CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CRM VOLUME 22 NO. 9 1999
Also in this issue. . . •The Legacy of Misson 66, p.\$ •Moving Lighthouses, p. 36 •Preserving the Recent Past, p. 45
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR National Park Service Cultural Resources PUBLISHED BY THE VOLUME 22 NO. 9 1999 NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Contents ISSN 1068-4999 Information for parks, federal agencies, Indian tribes, states, local governments, and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for pre serving and managing cultural PUBLIC/PRIVATE COOPERATION Integrating GIS and Cultural Resources resources FOR OUTREACH AND EDUCATION Databases for Archeological DIRECTOR U.S. 219 Meyersdale Bypass Project ... .3 Site Monitoring 33 Robert Stanton Varna G. Boyd Steven M. Baumann ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR The Lorton Town Center Archeology PRESERVING LIGHTHOUSES CULTURAL RESOURCE STEWARDSHIP Project Partnership 5 AND PARTNERSHIPS Moving Lighthouses 36 John P. McCarthy, Michael Johnson, Katherine H. Stevenson Candace Clifford and Nancy Anthony EDITOR Moving Cape Hatteras Lighthouse ... .38 Ronald M. Greenberg Volunteers Re-light Kilauea Point Lighthouse 7 The Canton Asylum for ASSOCIATE EDITOR Nathan Caldwell and Nancy Thomas Janice C. McCoy Insane Indians 40 Michelle C. Saxman Preservation Education on ADVISORS Midway Atoll 9 Romancing a Galleon (and Other Lost David Andrews Editor, NPS David Pinyerd Ships) at Point Reyes Seashore 43 Joan Bachaiach Roger E. Kelly Museum Registrar, NPS Lincoln Park—Evolution Randall J. Biallas of a Landscape 12 PRESERVING THE RECENT PAST Historical Architect, NPS John A. Bums Stephen A. Morris Documenting the Cold War— Archtect, NPS Investigating Available Resources 45 THE LEGACY OF MISSION 66 Harry A. Butowsky Rustin Quaide Historian, NPS Mission 66 and "Rustication" 16 Pratt Cassity Executive Director, Ethan Carr Interpreting the Cold War 47 National Alliance of Preservatbn Commesions Jeane Wharton Muriel Crespi The Mission 66 Visitor Center 19 Cultural Anthropologist, NPS Sarah Allaback Cold War Historic Properties at MatyCullen Director, Historical Services Branch Aberdeen Proving Ground 49 Parks Canada Continuing Education—My Fulbright David G. Blick and Renee A. Sciuto Mark Edwards in Thailand 22 Historic Preservation and Cultural Flesource Group Manager Clearwater Battle Artifacts Returned ..51 URS Greiner Woodward Clyde Federal Services Douglas C. Comer Roger E. Kelly Bob Chenoweth Archeotogist, NPS Retrofitting an Advanced Antoinette J. Lee Fire Protection System 24 Greenbelt, Maryland—Preservation of Historian, NPS Lee Goodwin a Historic Planned Community 53 Deborah Sheiman Shprentz ASSISTANT Foamed Boron Preservative—A Wood Denise M. Mayo Treatment Alternative 27 Sisters Across the Ocean—Observations David Casebolt on Women in Cultural Heritage in Australia 57 The Aiken-Rhett House—Historic Jill Cowley Charleston Foundation Looks at its Past and Sees its Future 28 CRM ONLINE Michael Laws Location, Location, Location— The Arthur Ashe Monument and Cattle, Control, and Conservation ... .31 Monument Avenue An electronic version of this Wade H. Broadhead John T Kneebone issue of CRMcan be accessed through the CRM homepage at Cover: Clockwise, windows restored and reinstalled on Midway, see story p. 9; statue of Mother and
Statements of fact and views are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect an opinion or endorsement on the part of the editors, the CRM advisors and consultants, or the National Park Service. Send articles and correspondence to the Editor, CRM, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, NW, Suite 350NC, Washington, DC 20240 (U.S. Postal Service) or 800 North Capitol St, NW, Suite 350, Washington, DC 20002 (Federal Express); ph. 202-343-8164, fax 202-343-5260; email:
2 CRM No 9—1999 Public/Private Cooperation for Outreach and Education
Varna G. Boyd U.S. 219 Meyersdale Bypass Project
istorically, most regulatory ests that would diminish the small town appeal of agencies have been reluctant to Meyersdale. Also of concern to local farmers, invite public input on federal especially the Amish, were the effects of the H undertakings. The recent revi archeology on their agricultural fields and crop sions to Section 36 CFR Part 800, however, yields. Therefore, ever-present during the course emphasize increased public involvement through of the archeological study was the challenge of out the regulatory process. The U.S. 219 turning the controversial highway project into a Meyersdale Bypass Project is an example of how positive experience for the community. The pro public involvement can lead to a successful part ject team determined early on that educating the nership between the community, the regulatory public about archeological goals, responsibilities, agency, and archeological consultants. and the regulatory process would best serve the As part of the Meyersdale project, and in needs of all involved. In an effort to educate the keeping with the provisions of the National public and bring the past alive for the commu Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the nity, a public outreach and education program Pennsylvania Department of Transportation was developed to create opportunities for the (PennDOT) District 9-0, in cooperation with the community and archeologists to interact and Federal Highway Administration, sponsored educate one another. archeological investigations to determine the Together, the community, PennDOT, the impact of roadway construction on cultural Pennsylvania State Historic Preservation Office, resources. The survey identified 68 sites, of which and Greenhorne & O'Mara, Inc. developed a 21 were evaluated for their eligibility to the public outreach and education program. Initially, National Register of Historic Places. Eight of meetings were held with a high school history these sites were ultimately selected for data recov teacher, the town librarian, and members of the ery investigations. The archeological data repre historical society to