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CREATING EFFECTIVE EDUCATIONAL COMPUTER GAMES FOR UNDERGRADUATE CLASSROOM LEARNING: A CONCEPTUAL MODEL

By KOWIT RAPEEPISARN* KOK WAI WONG** CHUN CHE FUNG*** MYINT SWE KHINE****

ABSTRACT When designing educational computer games, designers usually consider target age, interactivity, interface and other related issues. They rarely explore the genres which should employ into one type of . Recently, some digital game-based researchers attempt to combine game genre with learning theory. Different researcher use different pedagogy conceptions. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the appropriate computer genre in designing effective educational computer games that can be used as learning tools in Thai undergraduate classrooms by integrating the learning conceptions from the previous work of those researchers. The following steps are used to conduct this study: summarize the survey of Thai students' opinions toward game genre; analyse the characteristics of genre of computer game; match those characteristics of genre with learning theories; and propose the conceptual model from the comparison. The results of this analysis can be used as a guideline for educational computer game designers in considering appropriate genres of game for education purpose.

INTRODUCTION Software Association (Van Eck, 2005) reported that 35% of Computer and are becoming popular due game players are under the age of 18, 55% are male; to the fact that youth today are growing up with 43% are female, and 43% of game players are in the technology and playing games become part of their range of 18-49 old. From the figures, it implies that people daily activities. On average, the children between 2 and have played computer game significantly in the colleges 18 years of age spend 20-33 minutes a day playing digital and universities. But the idea of bring this educational games. Boys between the age of 8 and 13 spend the technology in tertiary level has just begun in some most time playing digital games with an average of 47 countries. Unfortunately, there is scarcely any research on minutes per day (Green & McNeese, 2007). Computer educational computer game for tertiary level in Thailand. games have taken over as the medium of choice of Game researchers also attempt to design the effective entertainment. Game as a medium is not only good for educational computer games for classroom entertainment, but also has huge potential in education. environment. Variety of aspects have brought into Game researchers like Prenskey (2001), Gikas & van Eck considerations include: gender, level of age, racial (2004), Boop (2007) and Gee (2003) confirm that diversity, number of players, and the role of teachers. computer games can be effectively used for learning Apart from these, quite a few computer game researches and teaching. Computer games can be used to give a focus on analyzing educational design with learning better form of education and can even make computers conceptions. Some examples of researchers on game- become the unique tools of learning (Jayakanthan based learning like Prenskey (2001), Gikas & van Eck (2002). Thus, the idea of use computer games for learning (2004), Boop (2007) and Gee (2003) attempt to analyze has gain more attention in recent years. game genre to support learning theory. The question follows is “what appropriate game genres can be used for Education games have been widely used in school both education purpose?” This paper attempts to answer this in primary and secondary levels. The Interactive Digital question.

