CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK
ALBANIA
LIBRARY *\u25a0 »-N \u2666 iyj r< // ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL n m K UNCLASSIFIED
CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK ALBANIA
UNCLASSIFIED - \u25a0[H|H||||||^^H[HB Dissemination of restricted matter. The information con taineair^eT t r icted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted * material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating X in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 18b, AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942. ) JAN3UB
HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,22 DECEMBER 1943 ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL M-362 Civil Affairs UNCLASSIFIED
CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK ALBANIA
HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,22 DECEMBER 1943
\u25a0? UNCLASSIFIED- Dissemination of restricted matter. The information con- tamed in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who cooperating >5 are in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 18b, \u2666 n 380-5, Sep CO AR 28 1942.) I UINwL/\owlrIlScLAring system of
ARMY SERVICE FORGES MANUALS
The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indicated by consecutive numbering within the following categories: - Ml - M99 Basic and Advanced Training MIOO M199 Army Specialized Training Program and Pre-lnductlon - Training M2OO - M299 Personnel and Morale M3OO - M399 Civil Affairs M4OO - M499 Supply and Transportation M5OO - M599 Fiscal M6OO - M699 Procurement and Production M7OO - M799 Administration MBOO - M899 Miscellaneous M9OO up Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction * * *
HEADQUARTERB, ARMY SERVICE FORCES, Washington 25, D. C, 22 December 1943.
Army Service Forces Manual M 362 Civil Affairs Handbook:- Albania,
has been prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General,
and Is published for the Information and guidance of all concerned.
SPX 461 (21 Sep 43)T]
command of Lieutenant General 80MERVELL:
W. D. STYER, Major General, General Staff Corps, Chief of Staff.
OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General. &fr
0)
TOPICAL OUTLINE oiHOt 5^7 V b"W UNCLASSIFIED v\ \
1. Geographical and Social Background 2. Qovexnnent and Administration 3. Legal Affairs
4. Governaient Finance 5. Honey and Banking 6* Natural Resources
7. Agriculture 8. Industry and Commerce 9* Labor 10* Public Works *&&Utilities 11. Transportation
12. Communications 13. Public Health and Sanitation 14. Public Safety
15* Education 16, Public Welfare 17, Cultural Institutions This study on Albania was prepared by the Liaison and Studies Branch of the MilitaryGovernment Division of the Provost Marshal General's Office from British and American sources. The limited scope of the subject matter to itadvisable to incorporate the various sections into v be covered has made A one handbook. n «
UNCLASSIFIED INTOOTCTIOH
08e» of the OlTllAffalrgHandbook* The basic purposes of civil affairs officers are (l) to assist the Conmanding General ty quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute nost effectively to the conduct of military operations, (2) to reduce to a minimus the human suffering and the material damage resulting from disorder and (3) to create the conditions which, willmake it possible for civilian agencies to function effectively* The preparation of Civil Affairs Handbooks Is a part of the effort to carry out these responsibilities as efficiently and humanely as possible* The Handbooks do not deal with plans or policies (which willdepend upon changing and unpredictable developments)* It should be clearly understood that they do not imply any given officialprogram of action* They are rather ready reference source books containing the basic factual information needed for planning and policy making*
This study on Albania was prepared ty the LIAISON AND STUDIES
BRANCH of the MILITARY GOVERitoiENT DIVISION of the PROVOST MARSHAL GENERAL1S
OFFICE from British and American sources. The limited scope of the subject
matter to be covered has made it advisable to incorporate the various
sections into one handbook.
OFFICERS USING- THIS MATERIAL ABE REQUESTED TO MAO SUOGESTIOKS INDICATING THE REVISIONS OE ADDITIONS WHICH WOULD MAO THIS MATERIAL MORE USEFUL FOB THEIR PURPOSES. THESE CRITICISMS SHOULD BE SBTT TO THE CHIEF 07 THE LIAI9OH AND STUDIES BRANCH, MILITAHT GOVERNMENT DIVISION, FMGO 2807 MUNITIONS BUILDING, WASHINGTON (25) D. C. o 4 RESTRICTED 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ALBANIA Page a. Geography 1
(1) Area and Position 1 (2) Topography 1 (3) Climate 4 b. Historical and Social Background 5
(1) Population 5 (2) Race, Language, Religion 6
(3) Recent History 10 c. Government and Administration 16 (l) The Lushnje Constitution 16 (2) Monarchical Constitution of 1928 18
(3) The Executive Power 19 (4) The Council of Ministers 20
(5) The Legislative Power 21 (6) Council of State 22 (7) Council of Control 25 (8) Amendments 24
(9) Actual Governmental Practice 24 (i) Government interference with justice 25 (ii) The King's use of personal discrimi
nation as a method of rule 27
* --ii Page
(iii) Corruption 29 (iv) The complaisancy of Parliament
to the King 33 (v) The artificial nature nf Elections 34 (vi) The slow execution of projects
rerolved upon by Parliament 55
(10) Central Administration 35 (i) CivilHouse of the Royal Court 36 (ii) The Military House 36
(iii) Ministries 57 (iv) Non-Ministerial Departments 57 (v) Centre and Provinces 58
(11) Local Administration 58 (i) Prefectures 58
(ii) Sub-prefectures 59
(iii) Communes 4D
(iv) Communal President and Secretary 40
(v) Municipalities 41
(vi) Villages 41 d. Judicial System 42 c. Public Safety 47 f• General Economic Conditions 48 a o « (l) Albania and the League of Nations, 1920-25. 49
(2) The Growth of Italian Influence, 1925-39. 50 i 111
Page (3) The Italian Occupation, 1939. ss
(4) Currency 54 (5) Foreign Trade 67 (i) General course of foreign trade 57 (ii) Geographical distribution of Albania's trade 58
(iii) Principal imports and exports 60 g. Natural Resources 62
(1) Mining 62 (i) Metallic Minerals 62 (ii) Non-metallic minerals 63 (2) Forestry 66 h. Agriculture 67
(1) Land utilisation and farm ownership 67 (2) Cereals, vegetables and fruit 69 (3) Industrial crops 69
(4) Agricultural imports and exports and degree of self-sufficiency 70 (5) Livestock 70
(6) Recent Developments 71 i. Industry 76 (1) Manufacturing Industries 76 (2) Supply of Electricity 77 4
•B
(5)* ' \u0084., 80 1 Fisheries . sat.,--.****** •\u25a0'\u25a0'"*\u25a0•*\u2666 w --iv Page
(4) Labor Conditions 80
(i) Wages and Hours 80 (ii) Compulsory Road Labor 82
(iii) Labor Organisations 82
(iv) Social Insurance 83
(v) Foreign Workers 84 3- Transportation and Communication 84 (l) Shipping 84
(2) Railroads 85
(3) Air Transportation 85
(4) Roads 86
(5) Ports 89 (6) Radio 89
(7) Telegraph and Telephone 92
(8) Press 95
k. Public Health and Sanitation 99
(1) Organisation of Public Health Department 99
(2) Medical Facilities 104 (i) Hospitals 104
(ii) Albanian Red Cross 107 (iii) Specialised Institutions 109 (iv) c Medical Practitioners 110 v •o o (v) Expenditures 112 M Public Health \u2666 09 o I \u25a0* *»'*• '* V Page (3) Prevalent Diseases 115 (i) Malaria 113 (ii) Anthrax 117 (iii) Cholera 117 (iv) Dengue 118 (v) Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis 118 (vi) Fievre boutonneuse 118 (vii) Helminthiases 118 (viii) Intestinal Infections 119 (ix) Plague 119 (x) Rabies 119 (xi) Relapsing Fever 119 (xii) Sandfly Fever 120 (xiii) Scabies 120 (xiv) Trachoma 120 (xv) Trench Fever 120 (xvi) Tuberculosis 120 (xvii) Typhus 120 (xviii) Undulant Fever 121 (xix) Venereal Diseases 121 (xx) Yellow Fever 121 (4) Insects and Animals of Importance to Man 121 (i) Mosquitoes 121 (ii) Lice 125 m \u25a0*#w •+\u25a0\u25a0 jsF7fr --vi Page (iii) Flies 124 (iv) Ticks and Mites 124 (v) Fleas 125 (vi) Rodents 125 (vii) Snakes 125 (viii) Scorpions 125 (ix) Pests 125 (5) Water and Sewage 126 (6) Food and Dairy Products inRelation to Health 126 (7) Miscellaneous Problems of Sanitation 127 (8) Precautions for Military Personnel 128 (i) Water Supply 128 (ii) Sewage 128 (iii) Malaria Control 129 (iv) Typhus 129 (v) Food and Food Handlers 130 (vi) Venereal Diseases 131 1. Education 157 (1) Before Independence 137 (2) 1920 - 1934 138 (3) Organic Decree Law of Education, 1934 159 (4) The Near East Foundation 140 (5) Girls' School 142 (6) The Ministry of Education 144 (7) Elementary Education * 145 VII Page (8) Teaching Personnel 146 (9) School Buildings 147 (10) Secondary Education 148 (11) National Education (Enti Kombetar) 150 (12) The Scholarship System 152 (13) National Libraries and the National Museum 154 (14) Changes made in 1958-9 155 156 (15) Feminine Education - (16) Summary of Progress, 1920 1958 157 Supplement on the Protection of the Historic and Religious Monuments of Albania 158 Schedule of Towns and Principal Inhabitated Places 167 TABLES Foreign Trade, 1927-59 57 Table I. t Table 11. Geographical Distribution of Import Trade, 1957-58 59 Table 111. Geographical Distribution of Export Trade, 1957-58 60 a v a 4 o N m VIII TABLES Page Table IV. Imports of Principal Commodities ,1938-39 61 Table V. Exports of Principal Commodities, 1938-39 61 Table VI. Production and Export of Crude Oil, 1936-39 65 Table VII. Production of Principal Agricultural Crops, 1937-39 74 Table VIII. Land Utilization, 1938 75 Table IX. Livestock Population, 1938 75 Table X. Power Stations 77 Table XI. Mortality and Infant Mortality Rates 132 Table XII, Spleen Rates where no Antilarval Notk 133 Table XIII. Spleen and Parasite Rates, November 1939 134 Table XIV. Spleen and Parasite Rates, November 1940 135 Table XV. Reported Cases of Certain Infectious Diseases 1930-1938 136 Table XVI. Albanian Schools 148 Table XVII. Albanian students at foreign colleges and universities 153 Table XVIII.Albanian Progress in Education, 1922-1938 I*7 MAP OF ALBANIA ..» & 175 i IX NOTE Most of the place-names in Albania are known by variety of alternates* The six most commonly referred to are given below. A more complete list is provided in the Schedule of Towns and Principal Inhabited Places beginning on page 168* Durazzo Durres Gjinokaster Argyrokastron Koritza Korce, Korcha Scutari Shkoder, Shkodra Valona Vlone Porto Edda Sarande, Santi Quaranto a f 1 ALBANIA a. Geography (1) Area and Position* Due to the aloofness both of the land as a whole and of its centers of settlement, Albania is one of the least known parts of Europe and the least influenced by outside ideas. The country, one of the smallest in Europe, is about the size of the state of Vermont. Its area is 10,757 square miles, its shape long and narrow, running 215 miles from north to south and about 50 miles from east to west in the north at the Drin Gulf, widening to 90 miles in the south between Lake Presba and the sea. The country is situated along the eastern shore of the southern Adri atic and the Strait of Otranto. Its southernmost point is opposite the Greek island of Corfu. The Otranto Strait, which separates Albania from the heel of Italy, is only 47 miles wide. The country thus assumes stra tegic importance, commanding the mouth of the Adriatic Sea. Brindisi is the nearest Italian port. On the north and north-east the country is bounded by Yugoslavia and on the south-east by Greece. (2) Topography. The dominant features of Albanian topography are its low, marshy coast, heavily indented and crossed by several important rivers, and its rugged inland mountain ranges, enclosing small, fertile basins and valleys. Albania is primarily a mountainous country; its peaks are a part of the mountain chain of the Dinaric Alps. Approximately a third of its total area lies between 5,000 and 6,900 feet above sea level, while certain peaks m reach an elevation of 9,000 feet. \u2666 r 1 - 2 To the north the Albanian Alps, rising to heights of 6,500 to B,soo feet, run in a generally northwest to southeast direction. South of the Drin River the Alps cease and rounded heights appear. The highest mountain in Central Albania, Mount Tbmori, in the prefecture of Berat, is \ 8,200 feet high; its snowclad summit is clearly visible from the Adriatic. In this region