gain insight on issues and sent 12,000 years of prehistory and history in approaches that would resonate within the com what is now the Borough of Meyersdale and munity. Their ideas were then incorporated into Summit Township in Somerset County, the program, which involved a variety of activi Pennsylvania. ties aimed at attracting a diverse audience. The Meyersdale is a rural farming community program included that has long recognized the importance of its • lectures at elementary and high schools, histor history; however, the breadth of local prehistory ical societies, and the community library, and the value of archeology generally had not • presentations for special interest groups such as been widely understood. Although there was Boy Scout and 4-H troops, some initial community support, there was con • participation at local fairs and festivals, cern that the archeological investigations would • field and laboratory tours throughout the delay road construction, thereby hampering eco course of the project, nomic growth. In contrast, some residents hoped • community volunteers in the field and labora the archeological investigations would prevent tory, roadway construction and the possibility of fur • an invitation by the Meyersdale High School ther development. Many of these residents felt to participate in the Social Studies Curriculum the roadway would bring prospects of large fast- Committee, food restaurant chains and other "outside" inter
CRM No 9—1999 3 • communication with, and education of, local logical lectures, residents had the opportunity to collectors and avocational archeologists, ask questions and initiate dialog with PennDOT • newsprint media (over 20 articles) and televi officials. According to PennDOT, the program sion features chronicling the progress of the and the resulting cooperative atmosphere was a archeology, key point in turning a controversial project into a • a children's booklet, winning project supported by the community. • two PBS films on the project archeology: a The relationship developed with the public dur documentary, "Ghosts of the Mountains," ing the course of the project resulted in a aired nationally; and an instructional film pro win/win situation for all involved. The commu duced for museum, school, and state agency nity has a new roadway, a better understanding of educational programs. the past, and a greater appreciation and respect Although the community reaction to arche for archeological resources. With community ology was initially mixed, the program estab support, PennDOT was able to bring in the pro lished a mechanism for discourse and resulted in ject on time and under budget. The archeologists increased support for the project. Through edu gain through the data gathered, and by creating cation, participation, and developing relation an atmosphere of mutual respect between the ships and lasting friendships, many residents have client, community, and archeologists. a new found sense of stewardship of archeological The Meyersdale project has demonstrated resources. For example, after a flood that devas that increasing public awareness and participa tated many homes and farms, residents expressed tion garners support for roadway projects, as well concern about damage to the sites. The "Flood of as cultural resources programs. In addition, the '96 Remembered"* highlighted public concern increased visibility and cooperation between on the effects of the flood on the archeological agencies and the public can catch the attention of sites. local and state politicians who can listen to not The program also fostered a partnership only the cries for better roadways, but also cries between project archeologists and local collectors. for historic preservation. PennDOT District 9-0 This increased the archeological knowledge base has received widespread praise, including the and provided an opportunity to educate collec 1997 Preservation Pennsylvania "Initiative Award tors about proper recording techniques and for Community Involvement," and the 1999 anthropological goals. "Project Recognition Award" for the most out Through educational and social interaction, standing project in the state. a lasting relationship based on trust and shared By sharing information about local history information developed between the community and prehistory with the community, great strides and project staff. This atmosphere enabled the have been made in creating an atmosphere in community to participate in both the archeologi which archeologists will be welcome to the area cal and regulatory processes. The growing com for future studies. Perhaps the greatest benefit to munity interest is also evident in the revival of the public and the discipline of archeology, how the Somerset County Chapter of the Society for ever, is that by establishing a close relationship Pennsylvania Archaeology, which now comprises with the community, and especially local teach many citizens involved in the Meyersdale project ers, the data can be taken into the classroom to efforts. educate students about the importance of arche The program was well received by the local ology and historic preservation. As such, the community, the Pennsylvania State Historic development of public outreach and education Preservation Office, and the Advisory Council for programs as an integral part of the archeology Historic Preservation. Specifically, the Advisory process is the best way to assure a future that Council for Historic Preservation included the honors the past, but recognizes and respects the Meyersdale project in its Selected Section 106 needs of living communities. Cases, 1986-1996, and stated "The project promises to be a model for public education in Note archeology." The program has allowed archeolo * Flood of '96 Remembered (Meyersdale, Pennsylvania: gists, PennDOT representatives, and the commu The New Republic Newspaper, 1996). nity to interact and establish clear and open lines Varna G. Boyd, RPA, is Senior Archeologist for of communication. For example, during archeo Greenhorne & O'Mara, Inc. in Greenbelt, Maryland.
