of this study ar transcripts

, a

Scott Scott establishes the following distinction: the public transcript is ‘the self ipt ipt is a dissemblance of conformity and acceptance by the oppressed group. nd ,

. Hidden transcript is and hy om sals cont seamless a form they Although Although

Jürgen i t is not limited to speech acts but includes a variety of social social of variety a includes but acts speech to limited not is t

Habermas, and James C.Scott. James and Habermas, varieties of hidden forms of resistance in his in resistance of forms hidden of varieties t here is no hard and fast distinction between public and and public between distinction fast and hard no is here - e the questions of resistance to power of modern state hidden continuum. The first one takes the self the takesone firstThe continuum. hidden 13

contextual (Scott 1990) ideology that serves as a means of legitimizing

nu o pwr n contestation, and power of inuum , it is heoretical anscript is a discourse taking place taking discourse a is anscript . A‘public according transcript’, to

rooted in individual situation - presentation of the elites. Scott Scott elites. the of presentation

points of reference of points

Domination , while the the while ,

are the the are - image image : ‘the ‘the :

s f

or or of – -

CEU eTD Collection societal a was sphere public liberal The principles. guiding its were publicity and Openness criticism and monitoring, discussion, rational of site a was century, 1989) manifold, the voice has the power to brea dissenting single a perspective, that From act. their by orderliness and unity of display whole per actions their to due not subversive are domination of pattern ordered strictly this of out break who individuals The parade. a 45), (1990: Scott to according is, affirmation this of epitome The transcript. public the of affirmation continual require a constant maintenance and re James C. ofpower.dimensions domination and resistance to it, unlike Foucault’s works which stress the modern and scientific hegemonic of forms local and personal on more focuses Scott Overall, groups’. subordinate (199 Scott what within are one, first the for except varieties, this All transcript. hidden and public the between border policed the is element fourth The of politics group of realm anonymous and ambiguous an byconstituted is third The proper. transcript hidden the is version Second Scott. C. James to according domination, the n own their respect to powerful the calling of device rhetorical This power. Soviet the of nature ‘progressive’ or slave of ‘paternalism’ supposed power: the rumours

practice . The liberal public sphere, the emergence of which Habermas traces back to the 18 the to back traces Habermas which of emergence the sphere, public liberal The . Although of ‘Relations Scott Scott his concept of the public sphere is particularly relevant particularly is sphere public the of concept his , rituals, carnivals, and tales and carnivals, rituals, ,

of the Soviet dissent andsamizdat publi of the Soviet ( 1990: 45). Once established, the power relations do not persist on their own but ügn Habermas Jürgen orms is one of the most widespread and relatively safe means of resisting of means safe relatively and widespread most the of one is orms

domination are, at the same the at are, domination

k the whole spectacle of power, and this insight cast ’s - affirmation. The spectacle of unanimity is requ . otiuin o h contemporar the to contribution

It

falls chiefly in the domain of social anthropology. anthropology. social of domain the in chiefly falls - owners, generosity and protectiveness of nobility, of protectiveness and generosity owners, 14

time, relations of resistance’, according to to according resistance’, of relations time, shing

se, but rather because they question the question they because rather but se, .

0: 19) calls the ‘infrapolitics of of ‘infrapolitics the calls 19) 0:

for

of the issues of society. of issues the of this study this y social science is is science social s a new light on

that consi that

(Habermas ired for a sts th

CEU eTD Collection by 20 Sphere Public the of Transformation they if as sound activists pass ‘right by degree, certain a to embraced, were features these society the for important matters of deliberation public for scene the of setting the action, part or police of will at not and law the to according only dissidents and criminals of persecution (i.e. oppression political the of rationalizationthe laws, own its powerto Soviet the of adherenceThe Gorbachev.before well public sphere as analysed by Habermas. Publicity ( liberal the of principles guiding the to similar were espoused, movement, rights human the of However, the fundamentalprinciplesandespecially whichsamizdat, thepolitical thesamizdat instead(Adu for ‘counterpublics’ analyzing numerous arguing sphere public unified single the of concept Habermasian the contested have scholars all citizens for opportunity inthe deliberation toparticipate I 1971). (Rawls power the to reason inclusion, features: legitimacy democratic a confers sphere public the in deliberation of process characteristicThe mindedness.’ three least at has sphere issues.’ public debate and Oliver a ‘rational a through exercised be to had power the Instead, splendour. and power of spectacle a in subjects the before sovereign the of authority The public sphere contested the tradi challenge to the ‘arcane and bureaucratic practices of the absolutist state’ (Habermas ages in letters of protest, petitions, and declaration of Soviet samizdat and human rights human and samizdat Soviet of declaration and petitions, protest, of letters in ages th

h smza i te oit no ws o, f ore a bugos phenomen ‘bourgeois’ a course, of not, was Union Soviet the in samizdat The century dissident Soviet nd Myers

(1999:38) (1999:38) define public sphere as ‘the abstract space in which citizens discuss

According to Michael S. Evans S. Michael to According had deally, public sphere operates on an egalitarian basis, providing basis, egalitarian an on operates sphere public deally, s , not18

taken y officials), the public and rational justification of the state state the of justification rationaland public ythe officials), tional

–

with the important difference that they wer they that difference important the with th a leaf leaf a

centuryFrench bourgeois.

form of domination based on ‘re 15

rm h Hbra’ book Habermas’s the from - glasnost’ critical public debate’ (Habermas debate’ public critical t

2012: 239).

) was (Adut 2012:

(2012: 874), ‘deliberative public ‘deliberative 874), (2012:

demanded by many dissidents - eedr’ aidt Many samizdat. defenders’

238). However, many However,many 238). - iig ad open and giving, presentation’ of the h Structural The e expressed e 1 1989 989 : xi). :28). :28). – on. on. all - CEU eTD Collection ‘Sovie the with connected is USSR Stalin the subjectivityto mould was as it of itscitizens analysed Foucault.works of inthe illustrates samizdat Soviet the hand, other the On proof. and logic, rationality, of principles on built sphere, public alternative an construct to attempt re to attempt an as While the strategy of samizdat producers might seem from the perspective of Jürge Demonstrative documentsan samizdat exampleofthisstrategy. is signing of utterances through the of validation of example interesting an represents it analysis, discourse of terms In power’. sphere, public liberal flattery, andduty ofself moral instead instead of falsehood or silence, the risk of d parrhesia truth recognizes he activity in which a speaker expresses his personal relationship to truth, and precisely, duty.More and freedom through law moral to specificrelation to relation or of himself type certain a danger, through life own his to relationship certain a frankness, AccordingFoucault, tot of tradition can generally dissent intellectual Soviet and samizdat study. this for relevant highly self active an initiates person The research on the varieties and ambiguities of resistance and collaboration in the post The case of Soviet samizdat presents an interesting contrast Foucault of and Habermas. seen be can dissidents Soviet the Thus, through truth to relation specific a has speaker the where activity verbal of kind a … the which through ‘techniques the of analysis and power’ of functioning ‘concrete The te pae ue hs reo ad hoe fakes nta o pruso, truth persuasion, of instead frankness chooses and freedom his uses speaker the , other people through criticism (self criticism through people other

parrhesia - it h nraheto h lif the of encroachment the sist telling as a duty to improve or help other people (as well as himself). In himself). as well (as people other help or improve to duty a as telling

but even but

readiness to face fo te Greek the (from he ‘fearless speech’

-

Furthermore, omto’ r te ou o Fual’ wr, hc make which work, Foucault’s of focus the are formation’ resurrecting the classical Greek tradition of ‘speaking truth to truth ‘speaking of tradition Greek classical the resurrecting - interest and moral apathy and interest potential personal costs παρρησία) t subjectivity’ debate. The pioneering works of Igal of works pioneering The debate. subjectivity’ t eath instead of life and security, criticism instead of is f rom 16

-

as not only re only not as criticism or criticism of other people), and a a and people), other of criticism or criticism the e – - ol b tesse. aidt a an was Samizdat system. the by world Foucauldian perspective Foucauldian

also paig rt i te fa the in truth speaking

nicely the power of the modern state state modern the of power the nicely be understood as belonging to the to belonging as understood be - of voicing a dissenti enacting the emergence of the of emergence the enacting

(Foucault (Foucault

parrhesia risks risks his life because 2001

the practice of of practice the : 19 e f danger. of ce n Habermas ng opinion

- is a verbala is 20) .

it s - . CEU eTD Collection primordial characternation. the of h of narratives nationalist towards attitude sceptical its and 1983) Gellner 1990; Bhabha 1991; (Anderson nationalism to approach theoretical constructivist of premise basic 1983) ethnicity and nationalism of theories constructivist are contention ‘Soviet subjectivity’. and uncriticalapproa criticized selective bias 2005) who (Etkind historians liberal professional other of from fire under notion came ideas their the However, subjectivity. historicize to attempt an in Foucault of works the on heavily relied Stalinist Soviet Union set out on a revolutionary crusade. In their research, Halfin and (Friedrich new Soviet self. Fa associated the regime themselves with toreconstruct and tosough their personalitiestobuild a Halfin , and th nationalist of site a as samizdat of study the informs that background theoretical The 20) n Jce Hlbc (09 sgetd ht h ery oit ujcs have subjects Soviet early the that suggested (2009) Hellbeck Jochen and (2000) eories of social mobilization

Brzezinski r from being a mere atomized victim of the regime, as the totalitarian school

1956, Arendt 1951) would have us to believe, the inhabitants of the of inhabitants the believe, to us have would 1951) Arendt 1956,

