New Testament Introduction Sourcebook by Mark G. Bilby, Phd May 13, 2020

New Testament Introduction Sourcebook by Mark G. Bilby, PhD May 13, 2020

The materials that follow are original creations developed as individual handouts for New Testament classes I have taught over the years. Here they are compiled into a brief sourcebook that can accompany my introductory video lectures for RLST 201 at CSU Fullerton. The related RLST 201 course syllabus for Spring 2018 is also available.

TaNaKh vs. Old Testament: Comparison of Traditional Canonical Count, Order, and Groupings

TaNaKh or Jewish/Hebrew Bible (24 books in traditional Jewish reckoning)

Torah, Instruction, Law, Books Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy of Moses, Pentateuch (5)

Deuteronomic History: Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1-2), Kings (1-2)

Nevi’im, Prophets (8) Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel

Minor Prophets ("The Twelve"): Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

Wisdom/Poetic Literature: Psalms, Proverbs, Job

Megillot (Festival "Scrolls"): Song of Songs (Pesach), Ruth (Shavuot), Lamentations (9 th of Av), Ecclesiastes (Sukkot), Kethuvim, Writings (11) Esther (Purim)

Historical Literature: Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles (1-2)

Christian Old/First Testament/Covenant

Pentateuch, Books of Moses, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy The Law (5)

Historical Literature: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1- Former Prophets 2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther

Wisdom/Poetic Literature: Job, Psalms,

Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon

The Prophets (34) Isaiah, Jeremiah, Major Prophets: Lamentations, Ezekiel

Daniel; “The Twelve”: Later Prophets Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Minor Prophets: Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

Historical/Hagiographical/Polemical: Tobit, Judith, Esther (Grk, w/ additions), Additions to Daniel (Prayer of Azariah, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon), 1-2 Maccabees, 3-4 Maccabees (eo), 3rd Ezra (eo), Letter of Jeremiah (eo) Deutero-Canonical Writings (“Apocrypha”) (eo – some Eastern churches only) Wisdom/Poetic Literature: Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (or Wisdom of Jesus Ben Sirach), Baruch, 4th Ezra (eo), Psalm 151 (eo), Odes (eo)

TaNaKh Hebrew Names, Groupings and Order

Grouping Sub -Grouping English Name Hebrew Name Literal Translation 1 Genesis B'resheet "In the beginning" Torah Exodus Sh'mot "The names" “Instruction” Leviticus Vayikra "And he called" or Pentateuch Numbers B'midbar "In the wilderness" Deuteronomy D'varim "The words" Joshua Y'hoshua Deuteronomic Judges Shof'tim History Samuel Sh'mu'el Kings M'lakhim Isaiah Yeshayah Major Prophets Jeremiah Yirmeyah Ezekiel Yechezk’el Hosea Hoshea Joel Yo’el Nevi'im Amos Amos “Prophets” Obadiah Ovadeyah Jonah Yonah Minor Prophets Micah Mikhah “The Twelve” Nahum Nachum Habbakuk Havakuk Zephaniah Tz’faneyah Haggai Hagai Zechariah Z’khareyah Malachi Mal’akhi Psalms Tehillim "Praises" Wisdom Proverbs Mishlei Literature Job Iyov Song of Songs Shir Ha -Shirim Ruth Ruth Megillot Kethuvim Lamentations Eikhah "How" “Scrolls” “Writings” Ecclesiastes Qoheleth "Teacher" Esther Esther Daniel Daniel Historical Ezra -Nehemiah Ezra -Nechamyah Literature Divrei Ha - Chronicles Yamim "The words of the days"

1 Entries in this column are only made for books for which the English name is itself not a literal translation from the Hebrew.

1 Thanks to my friend and supervising professor, Don Polaski, for pointing out these passages.

Orthodox/Catholic/Protestant (39) Orthodox/Catholic/Protestant Apocrypha (45) Orthodox (49) Genesis Proverbs 1 Maccabees 1 Esdras Exodus Ecclesiastes 2 Maccabees 3 Maccabees Leviticus Song of Songs Tobit Lament. Jeremiah Numbers Isaiah Judith Epistle of Jeremiah (sep) Deuteronomy Jeremiah Baruch & Epistle Jeremiah Joshua Lamentations Wisdom of Solomon Psalm 151 (w/ Psalms) Judges Ezekiel Ruth Daniel Bel & Dragon (w/ Daniel) Gk/Rus Appendix: 1 Samuel Hosea Prayer of Azariah (w/ Daniel) 4 Maccabees 2 Samuel Joel Susanna (w/ Daniel) Prayer of Manasseh 1 Kings Amos Esther additions 2 Kings Obadiah Slavonic Appendix: 1 Chronicles Jonah 3 Esdras 2 Chronicles Micah Ezra Nahum Nehemiah Habakkuk Esther Zephaniah Job Haggai Psalms Zechariah Malachi

Muratorian Fragment 1

This fragment, self-named by the scholar who discovered the text and published it in 1740 (Lodovico Muratori), 2 offers one of the earliest attempts at defining a list of Christian Scripture, i.e., a New Testament canon. The extant, poorly transcribed Latin text is thought to be based on an earlier Greek text. Most scholars date the fragment to the late 2 nd century, though many push for a later provenance.3 These heated scholarly debates regarding its date suggest the document’s pivotal role in the reconstruction of the history of the development of the NT canon.

[1]4 ...quibus tamen interfuit et ita posuit. ... among whom he was present and whom he thus quoted. [2] Tertium euangelii librum secundum Lucam The third book of the Gospel is according to Luke. [3] Lucas iste medicus, post a scensum xri Luke was that noted doctor, after Christ’s ascension, [4] cum eum Paulus quasi ut iuris 5 studiosum accompanying as a legal expert, Paul [5] secum adsumpsisset, nomine suo had taken along. In his own name, [6] ex opinione conscripset dnm tamen nec ipse based on report, he logged the Lord, though he did not [7] uidit in carne, et ideo prout assequi potuit see him in the flesh, and therefore, exactly as he was able to track down, [8] ita et ad natiuitate Iohannis incipet dicere. thus he began by speaking of the nativity of John.