4 CRM No 9—1999 John P. McCarthy, Michael Johnson, and Nancy Anthony The Lorton Town Center Archeology Project Partnership
ultural resources management The project arose when the developer activities, like most aspects of sought changes in the zoning to allow residential contemporary society, seek to construction on a 206-acre parcel in southern Cprovide maximum benefit at Fairfax County. The property is adjacent to a minimum cost. The conservation planning and commuter rail station and also has excellent research interests of public authorities seeking to access to one of the region's major commuter maximize site preservation and/or data recovery highways, Interstate 95. Local governments in are very often at odds with the cost minimization the Washington, DC, metropolitan area routinely imperative of development interests, be they in place a variety of requirements on developers the private or public sectors. Accordingly, arche- seeking zoning changes and construction permits. ologists and other cultural resource management In this case, because Fairfax County's Heritage professionals often feel caught in the middle Resource Management Plan established preserva between these conflicting considerations. In a tion of significant heritage resources as a matter project nearing completion, the Fairfax County of county policy, the county required that the Park Authority (FCPA) and Greenhorne & developer evaluate the significance of 12 previ O'Mara, Inc. (G&O) are working with volun ously identified archeological resources at the teers from the community to complete archeolog- proposed site of the Lorton Town Center devel ical evaluation and data recovery investigations at opment. The developer was also required to three significant prehistoric sites located along recover significant archeological data prior to Pohick Creek in Northern Virginia prior to con construction. struction of a private development project. Initial investigations, undertaken by G&O This program represents an unusual part for the developer, indicated that three of the 12 Fairfax County nership designed to not only achieve local sites warranted data recovery excavation to pre Park Authority research and compliance archeology objectives, serve representative site data and artifacts. Site staff and volun but to also provide public outreach and involve 2076, a Late Archaic to Early Woodland occupa teers, G&O staff, and Fairfax ment in local archeology. The critical factor in tion, is situated on a narrow terrace overlooking County Field this project has been the FCPA's commitment of the adjacent creek that had never been plowed. School's teach staff and volunteer resources to leverage the effec Dense concentrations of fire-cracked rock having ers, excavating at, a fire-cracked tiveness of the private developer's financial com no charcoal suggest the possibility of sweatlodges rock scatter. mitment, resulting in a true cooperative venture. at this location. Site 2079, located on a flat ter race also overlooking the creek that also had never been plowed, is a very functionally and temporally diverse occupation including work shop and domestic occupations dating from Paleo-Indian through Woodland periods. Finally, Site 2082 was a large lithic scatter, also located on a high terrace adjacent to the creek with a spring draining into the creek from one corner of the site. Although a large portion of this site had been subjected to plowing, portions of the site closest to the creek evidenced undisturbed buried deposits. This site appeared to have been occu pied repeatedly from Early Archaic through Woodland period. As a group, these sites repre sent a microcosm of Northern Virginia prehis-
CRM No 9—1999 5 tory. Recovery of representative data would con early cultural material in a corner of the site that tribute to a greater understanding of the prehis warranted further investigation. Artifact process toric residents of the area in accordance with the ing, data analysis, and project report activities goals of the county's Heritage Resource will continue at the FCPA laboratory facility Management Plan. through next spring. The FCPA and G&O, on behalf of its In addition to hands-on volunteer partici client, entered into a partnership to undertake pation in the field and the laboratory, the project further evaluation and data recovery excavation has included several other outreach activities. over two field seasons. FCPA and G&O share the While not a formally organized part of the pro leadership of the project; however, FCPA estab ject, a number of elementary, middle school, high lished the goals and objectives of the data recov school, and college groups of students have vis ery investigations and has lead the field efforts. ited the sites to see archeologists at work and to The G&O team has supplied, at client expense, learn about Native American cultures of the experienced field and laboratory supervisors and region. These activities seemed to grow naturally technical support for data analysis, while the out of the county's volunteer program and its county has supplied the services of its staff arche- close ties to local educators. Many of the students ologist, geographic information systems support also had an opportunity to participate in the for data recording and analysis, and, most impor fieldwork. One of these visits was featured as part tantly, the services of a cadre of archeological vol of the introduction to the PBS video series unteers, most of whom have many years of expe "Ancient Civilizations for Children." Educators rience. taking part in Fairfax County and Virginia The county's program provides archeologi Historical Society Teacher's Field Schools have cal opportunities in both the field and laboratory participated in fieldwork at the sites, further for people of all ages, from students to retirees. increasing connections between educators and The county's volunteers receive hands-on training the county program. In addition, the developer is in the field and laboratory. Working closely with considering an interpretive display for its sales county staff, and during this project the volun center and options for ongoing public interpreta teers also worked closely with experienced arche tion are being discussed. ological supervisors from G&O's staff. The skills While the volunteers had the opportunity involved include shovel and trowel excavation, to gain, or refine, field and/or laboratory skills, dry and wet screening of soil, artifact recognition they and site visitors alike had the opportunity to in the field, making and recording field observa personally engage with the professional archeolo tions, drawing plans and soil profiles, and artifact pro gists staffing the project, learning about careers in cessing and identification in the laboratory. the field. Additionally, since the program involves Excavations have sought to balance the volunteers