the heights enclose many small plains, in some cases only 650 feet above sea level. The, main characteristic of the interior is the mountain belt which runs northward from the west shore of Lake Ochrida to the Drin River, forming a natural frontier on the east. These mountains merge into hills in the north* On either side of this chain lies a succession of large, depressed basins separated by gorges, which tend to cut the country Into small, Isolated sections, rendering transportation and communications difficult. South of Valona the Acroceraunian and Chimara Mountains, rising sharp ly from the Strait of Otranto, reach heights of 1,500 to 2,000 feet* The coastal plain, varying In width from 10 to 40 miles, extends from the Yugoslav frontier in the north to the Acroceraunian Mountains south of the Strait of Otranto. Much of the marginal lowland consists of swamps and salt marshes; the resulting malarial conditions have tended to impede the development of the coastal settlements which are generally characteristic of the Mediterranean. Since 1920. however, extensive drainage projects have been carried out to reduce the threat of disease and to reclaim large areas for cultivation* The most fertile plains lie In the open central region between the Matl and Vyose Rivers. The two largest are thqse of Kavaja, in the prefecture of Durazzo (Durres) and of Muzakia, In Berat. In the eastern part of the X 3 Geography oountry the course of the Black Drin River is marked by the presence of large, fertile basins, more or less isolated from each other and correspond ingly self-sufficient; south of Lake Ochrida occur similar basins, in the largest of which lies the town of Koritza (Korea). All the rivers of Albania flow into the Adriatic Sea, into which they pour considerable silt. The only navigable stream is the Bojana, an effluent of Lake Skadar, Among the swiftly flowing mountain streams the longest is the Drin in the north, formed by the confluence of the Black Drin, which flows northward out of Lake Ochrida to drain a large part of eastern Albania, and the White Drin, which flows in a southerly direction from beyond the Yugoslav border. Roughly parallel to the Black Drin runs the Mati River. The central Albanian plain is cut from east to west by the Ishmi, the Afsen, the Shkunbi (dividing line between northern and southern Albania), and the Semeni, formed by the confluence, a little north of Berat, of the Devoli and the Osum. In the south the Vyosa, whose source lies in the Pindus Mount ains of Greece, flows northwest to empty into the Strait of Otranto just north of Valona. The unequal rainfall of Albania causes many rivers to overflow their banks in the autumn and inundate the plains. The ensuing recession of the floods leaves river beds choked with sand, leading to frequent alterations in the course of the streams and creating stagnant marshes in the inundated areas* There are three large lakes in Albania; none, however, lies entirely within the country's borders. Lake Skadar in the northwest and Lake Ochrida v in the east are cut by the Yugoslav frontier; wtiile southeast of Lake Ochrida M 4 Lake Prespa forms the common frontier of Albania, Yugoslavia and Greece. (5) Climate. The climate of Albania is to a large extent governed ty altitude rather than by latitude. The coastal lowlands has a -typically Mediterranean climate, similar to that of southern Italy, characterized ty high temperatures and long periods of drought in the summer, and by humid winters with mild temperatures seldom falling below the freezing point. Along the coast the weather is subject to rapid changes j in summer midday breezes generally spring up between 11 and 5, while in winter strong squalls blow up from the north and northeast, with gusts which vary rapidly in direction and velocity. The summer climate of the marshlands is unhealthful because of the malarial conditions which are especially pronounced in July and August, and the ener vating effect of the protracted heat, which often remains unmitigated throughout the night. In the mountainous interior extremes of temperature and violent winds prevail. In the enclosed valleys and basins the summers are even hotter than in the lowlands and are marked by long periods of drought. The winter in these regions is moderate and is characterized by frequent frost, llgbt snowfalls and torrential rains. In the more elevated mountain regions winters are severe and snowfall is heavy. On the coast, in Durazzo for example, the mean temperature for January is 46.9 degrees Farenheit, and the mean temperature for July is 76.6. In Puka, elevation 2,800 ft., the mean temperature for January is 55.8, and for July 70.2. a v The annual rainfall of Albania is one of the heaviest in Europe. Itis, seasons, •» however, very unequally distributed between the various with torrential * 5 Historical, Social Background rains in autumn and winter and prolonged periods of drought in summer. The wet season lasts from October to April. November, December, February and March are the wettest months; in the intervals between downpours the sky clears. In the mountainous interior snow takes the place of rain and con tinues until March. Frosts are severe, freezing the lakes at high altitudes and occasionally also the coastal lagoons. b« Historical and Social Backgro (1) Population,. According to the census of 1930, the latest official enumeration avail able, the total population of Albania was 1,005,097, with a density of approx imately 94 inhabitants per square mile. The official Italian estimate for December 31, 1941, was 1,106,086, or 104 persons per square mile. Regional densities, however, vary greatly, since 47% of the country's area consists of rocky, mountainous terrain, forests, rivers, lakes or marshes. Itis estimated that 82% of the country's population lives in small villages, and only 18% in cities or towns. The only cities with a population exceeding 20,000 in 1936 were Tirana, the capital (with an estimated 35,000 inhabitants), Scutari (Shkoder) and Koritza. There are only three other cities with a population over 10,000: Elbasan, Argyrokastron (Gjinokaster) and Berat. It should be noted, however, that these 1936 figures do not reflect such shifts in population as may have been occasioned in recent years "by the Italian programs for land reclamation, enlargement of ports and exploitation of natural resources (with the consequent creation of some new industrial * * centers), nor do they show changes which may have resulted from the active « 6 warfare waged in southern Albania in 1941. It seems likely that the population of the coastal cities of Durazzo, Valona and Porto Edda (Sarande) may have increased more rapidly since 1359 because of the Italians 1 interest in these Adriatic ports, and their attempts to combat malaria in' them by medical means and swamp drainage. Birth and death rates in Albania are both high* Birthrates exceed those of either Italy or Greece and are comparable to those of Yugoslavia* (2) Race. Language. Religion Itis not known when the Albanians first came to the Balkan Peninsula, but they are almost certainly the longest established people in that^ region, being earlier arrivals than the Doric or Classical Greeks, and greatly senior to the Slavs, Bulgars and Turks. Itis probable that at first they occupied a much wider territory than that of Albania, but later invasions, particularly those of the Slavs, drove them westward into their present mountainous home. Of the two ancient peoples of the Balkans, the Illyrians and the Thracians, itis not altogether certain which one is the ancestral stock of the Albanians, but their origin has been most generally attributed to the Illyrians• It has been suggested by some that the Macedonian dynasty, including Alexander the Great, were Albanians. King Pyrrhus, known for his "Pyrrhic victories 11 against the Romans, was also Albanian; his name has been perpetuated in the region of "Epirus", which forms the southern part of Albania and the north west of Greece* nnce the Albanians had been driven into the mountainous country which they now occupy, their people enjoyed a considerable measure of isolation* Successive conquests, never very thorough, by Romans, Greeks, Slavs and Turks have left their influence on the language, which blends Illyrian,, Thracian, • " \u25a0 \u25a0«>•»;.-:' "# 7 Historical. Social Baa and displays a well-marked Dinar!c physical type, with flat-backed skulls* The Albanians themselves are divided into two main groups, the Ghegs, north of the river Shkumbi, and the Tosks, south of it. There are differ >\ ences of outlook and development between them, the Tosks being the more advanced.. The difference of dialect is marked, but not enough to impede mutual comprehension. Elbasan forms the meeting place of Tosk and Gheg, and its dialect tends to become the standard Albanian language. The natural division by type among the Albanians is as between: —the mountaineers of the North and Centre —the Southern hillmen —plainsmen r The highlanders have the virtues and vices common to most primitive mountain folk; robbery and violence are not regarded as serious crimes, and the blood feud, which was a curse to the country until comparatively recently, stilllingers on. On the other hand hospitality and the inviolability of their plighted word are both characteristic of the Albanian highlanders. Women and boys are universally protected by immunity from violence, as also are certain essential places, routes and occupations, e.g. irrigation, to which the "Bessa" permanently applies. They are of good appearance and physique, and can move quickly and do long inarches, but under-nourishment has in some cases sapped their endurance • Although deprived of education, they show no lack of intelligence. The plainsmen dwelling along the coast are much like those of other Balkan countries. As an effect of their environment, they are naturally of v I 8 a nsore indolent disposition than the Highlanders • Physically they are a poor race, mainly because the low-lying plains in which they live are in fected with malaria. For centuries they have been successful traders and merchants along the Adriatic coast. The hilimen of Southern Albania are an industrious people, more advanced than the mountaineers of the north. The population of Albania is estimated to be 92% ethnically Albanian. The remaining Bs> is composed of Greeks, Vlachs (a Roumanian-speaking people), Bulgarians, Gipsies and a very few Serbs. The Turks, when they dominated Albania, did not allow the language to be reduced to writing, at least in Latin script, so that the system of orthography is extremely new. The authorities of independent Albania were doing their best to standardize the language by evolving an official dialect, comprising a blend of Gheg and Tosk, strongly influenced by the dialect of Elbasan, since this town lies on the Shkumbi River, which is the boundary between the Tosk and Gheg areas. Along the Adriatic Italian is frequently used as the language of commerce, while in southern Albania Greek is common in business intercourse. Islam is the predominant religion in Albania, professed by over 69$£ of the population. Albanian Moslems are divided into two sects: the majority in ths north are orthodox Sunnites, those in the south are Bek tashites. The Christian minorities are likewise divided between the Roman Catholics, concentrated largely in the north, and the Eastern Orthodox, more prevalent in the south. There is complete religious tolerance, and no RESTRICTED <*» \u25a0•* 9 Historical, Social distinction exists between Moslems and Christians in either social or commercial life. Religious composition of the population, census of 1950: Moslems 696,359 69*4% Eastern Orthodox 200,720 20.0% Roman Catholic 105,655 10,5% Other 585 .5* The Moslems are in the majority inall prefectures except Argyrolcastron (Gjinokaster), where they are outnumbered by the Eastern Orthodox, and in Scutari (Shkoder) where the Roman Catholics predominate. The predominance of Moslems, of course, arises from the Turkish conquest. Before this event the whole country was Christian* The division of the Christians themselves between Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox (also . known as Greek Catholic) was caused by historical