(Beissinger 2002; Tilly 1978) 17

ch of the founders of the notion of the the of the of notion founders the ch of Adro 19; Gellner 1991; (Anderson . The research adopts a

and Hellbeck soy and istory CEU eTD Collection long a about bring to certain more much were era Stalin the and deterrent effective production an be to stopped of materials samizdat of dissemination costs personal when time the regime, Soviet the of softening relative police and often intodifferentpersecution, incl forms of the from interest an into resulted activities such usually jure, de prohibited not was texts of to answer because of a very peculiar nature of legality in the Soviet Union: while the publishing self thatcirculated texts were inthese confiscation,andwere networks circulated notall due to not neces a nor sufficient a neither is it However, material. these of readers and producers of networks personal in circulation its is samizdat of attribute Another verified. be cannot origin the samizdat, of pieces some 1982 2002; Preibisz Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, China, and other countries (Zaslavskaya 2002; Kowalczuk exclus an course, of not, was Revolt Pimenov published the first Bulletin of information (Zaslavaskaya 2009: 682).Samizdat post the Gosizdat Feldbrugge 1975: 2) self the described the in Glazkov Nikolai poet Russian by coined was term The Europe. Eastern - published. The question of whether illegality is the necessary attribute of samizdat is h is samizdat of necessaryattribute the is whetherillegality of question The published. The early emergence of samizdat dates back to Khrushchev years. It was a period of period a was It years. Khrushchev to back dates samizdat of emergence early The The necessary attribute of the concept of samizdat is Samizdat is conceptualized as underground self -

Stalin USSR took off. In 1956 In off. took USSR Stalin or Voenizdat. - publication of his poems as poems his of publication ; Skilling . . The name was in opposition to the official publishing institutions, such as

It is very difficult to establi to difficultvery Itis Chapter 2. Samizdat: Origins and and ChapterBackground 2.Samizdat: Origins

1989; Tokes 1996). ively Soviet phenomenon. Similar activities existed in Poland, in existed activities Similar phenomenon. Soviet ively sary attribute: some of the most interesting pieces of samizdat samizdat of pieces interesting most the of some attribute: sary ,

the newspaper the 18 ‘sam

sh when precisely the samizdat activities in activities samizdat the precisely when sh - sebia - published published texts in the Soviet Union and uding legal. Kultura -

izdat’ its its individual, non - to shortened later , em mrsnet r even or imprisonment term appeared in Leningrad, and Leningrad, in appeared

. Similar activities in activities Similar .

- state origin. For 90, who 1940s, samizdat ard

CEU eTD Collection to possible is it perspective, that From readers. and producers of networks in materials these of circulation the through but printing, pe cause to certain reasonably was distribution and production its However, law. Soviet the ofself Therewere nodirectprohibitions years,wer Stalin registeredbein to law by forbidden was texts copying of means had to pass through this system. Production and possession of private printing presses and other Department for Literature from visa a receive to had publications All 1930s. the in established was documentsnumbersamizdat hadincreased ofhuman rights five (Feldbrugg time by number in doubled documents samizdat rights human the rights movement ( human characteristicthe isonlyfor trial this course,of Ofcentralrole the infinitum. ad so and reproducing. The repression of every new samizdat outlet spread ripples of letters and materials, Feldbrugge (1975:5) to According artists. and regime the of relations the in periods Brezhnev and Khrushchev between watershed a was 1966 in Daniel and Siniavsky of trial The samizdat. of earlyBrezhnev the societyin the over control it Therefore, samizdat as a o networks the disrupted physically regime totalitarian and execution rsecution, trial, and bec a e seily ueos ne Behe (1964 Brezhnev under numerous especially me According to Komaromi (2007), samizdat status was acquired not simply throughself simply not acquiredwas status samizdat (2007), Komaromi Accordingto The system of censorship in the Soviet Union which the samizdat thought to circumvent ti til et the sent trial this , ,

therefore pravozashchitniki

imprisonment. imprisonment. , fully formed

the (Feldbrugge 1975: 3)

ae o poet n smza mtras hc bcm self became which materials samizdat and protest of waves consequences e relatively free to use in the years of samizdat flourishing. years samizdat of the in use to free relatively e ) samizdat. From the relatively humble beginnings in 1965,

mass phenomenon emerge - publishing and the word ‘samizdat’and theword publishing introduce the concept of unsuccessful samizdat: samizdat: unsuccessful of concept the introduce

of the ‘voice’ option ‘voice’ the of

19 years was among the catalysts of the emergencethe of catalysts amongyearsthe was (Feldbrugge 1975: 10) 1975: (Feldbrugge . All publications

- 1982). The tendency to tighten the the tighten to tendency The 1982). f samizdat producers and readers. readers. and producers samizdat f 1967 d

in the state publishing houses

in (see Hirschman 1970) Hirschman (see the

. and by 1968 the overall overall the 1968 by and

T ypewriters, which had had which ypewriters, Khrushchev years and Glavlit did

e 1975:2). not feature in not feature in –

the Chief the

legal legal

in

a - -

CEU eTD Collection industrializationStalinist wasappraised. Varga highly E.S. that wrote was Stalinism to Attitude a bureaucracy. state the with Party the of merging the to traced views of Lev Trotsky conce and Lenin, of authority unquestionable Revolution, October the towards attitude positive ideology, Leninist post the about critical very often (197 Medvedev’s Roy 57). 1975: (Feldbrugge viewpoint Marxist orthodox an from USSR the in affairs of state the criticized that documents samizdat first left 1975) Feldbrugge Yout Independent of Union Democracy, Socialist Non of Party Party, Socialist Russian group, Dzibalov Democracy, Socialist for Struggle of Committee Rights, Uni Type, New a of Party Marxist The Communists, True of Party groups were either communists or socialist. Earliest 1960s virt also is Estonian, and Lithuanian Tatar, Crimean Ukrainian, from apart samizdat, National unknown. remains category,however, this majority vastof The USSR. the in circulation no to passed documents the of Some 5). 1975: Feldbrugge (see fear of out readers early of one or author the by destroyed or confiscated been have which but read widely and spread be to produced were that documents mbivalent. On the one hand it supposedly epitomised the bureaucratization. On the other - ually unknown. wing politics, obsessedwing politics, withesoteric andtheoretical distinctions issues. 5 ) is the most fundamental text of this c this of text fundamental most the is ) The 38 (1975: Feldbrugge to According ‘Varga Testament’ ‘Varga . Many Many .

- rn with the Stalinist ‘bureaucratization’. In an argument resembling the the resembling argument an In ‘bureaucratization’. Stalinist the with rn Party Workers Struggling for the Restoration of Socialism, Partisans of Partisans Socialism, of Restoration the for Struggling Workers Party

(1937) to the West and included in samizdat collection might have had little had havemight collection samizdat in included and West the to of them of

and Milovan Đilas , produced in 1964 by the by 1964 in produced , - Stalin USSR, but they share the basic premises of Marxist of premises basic the share they but USSR, Stalin were minuscule groups, exhibiting a Pythonesque world of world Pythonesque a exhibiting groups, minuscule were - 40), a substantial part of the samizdat the of part substantial a 40), ategory of samizdat. The texts of this group were group this of texts The samizdat. of ategory 20

(1957)

h, Civic Committee, and many others many and Committee, Civic h, , the problems of the Soviet system were

- economist E. Varga, was one of the the of one was Varga, E. economist 1970s groups included Ryleev club, book on of Struggle for Political Political for Struggle of on On

oils Democracy Socialist

- producing hand, hand,

(see (see -

CEU eTD Collection state the of cent per 21 reached literature samizdat 1988, In market. book alternative an 2001: 144). As a result of this planning failure and censorship, samizdat gradually evolved into spetskhran facilities’ very A harsh. significa particularly was literature foreign of Censorship books. unpopular rather their output. In practice, it resulted in the publishing of a huge number of ideologically safe but aggr the only meet to aimed facilities to fulfil popular demands. Due to the idiosyncrasies of the Soviet planning system, the printing sphere public counterpart of thebourgeois as an society. of penetration greater not if similar, ( distribution’ and production of composed of arteries, veins and capillaries, and that takes account of ev network communication a by society of penetration ‘the achieved had readers of network the amongBaltic and Tatars Ukrainians, Crimean numerous particularly were organizations National others. and 1973, Group Organization, Rights Human Gorky Committee, Rights Human Moscow Rights, Human for Committee Feldbrugge 1975:63). five Stalin’s of realization the nevertheless camps, concentration to sent and arrested slandered, were who innocent of millions even and thousands and hundreds of labour slave the essentially five second the during overco ig f aeil n ognztoa dfiute, lhuh usqety especially subsequently, although difficulties, organizational and material of ming Samizdat Samizdat literature was, in part, a response to the inability of the state publishing houses book his in Darnton Robert Among civil rights an and resources human of waste enormous an required industrialization the Although nt share of foreign and ‘subversive’ literature was buried in the ‘special storage storage ‘special the in buried was literature ‘subversive’ and foreign of share nt –

of of the Lenin State Library, contained over one million items in the

- spetskhran, year plans had, in a national scale, a decidedly progressive meaning (quoted in in (quoted meaning progressive decidedly a scale, national a in had, plans year

- year plan, the new heavy industry was built largely by what was was what by largely built was industry heavy new the plan, year unavailable to most of the Soviet citizens Soviet the of most to unavailable groups, Darnton

there were The Literary Underground of the Old Regime Old the of Underground Literary The egate print run plans, and cared less for the diversity of of diversity the for less cared and plans, run print egate 1982: 13). The Soviet samizdat networks achieved a achieved networks samizdat Soviet The 13). 1982:

21 Action Group forAction the Group Rights, Defence ofHuman nations. alyzed by Habermas (1989). (1989). alyzed by Habermas

aidt a fr h lt Sve clue a culture Soviet late the for was Samizdat

.