1 Introduction, English translation and notes by Mark Bilby, © 2009. The translation aims to be as literal as possible, both in meaning and structure, which often forces cumbersome syntax, but allows for a quick comparison of equivalent terms. The heavily corrected Latin text is by Hans Lietzmann, Das Muratorische Fragment und Die Monarchianischen Prologe zu den Evangelien (Bonn: A. Marcus und E. Weber, 1902), 4-11. Superscribed lines denote the Latin scribe’s use of abbreviation for nomina sacra . 2 Antiquitates Italicae Medii Aevi , v. 3 (Milan: Societas Palatinae, 1740). 3 Among today’s notable advocates of the traditional position are Bruce Metzger, Everett Ferguson, and Charles E. Hill. These scholars stress the reference to the Shepherd of Hermas (c.110-140) as a recent text and set its anti-Marcionite features in the middle of the period of anti-Marcionite apologetics. As early at 1965, Albert Sundberg pioneered the case for a fourth century provenance; see his “Canon Muratori,” HTR (1971), 1-41. Several scholars today have taken his position, including Geoffrey Hahneman, Harry Gamble and Lee MacDonald. This group notes that the fragment’s mention of the Wisdom of Solomon as a canonical book places it in the company of 4 th century lists, that its title for Montanists (Cataphyrgians) only appears in and after the 4 th century, and that 4th and 5 th century, predominantly Eastern Christian materials surround the fragment in the codex. Jonathan Armstrong recently made a novel case for an early third century date, and a specific author; see “Victorinus of Pettau as the Author of the Canon Muratori,” Vigiliae Christianae 62 (2008), 1-34. 4 Fol. 10 a. 5 Not litteris (Lietzmann); see Samuel P. Tregelles, Canon Muratorianus: The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1867), 17ff. [9] Quartum euangeliorum Iohannis ex discipulis. The fourth of the Gospels is of John, one of the disciples. [10] cohortantibus condiscipulis et eps suis When his fellow disciples and bishops encouraged him, [11] dixit «Conieiunate mihi hodie triduo, et quid he said, “Fast together with me three days, and what [12] cuique fuerit reuelatum alterutrum is revealed to each one, to each other [13] nobis enarremus» eadem nocte reue- let us describe among ourselves.” On that night it was rev- [14] latum Andreae ex apostolis, ut recognos- ealed to Andrew, one of the apostles, that, while being recoll- [15] centibus cunctis Iohannes suo nomine ected by the rest, John, in his own name, [16] cuncta describeret. et ideo, licet uaria sin- should transcribe everything. And therefore, while various [17] gulis euangeliorum libris principia beginnings by the individual books of the Gospels [18] doceantur, nihil tamen differt creden- are shown, yet there is no disagreement of faith for believ- [19] tium fidei, cum uno ac principali spu de- ers, since by the one and sovereign Spirit are decl- [20] clarata sint in omnibus omnia : de natiui- ared all in all: about the nativ- [21] tate, de passione, de resurrectione ity, about the passion, about the resurrection, [22] de conuersatione cum discipulis suis about his conduct with his disciples, [23] ac de gemino eius aduentu, and about his twin advent, [24] primo in humilitate despectus, quod fu- first in humility despised, which happ- [25] it, secundum potestate regali prae- ened, second in royal power illust- [26] claro, quod futurum est. quid ergo rious, which will happen. Now how [27] mirum, si Iohannes tam constanter wonderful that John so consistently [ 28] singula etiam in epistulis suis profert brings forth particulars in his epistles, [29] dicens in semetipsum «Quæ uidimus oculis as he speaks for himself, “What we saw with our eyes [30] nostris et auribus audiuimus et manus and heard with our ears and our hands [31] nostrae palpauerunt haec scripsimus vobis» 6. touched, these things we write to you.” [32]7 sic enim non solum uisurem sed et auditorem, So indeed that he was not only one who saw but also a hearer, [33] sed et scriptorem omnium mirabilium dni per ordi- and even a writer of all the Lord’s wonders in success- [34] nem profitetur. Acta autem omnium apostolorum ion, he professes. However, the Acts of all the Apostles

6 1 John 1:1,3,4. 7 Fol. 10 b. [35] sub uno libro scripta sunt. Lucas optimo Theophi- were written under one book. Luke, for most excellent Theo- [36] lo comprendit, quae sub praesentia eius singula philus, covered what particulars in his presence [37] gerebantur, sicuti et semota passione Petri were carried out, just as the absence of Peter’s passion [38] euidenter declarat, sed et profectione Pauli ab ur- clearly declares, and also Paul’s departure from the ci- [39] be ad Spaniam proficiscentis. Epistulae autem ty as he set out for Spain. Moreover, regarding the Epistles [40] Pauli quae a quo loco uel qua ex causa directae of Paul , from what place or what reason they were sent [41] sint uolentibus intellegere ipsae declarant: declare themselves to those who want to understand. [42] primum omnium Corinthiis schismae haereses in- First of all to the Corinthians, sectarian schisms for- [43] terdicens, deinceps Galatis circumcisionem, bidding, then circumcision to the Galatians; [44] Romanis autem ordinem scripturarum sed et and to the Romans a succession of Scriptures, even [45] principium earum esse xrm intimans relating that their principle is Christ, [46] prolixius scripsit. de quibus singulis neces- he wrote prolifically. About these particulars it is neces- [47] se est ad nobis disputari, cum ipse beatus sary for us to debate; when that blessed one himself, [48] apostolus Paulus sequens prodecessoris sui the apostle Paul, following his predecessor [49] Iohannis ordinem non nisi nominatim semptem John’s pattern—to only seven by name— [50] ecclesiis scribat ordine tali: ad Corinthios he writes to churches in this order: to the Corinthians [51] prima, ad Ephesios secunda, ad Philippenses ter- first, to the Ephesians second, to the Philippians th [52] tia, ad Colossenses quarta, ad Galatas quin- -ird, to the Colossians fourth, to the Galatians fif- [53] ta, ad Thessalonicenses sexta, ad Romanos th, to the Thessalonians sixth, to the Romans [54] septima. uerum Corinthiis et Thessalonicen- seventh. True—to the Corinthians and Thessa- [55] sibus licet pro correptione iteretur, una lonians it was repeated for rebuke—it is granted; but one [56] tamen per omnem orbem terrae ecclesia Church, nevertheless, though the whole world [57] diffusa esse dinoscitur. et Iohannis enim in a- spread out, is discerned. And John indeed in the A- [58] pocalypsi licet septem ecclesiis scribat, pocalypse writes to seven churches—it is granted; [59] tamen omnibus dicit. Verum ad Philemonem unam but he speaks to all. True—one to Philemon [60] et ad Titum unam et ad Timotheum duas pro affec- and one to Titus and two to Timothy for affect- [61] tu et dilectione, in honorem tamen ecclesiae ca- ion and love; nevertheless in honor of the Church Ca- [62] tholicae in ordinationem ecclesiasticae tholic in the ordering of ecclesiastical [63]8 disciplinae scificatae sunt. Fertur etiam ad disciplines they were made holy. There even exists one to [64] Laodicenses, alia ad Alexandrinos, Pauli no- the Laodiceans, another to the Alexandrians, in Paul’s na- [65] mine finctae ad haeresem Marcionis et alia plu- me forged for the heresy of Marcion and ma- [66] ra, quae in catholicam eclesiam recipi non ny others, which in the Catholic Church cannot be [67] potest: fel enim cum melle misceri non con- received: for the mixing of bile with honey does not bl- [68] gruit. Epistula sane Iudae et superscripti end. Reasonably the Epistle of Jude and the superscribed [69] Iohannis duae in catholica habentur et Sapi- two “Of John” are held in Catholic, and the Wis- [70] entia ab amicis Salomonis in honorem ipsius dom of Solomon, in his honor, by his friends [71] scripta. Apocalypses etiam Iohannis et Pe- written. Also, the Apocalypses of John and Pe- [72] tri tantum recipimus, quam quidam ex nos- ter only do we accept, though some of us [73] tris legi in eclesia nolunt. Pastorem uero do not want them read in Church. The Pastor—truly [74] nuperrime temporibus nostris in urbe most recent, in our times—in the city [75] Roma Hermas conscripsit sedente cathe- of Rome Hermas composed, while sitting on the se- [76] tra urbis Romae ecclesiae Pio eps fratre at of the Church of the city of Rome was bishop Pius, brother [77] eius: et ideo legi eum quidem oportet, se pu- to him: and therefore, it indeed ought be read, but cannot be pu- [78] blicare uero in ecclesia populo neque inter blished, to be sure, for Church People, neither among [79] prophetas completo numero, neque inter the prophets (in their complete number), nor among [80] apostolos in fine temporum potest. the Apostles (at the end of their time). [81] Arsinoi autem seu Valentini uel Mi[l]tiadis However, whether by Arsinous or Valentinus or Miltiades, [82] nihil in totum recipimus, qui etiam nouum we accept nothing at all, who also a new [83] Psalmorum librum Marcioni conscripse- book of Marcion’s Psalms compos- [84] runt una cum Basilide Asiano Cataphry- ed with one Basilides, the Asian Cataphyr- [85] gum constitutore. gian founder.