events in Albania during the Middle Ages* When the Roman Empire became Christian, and was soon after* wards divided into an Eastern (Greek Catholic) and Western (Roman Catholic) part, Albania fell to the East, and was thus Included in the Patriarchate of Constantinople. As the Eastern and Western Churches drifted .apart, before the actual schism, Albania tended to follow Constantinople, though with some exceptions. In the Dark Ages, from the fall of the Western Empire, Albania, like other countries, suffered from irruptions of barbarians} but the last-comers, the Slavs, eventually adopted Christianity in its Eastern form. In 1497 Albania was engulfed by the wave of Turkish conquest, and thereupon the Moslem faith was introduced. Itwas adopted by many Albanians 3 m 10 for business reasons. Under the Ottoman Empire a member of a conquered people who embraced Islam became one of the "Master Race*1, arid all positions in the empire were open to him. Albania produced a very high proportion of men of ability who rose to eminent psitions in the statej these were all Moslem Albanians. The Albanians are far more fanatical about nationalism and about tribal and personal honor than they are about religion. In Turkish times it was not unknown for the same individual to adhere more or less openly to more than one religion, having a Christian and a Moslem first name for use upon appropriate occasions, end observing the feasts, fasts, holidays and ceremonies of the Catholic and Moslem religions. In independent Albania the law gave full tolerance to all the religions and forbade proselytising j there was no Established or State Church. The Moslem King Zog appointed mainly Christian prime ministers, thus maintaining a balance; while the Italian regime of King Victor Emmanuel made use of Moslem premiers. The form of Islam introduced by the Turks was the Sunni, one of the two main branches of Islam. Bektashism is a cult, tolerant and undogmatic, wherein Christ and other prophets are revered besides Mahomet. (5) Recent History. Although the Albanians are an ancient European people inhabiting a land which has undergone many vicissitudes throughout history, it was only in 1912 that the independence of Albania as a nation was proclaimed at the \u25a0t -*\u25a0 \u25a0 \u25a0.-•Ay Congress of Valona, and recognised by the London Congress of Ambassadors* 11 - 11 - Historical. Social This culminated a long struggle against Turkish domination, a struggle which reached a climax in the last quarter of the nineteenth century when, in 1878, an Albanian League was formed to seek national recognition* Itis of interest to note that Albanian emigrants to the United States were particularly active in this nationalist movement, to which they made important contributions of both money and propaganda. The territory of the new nation was constituted from the old Turkish vilayets of Scutari, Janina, Kossovo and Monastir. The rule of Prince William of Wied, who was offered the crown in 1914, lasted only six months, and at the outbreak of World War I, Albania fell into a state of anarchy, threatened equally by intrigues from within and threats to her independence from without. During the course of the war seven different armies over ran Albania, which barely escaped partition* Eventually, foreign forces were withdrawn from the country, and its independence was confirmed by admission to the League of Nations in 1920, although the establishment of frontiers was the occasion for protracted wrangling with Yugoslavia, Italy and Greece. A Council of Regency ruled the country, but from 1922 on the virtual ruler was the former Minister of the Interior, Ahmed Bey Zogu. His rule was supported by the middle classes and the large landowners or beys. and was opposed lay the liberal Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fan Noli, a Harvard graduate and leader of the large Albanian colony in Boston. Fan Noli seized power as Prime Minister, and held this office for six months in 1924; but in December of that year Ahmed Zogu led an armed rebellion which ousted Noli from the country. Of his failure to institute a liberal regime in v A •4 « \u25a0mmi 12 in Albania Noll himself wrote, "By insisting on the agrarian reforms, I aroused the wrath of the landed aristocracy; by failing to carry them out Ilost the support of the peasant masses." In January 1925 Albania was proclaimed a republic, with Ahmed Zogu its first President; on September 1, 1928 he was proclaimed Zog I,King of the Albanians, by unanimous vote of the Constituent Assembly* The Con stitution declared the Kingdom of Albania to be a democratic, constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power was vested in the King and in a Chamber of Deputies of 58 seats, to be chosen by secret ballot of the adult male electorate, A Council of Ministers, appointed by the King, assisted him in administration. In practice the government was in no sense a democratic one, but continued to be in the hands of the King and hie supporters, the Bektashi Beys. Although it was partly through Yugoslav aid that Z»gu returned to power in December 1924, his rule marked the growth of Italian influence in Albania* This was brought about principally ty economic necessity, as Albania's attempts to obtain financial help from the League of Nations proved vain, and Italy, interested in Albania because of its strategic position, was willing to make large loans in order to assure herself of a controlling position in Albanian policy. The first result of this collaboration was the Pact of Tirana, signed in November 1926, in which "Italy and Albania recognised that any disturbance whatsoever directed against the status quo, political, juridical and territorial of Albania, is contrary to their reciprocal interests" and agreed to lend their "mutual support and cordial 3 * cooperation" to the protection of these interests* This treaty was resented >«* .1%, -- 13 15 Historical, Social Bad id by Yugoslavia, which believed that itwas directed primarily against its own position in the Adriatic,and that itwas tantamount to a declaration of Italy's intention to establish a protectorate over Albania* Jugoslavia feared that Italy sight use Albania as the jumping-off place for an attack on her own territory, while Italy viewed with considerable suspicion any indications of Yugoslavia's growing strength in the Adriatic. These jealousies were at once a danger and a support to Albania's independence, and Zoga attempted to avoid encroachment by either country by arousing the sue peion of the other* Yugoslavia again had cause for uneasiness when* in 1928, Zogu was proclaimed "Zog I,King of the Albanians", rather than of Albania, since she herself possessed more than 400.000 Albanian subjects as a minority within her borders. In the following years King Zog attempted to obtain as much financial assistance as possible from Italy without completely surrendering Albania's autonomy* Italy's influence continued to be increasingly marked in the army* public works projects, education, and public health services, which were carried out principally with the aid of Italian financial and tech nical assistance* The King tried to lessen this influence by refusing to renew the Pact of Tirana on its expiration in 1951* rejecting a customs union in 1952. and attempting to check Italian immigration* A definite rift occurred in 1955. when the law permitting foreigners to enter tech nical and agricultural schools was amended, and Albanians were appointed as directors of the technical schools* Italy retaliated by a naval demon stration at Duraszo, and by cutting off the annual subsidy of ten million m #>\u25a0 4 14 gold francs which she had contracted to pay, in the guise of a loan, in 1951* For three years Albanian finances became increasingly precarious as a result of the suspension of the subsidy and the effects of world economic depression. In 1956 Albania was obliged to capitulate and signed a new Pact of Tirana with Italy, in return for a cash payment to balance the bud get, and a loan for agricultural improvements. From that time on Italian influence continued to increase steadily in the political, economic, and educational spheres* Since Yugoslavia was no longer regarded as a threat, the Italian policy was to persuade King Zog to abandon the building up of his armed forces and concentrate instead on economic development* To counteract Italian domination, the King depended somewhat on his relations with Hungary, through his marriage in 1958 to Countess Qeraldine Apponyi* This union, incidentally, is evidence of Albania's tolerant attitude in religious matters, since Zog was a Moslem and his Queen a Catholic* In March 1939 fresh negotiations were begun for the adjustment of Italo-Albanian relations* On this occasion further bribes were offered to Albania, including a large sum for the King himself; but the price was to be a considerable limitation of Albanian independence; Italy was to exercise wide administrative control and to plant Italian colonists in Albania* The Ethiopian War and the Spanish War were over, and Mussolini was free to resume his forward policy in Albania; moreover, Germany had taken Prague a few weeks earlier, and Mussolini wanted to annex a country. King Zog gave a firm refusal to the Italian demands, and the Albanian Parliament unanimously endorsed his refusal* Background 15 Historical « Social In the small hours of April7, Good Friday morning, the Italian fleet appeared in strength off four Albanian ports, San Giovanni di Medua • in the north, Durazzo in the center, Valona in the south, and Sarande in the extreme south. In each case attempts were made to land troops, but the local Albanians resisted. The ports were shelled with naval guns and bombed from the air, and the four Italian columns were duly landed after heavy fighting. At Durazzo the Gendarmerie played a big part in the battle; they waited until the Italians had disembarked upon the concrete breakwater, and then opened fire on them with machine guns, inflicting very heavy casualties; the numbers of killed admitted afterwards b^ the Italians fell far short of the truth. The troops from Durazzo fell back upon Tirana, fighting another battle on the way, and blowing up an important bridge on the Durazzo- Tirana road. Tribesmen of every faith and faction armed themselves with whatever weapons they could find and rallied to the defense of their king and country. But rifles and machine guns cannot answer battleships and bombing aeroplanes. The Italians landed troops by plane on Tirana aerodrome; they dropped leaflets in Tirana and all over the country. They did a little machine-gunning to strike terror into the populace. Resistance lasted for about a week; but on the second day the King and his entourage realised the hopelessness of the position and left for Greece. Accounts vary as to King Zog fs part inthis affair. One account has it that he was prepared to let the Italian army occupy the north and south v m <• i 16 of his country, provided be was allowed to keep his own troops around him. in a small zone in the center, but that the Italians contemptuously refused this concession. Itis further pointed out that, while ordering his troops to resist, the King himself hurriedly fled. Itis suggested that he should have personally led the resistance, at least for a week or two, falling in battle ifneed be, and that his departure was an act of cowardice rare among Albanians. Another obscure point is the King*s claim that the Albanian Parliament mandated him to go abroad and represent the juridical continuity of the independent Albanian Kingdom. c. Government and Administration (l) yhe Lushn.ie Constitutio: At the Congress of Lushnje, January 1920, a Constitutional Monarchy was drawn up. Pending the acession of a monarch, a High Council of State was appointed consisting of four Regents. The Congress also appointed a Cabinet to assist the Regency, and elected a senate of 37 members with parliamentary powers which, though not comprehensive, were so absolute that the Regency could do little without the consent of the Senate and Cabinet. The Lushnje Constitution was amended and enlarged in 1922 by a Parli ament of 78 Members. This amended Constitution retained the Monarchy as the form of regime, and completed the fundamental organization of the State with extremely liberal dispositions; the legislative power was to be exercised by the Chamber and the High Council of State, and the Executive power by this High Coun cil or Regency, assisted by a Council of Ministers responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. Conflict either between the Regency and the Chamber, or between the o A * Senate and the Chamber, was to be decided by the National Assembly. No power *i was given to the Regency to dissolve the Chamber, nor had the Chamber power to «« 17 Government Administration dismiss the members of the Regency. The Deputies were to "be elected for a term of four years. The amplification of the Constitution established the equality of pll citizens without distinction of religion or creed, the independence of the Judiciary and so on. It concluded "by stating that "this Constitution 1b the fundamental law of the Albanian State, so long as a Constituent Assembly has not determined the final Constitution. 