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Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services Based on the work of the WASHCost project run by the IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, this book provides an evaluation of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sectors in the context of developing countries and is the fi rst systematic study of applying the life-cycle cost approach to assessing allocations. It presents unit cost estimates of the WASH sector across geographic locations and technologies, including rural and peri-urban areas, and these are compared with service levels. It analyses detailed data from more than 5000 households across nine agro-climatic zones in Andhra Pradesh State in India. Key issues assessed include poverty analysis of service levels, cost drivers and factors at the village and household level, and governance aspects such as transparency, accountability and value for money in relation to unit costs and service levels. This is the most comprehensive study of the WASH sector in India and elsewhere that utilises the life-cycle cost approach, along with GIS, econometric modelling and qualitative research methods. Not only does it contribute to research and methodology in this area, but the analysis also provides valuable insights for planners, policy-makers and bilateral donors. The authors show how the methodology can also be applied in other developing country contexts. Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management Institute (LNRMI) is an independent institution based in Hyderabad, India, aiming at conducting high-quality research and consultancy in the area of human livelihoods and natural resource management. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC), The Hague, Netherlands, seeks to bridge the knowledge gap and joint learning with partners for improved, low-cost water supply, sanitation and hygiene in developing countries. The Centre for Economic and Social Studies (CESS), Hyderabad, India, conducts interdisciplinary research in analytical and applied areas of social sciences, encompassing socio-economic and other aspects of development. Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (WASSAN) in Secunderabad, India, works towards bringing about a qualitative change in the watershed based development programs in India. Earthscan Studies in Water Resource Management Water Management, Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture in Developing Economies Edited by M. Dinesh Kumar, M.V.K. Sivamohan and Nitin Bassi Governing International Watercourses River Basin Organizations and the Sustainable Governance of Internationally Shared Rivers and Lakes By Susanne Schmeier Transferable Groundwater Rights Integrating Hydrogeology, Law and Economics By Andreas N. Charalambous Contemporary Water Governance in the Global South Scarcity, Marketization and Participation Edited by Leila Harris, Jacqueline Goldin and Christopher Sneddon Water Governance, Policy and Knowledge Transfer International Studies on Contextual Water Management Edited by Cheryl de Boer, Joanne Vinke-de Kruijf, Gül Özerol and Hans Th. A. Bressers Water as a Catalyst for Peace Transboundary Water Management and Confl ict Resolution By Ahmed Abukhater Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services The Life-Cycle Cost Approach to Planning and Management By Livelihoods & Natural Resource Management Institute, IRC International Water & Sanitation Centre , Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Watershed Support Services & Activities Network For more information and to view forthcoming titles in this series, please visit the Routledge website: http://www.routledge.com/books/series/ECWRM/ Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services The Life-Cycle Cost Approach to Planning and Management Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management Institute, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Centre for Economic and Social Studies and Watershed Support Services and Activities Network Routledge Taylor &. Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK Lrwni IRC^^ WA^N First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management Institute All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sustainable water and sanitation services : the life-cycle approach to planning and management / Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management Institute, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Centre for Economic and Social Studies, and Watershed Support Services and Activities Network. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Water-supply—India—Planning. 2. Water-supply— India—Management. 3. Water-supply, Rural—India. 4. Water resources development—India. 5. Sanitation— India—Planning. 6. Sanitation—India—Management. 7. Sustainable development—India. 8. India—Rural conditions. I. Reddy, V. Ratna. II. Fonseca, Catarina. III. Batchelor, C. H. (Charles H.) IV. Livelihoods and Natural Resources Management Institute (India) V. International Water and Sanitation Centre. VI. Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad. VII. Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (Secunderabad, India) TD303.A1S875 2013 363.6'10684—dc23 2013011862 ISBN: 978-0-415-82818-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-82819-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Keystroke, Station Road, Codsall, Wolverhampton Contents List of plates vii List of fi gures ix List of tables xiii List of boxes xvii List of Appendices xix List of contributors xxi List of abbreviations xxiii Foreword xxxi Foreword xxxv Preface xxxvii 1 Introduction 1 V. RATNA REDDY, CATARINA FONSECA AND CHARLES BATCHELOR 2 WASH Sector in India: The Policy Context 22 V. KURIAN BABY AND V. RATNA REDDY 3 Life-Cycle Cost Approach: An Analytical Framework for the WASH Sector 38 V. RATNA REDDY, CATARINA FONSECA AND CHARLES BATCHELOR 4 Unit Costs and Service Levels by Region and Technology 47 V. RATNA REDDY, M. VENKATASWAMY AND M. SNEHALATHA 5 Explaining Inter-Village Variations in Drinking Water Provision: Factors Infl uencing Costs and Service Levels in Rural Andhra Pradesh 82 V. RATNA REDDY 6 Rural Sanitation and Hygiene: Economic and Institutional Aspects of Sustainable Services 110 V. RATNA REDDY vi Contents 7 Nirmal Gram Puraskar and Sanitation Service Levels: The Curse of Slippage 136 M. SNEHALATHA, V. ANITHA RAJ, P. BUSENNA AND M. VENKATASWAMY 8 Cost of Provision and Managing WASH Services in Peri-Urban Areas 158 G. ALIVELU, V. RATNA REDDY, P. BUSENNA AND V. ANITHA RAJ 9 Skewed and Inequitable Access to Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Services 192 M. SNEHALATHA AND JAMES BATCHELOR 10 How can Water Security be Improved in Water-scarce Areas of Rural India? 218 CHARLES BATCHELOR, JAMES BATCHELOR AND M. SNEHALATHA 11 Assessing Progress towards Sustainable Service Delivery in India: Lessons for Rural Water Supply 236 A. J. JAMES 12 Transparency, Accountability and Participation (TAP): Understanding Governance in Rural WASH Sector 256 M.V. RAMA CHANDRUDU, SAFA FANAIAN AND R. SUBRAMANYAM NAIDU 13 Decentralis ed Governance and Sustainable Service Delivery: The Case of Nenmeni Rural Water Supply Scheme, Kerala, India 277 P. K. KURIAN, V. KURIAN BABY AND TERRY THOMAS 14 Sustainable WASH Service Delivery: Policy Options and Imperatives 295 V. RATNA REDDY, CATARINA FONSECA AND CHARLES BATCHELOR Notes 306 Index 310 Plates Plates 1 and 2 can be found between pages 56 and 57 1 LCCA system boundaries for WASH supplies 2 Location map of habitations taken up under WASHCost (India) Project Plates 3–21 can be found between pages 216 and 217 3 Venkatapuram’s societal layout and boundaries 4 Venkatapuram’s water supply infrastructure in 1980 5 Venkatapuram’s water supply infrastructure in 2004 6 Venkatapuram’s water supply infrastructure in 2010 7 Summer per capita water use 8 Fluoride levels in Venkatapuram’s water-supply sources 9 Users’ views of water services delivery (summer 2010) 10 Users’ views of water services delivery (non-summer 2010) 11 Household toilet availability and use 12 Buffer zones (width of 150m) 13 Location and land/use cover in Ungaranigundla revenue village 14 Time series maps showing construction of wells in Ungaranigundla revenue village 15 Distribution and status of water harvesting structures in Ungaranigundla revenue village 16 Village water purifi cation plant 17 Women being passive listeners in WASH meeting This page intentionally left blank Figures 1.1 Attaining MDGs in sanitation and drinking water in India 2 1.2 Presence of contaminants in habitations across India 3 1.3 Investments in water and sanitation in India over the Plan periods 6 1.4 Share of WASH sector in the Plan outlays 7 1.5 Status of coverage of drinking water in rural areas across States in India 8 1.6 Coverage and slippage in drinking water and sanitation in rural India 9 1.7 Status of sanitation coverage of various types of sanitation (rural and urban) across States in India 11 1.8 Trends in access
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