8 Fol. 11 a. Various Thoughts on the Muratorian Fragment

Ll. 13-16 seem to picture John as transcribing (describeret ) the inspired recollections ( recognoscentibus ) of others. Perhaps this serves to explain the plurality of materials in John’s Gospel, not to mention across the Johannine corpus. Metzger et al read it quite differently: John writes while the others review it, apparently for accuracy.

Ll. 26-31 may offer a case that John, with his plural language in 1 John 1:1-3, outlined and intentionally completed a plurality of Gospels (read singula as individual accounts , and semetipsum as them themselves ). While plausible, this is not the strongest reading.

The well-known analogy in ll. 67-68, does not simply mean that heterodox and Catholic texts are of opposite kinds, tastes, and effects, as most translations have. Rather, it portends that the attempt to combine them would yield something disgusting; they must be kept separate to fulfill their respective roles. Eusebius , Ecclesiastical History 3.25 1

As the first Church Historian, personal friend of Constantine (the first Christian emperor), and key player at the Council of Nicea (325 AD), Eusebius had access to an immense library and a vast social network. This enabled him to bring together a variety of sources into a cogent discussion about which books had been and ought to be considered canonical. He even sets up an intricate layered system to classify the various writings attributed to the Apostles. He also weaves his own undisguised convictions into the discussion.

(1.) Eu1logon d' e0ntau~qa genome/nouj a)nakefalaiw&sasqai ta_j dhlwqei/saj th~j kainh~j diaqh&khj grafa&j. kai\ dh_ takte/on e0n prw&toij th_n a(gi/an tw~n eu)aggeli/wn tetraktu&n, oi[j e3petai h( tw~n Pra&cewn tw~n a)posto&lwn grafh&: (2.) meta_ de\ tau&thn ta_j Pau&lou katalekte/on e0pistola&j, ai[j e9ch~j th_n ferome/nhn 0Iwa&nnou prote/ran kai\ o(moi/wj th_n Pe/trou kurwte/on e0pistolh&n: e0pi\ tou&toij takte/on, ei1 ge fanei/h, th_n 0Apoka&luyin 0Iwa&nnou, peri\ h{j ta_ do&canta kata_ kairo_n e0kqhso&meqa. (3.) kai\ tau~ta me\n e0n o(mologoume/noij: tw~n d' a)ntilegome/nwn, gnwri/mwn d' ou}n o3mwj toi=j polloi=j, h( legome/nh 0Iakw&bou fe/retai kai\ h( 0Iou&da h3 te Pe/trou deute/ra e0pistolh_ kai\ h( o)nomazome/nh deute/ra kai\ tri/th 0Iwa&nnou, ei1te tou~ eu)aggelistou~ tugxa&nousai ei1te kai\ e9te/rou o(mwnu&mou e0kei/nw|. (4.) e0n toi=j no&qoij katateta&xqw kai\ tw~n Pau&lou Pra&cewn h( grafh_ o3 te lego&menoj Poimh_n kai\ h( 0Apoka&luyij Pe/trou kai\ pro_j tou&toij h( ferome/nh Barnaba~ e0pistolh_ kai\ tw~n a)posto&lwn ai9 lego&menai Didaxai\ e1ti te, w(j e1fhn, h( 0Iwa&nnou 0Apoka&luyij, ei0 fanei/h: h3n tinej, w(j e1fhn, a)qetou~sin, e3teroi de\ e0gkri/nousin toi=j o(mologoume/noij. (5.) h1dh d' e0n tou&toij tine\j kai\ to_ kaq' 9Ebrai/ouj eu)agge/lion kate/lecan, w|{ ma&lista 9Ebrai/wn oi9 to_n Xristo_n paradeca&menoi xai/rousin. (6.) tau~ta de\ pa&nta tw~n a)ntilegome/nwn a2n ei1h, a)nagkai/wj de\ kai\ tou&twn o3mwj to_n kata&logon pepoih&meqa, diakri/nontej ta&j te kata_ th_n e0kklhsiastikh_n para&dosin a)lhqei=j kai\ a)pla&stouj kai\ a)nwmologhme/naj grafa_j kai\ ta_j a1llwj para_ tau&taj, ou)k e0ndiaqh&kouj me\n a)lla_ kai\ a)ntilegome/naj, o3mwj de\ para_ plei/stoij tw~n e0kklhsiastikw~n ginwskome/naj, i3n' ei0de/nai e1xoimen au)ta&j te tau&taj kai\ ta_j o)no&mati tw~n a)posto&lwn pro_j tw~n ai9retikw~n proferome/naj h1toi w(j Pe/trou kai\ Qwma~ kai\ Matqi/a h2 kai/ tinwn para_ tou&touj a1llwn eu)agge/lia periexou&saj h2 w(j 0Andre/ou kai\ 0Iwa&nnou kai\ tw~n a1llwn a)posto&lwn pra&ceij: w{n ou)de\n ou)damw~j e0n suggra&mmati tw~n kata_ ta_j diadoxa_j e0kklhsiastikw~n tij a)nh_r ei0j mnh&mhn a)gagei=n h)ci/wsen, (7.) po&rrw de/ pou kai\ o( th~j fra&sewj para_ to_ h}qoj to_ a)postoliko_n e0nalla&ttei xarakth&r, h3 te gnw&mh kai\ h( tw~n e0n au)toi=j ferome/nwn proai/resij plei=ston o3son th~j a)lhqou~j o)rqodoci/aj a)pa|&dousa, o3ti dh_ ai9retikw~n a)ndrw~n a)napla&smata tugxa&nei, safw~j pari/sthsin: o3qen ou)d' e0n no&qoij au)ta_ katatakte/on, a)ll' w(j a1topa pa&nth| kai\ dussebh~ paraithte/on.