11 The Constitution of Lushnje, as amended and amplified, remained the legal basis of all authority until 21 January, 1925, when, following the revolution of 192U, members of a dispersed Constituent Assembly reassembled at Tirana under the military authority of Ahmed Bey Zogu, an ex-Prime Minister, and proclaimed Albania a Republic . Ahmed Bey Zogu was elected as first President, and the Assembly finalised the Constitution of the New Republic on 2 March, 1925. The Constitution of the Republic was far more conservative than that of the former monarchy. The position of the Executive was modelled upon that of a President of the United States of America, and then strengthened still further by the addition of wide and irresponsible powers. The President was at the head of the armed forces. He had an absolute ri^ht of veto, without appeal, upon any legislation submitted to him by Parliament. He alone could propose amendments to the Constitution. In cases of conflict between himself and Parliament, he could dissolve ParUanent and decree fresh elections. In a word, Ahmed Bey Zogu became, under constitutional forme, Dictator of Albania. The Legislative body was composed of a Chamber of 57 Deputies, elected by popular vote (but without any precision as to the method of scrutiny) and a Senate comprising 18 Senators, a third of whom were appointed by the President of the Republic. The President of the Senate was ex officlo Vice-President of * the Republic. The National Assembly, formed by the Chamber —of Deputies and the Senate combined, alone had power to amend the Constitution but then only upon r t 18 the President's motion. \ The Republic was duly recognised by all the Powers; but itonly lasted for three and 8 half years. In the summer of 1928, on instructions froa the President, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate met as a National Assembly and passed a resolution that it was necessary to bring under revision the whole Constitution. For this purpose they amended the existing Constitution, to provide that in the event of itbeing necessary to revise the whole Constitution, a Constituent Assembly should be called, whereupon the two Chambers would be automatically dissolved. On the basis of this Amendment, a decree was issued, ordering elections for the Constituent Assembly to take place on 17 August, 1928. The Constituent Assembly abolished the Republic and voted a new Constitution. Monarchical Constitution of 1928 On 1September, 1928, the Constituent Assembly changed the regime from Republic to Monarchy, by passing the following resolution: "The Constituent Assembly, vested with the sovereign powers of the nation, inspired by the distinct desire of the people, for the vital interests of the Fatherland, with one voice and one spirit elected and proclaimed King of the Albanians under the name of Zog I, the son from her own bosom, the Saviour of the Nation, Ahmed Zogu, descendant of the famous Albanian family of Zogu.* On 1December the Constituent adopted a new monarchical Constitution, which was to remain in force, with minor amendments, until the Italian invasion. The only substantial difference between the new Constitution and its predecessor was the abolition of the Senate. In fact, King Zog Ienjoyed the same dictorial powers which had been his as President of the Republic. Vhen this Constitution is further considered in relation to the actual practice of government described — 19 Government Administration in the next Sub-section the autocratic system willbe fully exposed, beneath its semi- democratic forms. The basic provisions of the new Constitution were as follows: -— U) Albania is a democratic, parliamentary and hereditary Monarchy. (ii) Albania is independent and indivisible. (ill)The Albanian flag is red, with a black double-headed eagle in the middle. The official language is Albanian. (iv) The Albanian State has no official religion, Allreligions and faiths are honoured, and their liberty of practice assured. Religion can in no way form juridical barriers. Religion cannot be used for political purposes. (v) The capital of Albania is Tirana. (\u25bci) Allpowers of the State emanate from the Nation. (\u25bc11) The Constitutional Power in Albania is formed by: (a) The Executive Power which belongs to the King, who exercises it through the Government: (b) The Legislative Power, which is exercised collectively by the King and Parliament; this is composed of one Chamber; (c) The Judical Power, which is exercised by the Courts of Justice, whose decisions, based on law, are t>ronounced and executed in the name of the King. The Constitution remained in force until 1939. with some minor changes made by the 1932-36 legislature, such as the authorising of a preventive censor ship without constitutional safeguards, and the nationalisation of schools in v m 1933. 4 (3) The gxecutive Power 1 The King, who under the Constitution enjoyed all the rights and prerogatives m 20 of the throne, exercised his executive powers through the intermediary of hlB Ministers, '\u25a0'•'he King was inviolable, unaccountable and absolute. He represented the State "both in the country and abroad, and had the right, upon the advice of the Council of Ministers, to promulgate Decree-Laws in case of urgency when Parliament was not in session, and dissolve Parliament. The King appointed and dismissed the -Prime Minister and his Ministers, and could send Ministers for trial before the Court; but he could not pardon them for crimes committed in connection with their functions, without the consent of Parliament. The King had, otherwise, the power of nerdon and of commuting sentences, but could only grant an amnesty with the consent of Parliament. The King was Supreme Commander of the armed forces, end appointed all diplomatic agents and officials. Actually, the appointment of al1 array and gendarmerie officers, and of all civilian officials whose monthly salary exceeded 250 Albanian francs, was done by Hoyal Decree, signed by the King. As head of the State, the King had authority to declare war. He directed policy, with the consent of Parliament, and mi^ht conclude pacts of friendship, alliances and other treaties with foreign States; of such agreements, he was only bound to "keep Parliament informed to the extent which the high interests of the State permit." It was also laid down that Secret clauses of Treaties could in no way invalidate the open clauses of any Treaty. (U) The Council of Ministers The Cabinet, meeting in Council, was called the Council Of Ministers, and was directly dependent upon the King. It was composed of the Prime Minister and the Ministers of Justice, Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, Education, Public works and National Economy. The Constitution laid down that no member O 09 &oyal Family, qualifications B of the no foreigner and no one who had not the for c 1 \u2666 # 21 Government Administration election to Parliament, could be appointed to the office of Minister. The Cabinet was collectively and directly responsible to the King and to Parliament, in respect of general policy, and each Minister was separately responsible as far as concerned his own department. The Ministers enjoyed Parliamentary immunity, met in ordinary Council under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister; but in extraordinary circumstances the Council was presided over by the King. (5) The Legislative Power The Legislative Power was exercised jointly by the King and Parliament of one House, composed of 56 deputies elected by the People. The functions of Parliament, as indicated by the Constitution, may be classified under three main headings: -- la) The Legislative function-- to prepare and vote legislation and to vote the Budget; — (b) The Constitutional function the partial revision or modification of the dispositions of the Constitution;— Cc) The Political function the exercise of Parliamentary control over the actions of the Government. As the Government was appointed by the Head of the State, it must, to remain in office, possess the confidence of Parliament, which had the right of control over its policy and over the actions of its Ministers. — The Members of Parliament were elected by universal ballot one for every 15.000 inhabitants (or fraction of 15,000 exceeding 7.500) in each Constituency; they held their seats for a term of four years. To be eligible for election to Parliament, a candidate must be an Albanian citizen, 30 years of age or over, o and possess all civil and political rights. Parliament assembled once a year 3 « ts (except in extraordinary circumstances, provided by the Constitution) « as for *1 22 a regular session of five months from 15 October to 15 March; but it could not adjourn before voting the Budget. Sessions were ad.iourned by Royal Decree. {6) Council of State A further constitutional organ, created by a special article in the 1928 Constitution, was the Council of State. This was not, as has been erroneously suggested, a second chamber of the Legislature, replacing the Senate. It was an autonomous body having neither executive nor legislative powers, but designed to co-ordinate and to assist both the Executive and the Legislature. —Its main function was the preparation and drafting of legislative projects a function it inherited from a Commission set up in 1927 for the express purpose of drafting the Codes, Laws and Regulations of the State on modern lines, and which had drafted the Penal Code, the Civil Code and the Amendment to the Civil Procedure. The Council of State was composed of 10 Members and two Assistant Members appointed by the King from among candidates selected by a special Committee comprising the Prime Minister, the President of the Chamber of Deputies and the Minister of Justice. Councillors were appointed for a term of seven years, and could not, within that period, be dismissed, except as provided by the Law of Pensions or by an Act of Parliament. Among other qualifications required for appointment to the Council, the Members must hold a University Degree, must have distinguished themselves in knowledge and ability, must have held high Govern ment office and must not be under 35 or over SO years of age. In case of necessity, the President of the Council, who was appointed directly by the King, would become a member of the State Regency. This Council worked in three Sections: Justice; Administration; and Finance, National Economy and Communications. It was the duty of the Council (inter alia) « to prepare Codes, to draft and to examine any project- law or regulation referred "**.