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Consequently, the authors conducted a survey of the Thai ten year National IT Policy for the period 2001-2010 called students from four universities, two private and two public, IT2010. IT 2010 identified five main goals that have to be which are both in metropolitan and regional areas. developed as follow: e-Society, e-Education, e- Nineteen participants are interviewed with the above Government, e-Commerce, and e-Industry. questions. Participants provide variety opinions. Most of In e-Education aspect, educators tend to concentrated them claim that selection of appropriate game genres on what a specific ICT technology can and cannot do for for learning is based on the learning contents and subject education. Even though many of the technologies have areas. Thus, the authors carry on this finding by further similar characteristics, one technology may have investigating the learning conceptions. Subsequently, it different potentials depending on the purpose for using it comes up with four sub-query concern with learning (Haddad and Jurich, 2002). As illustrates in Table 1, theories which will relate to and be supported by the Personal Computer and Internet have high flexibility and game genre. They are (1) what should learner learn from high interactivity. each particular genre? (2) what levels of the learner's It is observed that while gaming industry in Thailand is intellectual skills to reach these learning objectives? (3) growing rapidly, computer games are not widely used for what should be the matter or subject to reach these teaching in tertiary institutions. objectives and match the characteristic of particular 2 . Genre of Computer Games in Education Environment genre?, and (4) what kinds of learner should learn this Computer game genres have been organized in many learning content and use particular genre? Hence, the ways. Computer game experts classified them in various learning theories of Bloom-learning objectives (Bloom categories. Crawford (1984) divides genres of computer (1956), Gangé-learning capabilities (Gagne, Briggs & game into 2 broad groups: (1) Skill-and-action games Wager (1992), Prensky-learning content (Prenskey (2001) included Combat Skill-and-action games: Combat and Honey and Mumford-learning styles (Honey & Games, Maze Games, Sports Games, Paddle Games, Mumford, 1992) have been examined to answer question Race Games; and (2) Strategy games comprised of 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Eventually, the conceptual Adventures, D&D Games, Wargames, Games of Change, model of game genre that supports the learning theories Educational and children games, and Interpersonal have been proposed as a guideline for designing Games. Bergeron (2006) concludes that the standard effective educational computer games. This paper will genre of game encompass Action; Adventure; Arcade begin with the overview of IT and digital game markets in (Retro); Combat (Fighting); Driving; First-Person Shooter Thailand in order to pave the background of how the (FPS); Shooter; Multiplayer; Puzzle; Real-Time game industry in Thailand is growing. This is followed by the (RTS); Role Playing Game (RPG); Shooter, genres of games in education environment, and game Simulation; Sneaker; Sports; Strategy; Third-Person Shooter genre supported pedagogy theories. (TPS); Trivia and Turn-Based. While Prensky (2001) affirms 1. Overview of IT and Digital Game Markets in Thailand that computer game generally recognized into eight The computer gaming industry in many countries has genres consist of action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role- become bigger than other entertainment business such as movies and music. The digital game industry in Technology Outreach Flexibility Sensorial Interactivity Stimulation Thailand is also expanding considerably with the Radio High Limited Audio only Limited government support under the National IT plan Television High Limited Audiovisual Limited (Thuvasethkul and Koanantakool, 2002). IT 2000 has Video Low High Audiovisual Limited Computer Low High Audiovisual High provided the framework and guideline for IT policies and Internet Highest High Audiovisual High initiative for five years. After that the National IT Table 1. ICT and their potential for education Committee (NITC) has conduct a research and develop a (Haddad and Jurich, 2002)