1 Introduction and English translation by Mark Bilby, © 2009. Greek text in G. Bardy, Eusèbe de Césarée. Histoire ecclésiastique (Livres I-IV), vol. 3 ( Sources chrétiennes 31) repr., Éditions du Cerf, 2001.

(1.) Here it is reasonable to sum up the already-explained texts of the new covenant. Ordered in the lead is the holy quartet of the gospels; after these follows the text of the Acts of the apostles. (2.) After this must be reckoned the epistles of Paul; next to these the first alleged of John, and similarly the epistle of Peter is acknowledged. Ordered on top of these is, if proper, the Apocalypse of John, the considerations about which I will set out at the right time. (3.) These are among the confessed ones. Now, the ones disputed—yet known to most— include the epistle of James and of Jude and even the second of Peter, and that called the second and the third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or yet another by that same name. (4.) Among the counterfeits is appointed the Acts of Paul, and that called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and (added) to these, the epistle alleged of Barnabus, and those called the Teaching of the apostles and even, as I claim, the Apocalypse of John, if proper. Some, as I maintain, reject it; others admit it among the confessed ones. (5.) In fact, among these some lay down the gospel according to the Hebrews, in which those Hebrews who accepted Christ especially delight. (6.) Now all of these belong to the disputed ones, important nevertheless to have made a list of them—separating them according to the true ecclesiastical tradition, between the unmanufactured and authenticated texts and the others alongside them, between those not in- covenant and yet known by most ecclesiastics. [This was done] so that we may be able to discern those proferred in the name of apostles by heretics: whether gospels, as of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, even including some others with them; or acts, as of Andrew, and of John, and of aother apostles. By no means has any man in the literary corpus of the succession of ecclesiastics considered recording them into memory. Furthermore, even the impression of the style varies from the apostolic character; (7.) the mind and the intention borne by them are so incongruous with the true orthodox ones, that it clearly exposes the fabrications that belong to heretical men. Athanasius, Festival Letter 391

Considered the father of Orthodox Christianity, Athanasius’ views on the co-equal divinity of God’s Son won the day against long odds at the Council of Nicea in 325. He succeeded Alexander as the bishop of Alexandria, which was the most prominant intellectual center in Roman antiquity, and also a major and widely recognized center of Christian authority (patriarchate). Athanasius is famed in the history of the NT canon as the first known author to put to paper a list of precisely twenty-seven books of the New Testament canon, recognized and followed today by most major Christian traditions. In 367, on the occasion of the Paschal (Easter) celebration, he wrote this letter to provide guidance for discerning between canonical, non-canonical, and heretical writings.

... 1Axri tou&twn ta_ th~j palaia~j diaqh&khj i3statai. Ta_ de\ th~j kainh~j pa&lin ou)k o)knhte/on ei0pei=n. 1Esti ga_r tau~ta: Eu)agge/lia te/ssara, kata_ Matqai=on, kata_ Ma&rkon, kata_ Louka~n kai\ kata_ 0Iwa&nnhn: ei]ta meta_ tau~ta Pra&ceij a)posto&lwn, kai\ e0pistolai\ kaqolikai\ kalou&menai tw~n a)posto&lwn e9pta&, ou3twj: 0Iakw&bou me\n mi/a, Pe/trou de\ du&o, ei]ta 0Iwa&nnou trei=j, kai\ meta_ tau&taj 0Iou&da mi/a: pro_j tou&toij Pau&lou a)posto&lou ei0si\n e0pistolai\ dekate/ssarej, th|~ ta&cei grafo&menai ou3twj: prw&th, pro_j 9Rwmai/ouj, ei]ta pro_j Korinqi/ouj du&o, kai\ meta_ tau~ta pro_j Gala&taj, kai\ e9ch~j pro_j 0Efesi/ouj, ei]ta pro_j Filipphsi/ouj, kai\ pro_j Kolossaei=j, kai\ meta_ tau~ta pro_j Qessalonikei=j du&o, kai\ h( pro_j 9Ebrai/ouj, kai\ eu)qu_j pro_j me\n Timo&qeon du&o, pro_j de\ Ti/ton mi/a, kai\ teleutai/a h( pro_j Filh&mona mi/a: kai\ pa&lin Iwa&nnou0 0Apoka&luyij.

Tau~ta phgai\ tou~ swthri/ou, w3ste to_n diyw~nta e0mforei=sqai tw~n e0n tou&toij logi/wn: e0n tou&toij mo&noij to_ th~j eu)sebei/aj didaskalei=on eu)aggeli/zetai: mhdei\j tou&toij e0piballe/tw, mhde\ tou&twn a)fairei/sqw ti. Peri\ de\ tou&twn o( ku&rioj Saddoukai/ouj me\n e0dusw&pei, le/gwn: ‘Plana~sqe mh_ ei0do&tej ta_j grafa_j mhde\ th_n du&namin au)tw~n’, toi=j de\ 0Ioudai/oij parh|&nei: ‘ 0Ereuna~te ta_j grafa&j, o3ti parh|&nei: ‘ 0Ereuna~te ta_j grafa&j, o3ti au)tai/ ei0sin ai9 marturou~sai peri\ e0mou~’.