of all ages, there has been opportunity quality and quantity of data collected. Fieldwork for unusual intergenerational communication included close-interval shovel testing of the two and sharing that has helped create a real sense of unplowed sites and with the addition of intensive community among those involved in the project. controlled surface collection of the plowed por Hands-on participation de-mystified the tion of the third site. Extensive manual excava processes of archeology, and hot, humid summer tion followed at Sites 2076 and 2079, while at field conditions removed much of the romantic site 2082 select locations were mechanically allure of the discipline. Yet, volunteers and visi stripped of plowzone soil and examined for trun tors both had the opportunity to engage with the cated subsurface features. The best-preserved por archeological record of the sites, and by exten tions of this site will be preserved in dedicated sion, with the prehistoric residents of the region. open-space. The jointly developed research They had the opportunity to see and touch mate design allowed for a flexible field strategy respon rials last held by human hands thousands of years sive to site data as it was recovered and artifacts ago, and through this process feel a closer con processed and analyzed concurrently with field nection to the past. investigations. For example, the project team Most important for cultural resources man returned to Site 2076 to conduct additional field agement, however, is the model that this project investigations this summer when analysis of data represents for achieving a balance between con recovered last spring revealed a concentration of flicting cost and research/preservation interests
6 CRM No 9—1999 that most cultural resource management profes cultural resources issues of the project well in sionals face on a daily basis. To date, the G&O advance of construction. Volunteer labor is not team has worked over 2,500 hours on the pro well-suited to aggressive schedule requirements. ject, including both the initial evaluation effort In this case, there was time to be flexible and and subsequent project with the FCPA. FCPA responsive to site data as it was developed and to staff and volunteers have contributed over 4,000 work with a volunteer pool of labor whose size hours to the project. It is anticipated that G&O differed each day, although a core group could be staff will participate in approximately another relied on. In addition, volunteer labor is not 1,000 hours of project effort matched by at least completely free. Volunteers require, and deserve, a similar number of FCPA staff and volunteer instruction and careful supervision beyond that hours as fieldwork is completed and emphasis needed by a professional excavation team. turns to artifact processing and data analysis. Nonetheless, all parties involved in the Lorton Clearly, FCPAs commitment of staff and volun Town Center project count it an archeological teer labor has indeed leveraged the financial com success. mitment of Lorton Town Center's private devel oper. The county's willingness to make a substan John P. McCarthy, RPA, is senior project manager-cul tural resources with Greenhorne & O'Mara, Inc. tial contribution to a project in this way gives it considerable credibility when negotiating heritage Michael Johnson is an archeologist with the Fairfax preservation issues with developers. County Park Authority. It must be noted that this project was able Nancy Anthony is archeology crew chief with Greenhorne to succeed because the developer addressed the & OMara, Inc.
Nathan Caldwell and Nancy Thomas Volunteers Re-light Kilauea Point Lighthouse
hanks to three dedicated, persis rewound every three-and-one-half hours, turned tent volunteers who overcame the lens. Eventually, the light was electrified and several major obstacles, the his its clock work mechanism replaced by an electric toric Kilauea Point Lighthouse motor. sent ouTt it's signature double flash for the first The lighthouse was placed on the National time in over seven years—and only the second Register of Historic Places in 1979. In 1985 the since February 1976—for the Volunteer lighthouse station on Kaua'i, at the northernmost Recognition Dinner at Kilauea Point National point in the main Hawaiian Islands, was trans Wildlife Refuge on November 21, 1997. ferred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Kilauea Point's four ton, eight foot high, becoming Kilauea Point National Wildlife second-order clamshell Fresnel lens, now the Refuge. Over 300,000 visitors annually view the world's largest, began sending out its signature lighthouse, seven species of seabirds and the flash May 1, 1913. It went dark in February endangered nene, or Hawaiian goose. It has also 1976 replaced by an automated beacon. The lens attracted hundreds of volunteers. was lit for the lighthouse's 75th anniversary in In 1986, then Refuge Manager Dan 1988. Its clockworks were engaged and the lens Moriarty convinced two volunteers, Herman lit in 1989 for the 200th anniversary of the U.S. Stiglemeier and Hal Frazier, to re-light the lens Lighthouse Service. for the lighthouse's 75th anniversary. With the Originally, the lens sat in a tray base sup additional help of a Los Angeles firm called G ported on mercury and compressed air. A clock Force, a laser light shown through the historic work mechanism of weights and pulleys, lens on its anniversary.
CRM No 9—1999 7 Getting the lens to rotate in 1989 for the ings and bearings: putting in bolts with nuts and 200th Anniversary of the U.S. Light House using them like small jacks taking the lens' Service took Stiglemeier about a year. He weight off the mercury tray. Jim repeated the pro redesigned and implemented a new motor opera cedure; the tray slid into place, and the lens came tion and replaced the original bushings in the down to its proper position. It was unbound and wheel bearings that the lens rotated on. The lens, could be turned with one hand. showed its historic flash once again, but during a The lens' light source was a 1,000 watt later cleaning a gear broke. lumens bulb, 10 times brighter than the original The lens stayed dark and frozen until 1996 kerosene white vapor lamp. It was available at a when Jim Sparks, a volunteer with a mechanical local electrical supply store which stocks them for background, asked Tom Alexander, the current island church's chandeliers. Because the mercury refuge manager, "How can we get the lighthouse and compressed air lubrication was much to work again?" With Alexander's permission and smoother than the bearings, Sparks installed a cooperation, and the assistance of another volun dampening mat under the lighting fixture to keep teer, Jim Hoffman, the saga began. the bearings' vibrations from blowing out the fil Hoffman and Sparks' first survey in ament. Not as smooth as the original, but safer October 