•«•*\u25a0\u25a0 \u25a0\u25a0-> 1 Government 23 Administration to it, to examine and give its opinion on Conventions and Concessions, to interpret laws and regulations , and to suggest solutions of any le^al conflicts "between Departments of the Central Government. The Council wn.s independent (largely on account of the irremovability of its members) and it was obligatory upon all Government Departments to submit to it all project- laws, draft regulations and draft concessions and treaties for study and examination. The Council's report must accompany any proposed legislation submitted to Parliament by the Government. It was also the Council's right and duty to give its opinion to both the Executive and Legislative bodies on the abrogation and modification of conflicting legislation, and its co-ordination. All decisions of the Council of State were, however, advisory. (7) The Council of Control The Republican Constitution of 192- 1 created a further cr^n, the Council of Control, for the express? purpose of exercising inspection and control over the management of the finances of State. This also was an autonomous body. Until it8 creation, financial control had been carried out by a department of the Mnistry of Finance, which, by its nature, was not independent. The organisation of the Council of Control was somewhat modified by the new Constitution of 1928, and in 1929, when the whole system of the administration of State Accounts was revised, a law was passed dealing with its powers and its functions. The Council of Control was composed of four members, one of whom was a Public Prosecutor; it was assisted by the Controller of Accounts department of the Ministry of finance. The President and the Members of this Council were appointed for a term of five yeara, in the same manner as those of the Council of State, and their permanence during this period was guaranteed. Acting as m \u25a0i. 24 one body, they examined and passed Judgment preventively and repress! vely on all the operations of the administration of finance, and had powers to prosecute any State officials and financial agents when, "by their acts, they inflicted loss on the State Treasury. They used to bring to the notice of Parliament, any proceedings of irregularity or embezzlement performed under the personal responsibility of Members of the Government; they supervised continuously the Income and Expenditure of the Budget as approved by Parliament, and scrutinized all documents, to ascertain that receipts and payments were made inaccordance with the existing laws. When the Government submitted its Budget to Parliament for approval, this was accompanied by a detailed report from the Council, explaining and Justifying (or otherwise) the Government pro posals for each branch of the Administration. (8) The Royal Court. Amendments. A further organ, the Boyal Court, was established by law to assist the King. Proposals for rectification, modification, amendment and revision of the Constitution could only be made by the King or by Parliament. (9) Actual Governmental Practice Actual methods of government differed so widely from those prescribed by the Constitution or deducible by democratic interpretation of the law, that most of the foregoing is definitely misleading unless the followingfactors are also noted: (i) Governmental interference with the course of Justice, (ii) The King*8 use of personal discrimination as a method of rule o «v (l11) Corruption © 0* (iv) « fj«he complaisancy of Parliament ot the King* c I -0 (y)( y) e» The Artificialnature of elections. 25 Government Administration (vi) The slow execution of projects (such as land reform) resolved upon by Parliament* (i) Government interference with justi The peculiar situation of the Central Government in Albania led to the using of highly irregular methods by Zog to maintain his power. Looked at from one point of view, here was a political adventurer seeking to secure his own personal power by shooting political prisoners "while attempting to escape," by sending assassins to do away with his enemies living abroad, such as Garakuchi in Italy and Hassan Prishtina in Greece* From another point of view, however, Zog was preserving, in the interests of Albania, the authority of the Albanian State* This was a necessity for Albania, and itwas a necessity so difficult to achieve that itcould only be done at all-—or Zog thought itcould only be done— by the use of ruthless, strong-arm methods* After all, such methods are sore normal im the ex-Ottoaaa countries than they are farther west* Consider the situation when Zog came to power* Until 1926, every year saw its rebellion, generally serious, frequently successful* In these con ditions there could be no continuity of policy, no ordered development* Law and order hardly existed; brigandage was endemic and merged into rebellion. Any foreign power desiring to fish in troubled waters could intervene in favour of some rebel, or even instigate a rising, as Italy instigated that of 1926* Moreover, at any moment Italy or some other Power might intervene, "to restore order," and take over the country. Zog's acheivement in the realm of law and order should not be forgotten even though the price paid in strong-arm killing was high according to Zog's opponents, unnecessarily high, because he added personal ambition to m o <« \u2666 \u25a0:«\u25a0•.\u25a0"»•' '«% 26 his zeal for Albania. But, under Zog, the Central Government asserted its authority to such effect that the Northern Rebellion of 1926 was the last which seriously threatened the authority of the State. The later risings in the South and elsewhere hardly exceeded in dimensions the isolated acts of desperate men, though the hostile press of Albania's neighbours dignified them by the name of rebellions. Brigandage had been endemic; Zog and his minister Musa Juka and the Gendarmerie reduced it to the smallest dimensions. The vendetta became a mere survival, not the custom of the country. Tribes men, who before Zog's time went armed as a matter of course, now yielded up their rifles: 180,000 of them were collected by the Government over a period of 14 years. Only the village constables were officially allowed to, go armed, although as an insurance against revolution (as willappear later) arms were permitted to the Mati and Dibra tribes. Iforder is the first necessity of a state, Zog, it must be granted, achieved it. The building of roads, the telephones, the establishment from 1925 onwards of an efficient Sritish-organized Gendarmerie, ensured such peace and good order in the country as ithad never previously known. Governmental interference with the course of justice was not confined to "oumpings-off" of the enemies of the regime. The actual process of the law was subject to intervention by the Executive. Since the King's power was personal, a certain license was allowed to any trusted supporter of his in breaking the law. For example, a certain army captain, living at Elbasan, was brought to trial, with a very strong case against him, for a particularly sordid murder j the trial began, but the prisoner enjoyed "protection" in high quarters, and the Court received orders from Tirana to stop the v trial and release the captain^ Then>* ko<*> in the Mati district there were n « *» \u25a0f 27 Government Administration known to be living a number of men "wanted" by the Gendarmerie, but who could not be touched because they were "King's men." Often the Gendarmerie would expend endless toil and ingenuity, and even lose lives, in order to capture some brigand or robber, only to have him released with a royal pardon. The effect upon the Gendarmerie was to give them a strong incentive to catch their prisoner dead. This interference with the course of justice was not due to a mere whim, or to dislike of justice on the part of the King; it had a definite purpose. Itused to be said in Austria-Hungary that when a man was recommend ed to the late Emperor Francis Joseph for an important position in the Imper ial service, the Emperor would ask about the candidate's loyalty. On being informed that the man was a good Austrian, he added: "But is he loyal to me?" The same consideration of necessity animated King Zog, who could forgive much to a dependable supporter of his own. (ii) The King's use of personal discrimination as a method of rule. The Oriental method of rule is to play off each person and each interest against another. In this way everybody requires protection against a rival, and depends upon the King. Moreover, any too ambitious man always has rivals ready to denounce him or to keep him in check. King Zog used to play off a Prefect against the district Gendarmerie Commander, one Minister against another, Moslem against Christian, Catholic against Or thodox, Italian against Jugoslav, Army against Gendarmerie, tribe against tribe. He could never afford to offend one tribe, and that was his own. 3 v The Mati could bear arras, shelter malefactors, do much as they liked: for 3 *C4 n l |^HMBM| -•* 28 the Uati, of whom he was hereditary chief, could be depended upon to pay for their position of privilege by bringing their rifles to the support of the King in any emergency. And, just in case anything went wrong in that quarter, there was another tribe near at hand to play off against the Mati; the Dibra were also allowed to keep their arms. There is a reason for this playing off of a man against man and faction against faction. The art of a ruler in Moslem and Eastern countries is essentially that of dealing with individuals; llacchiavelli and Haroun-al-Raschid were well-known exponents. First you make the fullest inquiries about a man's abilities and loyalty; you have him spied upon, to see that he is not too friendly with, let us say, the Italian or the Jugoslav Legation; then you give him a good job and treat him with apparent confidence. After a bit you sack him to ensure that he shall realise his complete dependence upon the Throne. Presently you relent and put him back inoffice, always, however, making sure that you know what he is doing, and that some rival of his shall have every opportunity of catching him out ifhe leaves the beaten track. If he strikes up a friendship with another functionary, you move one of them to a remote station. This is personal rule, and itis the way in which King Zog retained control of Albania for more than fourteen years. It sounds unpleasant to an American, but itis better than frequent rebellions and insecurity. In a country like Albania, itis no vain imagining that every hand is against a ruler, unless that hand is disarmed or greased—- and watched. 4 There were in Albania plenty of people who disliked the modernising of life, n the enrichment of politicians, the collecting of taxes, the enforcement of \u2666 .*& \u2666\u25a0 mm. !' 29 Government Administration laws, the suppression of brigandage and the vendetta, or the prospect of "agricultural reform. 11 There were Christians who could be stirred against a Moslem King, patriots who could be inflamed against an alleged Italianiser; there were the King's disappointed rivals (who thought they had every whit as good a right as he to be King of Albania); the victims of his heavy hand and his relatives; disgruntled and disappointed men who were quite ready to oppose the King if they thought they could get away with it. It was Zog's job to see that they did not get away with it,and (until the Italians turned him out) he was notably successful. One of the most unpleasant and (in the long run) disastrous features of this kind of regime is the almost inevitable Court camarilla. King Zog had an unpleasant favorite named Abdurrahman Krosi, much hated and the centre of all sorts of intrigues. As is the way with such persons, he had his own clientele of friends and favorites, for whom he would ex ercise a sort of reflected power or protection, importuning the King when necessary. To incur his enmity was dangerous. On the more genuinely political side the King depended much upon llusa Juka, a tough old rascal, without whose reassuring presence at the Ministry of the Interior, Zog never felt really secure. With regard to some of the men close to the King one is reminded of Napoleon's dictum about Talleyrand, "The biggest scoundrel in Europe, but Icannot do without him.11 (iii) Corruption. T'ehdi Frasheri once intervened at Geneva, in 1936, in the discussion by the Assembly of the League of Nations of the Mandates Commission's o *v report on Palestine; he claimed special knowledge, because he had once at \u2666 •r a \u2666 * •>\u25a0 30 been Governor of Palestine under the Turks. This strikingly illustrates the historical nearness of the Turkish despotism, and indicates the dif ficulty which even the most modernising King of Albania would have found when seeking administrators, Ministers, diplomatic representatives, offi cials, Prefects. Former Ottoman officials (with individual exceptions like Mehdi Frasheri himself) were no more