Geographical Review of Vol. 61(Ser. B), No. 1, 141-149, 1988

Recent Studies on Recreational Geography in Japan

Hldeya ISHII* and Shlgeru SHIRASAKA**

The study examines recent geographical studies on recreation and to identify future task. After reviewing the history and characteristics of Japanese recreation and tourism, geographical works can be categorized into studies of spatial organization, studies of landscape formation, and other studies (landscape evaluation and the perception of recreational resources). In the field of spatial organization, geographers have identified recreational spaces centered on a city and complex recreational regions composed of different types of resorts. It is important in Japan, however, to develop further the study of urban recreation to examine recreational space. The field of landscape formation has accumulated more studies than that of spatial organization. The majority of previous studies, however, are preoccupied with hot spring and minshuku settlements and their perspective is economically oriented. Geographers can expand their scope into social or cultural geography and into environmental problems. Studies of environmental evaluation and recreational resources perception are in their early stages. On the whole, recreational geography in Japan is behind that of other developed countries in accepting such contemporary techniques as quantitative methods and environmental perception. The development of recreation and tourism in Japan, how ever, will increase the demand of geographical researches.

I. Introduction II. Characteristics of Japanese Recreation and Tourism Increasing mobility and leisure time have devel oped recreational activities into a booming busi Rapid development of recreational activities has ness in modern industrial societies. Like other led to an increase in geographical studies in differ human activities, recreation has its geographical ent parts of the world. Reviews of these studies in expressions. People demand space, create new the Western world have demonstrated distinct landscapes, and transform space into a variety of research trends by countries, partly because of functional organizations. The geographer's task different leisure activities. This section, there is to analyse the pattern and process of these spa fore, summarizes some characteristics of Japanese tial organization. This study reviews recent geo recreational activities. graphical studies on recreation and tourism by Some Japanese and foreign geographers have Japanese geographers to identify unsolved fields of described these characteristics. In the Interna investigation. tional Geographical Congress of 1980, YAMAMURA Some geographers have already reviewed Japa and ISBII(1982), and the above-mentioned study of nese recreational geography. In 1976, AOKIand TAKEUCHI(1984) illustrated the distinctiveness of YAMAMURAdiscussed previous studies by Japanese Japanese recreational activities. In 1980, SCHOLLER geographers. In the same year, YAMAMURApub in West Germany reported Japanese recreational lished a brief review in the English language. In behaviour from a Westerner's viewpoint. In this 1984, TAKEUCHImade a similar report in Geo report on Japanese tourism, SCHOLLERShowed such Journal. This present study focuses on the recrea characteristically Japanese phenomena as short tional studies of the post-war period, particularly term group tours, the custom of giving money to the last decade, with reference to these previous those who travel, and the accompanied duty to studies. buy a souvenir. This present study occasionally refers to these previous studies. Although some forms of recreational activities

* Institute of History and Anthropology , University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305 Japan. ** Department of Geography , Gakugei University, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184 Japan. 