1996 found a bracket missing at the top for the environment, the historic lens was ready of the drive shaft. They designed a template, to send out its flash again. drew up a plan of the clockworks and took them The first official re-lighting of the lens was to a machinist in Lihue, Kauai, to make a at the Refuge's annual volunteer dinner. As the replacement. When the machine shop finished its lens rotated above them, Jim Sparks and Herman work, a federal spending freeze prevented pay Stiglemeier were honored for their efforts. It has ment of the $250 bill. The funds and the gear shown for several events since. were not released until May. The lens is never rotated for more than an Sparks cleaned everything; installed the hour, keeping wear on the track and bearings to a bracket, and turned on the main switch. A piece minimum. When the Refuge plans to light the of wiring went up in smoke! Sparks replaced the lens, it contacts the Coast Guard, who issues a old wiring and hit the switch again, but one of Notice to Mariners about the change of the signal the motor's two double circuit- breakers had at Kilauea Point, and the local media to inform burned out. Sparks switched breakers to get homeowners that live along the shoreline that the power to the motor. After liberal lubrication, he light may illuminate their windows. tried again. The works groaned, turned one-half The mission of Kilauea Point is still protec revolution, and spit out five teeth from the top tion, but the emphasis has shifted from mariners gear. The tray that held the lamp had been raised, to natural resources. To protect Newell's shearwa preventing it from turning ter, a threatened seabird species found nesting on Sparks ordered a replacement gear from a the refuge in 1997, the lens is not lit during their manufacturer on the mainland. When the gear nesting season, including the lighthouse anniver arrived, it was two inches taller than the original. sary, the first weekend of May. Shearwaters feed Hoffman and Sparks took new measurements at night, finding their way to the sea by the light and searched Hawaii for a machinist to custom of the moon and stars. They are drawn to bright mill the gear but couldn't find one. They tracked lights and can injure or kill themselves crashing down the manufacturer on the mainland to cus into them. The historic lens is much brighter, but tom make the gear. The price, because of the less efficient, than the automated beacon, so biol intense labor required, was $437. The UPS strike ogists feared some Newell's might crash into it. lengthened the original five-week estimate! The gear finally arrived in August 1997. Nathan Caldwell is the outdoor recreation planner for the Even with the gear and template installed Oregon Coastal Refuges, Newport, Oregon. He was for merly outdoor recreation planner for the Kaua a National and the motor overhauled, the lens would still Wildlife Refuge Complex. not rotate. The wheel bearings could not touch the track they were designed to run in. The lens' Nancy Thomas is a volunteer at Kilauea Point National weight had to be lifted to take the load off the Wildlife Refuge. tray to lower it to operating height. For more information call Kilauea Point Sparks called Stiglemeier, who described the National Wildlife Refuge at (808) 828-1413. technique used in 1988 to install the new bush
8 CRM No 9—1999 David Pinyerd Preservation Education on Midway Atoll
now find myself doing preservation millions of seabirds. The atoll contains three work on Midway Atoll, a tiny speck of islands within a five-mile ring of coral: Sand, land 1,200 miles northwest of Eastern, and Spit. Sand is the largest at 1,201 I Honolulu. Midway is one of those acres and was the first to be occupied. Japanese rare spots that had no human inhabitants before egg hunters used the atoll as a stop in which to it was discovered in 1859. Shipwreck survivors gather albatross eggs for pickling. Midway was wrote its early history with its first residents-by- officially made a possession of the United States choice arriving in April 1903. Twenty-three men in 1867; however, it wasn't until the Cable were put ashore to set up a linking station for the Company's arrival in 1903 that the egg poachers first around-the-world telegraph transmission. were banned from the island. The Cable The cable arrived just in time for Teddy Company brought in shiploads of soil in which Roosevelt's Fourth of July greeting a few months to grow food and to plant trees to make the later. island more hospitable. The dirt stabilized the The Commercial Pacific Cable Company soil but also brought in all of the insects (e.g., started out in pre-fab buildings, but by 1905 they ants, termites, and cockroaches) that appear on had moved into five permanent reinforced con the island today. crete structures designed by Henry H. Meyers of The next highlight in the history of San Francisco. The buildings still stand today, Midway came in 1935 when Pan Am decided to looking quite picturesque with their hipped roofs expand its air routes across the Pacific and made and surrounding verandas framed by banyan Midway one of its stopovers. Huge flying boats trees. Each building has the same mass, yet each made the trek once a week from San Francisco to was designed with a very specific purpose: cable Manila using Midway as a stepping stone. The office, barracks, mess hall, superintendent's planes landed in the lagoon within the atoll and house, and servants' quarters. The two-story disembarked passengers onto an awaiting boat for buildings are laid out in a quadrangle with a one- a short ride to the Pan Am Hotel. The flights story servants' quarters building pushed off to were reserved for the elite who spent their time at one side. such activities as playing golf on the brilliant The four principal cable buildings served as white sand with black golf balls or diving into the one of the work assignments for an Elderhostel lagoon sporting "underwater goggles." service program that I led. An Pacific Commercial Elderhostel service program Cable Company takes people 55 years and older superintendent's and puts them to work on vol house with banyan tree. unteer projects. I received a new crew every two weeks and worked with them on various preservation projects around the island, including drawing plans and creating a condition assess ment report for the cable buildings. Prior to the arrival of the Cable Company, Midway was a desolate atoll with little on it but sand, some small shrubs, and