The largest of them, the the them, of largest The ery stage in the process

1980s (Stelmakh

argued that argued

people CEU eTD Collection Bell), (The Kolokol po explicitly the to Daniel and anti the the to contributed and Daniel writers the of trial the was defenders example ofthe absurdityof the whole system. great a for made process the of nature absurd manifestly The ‘parasitism’. for condemned generally public reading and dissident the among read widely Vigdorova, Frida of notes The the Iosif among were Brodsky of trial the of transcripts the writings, his from Apart organization’. political Soviet th of creation the of charge the on arrested was he 1957, In samizdat. political Soviet reassertion independent ofthe right of reading. recei the On 146). 2001: (Stelmakh system publishing IBrodsky: . thatit think Judge: Howthen? youIBrodsky: could from think getthis didn't school. prepare, where they teach? Judge: high Youdidnottry Tobecomea poet. school where tofinish they Brodsky: This? youJudge: Did th study Brodsky: Noone. enrolled recognizedyouJudge: Who Who you as a poet? ranks ofpoets? inthe Brodsky: Poet yourJudge:profession Andwhat ingeneral? is The materials of the early samizdat were very diverse diverse very were samizdat early the of materials The rights human the of movement emerging the by covered widely was that trial Another (200 Nathans Benjamin to According - Soviet activities, Soviet Siniavsky

, White Book White

translator. iia mtras Oe f h frt oiia smza junl ws called was journals samizdat political first the of One materials. litical osiul rpouig h tte f h junl ht lkad Herzen Aleksandr that journal the of title the reproducing consciously

were confined.

W

ho enrolled me in the ranks of humanity? meintheranksho enrolled of found guilty, and went to serve his sentence to the same camp where where campsame the sentenceto servehis to guilty,went foundand most famous most is? . comes 1978:22 from God. (Etkind

( who who 1966) was admitted to the process, the to admitted was

documenting this trial, was tried himsel tried was trial, this documenting materials widely circulated in the samizdat networks. samizdat the in circulated widely materials 7 22 Consider thisexcerpt:

: 651), :

Siniavsky

Revol’t ving end, samizdat was, essentially, a a essentially, was, samizdat end, ving

. Ironically, Vitaly Ginzburg who who Ginzburg Vitaly Ironically, .

. The future Nobel laureate was was laureate Nobel future The . – Pimenov was the father of the of father the was Pimenov

from Russian literary classics classics literary Russian from w

)

ere printed, re printed, ere

f, charged with charged f, - printed, and and printed,

e ‘anti e -

CEU eTD Collection as citizens Soviet portray to tendency a is There regime. the of rejection wholesale the to lead that its impact was not uniform. Second, the use of self suggests materials samizdat of diversity the First, manifold. are that for reasons The citizens. act political chamber’ of theSoviet samizdat. ‘echo an as served institute research its and Liberty Radio abroad. materials samizdat their (2011: 244), Snyder B. Sarah to According well. as networks rights human international the of importance America the of rights centerpiece human the the into make promotion to Carter Jimmy president US the government by their decision hold The to accountable. standard a dissidents Soviet the gave Act Final Helsinki 1975 war cold the of end the in instrumental was defenders that movement itself. the of history the and history Russian recent the on documents historical published materials. samizdat other with alongside spread interrogation’ KGB during behave by book The century. XIX the in published

had strong connections to the West. The ‘Helsinki network’ of international human rights human international of network’ ‘Helsinki The West. the to connections strong had in the Soviet Union in the Soviet Europe, freedom of movement for East Germans, and improved human rights practices governments pursue to policies However, Helsinki monitoring offered a channel for the Soviet Many of the samizdat producers were also involved into the human rights movement rights human the into involved also were producers samizdat the of Many Eastern and Western both influenced indirectly and directly process Helsinki vt, e aoe oiia rssac. ay f hm udutdy rmie loyal remained undoubtedly, them, of Many resistance. political alone let ivity,

many

of the Samizdat readers were not involved in any type of organized organized of type any in involved not were readers Samizdat the of –

all factors in the end of the Cold War . all factors War Cold the inthe end of

that facilitated riseEastern dissent in oforganized the ( Kak

vesti a

23 painter and writer Iakov writer and painter

sebia

oeg plc cnrbtd o h growing the to contributed policy foreign Pamiat’

na - published literature

(see Snyder 2011). The signing of the the of signing The 2011). Snyder (see

doprosakh v KGB) v doprosakh

human rights defenders to transfer

( Memory

) Ven’kovetsky

group collected and and collected group does does not necessarily , was also widely widely also was ,

samizdat samizdat ‘How to to ‘How CEU eTD Collection the followingand researchgeneral. this chapter in guides that dissidents the to subjectivity liberal a of ascription the in caution this is It emergent cy ‘the it, put historian one As feeling. sincere true only the as perceived was which cynicism Western a toward shift the in wi disappointment the even However, it. puts (2000) Krylova as studies’, Soviet the in subject liberal of ‘tenacity the or liberals closet

nical nical subject was not tantamount to the rebirth of liberal man’ (Boobyer 2005: 47). - style liberal world view. More often, perhaps, it resulted into a into resulted it perhaps, often, More view. world liberal style

th the Soviet order did not necessarily manifest itself itself manifest necessarily not did order Soviet the th 24

CEU eTD Collection an written are they way the exactly in understood be to ought law:Soviet on theimportance ofthe observe laws‘ their own authorities the that demand to be might opposition of method effective an that understand to According to Andrei Amalrik, another prominent Soviet dissident, Esenin 631). 2007: (Nathans strategy peculiar this inspired had who logician, and mathematician Esenin abovementioned the was It ire. official the caused that laws, own its to Constitution’. It was the ch harmless. Esenin virtually part, most the for were, ideas and slogans The producers. samizdat and dissidents of dimension illocutionary the in inherent was dissent The that. saying by doing were they what in but said, defenders’ ‘right the what in not laid authority Soviet the to challenge the Searle), and Austin (following act speech of notion However puzzling. seems legality’ ‘Socialist the to adherence for calling of Benjamin Nathans (2007: 630). At the first sight, a harsh repression of the dissidents merely go Soviet that was the most visible internationally. The peculiarity of their protest strategy was to call the ( defenders’ ‘right texts.samizdat with legal Liudmila concern The genre. the of specimens earliest the among was samizdat rights Human He would explain to anyone who cared to listen a simple but unfamiliar idea: all laws laws all idea: unfamiliar but simple a listen to cared who anyone to explain would He vernment to respect its own law by practicing radical ‘civil obedience’, in the words words the in obedience’, ‘civil radical practicing by law own its respect to vernment ity and the call to the Soviet s to the Soviet callandity the The

- Alek Volpin, Volpin, for instance was once protesting under the slogan ‘Respect the Soviet ‘pravozashchitniki’ attention to Chapter 3.Samizdatand seeva has thus described the Esenin the described thus has seeva

(quoted inNathans(quoted 2007:631). allenge to the Soviet order by holding the elite accountable, albeit it

the letter of t

) in the USSR. They were the group of Soviet dissidents dissidents Soviet of group the were They USSR. the in ) tate to respect its own laws was a very popular topic in popular atopic was very ownlaws its tate torespect he law Soviet was characteristic a principal ofthe 25

the Human Movement Rights

the teacs of utterances

- Volpin’s idea behind his insistence insistence his behind idea Volpin’s d not as they are interpreted by by interpreted are they as not d human rights movement movement rights human - Volpin was ‘the first , if we employ the the employ we if , - Volski, Soviet Soviet Volski,

CEU eTD Collection that of capable medium precise and clear a reality, everyday measure to which against lan formal Mathematica 656).(quoted inNathans 2007: disperse the During themselves. participants meeting’s to authorities the bydemand first the At strictlyobserved. the be order that essential is it meeting, by short cut be should and the provocation beyond going slogans or phrases and other detrimental absolutely be will law the of observance Any strict for demand accused).’ the of names the by (followed . . . for trial open an demand ‘We slogan: single a project will gather who those which during arbitrariness judicial against struggle for means a have Citizens time. in checked not was that arbitrariness an of consequences the years for endure to than rest of circles. argued He that proclamation a drafted He Daniel. and Siniavsky of trial texts samizdat defenders’ d staple the became later which strategy rhetorical a procedures, judicial Soviet law. Volpin was also among the first dissidents to demand status of th his particular in samizdatnetworks, in circulation wide attained Volpin by produced documents the of Many avail). 19 January in piece slanderous a as such him, about articles of authors the against complaints legal made and seriously laws 5 December on place become less oppressive people didit, theybe a movement; hostile would but everyone if the state didit, wouldhave to it, did people two if martyr; a if citizens acted on the assumption that they have Ifrights? one person did it, he would become the government, and the government ought to codn t Ntas 20: 3) te tde o lgc ad n particular in and logic, of studies the 637), (2007: Nathans to According to us calls past bloody The Characteristically, — guage devoid of ambiguities. He found in the Soviet law, of all texts, the standard standard the texts, all of law, Soviet the in found He ambiguities. of devoid guage n ms dses, aig communicate having disperse, must one e accused and advised on how to behave

by Bertrand Russell and Alfred Whitehead, pushed Volpin to strive for an ideal ideal an for strive to Volpin pushed Whitehead, Alfred and Russell Bertrand by –

( the Day of the Soviet Constitution. Volpin even took the Soviet libel Soviet the took even Volpin Constitution. Soviet the of Day the Alekseeva(1985: 275)

. the the demonstration at the Push

Volpin was Volpin Instruction to the Interrogated the to Instruction

63 issue of issue 63

they would be labeled an enemy organization; if thousands of of thousands if organization; enemy an labeled be would they

vigilance in the present. It is easier to sacrifice a single day day single a sacrifice to easier Itis present. the in vigilance also Ogoniok among the most prominent protesters against the against protesters prominent most the among fulfil 26 .

those laws to the letter. What would happen

– magazine by a certain Shatunovsky (to no no (to Shatunovsky certain a by magazine

d to the authorities the meeting’s aim aim meeting’s the authorities the to d all in strict accordance to the letter of the kin square in 1965 was arranged to take . It meticulously outlined the legal the outlined meticulously It . that

was glasnost’ glasnost’ later -

a ‘glasnost’ meeting’ meeting’ ‘glasnost’ a iscourse of the ‘right ‘right the of iscourse

