University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/73364 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. THE NATURE, ROOTS AND RELEVANCE OF THE FOLK THEATRE OF THE NORTH-EAST OF BRAZIL Mareo Antonio Camarotti Rosa Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD at the University of Warwick, Joint School of Theatre Studies. , ~' .' " Septembei; '1995 CONTENTS DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SUMMARY INTRODUCTION 1 - The Direction of the Research 2 2 - Ritual, Theatre, and Folk. Theatre 4 2.1 - Ritual 4 2.2 - Life, Ritual, and Theatre - A Close Relationship 8 2.3 - The Origins and Growth of Folk Theatre 14 2.4 - Tracing the Ancient Roots 18 2.5 - Folk Theatre - In Search of a Definition 29 2.6- The Theatre in Brazil 33 Chapter 1: THE ENGLISH MUMMERS' PLAY 37 1.1 - Forms and Distribution 38 1.2 - The Revivals 47 l.3 - Theatre or Ritual? 58 lA - Origin and Contemporary Meaning 64 Chapter 2: A BRIEF HISTORY OF BRAZIL 91 2.1 - Brazil 92 2.2 - The North-East of Brazil 104 Chapter 3: THE MAIN FORMS OF FOLK THEATRE OF THE NORTH-EAST OF BRAZIL 120 3.1 - The First Notices 121 3.2 - The Scholarship 122 3.3 - The Main Forms and their Origins in Brazil 126 3.3.1 - Bumba-meu-Bni 128 3.3.2 - Cheganra 148 3.3.3 - Pastoril 157 3.3.4 - Mamulengn 165 Chapter 4: RELEV ANT FEATURES OF THE FOLK PLAYS OF THE BRAZILIAN NORTH-EAST 174 4.1 - Possible Bases for Comparison 175 4.2 - Ritual Symbols 178 4.3 - Essential Characteristics 180 4.4 - The Present Situation 194 4.5 - The Most Relevant Aspects 196 4.5.1 - Variant Versions with Different Names 196 4.5.2 - Seasonal Performances 198 4.5.3 - Performances in the Open-air and on the Ground 199 4.5.4 - Performances in Procession 200 4.5.5 - Well-known Plots 202 4.5.6 - Comic and Melodramatic Nature 203 4.5.7 - The Combat 207 4.5.R - The Death and Resurrection 20l) 4.5.9 - The General Succession of Incidents and Run of Dialogue 213 4.5.10 - The Use of Recurring Formulae, Duplications and Repetitions 214 4.5.11 - Oral Theatre 217 4.5.12 - The Use of a Bald and Declamatory Style of Speech 218 4.5.13 - The Use of Laudatory Self-descripitions and Vauntings 220 4.5.14 - Use of Verses and Rhymes 221 4.5.15 - Use of Verbal Jesting (Word-play, Nonsense, Topsy-turvydom) 226 4.5.16 - Singing and Dancing 229 4.5.17 - The Musical Instruments 230 4.5.18 - The Use of Improvisation 231 4.5.19 - Male Performers 233 4.5.20 - Cross-dressing 235 4.5.21 - Fools 237 4.5.22 - Quack-doctors 242 4.5.23 - The Devil as a Comic Figure 244 4.5.24 - The Use of Masks or Blackened Faces 245 4.5.25 - The Use of a Bladder 249 4.5.26 - The Use of the Hobby-horse 250 4.5.27 - The Use of Colourful Clothes 252 4.5.28 - The Use of Military Uniforms 253 4.5.29 - The Participation of the Spectators 254 4.5.30 - The Quete (Begging for Money) 257 4.5.31 - The Actors are not Professionals in a Strict Sense 259 4.5.32 - Sexual Themes 260 4.5.33 - Ohscenity 264 4.5.34 - The Relief of Fears hy Witticism 266 Chapter 5: THE SOCIETY AND THE FOLK PLAYS OF THE BRAZILIAN NORTH­ EAST: FROM THE BASIC SOCIAL DIMENSIONS TO AN ATTEMPT TO ANALYSE SOCIAL DRAMA 271 5.1 - Prohlems of Methodology 272 5.2 - Mary Douglas and the Grid/Group Functions 272 5.3 - Basil Bemstein's Socio-Linguistic Approach 276 5.4 - Some Preliminary Conclusions 279 5.5 - Victor Turner and the Dynamism of the Social World 284 5.6 - The People and the Plays of the North-East Brazil: An Attempt at an Analysis of Social Drama 286 5.7 - Another Preliminary Conclusion 292 CON C L U S ION 296 BIB L lOG RAP H Y 308 M A P S 329 ILL U S T RAT ION S 332 DEDICATION To Concei~ao, Louren~o and Maria-Clara, who have been a perennial light. Without them, this work would not have existed. They, above all, have made life and all efforts not only endurable but mainly pleasant. To my supervisor, Clive Barker, for his encouraging friendship and for his remarkable, witty and substantial support. To Ron and Jean Shuttleworth, for their joy and kindness, and for everything they have taught me. To the performers of the folk theatre of the North-East of Brazil and their M estres. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am especially and deeply grateful to the following institutions and people: · The Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE) - Recife, Brazil, which allowed me to come to the University of Warwick and, in particular, the staff of the Departarnento de Teoria da Arte e Express~o Artfstica. · The Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnol6gico (CNPq)-Brasflia, Brazil, which provided the financial support. · The Joint School of Theatre Studies / The University of Warwick - Coventry, England. · The Vaughan Williams Memorial Library / The English Folk Dance and Song Society - London, England. · Birmingham City Archives / Central Library - Birmingham, England. · The Morris Ring Folk Plays Archives / Ron Shuttleworth Collection - Coventry, England. · Paulo Camarotti, Penha Freitas, Antonio Vilela, Mercedes Santos, Ricardo Bigi de Aquino, Rosa Vasconcellos, Jurandy Austermann, Marfgia Viana,Luiz Antonio Marcuschi, Solange Coutinho, Leda Alves, Roberto Benjamin, Aglae Fontes de Alencar, Reza Alemohammad, J. D. A. Widdowson, Elaine Turner, Geraldine Cousin, Peter Jewell, Meriel Bloor, Kate Brennan, and Fiona Tait. SUMMARY Folk plays have been performed in many different cultures all over the world, notwithstanding the level of material development and the distinctive features of the societies in which they are found. In the North-East of Brazil, they have probably been played since the beginning of the country's history in the sixteenth century. This thesis examines the origins, the most relevant characteristics and the contemporary meaning of four of these folk theatre forms which are still performed in the North-East of Brazil, namely, the Bumba-meu-Boi, the Chegan~a, the Pastoril and the Mamulengo, stressing the aspects that they have in common with the English Mummers' Plays and other folk theatre forms from Europe and from the East. Folk theatre forms have generally been seen as remnants of ancient religious rituals. However, this relationship is only hypothetical and can no longer be proved. Thus, although recognising that they possibly originate from magico-religious sources in the distant past, and that they still keep some magic characteristics, here they are chiefly seen as an expression of the collective unconscious of mankind and of social and political relationshi ps. INTRODUCTION 1 - The Direction of the Research Very little has been written in English on the folk theatre forms existent in the North­ East area of Brazil. A detailed search so far has only unearthed three articles, two of which, published in small magazines, seem unable to be traced. Even within Brazil itself the forms have not attracted the critical attention that might have been expected. This could be due in part to the lack of any consistent form or school of criticism. The folk theatre has been examined by folklorists, cultural scholars and theatre historians and so far no one has attempted any survey of the various approaches and insights. This thesis, in a very modest way, is probably the first attempt to pull the various strands together. In attempting to give for the ftrst time a comprehensive and consistent coverage of the folk theatre of North-East Brazil, this thesis begins with the handicap of being unable to rely on any body of criticism setting out a methodology, simple or complex, through which to approach the subject. In setting out on the research it was thought that a comparative approach might help. Because of the large amount of work which has been done on the English Mummers' Plays and the obvious accessibility of language, a detailed investigation of these plays and the critical attention they have attracted over the last century has been mounted and a summary of this work forms a significant section of the thesis. Attention has also been paid to the folk theatre forms of the Iberian peninsula and the work of scholars in the field of Middle-Eastern folk theatre. The folk theatre of North-East Brazil, whatever its particular and special manifestations, bears a distinct resemblance in many features to other forms of folk theatre throughout the world. Little evidence exists of any forms of pre-Colombian theatrical presentations, for reasons which will later become clear, and, even where evidence for the residual intluences which might be attributed to that period of history can be found in contemporary performances, these are more likely to become clear when the Brazilian forms are seen within the context of the wider international manifestations. In which case they will appear as anomalies, mutations or exceptions to more general features. The prolitlc critical attention which has been paid to areas of social anthropology in this century has provided us with a range of viewpoints from which to study the survival of early cultural practices into our age, both in relatively unpolluted forms and in their adaptations and mediations into contemporary industrial society.