CRMNo9—1999 9 A few years after Pan Am got going on During World War II, up to 15,000 men Midway, the Navy became interested in the atoll were stationed on Midway's 1,500 acres. as a strategic site to counter the threats of Japan However, within a year after the war, the Naval in the Pacific. In 1938 construction began on a Air Station was put into caretaker status with less harbor to serve primarily as a forward submarine than 300 men assigned to the atoll. The Korean and seaplane base and on an airstrip on Eastern War re-activated the base, as did the Vietnam Island. Albert Kahn's architecture office was com War, but it was the DEW (Distant Early missioned to design a naval base on Sand in Warning) line begun in 1958 that truly re-vital 1939. Kahn had started his firm in 1896 and ized the base. At that time, $40,000,000 was built a reputation for designing cutting-edge fac sunk into Midway to make it the home for a tory buildings primarily for the auto industry. squadron of planes that ran a continuous picket The office easily switched over to wartime pro line between the atoll and Adak in the Aleutian duction and was awarded $200,000,000 worth of chain. For years there was a Constellation leaving government commissions during World War II. Midway every four hours, 24-hours a day, watch Most people have heard of Midway because ing via radar for any Soviet incursions. Many of of the World War II Battle of Midway. Many, the structures, including an enormous hangar, however, do not know that Midway, along with remain on the island from the 1958 build-up. Pearl Harbor, was attacked on December 7, I started work on Midway in October 1998 1941. Two Japanese destroyers shelled the base at having been hired by Oceanic Society out of San night causing chaos and destruction, some of Francisco to lead the preservation program on which can still be seen today in the form of Midway. My first groups worked on several of the shrapnel damage to steel building members. On World War II remnants on the atoll. We cleaned June 4, 1942, the Battle of Midway was begun out and conserved the metal on three 5" gun with a Japanese bombardment of the atoll by 108 emplacements. These gun batteries are basically planes in an attempt to neutralize American air 30' wide concrete octagons placed on 20' high power on the ground and clear the way for an sand hills. For 50 years plant material had been invasion force. Fortunately for the Americans, allowed to accumulate taking its toll on the steel they had broken the Japanese code and knew gun mounts. We also meticulously stripped 16 much about the attack beforehand. The rest, as coats of paint off of a 5" gun and repainted it. they say, is history with the Americans sinking We found grease fittings that still held lubrica four Japanese aircraft carriers, effectively turning tion, every part number, and many elements that the tide against Japan in the Pacific. still moved on the 20' long gun. And we under took drastic measures to stabilize a 3" gun on
Marge Baldwin Eastern Island. The 16' long gun was simply a trimming off lump of rust in the shape of a gun. We treated it glazing com with a rust-converting product that chemically pound at reacted with the iron oxide to produce tannic Midway recre ation complex's oxide, which provided a stable, paintable surface. game room. We then coated the gun with a rust-inhibitive primer and two enamel top coats. My last two groups rehabilitated steel case ment windows. The windows were in the recre ation complex designed by Kahn's office in 1940 and were original to the building. Very little maintenance had been performed on the win dows over the building's nearly 60-year life. Many of the panes were broken and most of the windows were inoperable. Window rehab, I have found, is a perfect vehicle for hands-on preservation training. There's a variety of tasks, there's satisfaction in completing a job, there's tremendous cost savings as restoring windows is very labor intensive,
1(1 CRM No 9—1999 structure and keeps the base running as a tourist destination. Oceanic Society runs the educational programs on the island, which includes spinner dolphin research and seabird research, as well as the brand new historic preservation program. Fish and Wildlife, meanwhile, cares for the nat ural aspects of the atoll, including the 750,000 albatross that make Midway their home. So far, the cooperative agreement is working and that allows for some valuable preservation work to be done on the atoll. As with most any preservation program, funding is difficult. However, a bright spot has appeared on Midway's horizon. It was recently announced that Midway is a recipient of a Save America's Treasures grant. Launched by the White House in early 1998, the Save America's Elderhostelers training is minimal, new skills are learned, and and leader trainees can work indoors when it rains. Treasures program was created to see that the brushing on rust The windows we worked on were in the nation's most important historic sites and objects converter at make it into the new millennium. This funding Battery A East, former game room of the recreation complex. Midway Atoll. The group stripped the windows down to bare will give a much needed boost to the preservation metal, repainted and then reglazed them. It was of Midway's historic structures and objects. apparent that the original exterior sash color was David Pinyerd is currently working on his thesis concern almost a British racing green, but since the only ing the preservation of Life-Saving Service and early color available on the island was navy gray, plans Coast Guard architecture in Oregon. are to top coat the windows with green during the next season. Logistics are a nightmare on Photos by the author. Midway. It's one thing to not have a Home Depot just up the road, it's quite another to wait Suggested Reading six months for a barge with your materials. Samuel Eloit Morrison, Coral Sea, Midway and In addition to hands-on preservation work, Submarine Actions: History of the United States we also archived the vast piles of paper that had Naval Operations in World War II, 1949. been accumulating on the history of Midway. Almost every group got a chance to inventory Mitsuo Fuchida, Midway: the Battle that Doomed Japan, 1993. some of the documents and then enter citations into a searchable database. What we created was a Gordon Prange, Miracle at Midway, 1983. usable and secure archive that people should feel Robert D. Ballard, Return to Midway: The Quest to confident in contributing to. The groups also had Find the Lost Ships from the Greatest Naval Battle an opportunity to interview several veterans of of the Pacific, 1999. Midway to permanently record their memories of life on Midway. Recommended Web Sites In 1986, nine properties associated with World War II were designated the Midway Atoll Pacific Naval Battles in World War II National Historic Landmark. In 1992, 72 addi