(openness) from the

ped n samizdat in spread possibly serve as a as serve possibly Principia Principia CEU eTD Collection according to the authors of this samizdat was openness of their actions was stressed over and over again. The fact that their publication of the Siniavsky Galan Ginzburg, that ultimatewas argument The law. the by allowed the than longer was accused the of period detention the Criminal Soviet the of norms the to appealed authors itself the of authors the law Soviet the of letter the to madewas appeal ‘untrustworthy’. asThe classify it to document led open not was process the that fact The law’. our and Constitution ‘within acted having as construed are well as accuses The duty’. ‘civic their of out process’ this of openness true ‘a demanding as authors its present document The held. agai 1) (AS Archive Samizdat the in document first very the Consider texts. their pervade Constitution’ Soviet the to ‘adherence ‘openness’, mo law Soviet the took who telling stop demanded lies, otherseven ones’ from to ‘beneficial’ 35). (AS of matters the in heads people’s re he 1968, 636 2007: Only when we attain this will we be able to trust our own tho freedom. of concept the for expression scientific a find and language stunted their with people of influence the from ourselves free must ‘We quote: following the Consider language. the Wittgensteinian dream of analytic philosophy: to dissolve philosophical problems by cl nst the way in which the trial of Ginzburg, Galanskov, Dobrovolsky, and Lashkova was Lashkova and Dobrovolsky, Galanskov, Ginzburg, of trial the which in way the nst ind pk i fvu o ter noec ad h src lwuns o ter activities, their of lawfulness strict the and innocence their of favour in spoke signed ,

no Ironically, in the Soviet Union the ‘right defenders’ dissidents appear to be the people people the be to appear dissidents defenders’ ‘right the Union Soviet the in Ironically, t

). In a letter to his friends, written after his confinement in a psychiatric asylum in asylum psychiatric a in confinement his after written friends, his to letter a In ). to the idea of the human rights or some some or rights human the of idea the to - stated his credo: ‘I have struggled against the muddle and disorientation in the in disorientation and muddle the against struggled have ‘I credo: his stated - Daniel Daniel trial public, and that the Soviet law does not prohibit such actions. The t eiul. h reoi o ‘ii dt’ ‘oils justice’, ‘socialist duty’, ‘civic of rhetoric The seriously. st

law, legality, rights, power, etc. I have never lied and I have have I and lied never have I etc. power, rights, legality, law, skov, and Lashkova merely wanted to make the materials materials the make to wanted merely Lashkova and skov, - circulated letter. It has to be noted that this strategy of – 27 ‘The Letter of the Eighty’ the of Letter ‘The

higher moral principle. In particular, the particular, In principle. moral higher - Procedural Codex and they argued that argued they and Codex Procedural ughts’ (Volpin, quoted in Nathans , a collective protest collective a ,

the limits of our our of limits the arifying arifying Feniks

CEU eTD Collection Union Soviet the of General Persecutor the to Pod’iapolsky G.S. of letter the instance, For and notes were both addressed to the Soviet authorities and circulated in the samizdat networks. petitLetters, sort. that of documents the of number great a engendered al. et Ginzburg of trial the especially and Daniel and Siniavsky of trial The police. security state were rule his of ‘excesses’ and personality’ of ‘role this of epitome an as invoked often was Stalin light. bad a in system Soviet the see will comrades’ communist ‘our that fear a ‘imperialists’, and violations that warnings ‘bureaucrats’, frequent a law, recourse to the public as the ultimate judge in the matters of justice, high acclaim of the Soviet Sovi are documents similar other many and letter this of means discursive The same. the all accusation of favour in judged court The letter. the of authors the to according accusation, the supported has witness single a Not procedure. legal of violation ( resentment’ ‘public doors’, closed the 1968 February 5 wereHowever, anonymous and pennames documents notinfrequent. of locution gained special status through the personal danger to the speaker (see Foucault 2001). example modern penname.a anonymityor the behind tohide refusing and by thoughts of one’sactions readiness toface personal legality the stress to attempt an also was It because such document ( document anonymous an publishing or letter anonymous an writing of slander a from protect ‘right in widespread very was documents the signing A letter of a si

considered to be in danger of repeating by the ‘bureaucrats’, lawyers, judges, and and judges, lawyers, ‘bureaucrats’, the by repeating of danger in be to considered eeecs to references of the Ancient Greek practice of parrhesia, or ‘fearless speech’ where the act the where speech’ ‘fearless or parrhesia, of practice GreekAncient the of –

listed a ‘crude violation of legal norms’, ‘holding an open process behind process open an ‘holding norms’, legal of violation ‘crude a listed milar type anonimka problems that

the ‘Great October Socialist Revolution’, a concern with the the with concern a Revolution’, Socialist October ‘Great the -

‘The Letter of 170’ ) had very strong negative connotations in the Soviet culture.

of law will give grounds to the ‘enemies of socialism’ of ‘enemies the to grounds give will law of

could arise from such obshchestvennoe and the patriotic motives behind one’s actions, the the actions, one’s behind motives patriotic the and 28

in support of Ginzburg, Galanskov, dated - defenders’ sa defenders’

negodovanie signature et through and through: a a through: and through et mizdat. It was a means to means a was It mizdat.

), ‘lack of proof’, a proof’, of ‘lack ),

and the normalization thenormalization and ions, proclamations, ions,

It was aItwas nd nd

CEU eTD Collection tradition of rhetorical justification that reaches well beyond the Soviet era (see Boobbyer 2005). justice were widespread as well. ‘Conscience’ was another frequently cited reason for action, a c their of importance and urgency the substantiate to means rhetorical the ‘lackcomplete truthfulinformation our and ofin newspapers’ 21). (AS search protocols (AS 10). as such investigation, the of materials the circulate to activists rights human the cause also misr 7). (AS TV dissidents the with reprisals judicial closed truth and justice toberestored. (AS 4). of tradition the [ of condemnation public a with the presencepublic [ ofthe farce thatwas stagedI inMoscow. an demand immediate, open, and obje judicial the and verdict this against protest I trial], [Ginzburg passed was verdict disgraceful sugge letter a from with its standards of publicity, argumentation, rationality, and evidence. The fo ‘anti their of of demandAnother libel. against action legaldemandeda and seriously law Soviet the took protestors the again, Once dissidents. the about articles and, infact, way its AS 3). made to the(see West circulatedsamizdatalso was in it abovementionedbut official,the addressedwasto dissidents protesting against the ‘constant violations of inakomysliashchie’ epresentation of the case in the Soviet newspapers (AS 6, AS 9). The demands for openness stive: Most of the right the of Most ofSome thedocuments demanded even thebroadcastingonradio ofpolitical and trials that name whose in Republic, Socialist Federal Soviet Russian the of citizen a As rs ws fe adesd s el otn n respons in often well, as addressed often was Press

-

Soviet’ activities. Her activities. Soviet’ addressed to the editor of chief of the Soviet broadsheet Soviet the of chief of editor the to addressed The The ] and punish those guilty of of guilty those punish and ] ywtess f h Gnbr til ee rtsig gis the against protesting were trial Ginzburg the of eyewitnesses - defenders samizdat used Soviet law, Constitution, and socialism as socialism and Constitution, law, Soviet used samizdat defenders The Letter of 46 Soviet Scientists ‘ shirokaia e we can see the emerging of a Habermasian public sphere public Habermasian a of emerging the see can we e

obshchestvennost’

the socialist legality’ during one of the trials of the 29

b

reaking

these proteststhese

the norms if legality. I demand the demand I legality. if norms the from Novos ] and foreign reporters. I and foreignreporters.] demand t sadru state slanderous to e laims. The references to to references The laims. ibirsk ibirsk protested against Izvestia

was to provide proofs proofs provide to was ctive re ctive

llowing llowing passage

is particularly is - investigation investigation - sponsored sponsored CEU eTD Collection AS to Stalinism’ was the concern numerous letters of protest (AS 14, AS 15, denunciation of the ‘cultStalin’s of personality’ the in spirit of the XX congress. party ‘Return s the at etc.) persecution, trials, (political affairs of state the with dissatisfaction express to allowed that construction texts. samizdat Leninism, concludes toStalinism’, the no document communist’ a as ‘duty his of out letter the writing was he him, to According expand to was Iachimovich, those with an axe to grind’ (AS 11). The only way to stop the proliferation of samizdat, argued of interests the on depend not should truth The information. truthful and complete need ‘we protestingpoliticaltri the against Suslov Iachimovichto Union. Soviet the of Party Communist an from mistaken be could it sight, first Great (AS11) Revolution OctoberSocialist the of origins the forget we if disposal, our at bombs hydrogen and rockets everything,having lawlessness, from humanity the of liberation the set we because victorious were we but poor, famished, naked, were We … us against arguments originated from such ‘legal’ processes .. We are giving to the enemies of Communism strongest and others: a with samizdat, few exceptions (AS 5). re other or Russia of invocation The

125, AS 504, AS780, AS 960, AS 1024, AS 1024, AS 960, AS780,AS 504, AS 125, The fear of the ‘return to Stalinism’ was a was Stalinism’ to ‘return the of fear The The orthodoxy of this text is Commu of cause the to and Party our the to damage huge A about text typical a of example an is Here

Te mnu smtm o te etrto o Saiim ws rhetorical a was Stalinism’ of restoration the of symptoms ominous ‘The ame time staying within the official Soviet discourse of the the of discourse Soviet official the within staying time ame eortc ihs n t osre h Sve Constitution. Soviet the observe to and rights democratic breath spective nation is far less frequent in the right the in frequent less far is nation spective Yet

excerpt - taking , it comes from a samizdat a from comes it , .

30

1865

from a speech by a General Secretary of the of Secretary General a by speech a from for a document produced by a ‘dis the trial of Ginzburg, Galanskov Ginzburg, of trial the

persistent topic in many right many in topic persistent (AS 11) ). abuse, and illegality. And we can lose can we And illegality. and abuse,

For instance, For al. The letter proceeds to quote Lenin:quote to proceedsletter The al. .