142 H. ISHII, S. SHIRASAKA probably began with the beginning of mankind, of West Germans. Japanese resorts, therefore, are modern recreation is commonly regarded as a pro favourably located proximate to big cities. duct of urban societies after the Industrial Revo Secondly, the majority of these tours are organ lution. It is more appropriate for geographers, ized for groups of employees or community however, to realize that leisure gained its geogra members to hurriedly visit hot springs or historic phical significance when it began to create its places. According to a survey of the Japan Tour substantial landscape and genre de vie. From this ism Association, it was only in the late 1970s that standpoint, the origin of Japanese recreational family or individual tours outnumbered group activities dates as far back as the early eighteenth trips. Thirdly, hot spring still attract 30 per cent century (the middle Edo era) before the Industrial of all tourists, although leisure is growing more Revolution (SuzuKi, 1967). This period was cha varied among younger generations. Large resorts, racterized by a stabilized government, public therefore, have been developed around hot peace, development of a cash economy, and springs. Fourthly, the majority of tours are con nationally improved road network system. People ducted in the limited vacation periods of early began to travel frequently. They established May, middle August, and the period between late mutual cash-raising community organizations December and early January. Famous resorts are (kou) to visit distant well-known shrines exceedingly crowded in these periods. and Buddhist temples. People also visited Kyoto This uniformity and seasonality of tourism has and other historic places en route to these temples induced the development of alternative recrea and shrines. Others began to visit hot springs for tional facilities in urban areas. Some examples, as physical healing. Thus, religious-recreational TAKEUCHI(1984) has shown, include indoor towns appeared in front of famous temples or amusement complexes and golf practicing fields. shrines, and around hot spring. Since 1980, however, the increasing demand for In the late nineteenth century after the Meiji shorter working hours and a five-working-days Restoration of 1868, similar recreational activities system is gradually changing government policy. constantly developed during the Industrial Revo Growing leisure time, the popularization of auto lution. At the turn of the century, elites began to mobiles, and the development of the highway sys accept the custom of summering and wintering. tem will expand resort locations, give more va Swimming and skiing were added to the variety riety to leisure activities and will make tourism of recreational activities. National Parks were an important social phenomenon. established in the 1930s. The Ministry of Rail ways (Tetsudo-sho) actively developed transporta III. The Development of Recreational tion networks and the Japan travel Bureau ener Geography getically advertised recreation. By 1955, Japan had recovered her economic The geography of recreation and tourism in standard to that of before World War II. Her rapid Japan is behind both that in other developed coun economic growth followed this reconstruction tries and other fields of Japanese geography. AOKI period, especially after 1960. Leisure activities and YAMAMURA(1976) indicate the preoccupation of were popularized among every class of people. settlement studies and TAKEUCHI(1984) shows the Some traditional characteristics, however, still economic orientation of the studies. The lack of remain today. Firstly, overnight trips do not usu comprehensive investigation is due not only to few ally extend to several days due to insufficient statistics, few scholars, and traditional values holidays. According to a survey of Japan Tourism that regard leisure as a sin, but also to some tradi Association, 56 per cent of overnight trips were tional characteristics of recreational activities just for one night and 24 per cent were for two previously mentioned. nights in 1980. Only 3.9 per cent of the trips Geographical studies of Japanese tourism first extended to six or more nights. Although long appeared in the 1920s, when the nationwide rail term tours and travelling abroad have recently road network was completed and recreational been increased, the length of tours by the Japanese activities were widely accepted (AOKI and is still far behind that of the Europeans, especially YAMAMURA,1976). These studies were mainly des Recreational Geography 143 criptions of hot spring resorts. facilities, number of visitors, and landscapes From 1930 to the early 1940s, recreational stu among the four zones. TAKAHASHIand TAKABAYASHI dies dealt not