0All' e3neka& ge plei/onoj a)kribei/aj prosti/qhmi kai\ tou~to gra&fwn a)nagkai/wj, w(j o3ti e1sti kai\ e3tera bibli/a tou&twn e1cwqen, ou) kanonizo&mena me/n, tetupwme/na de\ para_ tw~n pate/rwn a)naginw&skesqai toi=j a1rti proserxome/noij kai\ boulome/noij kathxei=sqai to_n th~j eu)sebei/aj lo&gon: Sofi/a Solomw~ntoj kai\ Sofi/a Sira_x kai\ 9Esqh_r kai\ 0Ioudi\q kai\ Twbi/aj kai\ Didaxh_ kaloume/nh tw~n a)posto&lwn kai\ o( Poimh&n. Kai\ o3mwj, a)gaphtoi/, ka)kei/nwn kanonizome/nwn, kai\ tou&twn a)naginwskome/nwn, ou)damou~ tw~n a)pokru&fwn mnh&mh, a)lla_ ai9retikw~n e0stin e0pi/noia, grafo&ntwn me\n o3te qe/lousin au)ta&, xarizome/nwn de\ kai\ prostiqe/ntwn au)toi=j xro&nouj, i3na w(j palaia_ profe/rontej, pro&fasin e1xwsin a)pata~n e0k tou&tou tou_j a)kerai/ouj.

1 Introduction, English translation and notes by Mark Bilby, © 2009. Greek text by P.-P. Joannou, Fonti. Fasciolo ix. Discipline générale antique (ii-ix s.). Les canons des pères grecs, vol. II (Rome, 1963), 71-76.

Up to now stand those [books] of the old covenant. Now those of the new one must not shrink from stating again. For they are: four Gospels; according to Matthew; according to Mark; according to Luke; and according to John. Then, after these, the Acts of the Apostles; and seven Epistles called Catholic, from the Apostles; thus, one from James; two from Peter; then three from John; and with these one from Jude. On top of these there are fourteen Epistles from Paul, written in order: first, to the Romans; then, two to the Corinthians; and after these, to the Galatians; and next, to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians; and to the Colossians; and after these two to the Thessalonians; and the one to the Hebrews; and right after, two to Timothy; but one to Titus; and last, one to Philemon. And again, John’s Apocalypse.

These are the fountains of salvation, so that the one who thirsts may be infilled by the words in them. In these alone is the teaching of godliness proclaimed. Let no one pile on them; let no one take away from them. Concerning them, the Lord persuaded the Sadducees, saying: “You are deceived, not knowing the Scriptures nor their power.”2 But to the Jews he urged, “You search out the Scriptures, because they are the same that testify about me.” 3

But for the sake of greater precision, I will grant even this, writing from necessity; how there are other books outside of these, not canonical, but rather formed by the fathers to be read to newcomers and those who want to be taught the word of godliness:4 Wisdom of Solomon, and Wisdom of Sirach, and Esther, and Judith, and Tobit, and the one called Teaching of the Apostles, and the Shepherd. Nevertheless, beloved, while the former are canonized and the latter are read, there is no remembrance of the secret works.5 It is the conception of the heretics, who write them as they want, then approve and assign dates to them, so that, presenting them as old, they have a pretext to deceive the simple by it.

2 A slight change of wording at the end, exchanging “of God” for “their”; cf. Mk. 12:24 // Mt. 22:29 (plana/sqe mh. eivdo,tej ta.j grafa.j mhde. th.n du,namin tou/ qeou/). 3 A paraphrase of John 5:39, evrauna/te ta.j grafa,j( o[ti u`mei/j dokei/te evn auvtai/j zwh.n aivw,nion e;cein\ kai. evkei/nai, eivsin ai` marturou/sai peri. evmou/. 4 Fascinating that the non-canonical, orthodox texts are seen not only as catechism for new converts, but also those who aspire to a deeper education and understanding of the Scriptures, something of a propaedeutic to serious Biblical studies. This is not surprising, given that catechetical schools from the time of Clement and Origen, and even more so in the fourth century, became places of Christian higher education. Still, it is striking how little has changed in 1600 years. 5 More literally, “apocrypha,” but that term’s highly negative connotations in radical Protestantism, with its dismissal of the Greek-sourced writings of the Septuagint, do not befit the devotion Athanasius shows those texts, even in this letter. Society of Biblical Literature, Handbook of Style: Hebrew Transliteration Key (adapted)

Consonants Vowels

pataḥ a בַ a ʾālep ʾ furtivepataḥ a בַ (b bêt v (B=b qāmeṣ ā בָ gîmelg ג nalqāmeṣhê â בָה dālet d ד 3rdmasc.sg.suf. āyw בָיו hê h ה sĕgōl e בֶ wāw w ו ṣērê ē בֵ zayin z ז (êy= בֵ)ṣērêyôd ê בֵי ḥêt ḥ ח (êy= בֶ) sĕgōlyôd ê בֶי ṭêt ṭ ט shortḥîreq i בִ yôd y י longḥîreq ī בִ kāp k כ ḥîreqyôd î בִי lāmed l ל qāmeṣḥāṭûp o בָ mêm m מ ḥōlem ō בֹ nûn n נ s sāmeks fullḥōlem ô shortqibbûṣ u בֻ ʿayin ʿ ] longqibbûṣ ū בֻ (pê f (P=p פ ṣādê ṣ šûreq û צ ḥāṭēpqāmeṣ ŏ בֳ q qôp q ḥāṭēppataḥ ă בֲ r rêš r ḥāṭēpsĕgŏl ĕ בֱ (śîn ś(=š vocalšĕwă ə בְ tāw t ת

Greek Transliteration Chart (based on SBL Handbook of Style)

Aα a Oo o Bb b Pp p Gg g (n before g, k, c, or x) Rr r Dd d r ( rh Ee e Ssj s Zz z Tt t Hh ē Uu y (u in diphthongs: Qq th au, eu, ēu, ou, ui) Ff ph Ii i Kk k Xx ch Yy ps Ll l Ww ō Mm m ῾ h (with vowel or Nn n diphthong) Cc x

Hebrew-Jewish Calendar

Hebrew English Gregorian Agriculture Festivals/Holidays Pesach (15-21/22; Passover, Festival of Unleavened Bread, and First Fruits; Xty // Holy Week) Barley Nissan Mar-Apr Sefirat HaOmer (16 Nisan – 5 Sivan; Counting the Omer, 49 days b/t Pesach and Shavuot) !s'ynI Harvest Yom HaShoah (27; Shoah Remembrance Day) Yom Hazikaron (4; Remembrance Day of the Fallen) Iyar Apr-May Yom HaAtzmaut (5; Israel Independence Day) ryy"ai Lag BaOmer (18; 33 rd day of Counting the Omer) Wheat Sivan May-Jun Shavuot (6/6-7; Weeks; Xty // Pentecost) !w"ysi Harvest Tammuz Jun-Jul zWMT; Grape Av Jul-Aug Tisha B’av (9 th of Av, Destruction of Temple) ba' Harvest Elul Aug-Sept lWla/ Yamim Noraim (1 -10; Days of Awe , or High Holy Days ) Rosh HaShanah (1-2; New Year) Olive Yom Kippur (10; Day of Atonement) Tishri Sept-Oct Harvest & yriv.Ti Sukkot (15-20; Booths) Planting Shmini Atzeret (22; 8 th Day of Assembly) Simchat Torah (22/23; Joy of Torah) Cheshvan Oct-Nov !w"v.x, wles.Ki Kislev Nov-Dec Chanukhah (25 Kislev – 3 Tevet; Dedication of Temple) Tevet Dec-Jan tbej Shevat Jan-Febr jb'v rd"a] Adar I Febr-Mar Purim (14; Lots) b rd"a] Adar II Febr-Mar