The - circulated letter of I.A. of letter circulated AS AS 17, nism in our country country our in nism

Appeal to the World the to Appeal

(AS 11) (AS AS 26, AS 34, , Lashkova, , - - defenders’ sident’. At defenders defenders . ‘Yes to ‘Yes . CEU eTD Collection ofthespeech officialdistortions (Nathans2011). Esenin proclaimed that ‘one word of truth will change the course of entire world’. Similarly, Alexander and b 77). 2001: (Boobbyer but ratherBoobyer 2005: moral76). (quoted in incompatibility. thought that we were engaged in politics. Political platforms were not the basis of our behav of the 1960s Kovalev, movement was the essentially basis ofthis moral: the production of its samizdat documents were m only superior project. It advantage over the capitalism and liberal democracy was expected to be not actions of itsenemies’ 91). (AS 50 its of year the in power, Soviet the that complained letter abovementioned The loyal. ostentatiously was strategy legalistic this again, Once 91). (AS nation’ small a with dealing in legality Soviet of ‘violation the of grounds the Tatar documents. A Crimean the of some by employed was legality’ ‘Socialist of observation the for arguing of processthat this than ‘nobetter is the1930switch Public y Western observers as the way of speaking the ‘truth’. Solzhenitsyn (1972: 34) famously

- by Bogoraz and Litvinov expressed a protest against the Ginzburg trial and a conviction aterial but also moral. also but aterial Politics, for most of the dissidents of the 1960s was either too dangerous or too ‘dirty’ too or dangerous too either was 1960s the of dissidents the of most for Politics, to according Act morally a as conceived been has communism Soviet the beginning, very its From Right Volpin

- - 1980s. It was not a political platform defenders samizdat sometimes coalesced with the nationalist texts. The strategy strategy The texts. nationalist the with coalesced sometimes samizdat defenders

(1961) Letter

searched for a universal language of logic and re and logic of language universal a for searched Traditionally, samizdat has been understood both by Soviet dissenters Soviet by both understood been has samizdat Traditionally, your conscience. That was the basis of the human rights movements movements rights human the of basis the was That conscience. your

by Osmanov, written and distributed in 1968, rhetorically Similarly, the human rights movement in the Soviet Union Soviet the in movement rights human the Similarly,

th

annivers 31

conceived as a moral affair. According to Sergei

- – hunt’ (AS 17).

there was no such thing. Only naïve people ary, is unable to ‘uncover the disgraceful disgraceful the ‘uncover to unable is ary,

ason, from the lies and and lies the from ason, questioned questioned and and ior, ior, CEU eTD Collection responsibil the bear people whole our as just government, our of actions all for responsibility the bear citizens adult all as just government, revolutionari 19 the of times the from slogan famous spotted demonstration The decision. Many personal. deeply also but symbolic, simply not was protest this that themselves, participants the to all of them spent prolonged periods in psychiatric institutions. It was clear to everybody, and above shoes’ of them, in five minutes the demonstration was surrounded by ‘civilian one of recollections the to According arrested. were protesters the then and minutes fifteen to square The so according demonstration on25Augusttodifferent lasted, 1968. Feinberg and Babitski, Dremliuga, Litvinov, Delone, Gorbanevskaia, Natalia invasion Soviet the against Square Ilive. And 158). (quotedinBoobbyer don’t want2005: that know the details, because if I know the details, I will not be able than to do worse the scienceno and them in general formulate can and them understand wilfulignoranceSergei this expressed Kovalev, well: to be informed was sometimes a conscious choice. side’). (‘demand samizdat rights human of matters the about cautious or indifferent were citizens Soviet many side’), (‘supply regime the from a

– small number of copies producedandcopies of number small Had I not done this, I would have considered myself responsible for these actions of the Bogoraz her herself expressed rational Red the on protest legendary the in salient particularly was dissent the of aspect Moral not Do Apart unclear. is large at society the influenceon their and texts samizdat of reachThe

KGB KGB agents, that is. The protesters re es

try to convince me of something. All the general issues that you talk about talk you that issues general the All something. of me convince to try – of the dissidents quoted ‘conscience’ ( ‘conscience’ quoted dissidents the of

‘For Your andFreedom’.‘For Your Our of

Czechoslovakia. Seven protesters protesters Seven Czechoslovakia. frequent disruptions of the samizdat networks b networks the samizdat of disruptions frequent e inthe following way: 32 ceived different terms of confinement, and some

t fr h Stalin the for ity A friend of So For an ordinary Soviet citizen, the citizen, Soviet ordinary an For

sovest’ you can you

) as the main factor behind their their behind factor main the as ) viet physicist turned dissident . However, -

Beria camps, the death death the camps, Beria - looking looking men in identical –

th I do not wi not do I aia Bogoraz, Larisa urces, five from

century Polish Polish century –

took to the the to took

subject failure failure sh to sh –

y I

CEU eTD Collection youyouaccount. not will We take to assist Do want hostages? saythin we onlyone position, spirit one’s sacrifice to another’s But love. and compassion with made is step judgecannotwe that know We considered blackmail. these rejected overtures: emphatically Velikanova and Khodorovich, Kovalev, activities. samizdat prison conditions of some of their friends who were alreadythe in easeprison i to Chronicle the of publishers the to offered KGB the declaration, similar another In published. are issues new when arrested be will publication this to unrelated or involved the Current Events KGB 2005: 83). must begin by postulating that truth is needed for its own sake and for One struggle. moral a of manifestation the but … struggle political a of manifestation the not ’2 the that explicitly stated Chronicle, the in published Iakobson, Events Current the of Chronicle publication samizdat the in covered extensively also was demonstration The 1972. in of my responsibility. but concerned, wasI as far inso effectiveness of matter a not was it that I decided sentences… sometimes sometimes . choice difficult unendurably an with presented are We

In the attempt to raise

–

murder. In a spiritual sense. We will not do this. And to those who put us in this this in us put who those to And this. do not will We sense. spiritual a In murder. A book of materials on the trial resorted to the practice of hostage taking. Trying to prevent the prevent to Trying taking. hostage of practice the to resorted

from appearing, the KGB representatives stated that even people not directly (Gorbanevskaya 1972:213 g: no. Your deeds, youryourdeeds,conscience,Yoursin no. g: the the costs of the dissident activities

(Gorbanevskaia 33 –

Red Square at Noon -

14)

was its its was

anyone who would do this deal this do would who anyone first

(Boobyer 2005: editor

5 August demonstration was was demonstration August 5 and samizdat publishing –

was publish no other

f they abstain from further ). A letter by Aleksandr Aleksandr by letter A ). a precisely and cruelly cruelly and precisely a –

this is suicide, and and suicide, is this –

reason’ (Boobyer these are on your areon these 90 ed in the West Chronicle of Chronicle ).

–

such a such , the The CEU eTD Collection of t position the challenged and evidence, and proof demanded accountable, power the hold did: they what protest genuine a represented they Nevertheless, is document samizdat defenders one, following the tradition of Russian intelligentsia. The discourse of many of the Soviet right moral essentially an as conceived often was affair whole The accountable. regime the hold to t on and law Soviet the of letter the Iton relied laws. own its choice cons was that – respect to power Soviet the challenged samizdat movement rights human the Overall, situation the in choice the for responsible be to refused dissidents the situation, this In the KGB itself. he authorities by importance asserting the oflegality tructed by the other agent and shifted the responsibility to the architect of this this of architect the to responsibility the shifted and agent other the by tructed

very close the official discourse of the Soviet communism. communism. Soviet the of discourse official the close very

34

–

not simply by what they said, but also by by also but said, they what by simply not he international human rights law law rightshuman international he –

albeit a socialist one. socialist albeit a

- CEU eTD Collection non of especially inth texts the in trope prominent a also was West’ the to return ‘The norms. international the to rule Soviet the of adherence and Russification, of reversal democrati demanded texts samizdat their motives for rejection of Soviet system and their discursive strategies. National God, Russia,and our ancestral herit youthyouth becoming is again Russian Zisserman (quoted in cosmopolitan former their thinkers; art and literature Western modern Westtern inas as in and philosophy,well religion, became history, Russian an in interest interest Their revolutionaries. became Rebels … experienced thi many were There hospitals. mental or camps labour argued nationalists, Russian youth thatthe‘Soviet was becoming Russian’: samizdat. in circulated character that of text many and resurfaced nationalism Russian the least, Not Jewish. and Lithuanian, are Tatar, Ukrainian, texts Crimean frequentnationalist Themost categories texts. of samizdat great a of emergence an in resulted regime, the of liberalization relative a with combined years, Brezhnev the of Russification unplanned, if creeping, A intellectuals. d with engineering social Stalinist ruthless of years the of legacy the and population Soviet the of composition multinational The culture. unofficial and samizdat of realm the into prohibitively Therefore high. prain ad NKVD and eportations Russian nationalist texts and text of non of text and texts nationalist Russian in believes who person a me rendered camp labour ‘the that claimed himself Osipov mid the By were ofvoicingoften discontent costs USSR, closedIn as society repressive athe such e texts originatingeBalticnations. texts from the - 1960s yesterday’s nihilist young leaders returned after serving terms in in terms serving after returned leaders young nihilist yesterday’s 1960s Chapter 4. Samizdat as a Site of Nationalist Contention Nationalist a SiteChapter of 4.Samizdatas ’s

ntoa oeain’ et ep eetet n ay nationalist a many in resentment deep left operations’ ‘national , even the most deeply felt grievances deeply werepushedeven most offstage often felt the , For instanc For age’ (Zisserman age’ s ws elcd y ainl self national by replaced was ism zation, liberalization, development of national culture, culture, national of development liberalization, zation, e, 35 - Great prominent two Ruslanov, and Osipov

Russian nationalities differ fundamentally in fundamentally differ nationalities Russian - Brodsky 2003:38). ngs that they had seen, understood, understood, seen, had they that ngs