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playing, simulation, sports and strategy games. Most Game Explanation of Genre Example of game title genre games fall within a particular category. Some bridge Action The most well known genre & the largest class Beat-em-up, Survival different gaming styles and, thus, could appear under Games of computer games. Keep the player moving Horror, Unreal and involved all the times. Not require deep Tournament, Doom, more than one category simultaneously. For instant, thinking, primary skills are hand/eye Quake, Missile coordination & quick reflexes. It is often about Command Battle, Racing, Fighting and Shooting games can be fighting, battle, shooting, racing and highly intense physical play subcategory of Action games. Strategy game may Adventure on the ATARI Adventure Focus on storytelling & narrative. Players must 2600, Gabriel Knight, include Puzzle and Adventure games on the gameplay. Games move through a complex world, Indiana Jones, Monkey accumulating tools, overcoming obstacle Island, Time Zone, Additionally, Role Play Games may be a sub-genre or until finally reaches the treasure or goal. Wizard and the Princess. Game play typically needs logical thinking & special type of Adventure games. persistence from the player. Among those genres of games, some are more popular Fighting Sub-genre of action games & is the one of Bloody Roar, Dead or Games the major computer games. Games involve Alive, Double Dragon, than others. From GMNews: Discussion on Game Genre characters who fight usually hand-to-hand, in Fight Unlimeted, Mortal one-to-one combat situations. Fighters are Kombat, Starmaster, (GMNews, 2008) some claim the First Person Shooters and represented as humans or anthropomorphic Street Fighter, Tekken, characters. The goal is to create quick bursts Virtua Fighter. Role Playing Games have pretty much dominated the of swift and intense action. market for a good few years now. Some argue that they Music Include Rhythm and Dance Games. Game Beatmania, Bust a Games play requires players to keep time with a Groove, Dance Dance don't think any genre has an advantage over the others. musical rhythm. This grouping of games is Revolution, Donkey differentiated by the timed elements usually Konga, Eyetoy Groove, There are many games of different genres that have also synched to music somehow. Many require a Guitar Freaks, Para Para specialized controller like DDR, but several Paradise, Pon 'n' Music, become very successful. According to the survey of the don't. May include controller simulating Space Channel 5. drums, turntables, guitars or maracas. games genres Thai students play from 4 universities, Puzzle Require the player to solve logic puzzle or Atari Video Cube, Devil Strategy, Role Play and Sport Games is the most popular Games navigate complex locations. Not surround Dice, Intelligent Qube, with story or actions. Most puzzles should Jigsaw, Mercury, Myst, game genre they play respectively (see Table 2). present without time pressure, but the rules Puzzle Bobble. must be clear. In summary of game genres classification in this paper, Racing Using motorized vehicle to move faster than APX skiing game they were selected and integrated from the standard Games an opponent to reach a specified goal or DOWNHILL, Dog Daze, beat a specified time. Usually racing games Indy500, Night Driver, genre categories described by Bates (2004), Burn & Carr use cars, but motorcycle, power boat, and Street Racing. flight/space racing games also exist. (2006), Wolf (2002) and genre from the research finding of Role Player assumes the roles of fictional character Anvil of Dawn, Diable, Thai students. The following category of game genre, Playing and collaboratively creates of follow stories. Dragon Lore 2, Rivers of Games The characters may include specifics such as MUD, Sacred Pools, alphabetically, provides definitions, characteristics, and species, race, gender, occupation. Or also Sunflower, Unsafe include various abilities: strength and dexterity. Haven, Zodiac. examples of game titles as illustrated in Table 3. Simulation Contain a mixture of skill, chance, and Flight simulators: strategy to simulate or try to accurately depict Microsoft Flight real world situations, physics, and events as Simulator 2000: Racing accurately as possible. There are several Simulators: NASCAR; Game genre Frequency Percentage categories of simulation games: Racing 'SIM' type: SimCity- Action 52 5.0 Simulators, Flight Simulators and ‘Sim' type Brotherbund games Adventure 52 5.0 Shooter Focus on shooting & often destroying. Asteroids, Berzerk, Battle 10 1.0 Games Sometime called Shoot-Em'-up. Requires the Centipede, Duckshot, Music (song) game 93 8.9 player to blow enemies or objects in order to Galaga, Missile survive and continue game play. Command, Starwar, Fighting 8 0.8 Tempest First Person Shooter 21 2.0 Sports Games that simulate the playing of any Tiger Woods, PGA Tour, 2 0.2 Games sporting activity. Focus on planning & NHL 2004. Puzzle 93 8.9 management. Have to know the rules right but can also let players change them. It may Racing 33 3.2 let the players to customize the game to suit Real Time Strategy 233 22.5 for themselves. Role Play Game (RPG) 216 20.8 Strategy Emphasize on thinking, rationalizing, Chess Games, Sport game 156 15.0 Games theorizing, problem-solving, etc. The focus is Civilization, Command Shooter 69 6.7 the combination of analytical skill & tactics. and Conquer, Final Require more time to play to play. Need Fantasy, Tactics, Ogre Total 1,038 100.0 balance resource just enough information Tactics, Roller Coaster provide for motivation and interest. Tycoon. *Respondents can answer more than one game genre Table 2. Game genres that Thai students from four universities play Table 3. Characteristic of game genre