Hebrew-Jewish Calendar: Description

The Jewish Calendar is quite distinct among modern calendars in several respects. It employs Babylonian names for months. Its order is lunisolar, meaning that months begin with the new moon, but also that it routinely re-synchronizes with the solar year through an additional, thirteen month in leap years. Its oldest holidays were originally agricultural festivals, only later tied to pivotal events in Hebrew-Jewish salvation-history. Since each day is understood to start at dusk, holidays begin the night before the date listed, as it were. Certain holidays also last one day longer outside of Israel, a safeguard custom originating because of the difficulty of synchronizing festival observance across long distances. The creation of the modern nation-state of Israel has given rise to new holidays which have a national-historical basis, and yet are observed by Jews around the world. Holidays in bold on the chart are explicit observances within the TaNaKh, whether general or priestly. Priestly holidays rose to popular practice during the formative centuries of Rabbinic Judaism.

Historical Timeline of Ancient Israel

(n) - event(s) not corroborated in non-canonical literature and/or archeological findings (p) - event(s) partially corroborated in non-canonical literature and/or archeological findings

Major Eras c.1800-c.1600 BCE Patriarchal Period (n) c.1700-c1550 BCE Hyksos in Egypt c.1600-c.1250 BCE Israelites in Egypt (n) c.1300-c.1250 BCE Moses, Exodus, Sinai, Wilderness (n) c.1250-1200 BCE Conquest/Settlement of Highlands (p?) c.1200-c.1020 BCE Tribal Federation under Judges (n) c.1020-922 BCE United Monarchy (n) c.922-722 BCE Northern Kingdom of Israel (p) c.922-586 BCE Southern Kingdom of Judah (p) 586-539 BCE Babylonian Rule 539-331 BCE Persian Rule 331-164 BCE Greek Rule (Ptolemaic, 331-198; Seleucid, 198-164) 164-63 BCE Jewish Independence under Hasmonean Dynasty 63 BCE - 73 CE Roman Rule

Major Events c.1000-c.961 BCE Kingship of David (p); foundation of Jerusalem as capital c.961-c.922 BCE Kingship of Solomon (p); First Temple built c.922 BCE Kingdom Divides (n) - Israel (north, under Jeroboam) - Judah (south, under Rehoboam) 722/721 BCE Assyrian conquest of Israel (north) 716-687 Kingship of Hezekiah; centralization policies 701 BCE Assyrian siege of Jerusalem 640-609 BCE Kingship of Josiah; Deuteronomic reforms 597/596 BCE Babylonian invasion; 1 st wave of deportees 587/6 BCE Babylonian conquest; First Temple destroyed; 2 nd wave of deportees 539 BCE Edict of Cyrus; 1 st wave of exiles return 516 BCE Second Temple rebuilt; Haggai; Zechariah 450s BCE 2nd wave of exiles return; Ezra; Nehemiah; rebuilding of walls 331 BCE Alexander the Great conquers Judea 167 BCE Antiochus IV dedicates temple to Zeus; Maccabean revolt begins 164 BCE Maccabean victory; Temple (Re-)Dedicated 63 BCE Pompey captures Jerusalem 37-4 BCE Kingship of Herod c.30 CE Execution of John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth 66-73 CE Jewish revolt 70 CE Second Temple destroyed; end of Jewish state/province 70s CE Rabbinic Assembly established in Yavneh by Yohanan ben Zakkai 132-136 CE Jewish revolt under Simeon bar-Kochba

TaNaKh / Old Testament Books: Source/Authorship & Date

NB: All dates are BC/BCE unless otherwise noted and refer to the times of the edition / compilation of the respective book or collection. Also note that this list does not account for a variety of potential smaller redactions (i.e., less than a few chapters of material) and their respective dates.

Format: Title -- Author/Source, date (century)

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Proverbs -- Unknown, 5th cent. th Deuteronomy -- J, E, D, P, H; 5 Job -- Unknown, 4th cent. th Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings -- D, 7 Song of Songs -- Unknown, 9th cent. cent. Ruth -- Unknown, 5 th cent. Isaiah -- chs. 1-23,28-39, Isaiah, 8 th ; chs. 40-55, th unknown, 6th ; chs. 56-66, unknown, 5 th Lamentations -- Unknown, 6 cent. rd Jeremiah -- Baruch, 6 th cent. Ecclesiastes -- Unknown, 3 cent. rd Ezekiel -- Ezekiel, 6 th cent. Esther -- Unknown, 3 cent. nd Hosea -- Hosea, 8 th cent. Daniel -- Unknown, 2 cent. th Joel -- Joel, 5 th cent. Ezra-Nehemiah -- Unknown, 5 cent. th Amos -- Amos, 8 th cent. Chronicles -- Unknown, 5 rd Obadiah -- Unknown, 6th cent. Tobit -- Unknown, 3 cent. nd Jonah -- Unknown, 5 th cent. Judith -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Micah -- Micah, 8 th cent. Susanna -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Nahum -- Unknown, 7 th cent. Prayer of Azariah -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Habbakuk -- Habakkuk, 6 th cent. Bel and the Dragon -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Zephaniah -- Zephaniah, 7 th cent. 1 Maccabees -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Haggai -- Haggai, 6 th cent. 2 Maccabees -- Unknown, 2 cent. nd Zechariah -- chs. 1-8, Zechariah; chs. 9-14, Baruch -- Unknown, 2 cent. Unknown; 5th cent. Ben Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus) -- Jesus, 2 nd cent. Malachi -- Unknown, 5 th cent. Wisdom of Solomon -- Unknown, 1 st cent. Psalms -- Unknown, 5 th cent. Epistle of Jeremiah -- Unknown, 3 rd