- Brodsky 37 2003: - -

osiuns. Soviet consciousness. usa nationalities, Russian

number of nationalist of number

-

38). minorities’

its its mass -

CEU eTD Collection inte for called documents samizdat many orientation, this of part (Zisserman Japan to returned be should Islands Kuril the that argued instance, in one of his pro explicitly an took also texts samizdat Russian non policy, foreign of matters In rights. human and democracy of ideals Western the with (Foucault and pervade Oushakine) texts. samizdat theCrimean Tatar resistance mimetic of strategy the and means, discursive regime’s the of adoption socialism, the and loyalty to the USSR and the Soviet laws. It was against the ‘violations’ of the Socialist legality proclaims 45) (AS Declaration the of text The birthday. Lenin’s commemorate to held was socialism to loyalty stressed the of discourse The deportation. original Tashkent to away sent were they injury, to insult h their to return to allowed be to ask to wanted They Union. Soviet the of Party Communist the of Committee Central the petition to order in cameInrepresentatives toMoscow oftheTatars return over Crimean 800 tothe Crimea. 1968 still were they although Tatars, Crimean the ‘rehabilitated’ USSR the of Council as Supreme the of Presidium the of stigmatized Decree the 1967 5, September on Only was ‘traitors’. nation whole The died. Tatars Crimean of thousands aftermath its in both Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar samizdat texts. The deportation started on 18 May 19 Tatars Crimean the of It signatories. 118 described the brutal dispersal of demonstration in However, The declaration of the representatives of the Crimean Tatars to the world public (AS 45) ‘transgressions of Stalinism’ that they ostensibly protested. The marked loyalty to the the to loyalty marked The protested. ostensibly they that Stalinism’ of ‘transgressions

the was Crimean Tatars as well as other non other as well as Tatars Crimean

public public as

one of the first available documents documents available first the of one a ‘genocide’ letters explicitly condemned Soviet aggression in Afghanistan and and Soviet power. The abovementioned demonstration in Chirik in demonstration abovementioned The power. Soviet and .

This

rhetoric strategy that will become a staple topic of of topic staple a become will that strategyrhetoric early early 36

omeland. All of them were det were them of All omeland.

: Uzbekistan was the chief destination of the of destination chief the was Uzbekistan : Chirik Chirik in Uzbekistan rma Ttr ouet i mre b a by marked is documents Tatar Crimean - Western position. Mustafa Dzhemilev, for Dzhemilev, Mustafa position. Western - Russian Soviet nationalities sided nationalities Soviet Russian that

classified Stalin’s Stalin’s classified rnational institutions to play to institutions rnational

- Brodsky 2003: 41). As a As 41). 2003: Brodsky

on 21 April 1968. It ha de facto not allowed to allowed not facto de ained. To add add To ained. deportation 44 and d -

CEU eTD Collection socialism as a whole, but rather with the ‘true Leninism’ and its contribution to the development organization one(AS was 281 a communist samizdat The Crimean Tatar activists in Uzbekistan was cast as the founding of a true Leninist Youth Union. Mustaf 922). (AS fashion’ Leninist truly in Tatars genuine 1 (AS War Tatars Crimean the of Representatives Civil the in victory Bolshevik the to contributed had that before even and War, World Second the during Army Red the in fought bravelynationals Congress Party XXIII the The 969). (AS camp labour Soviet a in imprisonment his during even socialism to Dziuba spoke of the Ukrainian ‘socialist nation’ (AS 914) and V. of the organizat Workers and Peasants in Ukraine in a letter to the Soviet authorities stressed that the programme Levka 912). (AS communism’ ‘our that stated dissidents 1964, In degree. some in move rhetorical this employed ( Marxism of ideals the to loyalty professed It one. rights human the did as power Soviet the to loyalty also were oftentargeted,fore and so was public’ ‘world generic A organizations. rights human and Nations United the to appeals their with documents circulated example, for Tatars Crimean issues. their arbiterin of role the peregiby Initially, the national minorities samizdat deployed the same strategy of ostentatious of strategy same the deployed samizdat minorities national the Initially, oee, h national the However,

Leninist nationality policy and the lack of desire to solve the question of Crimean of question the solve to desire of lack the and policy nationality Leninist - . kana, rma Ttr Ltuna, rein ad Tatar and Armenian, Lithuanian, Tatar, Crimean Ukrainian, ). Leninism and allegedly sough allegedly and Leninism - circulated circulated ion was based on the principles of Marxism

etr o eea Grigorenko General to Letter by a group of Crimean Tatars activists was stressing that their co their that stressing was activists Tatars Crimean of group a by

ie cn ev a a eape f deec t te da of ideas the to adherence of example an as serve can lives minorities

uinno h ato o te rgam o te no of Union the of programme the of author the Lukianenko ign communist andsocialistparties. communist ign complained that they face ‘constant aberrations ‘constant face they that complained t only to correct ‘deformations’ and ‘transgressions’ and ‘deformations’ correct to only t ’

aidt et ascae hmevs o wt the with not themselves associate texts samizdat ).

37

Dhmlvs tep t uie young unite to attempt Dzhemilev’s a The -

Leninism (AS 906). Similarly, Ivan y zeie srse ta the that stressed Dzhemilev by

Appeal

Chornovil Chornovil stressed his loyalty

by Ukrainian nationalist Ukrainian by 7) A 877).

- ahi texts Bashkir Statement of of Statement Appeal to to Appeal of the - CEU eTD Collection 3600). (AS Marxism of application practical of d an system Soviet the of functioning the of with Musta confused be to (not Dzhemilev Reshat activist Tatar 1979, In 3381). (AS murder’ of apology Marxism the characterized 1975 in instance, for Marchenko, Leni and disappear, sincere, or discourse by nationalist dissidents became more frequent. Allegations of loyalty, whether ritual Zisserman Stalin, Beria, or Voroshilov, but is an outcome of the totali as such individuals of deeds evil the from result not did tragedy ‘our itself: system the from is’ (AS 491). Another appeal by a group of Crimean Tatars claimed that their persecution stems p Soviet the of face true and the is what know to world the all make terror will we and lawlessness, of history the write to able be will we day ‘one that hope the expressed Tatars some of the sami producerswho hadextremelyrepressive tooperateinan system. staying time same the at demands, their of fulfilment the demand to means a As history. Soviet the in operations’. Henc in employed State Soviet the policy when the affirmative action dominated over more brutal means of social nationalities engineering that Soviet the of Age Golden the be to dissidents nationalist many by considered literature, national an of museums, ballet, opera, theatre, publication of development languages, national in schooling for encouragement nation sponsored that 2003) of their national cultures. Indeed, the Soviet Union was an ‘affirmative However, the wholesale rejection of Soviet ‘totalitarian system’ was also present in in present also was system’ ‘totalitarian Soviet of rejection wholesale the However, loyal to the regime, it was invaluable for the Soviet nationalist dissidents andsamizdat dissidents the Soviet nationalist for itwasregime, invaluable tothe loyal - Brodsky 2003: 57). Starting from the 1970s, the rejection of the official Soviet Soviet official the of rejection the 1970s, the from Starting 57). 2003: Brodsky fa Dzhemilev) similarly argued that the deportation of Crimean Tatar was the result zdat zdat documents of the national minorities. An appeal to the UN from Crimean e, ofa thejuxtaposition ‘good - building on an unprecedented scale, providing subsidies and state state and subsidies providing scale, unprecedented an on building

n ceases to be the ultimate authority in matters political. Valer political. matters authorityin ultimate the be to ceases n h 1930s the - 1940s 38

Leninism

–

terror, deportations, and NKVD ‘national ‘national NKVD and deportations, terror, d national intelligentsia. The 1920s were were 1920s The intelligentsia. national d ’ tarian system as a whole’ (quoted in

and - ‘ eiim s te ot brutal most ‘the as Leninism bad

Stalinism’ had some roots

action action empire’ (Martin: ower y CEU eTD Collection originating conservative samizdat nationalist remarkable is It commune. peasant Russian of Gemeinschaft lost the for nationalism, combined with Slavophile sentiments, ideas of Russian exceptionality, an aut and essaythe (quoted inZissermann moral from stems meaning self Russian the for unnecessary and alien deeply been have majority arithmetical an of democracy political and parliamentarism, as castigated thespiritof inimical to argued nation. Russian Ruslanov thatthe were Marxism and intelligentsia’, ‘treacherous Westernization, group. this theRussian in the Youth History s nationalist Russian of most hues, political all of dissidents by produced texts of variety wide a was there altogether. earliest the among in are text samizdat nationalist Nevertheless, claims. the of substantiation moral the in and narratives historical national primordialists of reproduction the in particularly, in remained, regime the 1980s. bythe dissidents nationalist the by rejected largely was claims their substantiate to discourse official the on reliance and resistance’ ‘mimetic of period the up, sum To 2076). (AS have’ inhabitants its rights what decides KGB which in Mykola amizdat periodical amizdat hority are conspicuously absent. The discourse of The tropes of blood, soil, national spirit, community, resurgence, and decadence pervade Soc aims. its in nor origins in neither national is idea revolutionary Russian

usa ainls txs n aidt exhibit samizdat in texts nationalist Russian Sagaidak even proclaimed in the Ukrainian Herald that the USSR was a ‘fas

text

Veche s

were of a conservative, anti conservative, a of were

Veche texts in general. Unlike many other dissident texts, references to Lenin as Lenin referencesto texts, dissident other many Unlike general.in texts - Brodsky 2003:45). was a primary example of this category. Ivan Ruslanov’s essay Ruslanov’s Ivan category. this of example primary a was - spiritual grounds, has nothing in common wi common in nothing has grounds, spiritual

that was in published pcmn rjcig omns ad oit ideology Soviet and Communism rejecting specimens - consciousness. The Russian commune, whose economic whose commune, Russian The consciousness.