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3. Computer Game Genre for Pedagogy: Thai Students' The participants think that game genres which Perspective appropriate for education environment are action Generally, game experts or game developers also games, adventure games, puzzle games, racing games, classify education game as one genre of computer role-playing games, simulation games, and sports games. Distinguish from other game genre, the games. Among those range of genres, the top three particular purpose of education game is designed to highest genres the participants think are appropriate teach or train with the explicit educational goals and namely Simulation games (42.1%), Adventure games based on an actual curriculum. The emphasis is on (31.6%) and Sport games (31.6%) respectively. teaching a specific body of knowledge. Rather than Conversely, there are three participants think that violent being structured as a straightforward set of lessons or game genre such as Fighting; Shooting Games are not exercise, these programs are structured like games, suitable to pertain in learning situation. Some argue that which such elements as scoring, timed performances, or “it is not a genre but a content that increase in violent, incentives given for correct answers. Educational games aggressive or sexual content.” However, most of them consist of variety of general game genres and it is difficult think that every genre of game can apply to educational to categorize specifically (Schiffer, 2006). Amongst game (52.6%). Among those who give this opinion different genres, researchers Quinn (1994), Roberts, indicated that it depends on the content and subject (1976), Ju & Wagner (1997) appear to concentrate on the areas of what will be taught. Subsequently, the authors two types, and adventure. Quinn (1994) pursue another question: “what subject areas do you think confirmed that the appears to provide educational computer games can best support? Why?” the best foundation of the development of teaching The results are shown in Table 5: resources. In addition Kirriemuir & McFarlane's survey In addition to the information in Table 5, six participants (2003) discovered most education games belong to the indicated that educational computer games can strategy and simulation. The question follows is: “Besides support almost every subject areas. Some of them those genres mentioned earlier, are there any genre can added the comments of game genre which is suitable for work well in education environment?” some subjects, for example, role-playing games for 'law' To answer this question, the authors have conducted the when people are in the court; simulation games for interviewing to 19 participants from four Thai universities. The results has illustrated in Table 4. Learning Content Subject areas

Communication Journalism, new report, Advertising, Tourism What game genres do you think are Frequency Percentage Experiment & Risk Human anatomy, Medical appropriate for education environment? Science, Surgery, Chemistry Action Games 1 5.2 Fact Laws, Political Science Adventure Games 6 31.6 Puzzle Games 3 15.8 Language Vocabulary, Grammar, Foreign language Racing Games 2 10.5 Management Planning, Business, Accountant Role-Playing Games 5 26.3 Simulation Games 8 42.1 Memory History, Archaeology Sports Games 6 31.6 Motor skill Sports, Physical Education Every game genres 10 52.6 Procedure Cookery Science, subjects related to 'How to' Depend on content & subject areas 5 26.3 Reasoning & Logic Mathematics, Arithmetic, *Participants can answer more than one opinion geometry Table 4. Game genres which appropriate for education environment: interview results from Thai Table 5. Subject areas which educational computer games teachers and students can best support: interview results from Thai students

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learning content which is risky or need on experimental will relate to and be supported by game genre. They are: basis. (1) What should learner learn from each particular genre In brief, the findings imply that not any particular game (learning objective)? (2) What levels of the learner's genre is the most suitable for learning and teacher. Every intellectual skills to reach these objectives (learning genre can be considered but depends on learning capability)? (3) What should be the matter or subject to content and subject areas. For further study in this matter, reach these objectives and match the characteristic of some other learning theories should take into account. particular genre (learning content)? and (4) What kinds of Those learning theories will discuss in the following section. learner should learn this learning content and what learner's behavior match the characteristics of particular 4. Game Genre and Pedagogy Theories genre (learning style)? Hence, this section will provide the To understand educational gaming and fully utilize the basic concepts of each learning theories reflect to these power of this digital technology in the classroom, several four sub-queries. The learning theories and concepts pedagogy theories need to emphasize and examine in include: Bloom's Leaning Objectives, Gagné's Learning order to develop a framework for the deployment of Capabilities, Prensky's Learning Contents, and Honey and computer games for learning. Different researchers on Mumford's Learning Style. game-based learning use different pedagogy concepts 4.1 Learning Objective to analyse games in the use of learning environment. One of these is Prensky (2001) who claimed that teachers Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives have to understand the type of learning content. Prensky includes three domains: cognitive (about knowledge), proposed the relationship of learning content, learning affective (about attitudes) and psychomotor (about activities and possible game style as shown in Table 7. doing). Among these three domains, cognitive domain is Gee (2003) also attempted with a list of 36 learning widely accepted system. It was classified into a hierarchy principles in computer games which contain 12 of skills ranging from knowledge, comprehension, principles. Gee's principles are strongly centred on the application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. He stated traditional ways of guided leaning by doing. Boop (2007) that the main reason in constructing taxonomy of proposed a framework to answer three main questions educational objectives is to facilitate communication. that are important to educational game design. These An awareness of these levels can help one determine questions are: (1) what actually is the learning purpose? (2) how well students really know course content. A hierarchy what is and should be the material used to reach these of six levels, description (learner action), and key verbs goals? and (3) how should this learning content be associate with each cognitive domain, and some learned? Boop (2007) proposed three subfields of potential IT activities are illustrated in Table 6. didactic analysis which area analysis of learning goal, 4.2 Learning Capabilities analysis of learning content, and analysis of learning and Gagné's taxonomy of learning states that there are five teaching method to answer the above three questions. major categories of learning outcome: verbal Gikas and Van Eck (2004) used theories of Gagné's information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor learning capabilities and Bloom's taxonomy to compare skills, and attitude. The five subcategories of intellectual with Bate's (2004) Game taxonomy. skills are hierarchical in nature (low level skills to high level From the above literature review, it reflects back to the skills). Intellectual skills are the capabilities that make purpose of this paper which is to answer main question: human individual competent. They enable him/her to “What is the appropriate game genre for design response to conceptualizations of his/her environment. educational computer game?” Prior to this question there Gagné's hierarchy of intellectual skills follows are four sub-queries concern with learning theories which programmed instruction since one skill must be learned