likely to introduce modern adminis trative standards in Albania, or to keep to them personally if they were established, than Ministers of a British Conservative Government to ex ercise appropriately the functions of People's Commissars in a Soviet State. The first principle of the State in Turkish times had been "Muzzle not the ox that treadeth out the corn. 1* It persisted in independent Albania. The over-lapping careers of bureaucracy and politics were looked up looked upon as the authentic path by which an able but poverty-stricken peasant might rise to affluence and power. He would try to obtain a job in a Ministry or a Prefect's office, and from there advance his career by judicious use of his financial opportunities. His salary would be ex tremely small, with a large deduction for "national economy" (in other words, to enable the King to get along for a while without another Italian loan); and, in the very early years, the salary, small as it was, often never arrived. A. country as poor as Albania (or as stingy as Hamidian Turkey) cannot pay over-generous salaries to its civil servants; they must a reward them- v GQ © selves "on the side" as they go along. The beginning of fortune is to n 31 Government Administration extract a present from a petitioner for procuring him an interview with the official whom he has come to see. Before you get to the Prefect or the Magistrate or the Minister who has power to settle your business, you give a present to the clerk who admits you* Ifyou do not, the clerk states that the Minister is engaged; and the Minister never knows you have called* The higher positions give even greater opportunities* Imagine your self a Minister about to award a contract for laying a large number of concrete blocks in the sea at Durazzo, in the form of a pier* Italy has just advanced the money— -on which you will,of course, draw liberally for "expenses." Your brother-in-law has got some contracts, or knows where to get some, and the billwillnot be too closely scrutinised* Dishonest? Yes. but how is a man to live? A Cabinet Minister's salary is thirty pounds a month; what sort of career is that going to provide? Next month the King willperhaps dismiss you, and there is no pension* Moreover, you are now the supposedly prosperous member of your family; your relations are all clamouring for sinecures, subsidies, pensions, jobs, contracts, or Heaven knows what* You need a new European suit to receive foreign journalists, a frock coat to attend the King's banquet and an endless supply of smokable cigarettes* Livingis cheap? Yes, but not so cheap ifyou live as a European* Finally, you have to live somewhere-* At home in the mountains you were brought up in a shack; that won't do for Tirana* What you need is to buy a plot of land in the Boulevard Zog and to build a nice modern villa with a garden and a wall around it* That costs money— lots of money; your capital is represented by a few pounds that you managed to * save (ifyou did) while you were Assistant Prefect in a provincial town* i <* # i I 32 So how are these things to be paid for? Well there is that contract for the totally unnecessary Durazzo breakwater which the Italians are so keen about. What about a rake-off? This involved but well-understood procedure of window-dressing, per sonal intrigue and rake-off is not a specialty of the Albanians, but is the legacy of Turkish rule and (before that) of Byzantine rule. In Turk ish times everybody who was not content to mind the cattle in his village or to grow some miserable crop for a bare livelihood, always lived on a rake-off, be he Pasha, tax-gatherer, officials clerk or servant, or merely a local magistrate dealing with the landed Bey. Since, when Albania be came independent, everybody remembered that in his youth all officials had always taken a rake-off or a bribe as a matter of course, the social con science which condemns these things was practically non-existent at any rate among the class which first found itself in the Albanian public ser vice. Nor could Zog create that conscience by paying high salaries, and so removing temptation, except at the cost of fillinghis empty Treasury with an Italian loan on Italy's terms. Besides, the king himself was putting money aside against the contingency of deposition or exile. A conscience, however, was growing. People were accustomed to speculate upon the honesty of this or that official, judging him by his state of penury or affluence upon his retirement from office} for a public servant could not get himself a nice house in Tirana, and other amenities, from any other source than taking bribes or dipping into the public purse; legit imate opportunities of enrichment, such as exist in Western countries, are not available* Certain Ministers, such as Mehdi Fr*ih*riand Etem * • Toto, to name only two, enjoyed a repu< \u25a0•*\u25a0. 33 Government Administration tatfon for complete honesty. The Gendarmerie, the schools, residence at Western universities and the fundamental excellence of the native Albanian character were producing an increasing number of genuinely honest men in public service. (iv) The complaiBancy of Parliament to the King Albania was, of course, nowhere near advanced enough to be capable of enjoying genuine democracy. What itdid have was a great advance on Turkish rule. The working of the Constitution was an interesting combination of the forms of democracy with the reality of a not unpopular despotism. The King, in fact, decided what was to be done in Parliament, and the Deputies took their cue from him or his spokesman. When the King desired to change his Ministers, he simply dismissed one Government and installed another, drawn from the reserve of available men. In the case of the Frasheri Ministry, however, the King suited the technique of dismissal to the ideas of his Ministers. Frasheri believed in parliamentary procedure, and the responsi bility of a Cabinet to" Parliament; very well, he was dismissed by the proper parliamentary forms. Some relatively trivial and non-controversial matter was being debated when a Deputy arose and made a fierce attack upon the Ministry. The other Deputies, sensing that this attack would not have been made without royal inspiration, joined in. Soon the question of confidence was put, and the Ministry (which not long before had received a unanimous vote of confidence) was defeated. Itaccordingly resigned, and the King, with perfect correctness, accepted its resignation. The Parliament thus acted a v a like those of Lancastrian and Tudor kings in England, voting o somewhat the M what the King desired. 34 (v) The Artificial Nature of Election, In the absence of political parties, attachments and allegiances, differ ences were personal rather than generally political, ideological or sectional; Parliament was a mere assemblage of individuals. What is more important, these individuals were hand-picked by the King, Elections were held in two stages* The individual voters assembled at the communal building to appoint "electors" for the secondary elections. A week or two after these "primaries," the "electors" chosen at the Mairies gathered at the district Prefecture to do the real electing— the choosing of the actual Deputies who were to represent them in Parliament. They found that the Prefect was ready to instruct them for whom they were to vote; the King had sent down his list via the Ministry of the Interior. When the electors had recorded their votes for the official nominees (there were no others) they went home. The election was over. The people had ratified the King's choice of Deputies. It would perhaps have been better if the King (or his Minister of the Interior) had offered a choice of candidates to the electors, so they might exercise a more active function in the choosing of their representatives. On the other hand, this might merely have confused them. There is no doubt that these artificial elections achieved two difinite results; they enabled the King to ascertain that there was no serious, earnest, determined opposition on political lines to his method of governing; and they prevented the election of brigands, demagogues, irresponsible persons, hidden traitors, or personal enemies of the King, who, had they been elected to Parliament, might have o w grossly abused their position, to the detriment of the King's authority and © c* of the security of the State. One wonders, indeed, what amazing results « would have been produced by genui!!e2^ "free^elections; probably the task 35 Government Administration of government (at any rate, as understood by Zog) would have been rendered totally impossible. One of the objects of preserving democratic forms was doubtless to impress the outside world. In modernisation of governmental methods, King Zog did not risk the strong meat which Mustafa Kemal administered to Turkey; he preferred to proceed slowly, like Halle Selassie, rather than over-hastily like Amanullah. Young and able Albanians considered that the King was over-cautious. (vi) The slow execution of projects resolved upon by Parliament. In writing of any measure of reform or project for development in Albania itis not sufficient to say that on such-and-such a date a bill was passed, or a decree issued. There was (and still was, under the Ital ians ) always an immense time-lag between the conception of a project and its adoption, and a still greater delay before it was actually put into execution. Moreover, insufficiency of funds often held up projects when they were actually being carried out, and the administrative machinery at all times worked with exceeding slowness. A reform, therefore, must not be regarded as an action or an event, taking place in a certain limited period of time, but rather as a continuous process; ten years after its beginning, itwas appropriate to ask, not "was itcarried out?" but "how far has itgot?" Even to this question the answer was often somewhat vague* (10) Central Administration The Central Government was carried on by eight Ministerial Departments and three non-Ministerial Directorates-General, namely, the « * ANtMpf M 36 Army,- Gendarmerie and Public Health. The functions of the Council of State and the Council of Control have already been described in the previous chapter. Over all the King exercised a supervisory function through a special body called the Royal Court. This was composed of a CivilHouse and a Military House. (i) Civil House of the Royal Court The CivilHouse comprised the Ministry of the Court, the Chief of Cere monies and the Inspectorate, of which the third was the most important, having wide powers and duties. This Inspectorate was legally entitled to intervene, for in spection and enquiry, in every branch of the civiladministration from the Minis- tried down to the Communes. Within its purview came the finances, duties and conduct of the Administrative Councils of Prefectures, Municipalities, Communes, Gendarmerie, Police, Customs, Finances, Public Works, Prisons, Courts of Law (but without interfering with judgments), Schools, Agriculture, Forestry, Chambers of Commerce, Concessions, etc., and the merits, capabilities, and behaviour of all officials. The Chief Inspector and his Inspectors were directly responsible to the King, from whom they received orders, and to whom they submitted all reports of inspections. The purpose of these inspections was quite clear j itwas to enable the King to be informed of all activities in the country. (ii) The Military House This was composed of four Departments: The King's A.P.C.s, the Army Department, the Gendarmerie Department and the Army Inspectorate. The duties of the Army and Gendarmerie Departments were to study projects submitted to the King concerning these two armed forces, and to give their opinion thereon; to prepare any projects ordered by the King regarding the organisation of the av n \u25a0* © Army e» and the Gendarmerie, to give their opinion on conditions, and to suggest \u25a0\u2666 03 improvements in the administration o$ the two foraes. In fact they were two CM 4 37 Government Administration technical consultative bodies t the duties of the Army Inspectorate were those implied by the name. (iii) Mlnlstriss The eight Ministerial Departments were those of the Prime Minister and Ministers of