only with hot spring resorts, but (1978) studied social aspects and recreational also with religious settlements, settlements for zones of the people in , a mid-size city mountain climbers, and with swimming beaches. in Prefecture. They reported that people These studies, however, merely touched upon travelled as far as 20 kilometers one way for a recreation and tourism as a part of settlement or weekend trip (one-hour trip), which was consider regional geography. Although the analysis of ably shorter than that of big cities. They, how nation-wide hot spring settlements by KIUcHI ever, also indicated that weekday, weekend, and (1940) went far beyond a monograph of a small overnight recreational zones do not necessarily region, no related studies followed it. from simple concentric zones because of the Recreational studies have been increasing both heterogeneous distribution of social activities, in quantity and in variety since World War II, economy, transportation routes, and resources. especially since 1960, when tourism and recrea Among recreational activities, overnight tour tion were popularized. In this section, recrea ism changes landscapes and regional economy tional studies are categorized into (1) studies of most forcibly. Overnight recreational zones are spatial organization, (2) studies of landscape for formed where people spend more money and time mation, and (3) other studies, which include for transportation than for staying at the resort. landscape evaluation and the perception of recrea Although it is difficult to generalize, they are tional resources. normally located further than 100 to 150 kilome ters from a big city, where it takes at least three 1. Studies of spatial organization hours of travel one way. YAMAMURA(ASAKA and Unlike pre-war recreational geography, recent YAMAMURA,1974) analyzed the origins of tourists in studies emphasize spatial aspects oftourism and hot spring resorts to identify the sizes and charac attempt to systematize the discipline. Examples teristics of Tokyo, Osaka, and recrea include a series of studies by IwATAand his stu tional zones. YAMAMURA(1967,1970a) further ana dents during the 1950s and 1960s. The results lyzed the development of hot spring resorts in the were published in Kanko-Chiri Kenkyu (Studies on Tokyo recreational zone through the flow of the Tourist Geography) in 1968. Most of the articles in tourists, lodging facilities, and recreational this book describe recreational facilities and the industries. He concluded that the growth of these flow of tourists. Through the analysis, they resorts largely depended upon the transporta endeavoured to identify functional regions of tion from Tokyo and recreational investment. recreation and tourism with urban centres as YAMAMURA'scomprehensive study analyzed not their nodes. Although the movement of tourists is only the tourists' flow but also the landscape for one of the central subjects of recreational ge mation and recreation development processes, ography, a few studies followed. which will be discussed later. Other studies attempt to identify different ISHII(1970, 1980) chose minshuku as his subject. aspects of recreational structues of space. One of Minshuku are low-rent lodging facilities owned the most notable studies was published by KOIKE and managed by farmers or fishermen as their (1960). Rapid urbanization in the 1960s gave geo side business. Their numbers have multiplied graphers an abundant opportunity to analyze since the 1960s, when recreation and tourism resorts around big cities and urban recreational became popularized. ISHII identified that min regions. Through the analysis of recreational shuku regions were developed as parts of recrea behaviour of Osaka citizens and resorts around tional zones of such large cities as Tokyo. Osaka, KOIKE identified recreational concentric He classified minshuku regions into the zones, which included "Osaka City", "half-day mountain type based on skiing grounds and the tourist zones (one-hour trip one way)", "one-day beach type based on swimming beaches. The tourist zones (three-hour trip)", and "overnight study of these two types of recreation were fol tourist zones (more than a three-hour trip)". He lowed by SHIRASAKA,who specialized in the study showed significantly different recreational forms, of skiing grounds, and TANNO,who