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Level Description Key verbs Potential IT activities Digital Game-Based Learning”. He claimed that teacher (Learner action) Knowledge Recall previously Define, repeat, Find answers to quiz have to understand the types of learning content. With learned material identify, list, label, question from internet different kind of learning content, teacher can see what Grasp meaning, Describe, pick, Use PowerPoint to Comprehension explain, restate choose, review, make a cartoon, or kinds of learning are really going on such as learning fact, ideas discuss, pick make a newspaper report skill, judgment, theory, reasoning, process, procedure, Application Use learned Apply, use, solve, Use Publisher to creativity, language, system, observation and material in new interpret, employ create a board situations game, make a communication. Additionally, teacher can choose storyboard of book using PowerPoint different learning activities according to particular types Identify relationships Analysis Separate Analyse, detect, between information of content. Prensky proposed the relationship of learning material into compare, inter, using the charting component test, conclude features of Excel content, learning activities and possible game type as parts & show relationship illustrate in Table 7. between parts Synthesis Pull together Arrange, create, Use Dreamweaver to 4.4 Learning Style separate ideas collect, predict, construct a web site to form a whole combine, plan, which helps solve an Learning style is useful in identifying the methods by which everyday problem Evaluation Makes Assess, decide, Use email to engage Learning content Learning Activities Possible Game Styles judgments about judge, revise, in an online forum the value of select, test debating the issues Facts: Law, politics, Questions, association, Game show competitions, materials or product memorization, drill flashcard type game, methods mnemonics Skills: interviewing, Imitation, feedback, Persistent state games, teaching, coaching, continuous Table 6. Bloom's Cognitive Objectives group by level, role-play game, detective management practice game description, key verbs and potential IT activities (Bloom, 1956; Dalton, 1986) Judgment: Reviewing cases, asking Role-play games, management, questions, feedback, multiplayer interactive, decisions, timing, coaching adventure game, strategy before another can be mastered. Five levels of learning ethics game, detective game Behaviors: Imitation, feedback, Role-play games capabilities are illustrated in Figure 1. supervision, self- coaching, practice control, setting 4.3 Learning Contents example Logic, experimentation, Theories: marketing Open ended simulation questioning Prensky discussed about how to combine gameplay and rationales, how games, building game, people learn construction games learning in his paper “Computer Games and Learning: Problems, examples Reasoning: Puzzle strategic & tactical Combining lower level rules to solve problems thinking, quality in a situation never encountered by the person analysis Problem solving solving the problem. May involve generating System analysis & new rules which receive trial and error use until Process: Auditing, Strategy game, adventure Involve the formation of strategy creation deconstruction, practice games one that solves the problem is found. Imitation, practice, play Combining of more simple rules to more Procedure: Timed games, reflex Higher-order rules assembly, bank games order rules complex. These rules are invented to the purpose of solving a practical problem. teller, legal which require as prerequisites Creativity: Play Puzzle, invention games Performing a kind of 'regularity' over a invention, product variety of specific situations. Learners can design Rules and defined concept define concept when they can Role-play games, reflex Language: Imitation, continuous games, flashcard games demonstrate the meaning of some acronyms, foreign practice, immersion particular class of objects, events, or language which require as prerequisites relations. Systems: health Understanding principles, Simulation games care, markets, Identifying an object property and object graduated tasks refineries Concrete concepts attributes (colour, shape, etc.). Such concepts are called concrete because Observation: Observing, feedback the human performance they require is models, morale, Concentration games, adventure games which require as prerequisites recognition of a concrete object Learners inefficiencies, are able to identify it by name or other ways problems Role-play games, reflex Communication: Imitation, practice games Discriminations Making different responses to the different appropriate members of a particular class. Learners language, can see the essential different between involvement inputs and responding differently to each. Table 7. Summary of Prensky's Learning Content, Figure 1. Gagne's intellectual skills of learning capabilities Learning Activities and possible Game Styles