the Interior, Finance, National Economy, Justice, Education, Public Works and Foreign Affairs. This was the most usual arrangement of Ministries throughout the reign, although at various times the number was altered; at one time there was a separate Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs, but this Department was down-graded and attached to the Ministry of Public Works; the Ministry of Education was abolished, and then restored j at one time there were separate Ministries for Trade and Industry and for Agricul ture and Forrestry, but these were united in a single Ministry of National Economy. Early in 1929 steps were taken to establish a separate Ministry of Popular Culture, (i.e., Propaganda), but no Minister had been appointed by the time of the Italian invasion. All these Ministers were appointed by the King, though technically they were dependent upon the confidence of Parliament. It was Zog's practice usually to have Christian Prime Ministers, thus creating an appearance of religious balance in the Government, since he was himself a Moslem. From similar motives, the Italians had employed Moslem Premiers, since their King professes Christianity* The Ministers collectively formed the Cabinet. (iv)*Non-Ministerial Departments The Directorates-General of the Army, Gendarmerie and Public Health, like the fully-fledged Ministries, prepared their own departmental budgets for pre sentation to Parliament. They and the Department of Posts and Telegraphs (sub ordinate to the Ministry of Public Works) had largely independent organisations 38 throughout the country. The Army and Gendarmerie were not subordinate to any Ministry, because the Constitution made the King their supreme commander; they were thus kept separate from the political body of the Government. They formed two separate "Commands," each being headed by a "Commandant General". Because of the varied duties the Gendarmerie had to carry out for the Judi ciary and the Executive, itwas closely co-ordinated with the organs of the Ministries of Justice and of the Interior, by whom itwas represented in the Cabinet. The Gendarmerie was, of course, the final executor of nil laws and regulations emanating from the Constitutional powers of the State. (v) Centre and Provinces The country was divided for administrative purposes into ten Prefectures, and further sub-divided into Sub-prefectures, Municipalities and Communes. In some or all of these units each Ministry had duties to perform. Thus, scatter ed about the country, were the local officials of these Ministries. A curious physical detail of the administrative system arose from the lack of an ordinary banking system. Peripatetic commissions charged with the distribution of relief or pensions had to obtain the necessary funds by call ing at the finance office of the Prefecture and drawing bags of gold or other coinage which had accumulated there as taxation receipts. Similarly, bags of gold had to be sent from the Prefecture or from Tirana for the payment of salaries to officials and to the army and the Gendarmerie. (11) Local Administration (i) Prefectures •The Prefect was the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior, a v answer to the King. His functions were not unlike those 5 but he had in fact to polit n of an English Regional Commissioner. He was reponsible inhis area for 39 Government Administration ical control and for keeping in touch with all foreigners and their interests. He maintained order by means of the Gendaramerie, whose local commandant ful filled Gendarmerie tasks assigned to him by the Prefect, as well as the orders of his supervisors at Tirana. (The King usually saw to it that the Prefect and the Gendarmerie commandant were rivals and spied upon each other; ifthey became friends he would move one of them to another station). There were also at the Prefecture Centre the district Finance Officer, Engineer, Agricultural and Educational officials, etc. There was also a dis trict court empowered to deal witb all cases) and the prison. These various offices were controlled partly by the Prefect and partly by their parent Ministries at Tirana. Each Prefect was assisted by an Administrative Council, which Included Local Commandant of Gendarmerie. Local Director of Finance. Senior Engineer. Senior Agricultural Official. Senior Educational Official. First Secretary to the Prefect* Four elected members. (11) Sub-Prefectures The Prefectures were divided Into Sub-Prefectures. The Sub-Prefect was responsible to the Prefect for Political order and public welfare In bis area, for which purpose he could call upon the assistance of the Gendarmerie, which had a headquarters In each Sub-Prefecture, but was not directly controlled by the Sub-Prefect. The "horne 11 Sub-Prefecture in each Prefecture had no Sub 3 * « Prefect, but its Communes dealt directly with the Prefecture. « 40 The Sub-Prefecture contained a Judicial Department, a Finance Department dealing with local taxation and the payment of dues and wages, a Medical Officer and a Road Surveyor. Army recruits arrived at the Sub-Prefecture after receiving their calling-up notices from the Communes, and were medically examined before being sent on to Army Headquarters. Petitions forwarded from the Communes were investigated and either answered or sent on to the Ministry concerned. The Sub-Prefecture also had an Administration Council, which contained five official and two elected members. (iii) Communes The Commune was an independent legal unit, having c Communal Council, with a President appointed by Royal Decree (because his salary exceeded 250 Albanian francs per month) and a Secretary appointed by the Minister of the Interior. The latter was also Cashier, and responsible for the Communal balance sheet. The Commune consisted of 2,500 or more persons, and the non-official members of its Council were elected every fourth year on a basis of four counci llors for every 4,000 or less inhabitants and one additional member for every additional 1,000 persons. Voters were males of over 18 years. In 1956 there were 143 Communes, comprising 2,555 villages. (iv) The Communal President and Secretary were usually housed in the same building as the local Gendarmerie station, where there would be a post of six, or more Gendarmes* The Communal officials' duties were to act as registrars of births, deaths and civilmarriages; to issue burial certificates (showing cause of death), enabling burials to take place within 24 hours of death; to register persons eligible for compulsory military service and issue their calling-up notices; to keep a list of all males between the ages of 16 and 60, since these were liable annually for 10-day s f compulsory unpaid road Maintenance labour, or tax of 20 gold francs in lieu; to orgaftitse* the>**Eintenance of roads, using the 41 Government Administration above-mentioned supply of labour; to forward all petitions to the Sub-Prefect; and to report to the same quarter any local trouble or sign of unrest. The Communal Council had power to settle disputes involving sums not exceeding 100 gold francs and to impose fines not exceeding 20 gold francs. (v) Municipalities By the law of Municipalities, Municipalities existed at Tirana, Durazzo, Valona, Scutari, Elbasan, Koritza, Berat, Peshkopije, Kukes and Gjinokaster. Municipal administration was conducted by a Mayor, a permanent Council and a Municipal Assembly. Mayors were appointed by the Council of Ministers and were paid by the State* The Permanent Council consisted of two members, appointed by the Municipal Assembly; in Tirana itconsisted of four, appointed by the Government. This Council was advisory and executive to the Municipal Assembly and had the right to pass municipal laws and impose municipal taxation. The Municipal Assembly, which assembled four times a year, consisted of 24 elected members, who might not be Government or religious officials. (vi) Villages Each village had its Headman or Elder, with a council of two or three to assist him. There was also a village guard or constable, who, by licence of the Gendarmerie, was permitted to carry a rifle* In general, the officials at a Prefecture of Sub-Prefecture were under the orders of the Prefect or Sub-Prefect, but received instructions regarding their departmental work' from their superiors in the hierarchy of their own Ministries. a «o o «ft CO 42 d% Judicial System "The Judicial Power in the Albanian State is exercised by the Courts of Justice, whose decisions, based on Law, are pronounced and executed in the name of the King," (Albanian Constitution, December, 1928). The Ministry of Justice, as the representative of the Judicial Power, inspected and supervised the work and administration of the Judiciary. The Judiciary was independent in giving judgment, its only authority being the laws actually in force. Ho other authority, legislative or executive, had the power to interfere In judicial pro ceedings. The organisation of the Courts and the administration of the laws and of the Judiciary were based on the Law of 1929. There were Courts and Judges established at the headquarters of all the major ad ministrative districts, i.e., Prefectures and Sub-prefectures. There were 40 Justices of the Peace (at the seats of Sub-prefectures, and in the Prefecture Centres for the "home" Sub-prefectures), 10 Tribunals of First Instance (one at each Prefecture Centre) and a Supreme Court, which also served as a High Court of Appeal. A Commission, composed of the President of the Supreme Court, the Attorney-General and the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Justice, and presided over by the Minister of Justice, selected the Judges and the Public Prosecutors and proposed them for appointment— the appoint- «m 43 Judicial System merits being finally decreed by the King. By the latest lava,and regu lations no one who had not reached the age of 25, who did not hold a university degree In the Faculty of Laws, and who had not served a term of two years as an Assistant Justice of the Peace or as a, member of the Court of First Instance, ox had two years lpractice as a lawyer, could be appointed as a Judge* The 40 Justices of the Peace were situated at the headquarters of every Prefecture and every Sub-prefecture* Those at the seats of Pre fectures each had an Assistant* Justices of the Peace, besides doing the work of Magistrates, also performed the functions of the Notary where no public Notary existed* The 10 Tribunals of First Instance were situated at the head quarters of Prefectures, that is, one for every Prefecture. This Tri bunal was composed of one President and two Recorders* A Magistrate and a Public Prosecutor completed the Judicature of the Prefecture. All courts had criminal as well as civiljurisdiction* The Supreme Court of Judicature was seated at Tirana as one body, but had two permanent Divisions —Criminal and Civil— each of which was composed of a President, four Members and a Deputy-Member* In addition, the Supreme Court had an Attorney-General and an Assistant Attorney- General, thus bringing the personnel of the Court to eight* Albania had no Courts of Appeal as such, but the people were, never theless, not deprived of a second jurisdiction, since these functions 3 m « •\u2666\u25a0-» 44 were carried out by the two Divisions of the Supreme Court* In all civilmatters the CivilDivision of this Court acted as the only Court of Appeal in the country* In criminal cases appeal was obligatory, and was practised ipso jure for all criminal judgments* In this case itwas the Criminal Division of the Supreme Court which performed the functions of a Court of Appeal. The Ministry of Justice had an extremely small personnel* In addition to the Minister and the Secretary-General there were one First Secretary, two Recorders, one Accountant and two Assistant Sec retaries, responsible for compiling the records of cases and judgments* There was also the Director of the juridical review, "Jurisprudentia." From the above itwillbe noticed that there were in all 106 Magistrates and 12 Public Prosecutors, which number was not nearly sufficient for the country. There were about 140 lawyers and 15 Public Notaries in 1936, but as to the latter no hardship was experienced, because the Justices of the Peace performed the duties of Public Notaries where these did not exist* There were two other permanent Judicial bodies, as distinct from the regular organisation mentioned above. These were a Political Court and a Military Tribunal, both seated at Tirana. The Permanent Political Court was created to deal with political offenders. Itwas presided over by a colonel and had four members, two o of whom were ordinary civilian magistrates, the other two being mill ©3 CO '**' • JPcvt »»i^» *rf^^^^*r \u25a0• 45 Judicial System tary officers. The Constitution provided that this Court should be abolished by 1952, but itwas felt necessary by the powers- that-were that it should continue sitting, and its term was prolonged. Justice for military personnel was administered by a special Military Tribunal, composed of three members, all of whom vere mili tary officers. The functions of Magistrate and of Public Prosecutor were, however, performed by the ordinary Civil Courts. A Court of Appeal composed of two members of the Supreme Court and two military officers, and presided over by a general, constituted the second juris diction for military trials. The Military Penal Code was the same as that of Italy. In matters of positive law Albania took advantage of the legis lation and experience of other nations and put to her use the most recent acquisitions of modern legislation. Up to 1929, when the new Albanian CivilCode was prepared and came into being, civiljustice in Albania was administered on the basis of the out-of-date Ottoman CivilCode. The basis, both in form and in content, of the 1929 Civil Code of Albania was the "Code Napoleon. 