TaNaKh / Old Testament Books Addendum: Clues to Pentateuchal Sources

J – Yahwist; 10 th cent.; divine name = the LORD God = (YHWH Elohim); anthropomorphisms; folk-tale style; Judean-based (the south); primal and patriarch stories; Isaac spared; burning bush; Song of the Sea; Ritual Decalogue (Exod. 34:10-26); Sinai; E – Elohist; 9th cent.; divine name = God = (Elohim); Ephraim-based (Israel, or the north); focused on patriarch Ephraim, and later Joshua; folk-tale style; patriarch stories, prominence of Shiloh, negative toward Jerusalem priesthood (Aaron); angelic mediators instead of theophanies; Isaac sacrificed; Joseph court tales; Ethical Decalogue (Exod. 20) & Covenant Code; Horeb; D – Deuteronomist; 7th cent.; divine name = the LORD your (sg.) God = (YHWH Eloheka); primacy of love; the shema ; blessings & curses; centrality of Jerusalem (“the place I will choose”); Torah meditation, even by king P - Priestly; 6th cent.; divine name = God = (Elohim); counter-Babylonian; Sabbath; genealogies; number 7; primal and priestly stories; apodictic and casuistic regulations; H - Holiness; 6th cent.; divine name = the LORD (YHWH) or the LORD your (pl.) God = (YHWH Elohēkem); Lev 17-26 (Holiness Code); apodictic (not casuistic) regulations for ritual purity, food, sexuality; holiness of land (“will spew you out”)

Pentateuchal Compilation – c. 400 BC/BCE

First Claims to Mosaic authorship of Pentateuch as a whole – c. 2nd cent. BC/CE – 1st cent. AD/CE (Philo of Alexandria, 1 st cent. AD/CE; perhaps earlier in books of Sirach and/or Baruch)

Guide to the Prophets

Prophet Vocation Place Time Features Amos Agricultural Israel 760-750 Critiques religious hypocrisy of injustice committed by the religious-political- manager; economic elite in mercantile fraud and predatory lending; turns “Day of “not a YHWH” into judgment metaphor prophet” Hosea Levitical Israel 740-720 Pioneers marriage metaphor for covenant between YHWH and Israel; acts out Priest a critique of syncretism in marriage to a prostitute and fathering of illegitimate outside NK children cultus? Isaiah Jerusalem Judah 742- Advocates royal policy of non-alliance with Assyria and ideal of Zion’s Prophet 701/689 inviolability; his famous call narrative occurs within the Temple; pioneers the vineyard metaphor Micah Rural village Judah 730-700 Speaks out on behalf of the “people of the land” against practices of economic elder deception and military confiscation of goods in Judean society Zephaniah Jerusalem Judah 640-630 Proclaims day of God’s judgment on Judea and the nations, followed by their Prophet conversion/renewal Nahum Jerusalem Judah 620-615 Proclaims judgment on Ninevah and on Judean pro-Assyrian party; depicts Prophet? God as Judah’s national warrior; may have ties to Josiah’s reforms Jeremiah Jerusalem Judah 609-585 Proclaims coming destruction of Jerusalem, attacking idea of Zion’s Priest inviolability, picturing Babylon as YHWH’s instrument of judgment, and readying Judeans for life in exile Habakkuk Jerusalem Judah 605-598 Proclaims divine vengeance for Babylon’s severe attacks of Judea Prophet Ezekiel Jerusalem Babylon 593-563 Narrates fall of Jerusalem in bizarre visions and symbolic actions, envisioning Priest cultic impurity as the reason for YHWH’s departure from the Temple to the exiles and the Temple’s destruction; envisions a future grandiose, cultically pure, and divinely reconstructed Temple Obadiah Jerusalem Judah 570? Declares retribution on Edom for its taunting of Judea’s tragic circumstances Prophet? 480? 2nd Isaiah (40-55) Person? Babylon 545-540 Gives hopeful summons for exiles to return, envisioning a New/Second Tradition? Exodus; pictures Cyrus as God’s chosen one (messiah) to bring this about; describes Israel as suffering servant Haggai Jerusalem Yehud 520 Incites rebuilding of Temple under Zerubbabel as a Messianic figure Prophet Zechariah Jerusalem Yehud 520-518 Incites rebuilding of Temple under Zerubbabel and Joshua as co-Messianic Prophet figures; sees “night visions,” interpreted by an angel, conveying protection for reconstruction efforts 3rd Isaiah Person? Yehud c500 Advocates inclusion of outsiders/Gentiles in Jerusalem cultus, in conflict with (Isa 56-66) Tradition? another (Zadokite?) religious-political group Malachi Jerusalem Yehud c450 Pushes for generous support of Temple operations and ritually fit offerings Priest Joel Jerusalem Yehud 5th -4th c Calls Judah to lament over enemy invasion (locust metaphor); sees future Prophet? restoration of land 2nd (9-11) & 3 rd Person? Yehud 5th -4th c Expresses disillusionment with restorationist hopes of a just society under the (12-14) Zechariah Tradition? Davidic monarch, anticipating YHWH’s direct leadership over Judea in a new, coming age

Notable Jewish Apocalypses

Title / Location Century Type Original Language Notes Book of Astronomical Writings (1 Enoch 72-82) 3rd BCE Cosmic Journey Hebrew or Aramaic (DSS) Created order under divine control through angels Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1-36) late 3rd-2nd BCE Cosmic Journey Hebrew or Aramaic (DSS) Angel-human relations spawn giants, flood, demons Book of the Epistle of Enoch (1 Enoch 91-107) 170s BCE Historical Hebrew or Aramaic (DSS) Apocalypse of Weeks in 91:12-17, 93:1-10 Book of Dreams (1 Enoch 83-90) 160s BCE Historical Hebrew or Aramaic (DSS) Eschatological flood in chs. 83-84; Animal apocalypse in chs. 85-90 Daniel 7-12 150s BCE Historical Hebrew (MT) First appearance of heavenly "Son of Man" in Dan. 7 Sibylline Oracles 3 mid- to late 2nd BCE Poetic Oracles Greek Composed by Jewish author in Egypt Jubilees late 2nd BCE Historical Hebrew (DSS) Elaboration of Gen. 1 through Exod. 12 Book of Similitudes (1 Enoch 37-71) late 1st BC - early 1st CE Cosmic Journey Greek (now only Ge'ez) Messianic Son of Man & Judge Apocalypse of Abraham late 1st CE Historical & Cosmic Journey Hebrew or Aramaic First use of genre term "apocalypse" 2 Baruch late 1st CE Historical Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic Response to 70 CE temple destruction 3 Baruch late 1st - 2nd CE Cosmic Journey Greek Response to 70 CE temple destruction 4 Ezra late 1st CE Historical Hebrew Response to 70 CE; Messianic Son of Man is Son of David 2 Enoch late 1st CE? Cosmic Journey Greek Life of Enoch (chs. 1-68) & later events (chs. 69-73) Apocalypse of John (= Revelation) late 1st CE Historical Greek Jewish-Christian response to 66-73 CE Jewish War