CRM No 9—1999 11 Stephen A. Morris memorial to the martyred leader, the first site to bear his name. Consecrating the place to Lincoln's memory really took hold several years later, however, Lincoln Park through the efforts begun shortly after the assassi nation by an African-American woman named Evolution of a Landscape Charlotte Scott of Virginia. Using her first $5 earned in freedom, Scott kicked off a fund raising campaign among freed blacks as a way of paying lthough an important site for vis homage to the president who had issued the itors to Washington, DC, in the Emancipation Proclamation that liberated the late-19th and early-20th cen slaves in the Confederate States. The campaign turies, Capitol Hill's Lincoln for the Freedmen's Memorial Monument to Park todaAy is a little-known treasure seldom Abraham Lincoln, as it was to be known, was not included in the typical tourist pilgrimages. the only effort of the time to build a monument Located a mile directly east of the Capitol, and to Lincoln; however, as the only one soliciting surrounded by some of the grandest and best-pre contributions exclusively from those who had served Victorian homes in the Capitol Hill most directly benefited from Lincoln's act of Historic District, the park is primarily used by emancipation it had a special appeal. The funds local residents and is seen as little more than a were collected solely from freed slaves (primarily pleasant patch of green in a relatively dense part from African-American Union veterans), how of the city or a convenient exercise yard for the ever, the organization controlling the effort and family canine. It is cared for by the National Park keeping the funds was a white-run, war-relief Service as one of many disparate elements of the agency based in St.Louis, the Western Sanitary administrative grouping known as National Commission. Initially, the Commission proposed Capitol Parks-East, and, though relatively well- a grandiose 'pyramid of sculpture' whose cost maintained, provides virtually no clues of its his would far exceed the $20,000 that was raised in tory and significance. the first few months of the campaign. When For the few who take the time to investigate additional appeals failed to produce the requisite on their own, however, Lincoln Park offers a fas funds, the Commission considered merging its cinating glimpse into Washington and the efforts with other campaigns for a national mon nation's past. The seven-acre swath of open space ument to Lincoln (including one that would have tells many stories. The ground itself, how it was placed the monument on the Capitol grounds). planted and walks were laid through it, reveals After several years, the Commission aban much about the growth of the city of Washington doned its plans for an elaborate memorial and and 19th- and 20th-century landscape ideas. An settled on a much simpler plan. This more mod even richer vein of history is represented by the est sculpture was based on a design developed by park's two sculptures, the Emancipation Group an American artist living in Italy who, upon hear and the Bethune Memorial, installed almost 100 ing of Lincoln's assassination, had independently years apart, which face each other across the central produced a model for a statue of Lincoln and a greensward as if engaged in a symbolic dialogue. kneeling, newly-freed slave. In 1871 the Western Laid out in L'Enfant's plan for Washington Sanitary Commission paid Thomas Ball to exe as a square to hold a monumental column from cute a monument based on his original model. which point all distances on the continent would Unlike the Commission's first scheme, Ball's be measured, the park, like East Capitol Street, sculpture failed in a fundamental way to capture was slow to develop, and, in fact, was used for the spirit of emancipation—that the former years as a dumping ground. During the Civil slaves were now free and equal to their fellow War, it was the site of the Lincoln Hospital, white citizens. The great abolitionist, Frederick named after the president, and among the places Douglass, disliked the sculpture's not-so-subtle visited by Walt Whitman, who made rounds to implication that the slave plays no role in his own comfort the injured and dying soldiers. The liberation, kneeling servant-like beneath Mr. name apparently stuck and, in 1867, Congress Lincoln's outstretched hand. On some level, the authorized it to be called Lincoln Square as a Commission recognized the problem and
12 CRM No 9—1999 required Ball to make minor modifications that Union' rather than as 'the Great Emancipator.' in its view overcame it. The monument was cast (In an unlikely coincidence, one of Ball's stu in Munich in 1875 and shipped to Washington dents at the American Academy in Rome was in 1876. Congress accepted the Emancipation Daniel Chester French, who sculpted the most Group, as it came to be known, from the "col famous representation of Lincoln, housed in the ored citizens of the United States" for placement Lincoln Memorial.) in Lincoln Square and appropriated $3,000 for a The installation of the monument provided pedestal upon which it would rest. the impetus for the federal government to On the day of the statue's dedication, the finance landscape improvements for the park. By 11 th anniversary of Lincoln's assassination, April the time of the dedication, an iron post and 14, 1876, Congress declared a holiday in the city chain fence enclosed at least a portion of the and a parade was held down Pennsylvania park. When the Washington Gaslight Company Avenue around the Capitol and along East laid city gas mains in the neighborhood in 1874, Capitol Street to the park. Among the marchers lines were extended into the park to allow 15 gas were African-American organizations such as the lamps to be installed along graveled park walks. 21st Battalion of Colored Troops, Masonic units, In keeping with English romantic landscape tra and the Sons of Purity wearing white aprons and ditions, the walks had been laid out in curvilin carrying the colors. President Ulysses S. Grant ear patterns. In the following year, a small presided at the dedication ceremony which wooden park lodge providing bathroom facilities included the participation of dignitaries, such as and storage for tools was built. The park's plantings members of the Cabinet and the Supreme Court were improved during this period as well. By as well as Congressmen and Senators. The 1886, inventories prepared by the U.S. Army Emancipation Proclamation was read and Mr. Corps of Engineers reported that the park was Douglass delivered a speech in which he planted with 322 evergreen and deciduous trees recounted that Lincoln had been the only white of 38 varieties and 24 shrubs of 11 varieties, man with whom he could speak for more than a interspersed with flower beds. By 1884, two few minutes who didn't point out the color of his small ornamental fountains with spray jets, stone skin or make him feel like less than an equal. From a 19th- Douglass overcame his personal distaste of the century souvenir postcard. sculpture and ultimately supported the effort to build the monument primarily because he believed it would serve blacks as a defense should they ever be accused of ingratitude toward the man who was seen as largely responsible for their freedom. In spite of its limitations, the statue proved popular enough that a replica (paid for by a wealthy abolitionist) was made in 1877 for the city of Boston, long a bastion of anti-slavery sen timent, and was placed in Park Square where it stands today. As the principal monument to Lincoln in the capital city of the late-19th and early-20th century, the statue was an important stop on tourist itineraries and views of it were reproduced in souvenir postcard books. In addi tion, it became the definitive sculptural treat ment and visual representation of Emancipation, appearing on a three-cent commemorative stamp in 1940. Its role as a memorial to Lincoln was eclipsed, of course, by the Lincoln Memorial in West Potomac Park which was dedicated in 1922. Significantly, the new Lincoln Memorial emphasized Lincoln's role as 'Defender of the