11 In many articles itfollowed the Italian "Codice Civile,11 which has also borrowed from the "Code Napoleon," and the Swiss CivilCode. The Law of the Application of the CivilCode, based on that of Switzerland, came into force at the same time* v m it 46 The Albanian Penal Code, which came into force, together with its application, in 1928, was based mainly on the Italian "Codice Penale." Other new legislation introduced in Albania since 1950 was the Barrister and Solicitor Law and the Notarial Law in 1951, based on Austrian and Italian examples respectively; and the Commercial Law of 1932, adapted from the Italian "Propect of Vivante "—named after Professor C. Vivante, who edited the laws drafted by a committee of Italian jurists under his chairmanship. The CivilProcedure and the Criminal Procedure were in the course of preparation by the Council of State, but had not been fi nalised when Albania was invaded. Of prisons there were 40 in Albania, one at each Prefecture and Sub-prefecture, and there was a new general prison at Tirana. There was also a special prison at Porto Palermo for tubercular prisoners. Capital punishment was operative in Albania, and all death sen tences, excepting those pardoned or commuted, were executed by hang ing. The law made no discrimination as between sexes. Considering the state the country had been in since it first won its independence in1912, it should be said in fairness that great improvements were effected during the peace years 1920 to 1959, both in judicial legislation as well as in the organisation of the m m « j^ "^ 47 Public Saf et; judiciary. The people of Albania are really peaceful and law-abiding and, given proper self-government and legislation conformable to their customs and traditions, they might well create a model small state in the Balkans* Public Safety The police force charged expressely with the maintenance of in ternal order was the Gendarmerie. This was an armed force, not sub ordinate to any Ministry, but having its own Command, Headquarters and V, budget. Its head was an Albanian, but it was in fact organised by a British Inspector-General (Major-General Sir Jocelyn Percy) and a staff of British Inspectors* These officers were employees of the Albanian State; in spite of Italian pressure to secure their removal, they re mained until September, 1958* In each Prefecture there was a Gendarmerie Commandant who carried out the orders of the Prefect as well as those of the Gendarmerie Com mand and General Percy. There was a Gendarmerie Headquarters in each Sub-prefecture and a local Gendarmerie post of six or seven men in each Commune. The Gendarmerie posts were linked up by their own system of telephones, which was also at the disposal of the administration when required. At the very bottom of the hierarchy of law-enforcement was the village guard or constable, who was licensed by the Gendarmerie to carry a rifle. w Gendarmerie officers were originally intended to be trained in m Italy, but financial difficulties prevented this, and in 1955 and 1956 « some army officers were transferred to iSfe Gendarmerie. Other ranks % 48 were voluntarily enlisted soldiers of good type who joined (after 1955) for five years. First-class Gendarmes could re-engage for five years, Second-class Gendarmes for one year. Tirana had its own separate police force for duty inside the town. This force was entirely independent of the Gendarmerie until about 1957, when it was put under the Gendarmerie Command, although remaining a distinct formation within the Gendarmerie. In addition to the Gendarmerie, the Albanian Army itself served as a public safety force. King Zog relied upon the Array for the main tenance of his position, using itas his main engine for repression of rebellion. It was organized primarily for this purpose and not for fighting a war against a foreign power. f• General Economic Conditions The history of Albania's economic development since World War I may be divided into three periods: the years from 1920 to 1925, during which, after the admission of Albania to the League of Nations in Dec ember 1920, the country sought advice and support from the League, which had undertaken to guarantee its political integrity; the period from 1925 to 1959, when, as a result of the convention of March 15, 1925 between Albania and Italy, Albania obtained from the Fascist government the financial assistance which she had previously sought in vain inter nationally} and the years from 1959 to the present, during which, after m the invasion of Albania by Italian forces on April 7, 1959, the country •# 49 Economic Conditions was incorporated into the Italian Empire and its economic lifp ab sorbed into the orbit of Fascist economy. (l) Albania and the League of Nations. 1920-25* The new state of Albania, created after the war under the aegis of the League of Nations, faced serious economic problems from its inception. Five centuries of Turkish rule had left Albania with an extremely primi tive economic system. Despite the country fs potential agricultural wealth, the output was insufficient even to supply the country with food, while at the same time large areas of arable land remained un tilled. There was no centralized economy; each rural family culti vated its own land, produced its own focd, flax, wool, and leather, and with the exeption of salt and tobacco, provided for its own ex tremely limited needs. Since for want of roads internal trade was practically non-existent, fertile areas could not produce beyond their immediate needs. Instead of being an integrated economic unit, Albania was, in the early •twenties, an agglomeration of isolated districts and local markets. In 1922, a Committee of Inquiry appointed by the League of Nations reported that political stability and economic development in Albania could be attained only through improvements for which both competent advisers and foreign capital were required. The Committee further recommended that the 'League itself, as a disinterested organ, provide this support. a w O c* * 50 The program of development which the League report advocated included the construction of roads, the development of agriculture, the draining of marshes, and a campaign against malaria} also the establishment of a Bank of Issue, exploitation of mineral wealth, the building of ports and railways, utilization of hydro-electric power, and general industrial development. To carry out this program, a loan of about $22,000,000 was proposed. While not undertaking to supply funds, in 1923 the League appointed a financial adviser, Mr. J. D. Hunger of Holland, who proposed drastic fiscal reforms and recommended the creation of a Bank of Issue, to be launched with an internationally subscribed capital of $1,000,000. Although the Financial Committee of the League invited member states to participate, favorable responses were received only from Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, and the initi ative in economic affairs thereafter fell more and more to Italy. ' (2) The Growth of Italian Influence. 1925-59. Even before the convention of 1925, Albanian economy was heavily dependent upon Italy. In the absence of roads across her frontiers, Albania fs communications with the rest of Europe were maintained principally by two Italian steamship lines, the Puglia and the Lloyd Triestino, subsidized by the Italian government. Albania's foreign trade was overwhelmingly with Italy, the country's most important source of supply and its best market. On March 15, 1925, Italy and Albania concluded a 50-year agreement a v B) <4 O N « •* 51 Economic Conditions which inaugurated a program of substantial financial assistance, the two main features of which were the establishment of a national bank and the flotation of a public works loan* The National Bank of Albania was established with headquarters at Tirana, but with its administrative seat at Rome. Its nominal capital was 12,500,000 Albanian gold francs ($2,500,000). Albanian citizens were to have the right to participate to the extent of 49 percent of the share capital, and the Albanian State was to receive 10 percent of the net annual profits. Since a large share of the 49 percent set aside for Albanian interests was actually bought for Italian account, Italy retained full control of the bank. The second result of the agreement was the formation of the Company for the Economic Development of Albania (Societa per lo Sviluppo Economico dell 'Albania), with a capital of 15 million lire. This company under took to procure for Albania a loan of 50 million gold francs ($10,000,000) to be used exclusively for public works—roads, swamp drainage, agricul tural development, and port construction. Repayment of capital and in terest was to be secured through a lien on Albanian customs revenues and the state monopolies of salt, cigarettes, aad matches. In1951, another loan agreement was concluded, whereby the Italian government agreed to extend to Albania over a period of 10 years a series of annual loans of 10 million gold francs, to draw no interest and to be repaid whenever Albania was financially able to do so* The* funds .^hßll^^^^M^^^^H^^fe 52 so received were to be devoted to public works, the development of the national economy, and the improvement of education under a joint Albanian-Italian commission. Italy's willingness to grant loans which Albania had vainly sought through the League was, of course, motivated by the political rather than by the economic advantages entailed. To ensure Albania's full "collaboration," in fact, Italian advisers ap proved by the Fascist government were to be appointed to the Albanian Ministries of Finance, Public Works, National Economy, and Education, the Italian government thus obtaining virtual control over the whole Albanian economy. The original agreement of 1931 was superseded, in 1936* by another in which the Italian government granted Albania a loan of 9 million francs, repayable in three annual installments, to cover the deficits in the state budget tor the years immediately preceding; a second loan of 10 million francs, repayable in 50 years at 1percent interest, intended for the development of Albanian agriculture and granted in return for an Albanian oil concession; and another loan of 3 million francs for the organization of a government tobacco monopoly whose receipts should accrue to Italy. These loans enabled Albania to engage in a considerable program of public works. Approximately half the loans were allotted for road and bridge construction, with the result that in 1939 there were about m 2,000 miles of roads suitable for motor vehicles, as against 430 in 1921. o ct «# \u25a0*•*\u25a0