- s Western, and outright reactionary character. character. reactionary outright and Western,

39 of

Veche ed the

Veche variety were among werevariety dissidents thefirst

a very different discourse. Although Although discourse. different very a

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is close to

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the classical Romantic th the socialist cell cell socialist the th

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CEU eTD Collection his wrote Solzhenitsyn Aleksandr civilization’. ‘Western the of capacity the appraises also it but communism, of example of a Russian text of a different character. Its Program is marked by a complete rejection All the laws was for choice notaliberaldemocracy. thebest Russia, (Zisserman nation’ Russian dying the of issue the than moment historical concrete this in prominence less given be that, should USSR the in right human all of problem the even that for believe I freedom…. return In life. depreciated faith, the undermined nobility, and honour debasedits spirit,national the Russia‘dulled of Westernization the arguedthat Osipov degene Patriots come down on ‘rootless cosmopolites’ hard enough. Ideologically similar Stalinism. of appraisal and ideas, example of this strand in dissident movement. Its members combined anti group samizdat in texts nationalist and democratizationcommunization inpost (2011) Darden (cf. one Communist the displacing of capable one only content, the nationalist seem to did away with it altogether. Nationalist discourse seem to be the offici the copying (Oushakine), samizdat’ of mimicry communism reject to able were who - Russian Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People the of Liberation the for Union Christian Social Russian ’, ain n smlaeul is tmls (Zissermann stimulus’ its simultaneously and ration

The attitude to the West was a point of contention among the Russian nationalists. The The nationalists. Russian amongthe contention of point awas West the to attitude The but widespread very not a however, was, There

hs ars ws eotd n h Crnce f urn Eet i 1969 in Events Current of Chronicle the in reported was arrest whose argued that ‘democracy in its egalitarian variant has proved to be both the result of result the both be to proved has variant egalitarian its in ‘democracy that argued - Brodsky 2003: 48). Osipov and his group believed th connecting Letter to the Soviet Leader Soviet the to Letter –

h srnt o ntoait rdto t te ucs o de of success the to tradition nationalist of strength the a mix of Stalinism and G Stalinism and of mix a

The only mistake of Stalin was, according to Fetisov, not to not Fetisov, to according was, Stalin of mistake only The

altogether - socialist Europe).socialist 40 . While many other texts exhibit a ‘terrifying a exhibit texts other many While .

s in 1973 in al discourse in its structure, if not in its in not if structure, its in discourse al reat an - an Russian nationalism. The nationalism. Russian

(Solzhenitsyn 1974) (Solzhenitsyn -

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at authoritarianism observing by -

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and - CEU eTD Collection and not to present the past as logical and inevitable prelude to the present, the conservative turn Aleksandr that in contemporary Russia similar ideas are expressed by fascist figures noted be must it discourses, Russian contemporary and Soviet of comparison a not is research i Habsburg Empire. the old Great ma to strength the have not does Russia that acknowledging, Ukraine, of independence arguedpassionately Solzhenitsyn nation. distinct a constitute Ukrainians the that nevertheless, the against was He world’. ‘Russian the of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, for him, were anot part of thi state. national a into itself turn and empire of burden the off cast should Russia that argued SolzhenitsynUkrainea considered part tobehistorically of the territory. Russian he However, policy be should non 18 the of reforms Petrine in with described standardized and diabolic, materialistic, Solz Unlike values for Russia. However, he meaningful hoped that the West would be able as to overcome these problems. materialism and cities, if growth industrialization, development, economic West the with race the of out Soviet the disliked He liberal. communism, but he a did not want Russia to be Westernized either. Instead, he being preferred it to opt from far was Solzhenitsyn West, the in acclaim s beso wt ‘eeeain ad dcdn dmcay. lhuh h sbet f this of subject the Although democracy’. ‘decadent and ‘degeneration’ with obsession ts The rhetorical repertoire of these texts is reminiscent of the text of classical fascism with well. as dissidents Russian the of many to interest of was question Ukrainian The Prokhanov, Prokhanov, henitsyn, - Russian Russian chauvinist myth about the construction of the Ukrainian language by the Veche

- interference in the problems of the (AS West’ 1013).interference inthe problems Veche and . The Russian revolution was rejected accordingly, and so were so and accordingly, rejected was revolution Russian The . th

Zakhar century. Osipov argued that ‘the key point of the Russian foreign Russian the of point key ‘the that argued Osipov century.

authors despised the West. Decrepit, bourgeois, decadent, weak, weak, decadent, bourgeois, Decrepit, West. the despised authors altogether. In a classical Slavophile style he rejected forced forced rejected he style Slavophile classical a In altogether. Prilepin. it While is important not to succumb to presentism –

hs wr te ptes etr sceis were societies Western epithets the were these intain the empire but he nevertheless reproduced nevertheless he but empire the intain 41

s but ‘burden’ an integral part like

Aleksandr Dugin,

the the CEU eTD Collection the embrace however, there is a marked difference between these two groups: while non and Russians the both by regime system ratherthe outright,but attempts toimpose necessarily the rejected as they However, didnot alien toChristianity. the Soviet Communism the Russian soul Motherland’ the Toward article his in Osipov communism. to attitude negative strongly a exhibited samizdat nationalist Russian the Overall, well. as USSR the in samizdat in circulated was integral part of Russian culture. Apart from local material, the émigré periodical Zemlia one Osipov, publications. Orthodox Russian the especially category, nationalist the to adjacent are texts religious this of manystudy, this of subject primarya not is it Although persecution. religious liberal democracy 3256). (AS of visions ‘utopian’ a wrote variety, liberal a of dissidents Russian the of democracy and against ‘Savophile myths’ favour in argued and Solzhenitsyn with disagreed dissident, Soviet famous another Sakharov, past. propagand its of rhetoric nationalist the and Russia contemporary of

. It argued from the positions close to Veche, but emphasized more Christianity as an an as Christianity more emphasized but Veche, to close positions the from argued It . To sum up, the samizdat also served as a site of nationalist contestation of the Soviet Soviet the of contestation nationalist of site a as served also samizdat the up, sum To w samizdat in strand separate A world. the of view this to subscribed documents samizdat Russian all means no By

Blut und Boden und Blut f h mjr otiuos o the to contributors major the of

(AS 1844) Veche

criticized Marxism and Communism as for as Communism and Marxism criticized . Religious Orthodox samizdat texts also, unsurprisingly, castigated and conservative Russian nationalists and argued in favour of a a of favour in argued and nationalists Russian conservative and

variety of romantic nationalism combined with Slavophile ideas, Slavophile with combined nationalism romantic of variety

- as constituted by texts concerned with religion and and religion with concerned texts by constituted as Russian nationalities alike. In terms of discourse, discourse, of terms In alike. nationalities Russian

(Zisserman 42 Veche

atheism.

Letter to Russian Patriots Patriots Russian to Letter aaie satd n 94 periodical a 1974 in started magazine, - Brodsky 2003: 179)

a have roots in the Soviet the in roots have a eign impositions alien to alien impositions eign the Russian texts mainly . Soldat ‘Three Attitudes Attitudes ‘Three Ve stnik rejected the the rejected ov, one of

RSKhD

CEU eTD Collection liberalisation, rights. and human the et o ntoa mnrte ae retd oe oad te Western the towards more oriented are minorities national of texts

43

- tl democracy, style CEU eTD Collection ample an is there hand, one the On nicely. this illustrates system Soviet the with collaboration studies. Soviet the in turn revisionist 1970s the least, out long is itself model totalitarian the course, Of believe. to us have would submission of the Soviet citizens to the system has never been as complete as totalitarian model grotesque past national the reexamining history of professors favor their in relations industrial manipulating workers from publishing, t than separateness’ of Western intheir rhetoric. to the discourse of human rights and democracy, Russian nationalist were anti texts. While Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar national movements framed Russian and own Politburo’ samizdat and was fulfilling the dream of Soviet dissidents by becoming firstthe dissident in his Andr 1996 in hand, other the On perceived as misguided individuals who had helped the W mostly are they Russia today’s in and change significant a undergone has dissidents of image years deprived the dissident samizdat practices of their status of a powerful resistance act. The per in regime Soviet the of softening the him, around reformers the and Gorbachev ultimately ending in defeat. Although the language of the dissidents have been appropriated by The living citizens Soviet themanagedmore under regime ‘islands toarticulate far had national and Ethnic c The ‘living outside’ ‘living national onventional story of the Soviet dissent would have it as a long heroic struggle struggle heroic long a as it have would dissent Soviet the of story onventional

(Boobbyer 2005 minorities’ e oaiain oe evsgd Fo eeya sdto t samizdat to sedition everyday From envisaged. model totalitarian he

(Yurchak 2006) (Yurchak

sus ee mjr ie f otsain f h Sve regime. Soviet the of contestation of site major a were issues : 251) nationalists nationalists developed two distinct discourses in their samizdat ei Sinyavsky ei .

to heroic demonstration on the Red Square Square Red the on demonstration heroic to Conclusions

44 observed that ‘Gorbachev simply read his fill of fill his read simply ‘Gorbachev that observed

The ambiguities of the resistance and and resistance the of ambiguities The Bre 20; ubn 1991) Husband 2007; (Berger est to ‘brought down a great country’. their demands according

fashion - Flzr 1992) (Filtzer modern and anti –

since, at since, estroika estroika , from from , –

the the to to - CEU eTD Collection crypto as Union Soviet the of inhabitants the represent to thought of school totalitarian and with the discourse of the regime is partly a methodological one. It was a tradition of Sovietology that theSoviet power failed touprootdespiteenormous its efforts. dissent wereof voices still excellence,they par liberal not were voices dissentingalthoughthe ma never It believed. observers contemporary contributed had it a couple yearsof of perestroika and the nationalist mobilization of the glasnost’ years to which national the of reexamination thorough and rapid the it, of version official the supplement to reproduced they which and clung dissidents the which to culture’ ‘world reinven the thought, philosophical the of reemergence spontaneous the hand, other the On socialism. examples. Everyday dissent and sedition were also bound by the discursive power of the Soviet int and suspicion, mood, the to dissimilar not were to the strived defenders rights human The best. at limited was publishers samizdat ‘independent’ of autonomy discursive the that suggests samizdat’ mimicked effectively the of merits Soviet Union in Orwellian terms the in 2000) Krylova (see subject liberal of tenacity the and liberal, necessarily not was subjectivity Soviet dissenters to be some kind of crypto evidence that contradicts the totalitarian v