discussed the 144 H. ISHII, S. SHIRASAKA beach type recreation. Both studies focus on the 2. Studies of landscape formation development of recreational settlements, but SHI RASAKA(1976, 1984, 1986) identified also the devel As Japanese recreational geography has tradi opment of skiing grounds and their distribution in tionally been studied as a part of settlement or Japan. He interpreted the locations of skiing economic geography since before World War II, grounds with reference to natural resources, there are far more landscape studies than studies transportation between urban areas and skiing of spatial organization. The post-war studies grounds, and socio-economic conditions. He indi were pioneered by NoMoTo. In the study of Myoko cated that the locations largely depended upon Kogen in 1961, he showed the necessity for histor physical conditions (the amount of snow, kind of ical examination of regional socio-economic condi snow and topography), transportation between the tions for the analysis of hot spring settlement railway station and the skiing ground, the invest formation and its characteristics. ment for development, and the land ownership. Another notable earlier study is that of the TANNO(1985, 1987), on the other hand, studied recreational development of Sugadaira Kogen in the Kinki recreational zones and identified central Japan by ITOHand AOKI(1962). They stated the minshuku type and the resort type as well as that the study of recreational development must the traditional type around historic places as sub go beyond the identification of such statistical types of the beach type resorts. He suggested that results as recreational facilities or the number of uni-functional resorts could not expand in this tourists. They emphasized the importance of the automobile age, but that multi-functional resort decision-making process of the developer and the complexes are necessary for development. TANNO method of development. This study is persuasive then examined his theory with empirical cases in because early Japanese recreational developments Shima area of Prefecture. Through analyzing were characteristically carried out by city-based different uni-functional resorts and functional financial concerns, especially by railway com relationships among these settlements, TANNO panies. identified that different resorts with different YAMAMURA(1967) summarized these two pioneer resources and historical backgrounds formed a ing suggestions into internal and external factor. large recreation system. The identification of this He regarded transportation from big cities and spatial system, which is similar to that of indus investment by private railway companies as try or agriculture, is a significant discovery both external factors, but such conditions of the com for pure science and for applied geography. munities as the right to hot springs, land owner Although the lack of long vacations in Japan ship and the attitude of the community toward induced the development of alternative recrea development were considered as internal factors. tional facilities in urban areas, this urban recrea He empirically examined how the two types of fac tion has not been systematically examined. KOIKE tors affected the growth of hot spring resorts. ;1960), TAKAHASHIand TAKABAYASHI(1978) merely Since the late 1960s, geographers have been touched upon the subject as a part of urban geo actively involved in the research of changing rural ;raphy. Other studies do not go beyond the des settlements due to the introduction of recreational :riptions of specific cases. For example, HATTORI business. ASAKAWA(1964) studied the development ;1979) showed the significance of leisure activities of minshuku settlements of Hakuba-mura in m urban formation in Cities and Amusement . ISHII (1980) examined the Quarters. Geographers have also published formation of several minshuku settlements in researches on sports facilities (SAIToet al., 1985), Nagano Prefecture and Izu of Shizuoka Prefec recreational agriculture (YAMAMURAand URA,1982; ture. SHIRASAKA(1986) analyzed skiing settlements TANABE,1985), and green spaces in urban areas in Shiga Kogen and Nozawa-. They EBATO,1975; HASHIzuMEet al., 1982), and suburban discussed the development of recreational business ;olf courses (OSAKI,1976; IwAMoTo1978). Geogra in rural settlements