Name Date Explicit Traditional Scholarly Matthew 80-100 Anonymous Matthew/Levi Unknown Mark 69-70 Anonymous Mark, disciple of Peter Unknown Luke 110-140 Anonymous Luke, associate of Paul Unknown John 90-110 Anonymous John, the beloved John or Unknown Acts 110-140 Anonymous Luke, associate of Paul Unknown Romans 56-57 Paul Paul Paul 1 Corinthians 54 Paul Paul Paul 2 Corinthians 55-56 Paul Paul Paul Galatians 48-56 Paul Paul Paul Ephesians 66-96 Paul Paul Deutero-Pauline Philippians 54-61 Paul Paul Paul Colossians 66-96 Paul Paul Deutero-Pauline 1 Thessalonians 50-51 Paul Paul Paul 2 Thessalonians 51-52 or 65-96 Paul Paul Paul or Deutero-Pauline 1 Timothy 110-140 Paul Paul Deutero-Pauline 2 Timothy 110-140 Paul Paul Deutero-Pauline Titus 110-140 Paul Paul Deutero-Pauline Philemon 54-57 Paul Paul Paul Hebrews 70-95 Anonymous Paul Unknown James 60-65 James James, brother of Jesus James or Unknown 1 Peter 100-140 Peter Peter Unknown 2 Peter 64-140 Peter Peter Unknown 1 John 90-110 Anonymous John, the beloved John or Unknown 2 John 90-110 The Elder John, the beloved John or Unknown 3 John 90-110 The Elder John, the beloved John or Unknown Jude 50-100 Jude Jude, brother of Jesus Jude or Unknown Revelation 69-70 John John, the Revelator John, the Revelator Pliny the Younger, Letter to Trajan (epp. 10.96-7)1

As the emperor’s representative (legatus Augusti)and provisional governor (pro propraetore consular potestate) of Bithynia-Pontus2 from 109-111,3 Pliny the Younger writes the emperor Trajan for guidance and approval regarding his recent judicial verdicts regarding Christians. He notes that they have faced trials before and elsewhere, but Pliny seems intent on establishing clear and authoritative legal precedent underwritten by the emperor. Apparently local disturbances in the religious economy occasioned the trials, as Christians, perhaps along with Jews, were taking business away by making converts and teaching abstinence from idolatrous meat. Pliny is the first Roman in extant literature to use the term Christian, and also the first to identify the group as a superstitio (an irrational, foreign religion) and an hetairia (social club or association).

C. Pliny to Emperor Trajan [Ep. 10.96]

[1] It is sacred custom for me, my Lord, to refer to you all things about which I am uncertain. Indeed, who is better able to guide my hesitation, or to instruct my ignorance? Now, I have never been present for the investigations of Christians. Therefore, I do not know to what extent it is customary to punish or to probe.

[2] Nor have I had ordinary hesitation. Ought there not be some distinction of age? Or do those who are however tender differ naught from the strong? Ought pardon be granted to penitence, or is desisting of no benefit, as has been entirely the case for Christians? Ought the name itself be punished, or the crimes that stick to the name? In the meantime, this is the course I have followed with those who were brought before me as Christians.

[3] I interrogated those who were Christians. Threatening punishment, a second and third time I interrogated those who confessed; those who persisted I ordered be led away. Indeed, I had no doubt, whatever it was that they admitted, certainly their persistence and inflexible obstinacy ought to be punished.

[4] There have been others of a similar madness, whom, because they were citizens of Rome, I have recorded as those to be sent to the city. With this soon handled, as is customary to happen, the criminal charge, spreading itself around, took many forms.

[5] An anonymous pamphlet was displayed, containing the names of many. I decided to dismiss those who denied being or having been Christians, after, as I dictated, they had invoked the gods and your images (which, for this purpose, I had ordered be brought in along with the images of the gods), had

1 Introduction, English translation and notes by Mark Bilby, © 2009. The Latin text was edited by M. Schuster and R. Hanslik, C. Plini Caecili Secundi Epistularum libri novem, Epistularum ad Traianum liber, Panegyricus, 3rd ed. (Lipsiae: Teubner, 1958; repr. 1992), 355-7. 2 Two Roman provinces along the southern coast of the Black Sea in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). 3 The dates given by A. N. Sherwin-White, The Letters of Pliny: A Historical and Social Commentary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1966), 81. prayed with incense and wine, and then had cursed Christ. Those who were in real fact Christians said none of these things that could be compelled.

[6] Others named by an informer said they were Christians and then denied it. Indeed they were, but they stopped at least two years ago, some more years ago; more than one actually stopped twenty years ago. Every one of these venerated both your image and the statues of the gods and cursed Christ.

[7] Moreover, they affirmed that this was the sum of their guilt or error: that they were accustomed to gather before dawn on an appointed day and, in turns with each other, chant to Christ as if to a god; also to bind themselves by oath not to participate in any crime, but rather not to commit fraud, not highway robbery, not adultery, not to cheat a pledge, nor to refuse a deposit requested back. With these completed, it was their custom to disband, and to assemble again to take a meal, yet common and harmless. This very thing they stopped doing after my edict, by which, following your mandates, I had banned associations.

[8] For this reason I believed it more necessary to search out with tortures what was true from two female slaves, who were called ministers. I found nothing but a perverse, excessive superstition.

[9] Therefore, with the examination deferred, I have rushed to consult you. Indeed, to me the sight is a matter worthy of consultation, especially given the number brought to trial. In fact, many of every age, even of both sexes, are brought to trial and summoned. The contagion of this superstition has permeated not only the cities, but also towns and rural areas. It seems possible to check and correct.

[10] Certainly, it is evident enough that the until-recently abandoned temples have begun to be frequented again, and the long-omitted sacred rites have begun to be brought back, and the meat of victims has begun to be sold, which until now the rarest buyer managed to get. From this it is easy to suppose that a mob of people could be corrected, if there is occasion for repentance.

Trajan to Pliny [Ep. 10.97] 4

[1] You performed acutely, which you should have, my Second, in sifting out the cases of those brought to you as Christians. They are not to be hunted down. If they are brought in and proven guilty, they are to be punished. Yet, if one denies being a Christian and makes this case clear, offering prayer to our gods, you should grant pardon on the basis of repentance, however suspicious [one acted] in the past.

[2] Pamphlets distributed anonymously ought to have no place in a criminal charge. For it sets the worst precedent, nor is it suitable to our time.

4 Trajan may have dictated the letter. It is also plausible that Trajan’s assistant (ab epistulis) penned the letter in his place. See the discussion in Sherwin-White, Letters of Pliny, 536-46.