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LearningLearning Style Style Learning Style Learning people prefer to receive information from their Playing game 1. Activist Learning Activities behavior 1Activist Activities 1Activist environment and undertake their learning. Among the R2.2Reflector eflectorReflector Theorists3Theorists 3.Pragmatics Theorists learning style which classified as experiential, Honey and Using 4Pragmatics PossiblePossible computer game genres computer game genres Mumford learning style is one of the well known behaviorbehavior 4. Pragmatics experiential learning. These learning styles are easy to Figure 2. Conceptual model of relationship of learning styles, learning activities and possible game genres remember, widely understand, accepted and used by most learners. Honey and Mumford (1992) classified The list of game genres from the survey are classified into learners into activist, reflector, theorist, and pragmatist. 13 genres according to that Thai students play (as shown The four styles, as shown in Table 8. in Table 3). Those genres are somehow overlap and some can be classified as sub-genre of another. For There is an attempt to integrate learning style with game example, Action Games fall into things that have to shoot, genre as appeared in Rapeepisarn (2008) and or race; Battle Games can be sub-genre in Fighting Dondlinger (2007). They proposed a new conceptual Games; Music Games may take variety of forms and model of relationship between game genre, learning often group with Puzzle Games due to their common use activities and learning style by bridging the gap between of “rhythmically generated puzzles”. Thus, in this paper the Prensky (2001) and Chong's et al (2005) studies. They game genres are regrouped into 8 categories and are argued that Prensky choose all standard game compared to learning objectives, learning capabilities, categories of computer games matching with learning learning contents, and learning style as a model shown in activities and learning content, but lack of the Figure 3 and Table 9. comparison with learning style of the users. While Chong and others investigated the behaviour of each learning Discussion style while playing game, but only three different game Good educational computer games provide not only an genres are studies. Rapeepisarn and others' model is attractive context for engaging learners in activities, but illustrated in Figure 2. also need to deliver substantive educational content to

Learning Characteristics Play Game Behavior achieve learning objectives. Educational computer Styles games require strategizing, hypothesis testing, or Immerse in new experience, Prefer working as a team, Activists enjoy here & now, open being a group leader, Be problem-solving, usually with higher order thinking than minded, flexible, enthusiastic, able to brainstorm to solve Seek to centre activity around the problems repeated memorization or simple comprehensive themselves (Dondlinger, 2007). However, in creating effective Reflectors Stand back & ob- serve, Go through the important cautious, take a back seat, data in the game, follow the educational computer games, creators have to collect & analyse data about instructions, spend a long experience & events, slow to time before make decision, matching particular education topics or contents into the react con-clusion, use infor- not to lead the game mation to maintain a big structure of game. Basically game creator usually takes picture per-spective demographic data, age, gender, racial diversity or role of Theorists Think in a logical manner, Go through the data and rationally & objectively, assi- follow the instruction before the teachers, into account when designing games. milate facts into coherent start the game, be able to theories, fit things into ra-tional give careful thoughts when Several researchers on game-based learning (Prensky order, keen in basic choosing the game assumptions, principles, elements, Formulate good theories, models & thinking strategy to defeat the system Learning enemy ObjectivesLearning Keen to put ideas, theories & Objectives Pragmatists Follow closely the tech-niques into prac-tice, instructions & strategies that search new ideas & experi- were mentioned in the mental, act quickly & briefing, believe they can Learning Game Learning confidently on ideas, get Learning GameGame Genre ContentsLearning play better if they were Capabilities Genre Contents straight to the point, be patient given proper instruction Capabilities with endless discussion Learning LStylesearning Table 8. Characteristics of four styles of learning Styles (Honey & Mumford, 1992) and their behavior when playing game (Chong et al, 2005) Figure 3. Integrated game genres to support learning concepts