from a variety of aspects, ~hical investigation on urban recreational activi which include labour distribution between agri ties, however, falls far short of being exhaustive. culture, fishery, and minshuku business, introduc tion of urban capital and response of people, tradi Recreational Geography 145 tional land use and regional organizations, social Studies of landscape formation are numerous if classes, land ownership, policies of local govern we include settlements and regional geography ments and agriculture/fishery cooporatives, roles dealing with recreational phenomena. Compre of the new residents, and the employment of hensive studies on the impact of recreational recreational industries and its function in main activities on the region, land use, and socio taining the population. TANNO(1987), YAMANO economic structure include Ecology of Coastal Set (1980), and MATSUDA(1980) approached the subject tlements by BIRUKAWAand YAMAMOTO(1978) and a in a similar manner. series of articles on highlands by IcHIKAWA(1966). ISHII (1986) summarized a series of previous Other geographers have studied the origin and studies on the formation of minshuku regions development of recreational cities. Such Japanese so as to propose courses of action. He defind a cities as Kyoto, and Nikko depend largely Landschaft or region as a system composed of a upon the recreation business. Although more stu locational-environmental subsystem, a social dies have dealt with these in terms of urban geo economic-cultural subsystem, and groups of peo graphy, some have emphasized their recreational ple as decision makers. He regarded the evolution aspects. YAMAMURA(1970b, 1978, 1981), for exam of the Landschaft as a process in which people ple, analyzed such hot spring resorts as Atami, intensify the use of time and space through spe Kusatsu, and Beppu. TAKAHASHIet al. (1974) exam cialization to achieve a higher standard of living ined Shimoda City of Izu. These studies empiri as a response to the changes in transportation and cally described recreationally directed urbaniza economic policy. ISHIIchronologically examined tion through such indices as recreational capital, regional characteristics, social structure, and the industries, facilities, specialization of these facili allocation of labour, land use, and resources ties, occupational structure, and the change of between traditional industries and new recre landscapes. Empirical studies, however, are too ational businesses to generalize them into descrip few to illustrate this geographical subject. tive model. 3. Other studies Some studies were more specific in their per spective. KONISHI(1980), for example, investigated Recent studies of recreational phenomena have Myoko Kogen to identify the role of rural com become so various that some studies do not fall munities in recreational development and the evo into the categories of spatial organization or lution of these communities through commerciali landscape formation. In this section, we will zation. The growing demand of recreation and review some important works that indicate new tourism after World War II made large-scale directions. recreational development essential. Development, The first new direction is the study of landscape therefore, frequently occurred in communally evaluation. The majority of the studies were done used woodland and grassland areas around rural in the fields of civil engineering and landscape settlements as well as the seashore, for these architecture. Mizoo (1983, 1987) is the only geo areas could not support the thriving standard of grapher who has pioneered the methodology of living through traditional industries. Once deve landscape evaluation. He eliminated psychologi loped, these traditional settlements quickly cal factors wherever possible and endeavoured to changed from agricultural or fishing communities bridge the gap between human evaluation and to recreational communities. These spaces were objective geographical evaluation to develop the developed mainly by private railway companies in method of evaluating landscape objectively with the early period of large development. They have as few factors as possible. This method divides been, however, recently developed more actively by recreational resources into geographical factors, local governments or by the people for the simplifies them by such statistical methods as improvement of their own standard of living. IKE factor analysis, obtain the factors by using the (1986) thoroughly examined the social structure of judgments of specialists, and creates an equation two communities of Tateshina in Nagano Prefec for predicting landscape evaluation. Through ture through analyzing the variation of recrea empirical studies, Mizoo claimed that clearness, tional use of communal land. closeness, and surrounding landscape were 146 H. ISHII, S. SHIRASAKA