Soviet Soviet studies is indeed a cardinal sin of the discipline. There is a tendency to see the the see to tendency a is There discipline. the of sin cardinal a indeed is studies Soviet The question whether or not tion of the philosophical tradition and skepticism, the resilience of the remnants of the the of remnants the of resilience the skepticism, and tradition philosophical the of tion

laws; the individual dissenters expressed their moral protest from the 1984 . However, as Oushakine (2001) claims the unoffic the claims (2001) Oushakine as However, . –

all this suggest that the Soviet state was much more brittle than the the than brittle more much was state Soviet the that suggest this all –

n amplified and olerance among some of the dissidents rivaled the worst Soviet Soviet worst the rivaled dissidents the of some among olerance Moral Code of the Builder of Communism of Builder the of Code Moral –

all too understandable because of the artistic and sociological the

declaratio –

ision. ision. On the other the official discourse. This ‘terrifying mimicry of of mimicry ‘terrifying This discourse. official the - liberals rejectingliberals the system wholesale. The Soviet 45 naged to control the population entirely, and and entirely, population the control to naged

ns of loyalty represent a genuine identification to hold the Soviet authorities accountable authorities Soviet the hold to

hand,

it it is perilous to consider the

; and the witch the and ; ial samizdat activities samizdat ial

histories after only only after histories positions positions that - hunting hunting -

CEU eTD Collection crypto as attempts such that is suspicion this for reason source the to penetrate to attempts the Likewise, performance. through created is that one the than rather lies. Judith Butler mean ‘true’ the which on level fundamental through this discursive mediation. However, I question the possibility to find some deeper, more repertoire of dissent and it give it language, meaning, and structure. The protest was performed Christianity Leninism, true ideology, Slavophile the genocide, and martyrdom national of rhetoric the rights, human quo, status the with dissi dissatisfaction or protest express to order In dissent’. of ‘repertoire the dissidents’ mimicking as irrelevant. ofthe official discourse theproclamationsloyalty of reason dismiss to truth,thereisno perspective tothe iscloser Whatever 44). 2003: (Scott it puts aptly he as mask’, the fit to grows face ‘the domination: continuousthat routine and of case ‘mimetic resistance’ a (Foucault), then it possible and to argue with trick the anthropologist James C. a Scott just was rhetoric regime the of use the if Even well. as USSR Stalin Soviet the Although basis. find its era, Stalin’s the communist on focuses debate subjectivity new a on selves their reconstruct to sought and regimethe with activelythemselves associated citizens Soviet the of part least at suggeststhat Sovi the Current subjects themselves. on Soviet scholarship wrote over whatthe the regime’s rhetoric. However, there is no ground to privilege speculations of Western scholars cyni liberals, dents need to draw on the discourse other than a mere dissatisfaction. The Soviet law, the the law, Soviet The dissatisfaction. mere a than other discourse the on draw to needdents The case of the Soviet samizdat suggest the importance of what I propose to call the the call to propose I what of importance the suggest samizdat Soviet the of case The - iea i dsus wo unnl epo reoia tik i or in tricks rhetorical employ cunningly who disguise in liberal of discontent, to reveal its true basis is futile and methodologically suspect. The The suspect. methodologically and futile is basis true its reveal to discontent, of cally disguising their own views under the cover of demonstrative acceptance of of acceptance demonstrative of cover the under views own their disguising cally

(2004) – famously argued that there is no gender identity deeper and more basic

hs ae ut fw xmls f h discourses the of examples few a just are these performance of rituals of subjection leads to the real acceptance of performance ofsubjectionthereal to acceptance ofrituals leads of ing of protest, dissent, and contestation of power power of contestation and dissent, protest, of ing 46 usually

lead to the portrayal of Soviet dissident Soviet of portrayal the to lead ing has some implications for the post the for implications some has ing

that structure the the structure that e to der et subjectivity protect protect

and and - CEU eTD Collection capacity compl into citizens tomould this of limits the to points apparatus security state colossal a and struggle of decades despite dissent eradicate to system Soviet the of failure The citizens. its of subjectivity the shape to (Oushakine texts samizdat of mimicry’ samizdat texts employed the rhetoric of the regime to challenge the regime itself. The ‘terrifying op political every that imagine should we that demonstrate dissent Soviet the of case undoubtedly, qualify as Western subjectivity liberal of ascription casual A seriously. more system socialist Soviet of ideals and norms the taking in consisted ( thinking’ itself. regime the against tools rhetorical as them using and norms socialist the with authors the of identification the see we again, Once itself. system the a Gorbachev openness introduce communism against alone both unwarranted and ahistorical. is subjectivity liberal of ascription casual Such regime. Soviet oppressive the from themselves gain. It was believed to be necessary to amend the ‘transgressions’ of the system oe a ersie system repressive a poses The protest of many dissidents was not directed against the Soviet system as such, let such, as system Soviet the against directed not was dissidents many of protest The inakomysliashchie –

was considered tobea means prevent to the horrors of Stalinism from happening (‘glasnost’ . Their goal was to do away with the practice of closed trials and to and trials closed of practice the with away do to was goal Their .

) were thinking differently from the ruling elite, this difference this elite, ruling the from differently thinking were )

s eesrl a iea oe Mr otn hn o, icus of discourse not, than often More one. liberal a necessarily is ). This ). - style liberals, a vast majority appears to be very different. The to the Soviet dissidents is misleading. While some of them, them, of some While misleading. is dissidents Soviet the to

iant supporters of power. idea of openness ( openness of idea

2012 ) is a testimony to the p the to testimony a is ) 47

glasnost’ If the Soviet dissidents, ‘other dissidents, Soviet the If

)

– ower of the modern state state modern the of ower

introduced well before before well introduced –

protes not to fight t

that - CEU eTD Collection Brodsky,Less (1986), one Joseph than (1991), B. John Thompson Pierre Bourdieu, (1990), Pierre Bourdieu, Boobbyer, Philip (2005), Bhabha, Homi K.(1990), (2008), Stefan Berger, (2007), Stefan Berger, Benson, Michell (2002), R. Mark Beissinger, Bab L. J. (1962),Austin, J. Warnock G. L. J. Austin, (1975), (1991), Benedict Anderson, Liudmila(1985), Alekseeva, Adut, Ari'A th (2012), Theory of for Standard Shared A Validity: 'Measurement (2001), David Collier, and Robert Adcock, bie, Earl R. (2001), R. Earl bie, British Journal of Political Journalof Science,British (Cambridge, Cambridge York: UK;University New Press). Learning). nationalism and humanrights 529 Qualitative and Quantitative Research', Polity). Polity). Routledge). histories Macmillan). - 46.

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Russian Review,Russian Red Square atnoon

(London: Penguin). (Cambridge, University 162p. Mass.:Harvard Press) x, xt vie ad oat : epne t dcie n firms, in decline to responses : loyalty and voice, Exit,

(Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Blackwell). USA: Mass.,

n (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT(Cambridge, Press). Mass.: my m my

kaido University). kaido

(Los Ang (Los 50 ind:

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Asia Studies, agae counter Language,

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(Cambridge; New New (Cambridge;

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56 (4), 571

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(Sapporo, - memory, memory,

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33. - 94. nto

CEU eTD Collection Oliver, Pamela E. and Meyer, Daniel J. (1999), 'How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, (1996), D. Lawrence Kritzman, Pierre; Nora, of Idea the and Vol'Pin Aleksandr Reason: of Dictatorship 'The (2007), Benjamin Nathans, SaraMills, (2010), (1975), Aleksandrovich Roy Medvedev, Mar Mauss, (2001), Terry Martin, Mandelstam, Nadezhda (1970), (1999), Rainer Lindner, Krylova, Anna (2 IlkoKowalczuk, (2008 Anna Komaromi, Culture', Soviet Late of Field Unofficial 'The (2007), Anna Komaromi, Komaromi, 'Samizdat Ann (2012), and Soviet Dissident Publics', S Soviet of Existence Material 'The (2004), Ann Komaromi, L.(1986), Marc Miller, Jerome; Kirk, Kind - Kovács, Friederike (2013), FriederikeKovács, Weissrussland 20. im19.und andEurasian in Russian History, 1985 629 605 597 SageHills: Publications). and after socialism Journal ofSociology, Events', Public of Coverage Newspaper Local in Sponsorship and Location, (New University Columbia York: Press). Rights"Developed Socialism"', under Distributed byHouse). Random archaic societies Union, 1923 - - - 67. 29. 618. e Evans cel - 1989 : eine Dokumentation

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(Ithaca; London: (Ithaca; CornellUniversity Press).

(New York:Books). Berghahn

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( London Routledge). [u.a.]: 5 (1), 38 Vospominaniya Freiheit :politischerinderDDR Samisdat undÖffentlichkeit

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(München: R. Oldenbourg).(München: R. - 46.

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transnational media during during media transnational - Gesellschaft).

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the French past French the

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Poetics Today,

Polish dissident publications : an annotated an : publications dissident Polish

resistance : hidden transcripts (New Haven:

(Moscow).

(Reading, Mass.: Addison

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(New York: Harper Harper York: (New

(Beverly Hills, Calif.: oiia Research Political - 28.

-

(13(2)), 191 (13(2)), Wesley Pub. L ibraries ibraries & -

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(Berkeley: InstituteInternatio(Berkeley: of

of Samizdat Material',of Samizdat The revolution betrayedThe Everything was forever, until it was no more: the last Soviet generation Hungary's negotiated revolution : economic reform, social change, social reform, economic : revolution negotiated Hungary's The Russian new Right: right Right: new Russian The

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