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Game Learning Learning Learning Learning Genres Objectives Capabilities Contents Styles has shown in Figure 3. The process that led to this new Action Application Defined Facts, Skills Activists model is conducted by (1) matching the characteristics Comprehensi Concepts on Concrete of game genres with Prensky's learning contents and Knowledge Concepts Discriminations learning activities, (2) analysis learning activities of each Adventure Evaluation Problem Solving Judgment, Reflections Synthesis Higher Order Process, genre with Bloom's taxonomy and Gané's intellectual Analysis Rules Observation, Application Defined Skills skills, and (3) compare the behavior when playing game Comprehensi Concepts on Concrete Chong et al (2005) of each style of learning (Honey & Knowledge Concepts Discriminations Mumford, 1992) with each game genre. In order to make Fighting Application Defined Facts, Skills Activists this model comprehensive, comparison of game genres Comprehensi Concepts on Concrete to support the learning concepts is illustrated in Table 9. Knowledge Concepts Discriminations The results of analysis will be a tangible framework for Puzzle Comprehensi Concrete Reasoning, Pragmatists on Concepts Creativity choosing game genres for designing an effective Knowledge Discriminations Role Evaluation Problem Solving Skills, Activists educational computer game. This framework can also Playing Synthesis Higher Order Judgment, be used as a criterion to answer the question “what is the Analysis Rules Behavior, Application Defined Language, appropriate game genre for design educational Comprehensi Concepts Communic on Concrete ation computer game?” Interestingly, Adventure, Role-Playing, Knowledge Concepts Discriminations Simulation and Strategy Games reach all levels of Simulation Evaluation Problem Solving Theories, Reflectors, Synthesis Higher Order Systems Theorists learning objectives and capabilities. All these four game Analysis Rules Application Defined genres are also mentioned in the findings of most Comprehensi Concepts on Concrete researchers Gee (2003), Quinn (1994), Roberts (1976), Ju Knowledge Concepts Discriminations & Wagner (1997) that they are good foundations of the Sports Application Defined Facts, Activists development of teaching resources. On the contrary, Comprehensi Concepts Skills on Concrete Puzzle games which fall into the least levels of learning Knowledge Concepts Discriminations objective and capabilities are also used widely in Strategy Evaluation Problem Solving Judgment, Theorists Synthesis Higher Order Process educational game. One of the survey's participants Analysis Rules Application Defined suggests the use of Puzzle games for the novice game Comprehensi Concepts on Concrete players. This genre of game involve solving logic puzzles or Knowledge Concepts Discriminations navigating complex locations such as maze. Most puzzles should present without time pressure, and it is Table 9. Comparison of game genres to support learning objectives,learning capabilities, extremely important that the rules be clear. The interface learning contents and learning styles should be simple and allow for trial and error without (2001), Gikas & van Eck (2004), Boop (2007), Gee (2003) penalty by making it easy to reset the problem or undo a attempted to analyze the instructive methods by which particular move (Schiffer, 2006). As for Action Games, computer games support learning. Nevertheless, there generally is the most well known genre, reach three levels are many pedagogical principles exist. Some of those of learning objectives and capabilities as well as Fighting principles are really useful. For example, the theories of and Sports Games. While in Adventure games the players well known and widely accepted such as Bloom's must have patience and requires a great deal of thinking, Taxonomy of Learning Objectives; Gangé's intellectual Action Games has to be fast and keep the players move skills; Honey and Mumford's Learning Styles; and Learning at all times. Additionally, in term of selecting the Content of Prensky which match to possible game types. appropriate game genres for a particular style of learner, It is the attempt of this paper to compare these learning it can be determined by looking at learner's dominant conceptions with game genres. The model of integrating learning style.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

* School of Information Technology, Murdoch University, Western Australia. ** School of Information Technology, Murdoch University, Western Australia. *** School of Information Technology, Murdoch University, Western Australia. **** Emirates College for Advanced Education, United Arab Emirates.

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