important for such uni-resources as lakes. For study spatial organization, geographers also must multiple landscape resources, he suggested that develop the analysis of recreational behaviour and the combination of rank, size, contrast, colour, the flow of tourists. Although post-war Japanese and local colour can distinguish values of recrea recreational geography started with the study of tional resources. the flow of tourists, this method has been largely Another notable study is by OGUCHI(1985), who neglected since then. The lack of reliability of the examined the changing attitudes toward swim statistical data can probably be supplemented by ming throughout history as a case study of rela questionaires. Time-space analysis, likewise, tive landscape perception. According to OGUCHI, serves as an effective examination. The study of sea bathing was absent until it was introduced in spatial organization must deal not only with the the 1880s in the Meiji era. Early sea bathing was spatial pattern of resorts with urban centres as for purpose of healing, which was an idea intro their core, but also with interaction among duced from German medicine. Swimming resorts. As the Japanese prefer visiting several beaches were established mainly along rocky resorts to staying at one place for a longer period coasts. Since the turn of the century, however, of time, the analysis of spatial organization swimming became a leisure form and shifted to requires the study of the distribution of resorts by sand beaches. He thus identified that the same recreation type and the movement of the tourist geographical location was changed from being who go to them. TANNO'sstudy (1987) is an exam "unfavoured" to "favoured" space by the intro ple which successfully illustrates Japanese recrea duction of new values. Through this empirical tional behaviour by showing the complex resort study, he showed changing values towards area consisting of several resorts of different swimming beaches as a recreational resources. resources and historical backgrounds. Other studies investigated historic preservation The studies of landscape formation have been (ICHIKAWAand SHIRASAKA,1980), recreational fishing concentrated on the hot spring and minshuku set (KISHIDA,1981), foreign visitors' flow in Japan tlements because Japanese people visited these (SHIRASAKA,1982), previous studies on recreational places most often. Rapid motorization, however, and tourism outside Japan (Ismi, 1979), and the has made tourism into casual behaviour and has history of hot spring resorts (YAMAMURA,1987). produced variety in its recreational forms. These tendencies probably will continue in the future. It IV. Future Task of Recreational is necessary to study a variety of recreational Geography landscape formation based upon various recrea tional forms, which include resort cities. Geo Although the studies of recreational geography graphers also must examine different stages of have been increasing and becoming more varied, recreationalization. Recreational geography must not enough research has yet been done on this accept the perspective taken by the advanced field subject. The first task of geographers is the better of rural geography, which examines de-agricul understanding of the phenomena. Another field of turalization in rural communities. This study did development is the vigorous introduction of such not review several studies which suggest this contemporary methods as quantitative technique perspective because they are rural settlements and environmental perception. studies rather than recreational geography. The For the study of spatial organization, we need study of landscape formation, as TAKEUCHI(1984) an exhaustive examination of recreation and tour indicated, is too economically oriented. It is ism in urban areas. Japanese people have estab necessary to develop social or cultural perspec lished many recreational facilities in urban areas tives. Geographers also must examine environ because they still have less leisure time than mental problems in resort areas. Recreationaliza Western people. Systematic investigation on tion of resorts areas changes traditional land use these various recreational activities is essential systems because of the inflow of capital and peo for the understanding of recreational space, ple from other places. Recreational activities although the lack of consistent data and the rapid often destory the environment, which could be change of the phenomena make this difficult. To preserved by traditional forms of economic activi Recreational Geography 147 ties (ISHII,1986). fecture. Komazawa Geography, Science Reports of The fields of landscape evaluation, recreational Department of Geography, The Komazawa university, 18,131-149. (J) resource perception, and environmental preserva HATTORI, K. (1979): Toshi to Sakariba (Cities and tion are in their early stages. Although the study Amusement Quarters). Doyu-kan, Tokyo, 240 p. of landscape evaluation was developed by Mizoo CHIKAWA,T. (1966): Koreichi no chirigaku (The Geo (1987), his analysis of geographical factors does graphy of Highlands in Japan), Reibun-sha, Nagano, not always correspond to the reality, probably 414 p. ICHIKAWA,T. and Sh. SHIRASAKA(1980): Tourism Trends because Japanese resorts tend to be determined along Kiso Valley -Tourism Pattern in Old Settle more by fashion, psychology, and social factors. ments Designated as Cultural Assets-. Bulletin of The gap between geographic model and reality Tokyo Gakugei University, Ser. III, 77-91. (J-E) must be bridged. IKE, Sh. (1986): Changing Process of Land Use of Com In general, Japanese recreational geography mon Lands by the Development of Tateshina Resort Zone, Nagano Prefecture. Geographical Review of lacks applicational studies oriented towards Japan, 59(3),131-153. (J-E) regional planning. Although local governments ISHII, H. (1970): Some Consideration of the Forming Pro frequently asked geographers for advice in recrea cess of Minshuku Regions in Japan. Geographical tional planning in the 1960s, the lack of basic stu Review of Japan, 43(10), 607-622. (J-E) dies has led to little counselling today. It is cer ISHII, H. (1979): The Trend of Geographical Studies on Recreation and Tourism in West Germany. Tsukuba tain, however, that the development of recreation Studies in Human Geography, 3,149-167. (J-E) and tourism in Japan will make the geographers ISHII,H. 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Research of Graduate Students, Komazawa University, ture Areas to Recreational Areas -Exemplifying the 10,15-28. (J) Case of Strawberry Picking in Hiro, Arino-cho, Kita- Mizoo, Y, and N. OOKUMA(1983): Geographical Study of Ward, -shi-. Humanities Review (The Journal of Landscape Evaluation -A Case Study of Lakes in the Literary Association of Kwansai Gakuin Univer Japan-. The Human Geography, 35(1), 40-56. (J-E) sity), 35(3),137-163. (J) Mizoo, Y. (1987): A Geographical Study on Evaluation of TANNO,A. (1985): The Formation of Minshuku Type Tour Landscape Resources. Science Report of Institute of ist Areas along Coastal Regions -The Example of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, Sec. A, 8, 95-128. Osatsu Settlement in Toba City, Mie Prefecture-. NOMOTO,K. (1961): The Development on the Slopes and Geographical Review of Japan, 58(1),19-38. (J-E) Hot Spring Resorts around Mt. Myoko. TANNO, A. (1987): Formation of Coastal Tourist Area in Daigaku, Shigaku-kenkyu (The Journal of History, the Kinki District. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Hiroshima University), 81, 23-40. (J) University of Tsukuba, 139 p. OGUCHI,Ch. (1985): Sea Bathing and the Process of Its YAMAMURA,J. (1967): Regional Differentiation of the Acceptance in the Late 19th Century in Japan. The Development Stages of the Hot Spring Resorts in the Human Geography, 37(3), 23-37. (J-E) Tokyo Tourist Region. Geographical Review of Japan, OSAKI,T. (1976): A Geographical Study on Golf Course 40(1), 625-643. (J-E) in Japan. Geographical Review of Japan, 49(6), YAMAMURA,J. (1970a): Tourism and Recreational Devel 400-408. (J-E) opments around Tokyo. In Special Publication No. 2 of SAITOH,I., M. KANNO,and K. TANAKA(1985): The Distri Japanese Geographers: Japanese Cities, Tokyo, 63-72. bution of Sports Facilities in the Western Suburbs of YAMAMURA,J. (1970b): Formation of Atami and Its Func Tokyo. Annual Reports of Institute of Geoscience, Uni tions as a City of Hot Spring and Sightseeing). Toyo versity of Tsukuba, 11, 4-9. kenkyu (Bulletin of the Institute of Oriental Studies of SCHOLLER,P. (1980): Tradition and Moderne in Inner Daito-bunka University), 22, 38-72. (J) japanischen Tourismus. Erdkunde, 34, 134-150. YAMAMURA,J. (1976): Geography of Tourism and Recrea SHIRASAKA,Sh. (1976): The Location and the Develop tion, In Sh. KIUCHI(ed.): Geography in Japan. Univ. of ment of Skiing Grounds at Nozawa Spa Village, Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 201-204. Nagano Prefecture, Central Japan -A Geographical YAMAMURA,J. (1978): Changing Process of Kusatsu Hot Study on the Skiing Grounds in Japan-. Geographical Spring Settlement from Health Resort to Tourist Review of Japan, 49(6), 341-360. (J-E) Resort. The Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Chiba SHIRASAKA,Sh. (1982): Foreign Visitors' Flow in Japan. University, 27, 191-215. (J) Frankfurter Wirtschaft- and Sozialgeographische YAMAMURA,J. (1981): Regional Development of Beppu Schriften, 41, 205-218. Hot Spring Tourist City, Oita Prefecture. The Bul SHIRASAKA,Sh. (1984): Skiing Grounds and Ski Settle letin of the Faculty of Education, Chiba University, 30, ments in Japan. Geographical Review of Japan (Ser. B), 129-155. (J) 57(1), 68-86. YAMAMURA,J. and T. URA (1982): The Trend of Tourist SHIRASAKA,Sh. (1986): Sukii to sanchi-shuraku (Skiing Farms in Urbanized Region along the River Tama, and Ski Settlements in Japan). Meigen-shobo, Tokyo, Kawasaki City, . The New Geo 159 p. graphy, 30(2), 1-18. (J-E) SUZYKI,Y. (1967): Tourism in Japan. Festschrift Leopold YAMAMURA,J. (1982): The Courses of Development of G. Scheidl zum 60. Geburstag, II Teil, Wien 204-218. Tourism and Recreation in Japan. Frankfurter TAKAHASHI,N., M. KANNO, and K. KOBAYASHI(1974): Wirtschafts- and Sozialgeographische Schriften, 41, Urbanization in a Small City through the Develop 175-185. ment of Tourism and Recreation -A Case of Shim YAMAMURA,J. (1987): Nippon no onsen-chi -Sono hat oda, Japan-. Tokyo Geography Papers, 18, 119-152. tatsu, genjo to arikata- (Spa Settlements in Japan - (J-E) The Development and the Present Conditions-). Japan TAKAHASHI,N. and K. TAKABAYASHI(1978): Leisure Activ Spa Association, Tokyo, 237 p. ity Spaces in the City of Hamamatsu. Tsukuba Stu YAMANO,A. (1980): A Study of the Location for "Min dies in Human Geography, 2, 95-108. (J-E) shuku" in Otari Mountainous Village, Nagano Prefec TAKEUCHI,K. (1984): Some Remarks on the Geography of ture. Geographical Research of Graduate Students, Tourism in Japan. GeoJournal, 9, 85-90. Komazawa University, 10, 3-14. (J) TANABE,K. (1985): A Study on the Change from Agricul Recreational Geography 149

日本 における近年の観光 ・レクリェーション地理学の発達

石 井 英 也*・ 白 坂 蕃**

こ の報 告 の 目的 は,こ れ まで の研 究 成 果 を踏 ま え,と 成 論 的研 究 は,空 間 構 造 論 的研 究 に 比 べ る と研究 蓄 積 が くに最 近10年 間 ほ どの 業績 に 注 目 しなが ら,わ が 国 にお は る か に豊 富 で あ る。 しか し,そ れ らの 多 くは温 泉 集 落 け る観 光 ・レ ク リ ェ ー シ ョン地 理 学 の特 徴 と課題 を検 討 と民宿 集 落 に研 究 対 象 が 限 られ て お り,そ の観 点 も経済 す る こ と にあ る。 こ こで は まず,わ が 国 に お け る観 光. 地 理 学 的考 え方 へ の 傾 斜 が 目立 ち,社 会 地 理 や文 化 地 理 レク リ ェ ー シ ョン活 動 の発 達 とそ の特 徴 を簡単 に概 観 し 学 的観 点,あ る い は環 境 問 題 の 視 点 が も っ と導入 され る た 後,そ れ ら に 関す る地 理 学 的 研 究 を空 間構 造 論 的研 究, べ きで あ る。 そ の他,景 観 評 価 や 観 光 資 源 の認 知 に関 し 景 観 形 成 論 的 研 究,そ の他(景 観 評 価 や 観 光 資 源 の認 知 て も研究 の萌 芽 が み られ るが,全 体 と して見 る と,わ が な ど に関 す る研 究)に 分 類 して,検 討 した. 国 の観 光 ・レク リ ェ ー シ ョン地 理 学研 究 の現 状 は,計 量 そ の 結 果,空 間構 造 論 的研 究 の範 疇 で は,都 市 を中 心 化 や環 境 認 知 な ど,地 理 学 で 近 年 よ く用い られ て い る研 と した観 光 空 間 の形 成 に 関 す る研 究 の ほか,観 光 地 の 専 究 手法 の導 入 が 遅 れて い る。また,欧 米 諸 国 に比 べ る と, 門 分 化 に基 づ く複 合観 光 地域 形 成 論 な ど,注 目され る主 わ が 国 に お け る 観 光 ・レ ク リェ ー シ ョ ン地 理 学 的研 究 張 が な さ れ た り して,少 しつ つ研 究 成 果 が 蓄 積 さ れて き は,地 域 計 画 な ど を志 向 した応 用 地 理 学 的研 究 も少 ない 。 た。 しか し,観 光 空 間 を把握 す る に は,と くに わが 国 で 現 在 の社 会 や 経 済 の 趨 勢 を考 え る と,わ が 国 で は観 光 ・ は重 要 な,都 市 内 や そ の 周 辺 地域 の観 光 ・レク リェ ー シ レク リェ ー シ ョン現 象 が ます ます 重 要 にな り,そ れ に応 ョ ンに 関 す る研 究 の進 展 が 不 可 欠 で あ る 。 また,景 観 形 じて地 理 学 者 の任 務 も重 くな る こ とが 明 らか で あ る。

* 〒305茨 城県つ くば市天王台 筑波大学歴史人類学系 ** 〒184東 京都小金井市貫井北町 東京学芸大学教育学部