CRM No 9—1999 13 copings, and basins of Portland cement had been played a role in the neighborhood's decline dur installed on the north and south sides of the park ing the same period. In the 1950s a segment of a just east of the 12th Street axis. proposed Inner Loop freeway circling central The park's landscape remained essentially Washington would have marred the park's west unchanged with a few minor exceptions until ern side. 1934. In 1894 a five-foot-wide asphalt walk In spite of threats to the park's existence from the Lincoln statue to the East Capitol from federal planners and highway engineers, Street entrance was built. Also among the neighborhood residents and others continued changes was the replacement, in 1914, of the over the years to use it as a gathering place. original lodge by a trellised, stucco building sited Among the events which the park hosted were at the eastern side of the park. Identical to the religious services, outdoor band concerts (pri lodges constructed at the same time in other city marily the military service bands), freedom ral parks, including the one that still stands in lies (during the Civil Rights era) and commemo LaFayette Park across from the White House, the rations of Emancipation and the Lincoln statue second structure survived until the mid-1970s dedication. when it was torn down to make way for the The most recent major chapter in the park's Bethune statue. evolution began in 1959 when Congress autho In 1931, plans were made to significantly rized the National Council of Negro Women to alter the park's landscape, particularly the layout build a memorial to its founder, Mary McLeod of the walks. The infrastructure by then had Bethune, a well-known African-American educa begun to suffer from insufficient maintenance, tor and government advisor. Conceived origi and an extensive refurbishing was necessary. The nally to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the funds for the work did not become available in Emancipation Proclamation in 1963, the monu large quantities until the beginning of the ment was not dedicated until 1974 because of Roosevelt Administration and the Works problems with fundraising (the bronze memorial Progress Administration began awarding grants ended up costing $400,000) and the priority for Federal Works Projects. The work done at given by the Council, an umbrella organization Lincoln park included tree surgery and replace of African-American women's groups, to the ment, regrading of walks, repair of benches and efforts in support of the Civil Rights movement. other general maintenance work. As part of these The new memorial required a new land improvements, the park's 19th-century curvilin scape design for the park, which was produced ear walks, characteristic of the Victorian period's by Hilyard Robinson, a well-known, DC-based penchant for English Romantic landscape tradi African-American architect. In order to accom tions, were replaced with more uniformly diago modate the Bethune Memorial, the Lincoln nal and circular paths which began to give it the statue was turned 180° to face east and moved appearance it would have in modern times. The east to be in line with 12th Street nearer to the Romantic landscape was giving way to a more center of the park. The 1914 lodge at the park's formal landscape inspired by Beaux Arts con east end was removed and replaced with a large cerns with symmetry and axiality (also character plaza in which the new statue would be placed. istic of the work being carried out by the Since the figure of Mrs. Bethune (standing on National Park Service during the same period to her pedestal) is 17 feet high there was some con restore the National Mall according to the dic cern that the new memorial would overshadow tates of the McMillan Plan.) the Lincoln statue. In order to ensure the latter's Ironically, the New Deal refurbishing of the preeminence, the plaza and the adjoining park coincided with a plan first proposed by the greensward (a new feature in the park) were set National Capital Park and Planning several feet below grade. Neighborhood needs Commission in the late 1920s that would have were addressed by the two small children's play destroyed the park and replaced it with areas flanking the Bethune Memorial. Independence Square, the centerpiece of a pro The sculptor of the Bethune Memorial was posed extension of the Mall eastward along East Robert Berks, an African-American artist based Capitol Street. The proposal to line East Capitol in New York. On the day of the assassination of Street with monumental federal buildings was President John F. Kennedy, which took place kept alive until the late 1940s and may have while Berks was working on the commission for
14 CRM No 9—1999 the Bethune statue, Berks sculpted a half-life size racial equality, the park is the crown jewel of head of the President which ultimately became Capitol Hill's urban squares and a special place in the gigantic Kennedy bust in the Grand Foyer of Washington. Local residents, represented by the Washington's Kennedy Center for the Performing Capitol Hill Restoration Society, and other inter Arts. When it was dedicated in 1974, the ested groups, are working with officials of Bethune Memorial was the first statue of an National Capital Parks-East to develop and African American or a woman of any race on install an appropriate wayside marker to interpret public park land in Washington. (The only previ the diverse history of the site. Interpretation will ous statue of a black person was that of the freed ensure that the park is thought of not only as a slave in the Emancipation Group, which was great spot to walk the dog or enjoy flowering based on Alexander Archer, the last man captured trees but also, once again, as one of the capital's under the Fugitive Slave Act.) most important historical sites. The completion of the new landscape plan and the installation of the Bethune Memorial References essentially transformed the park's landscape into Goode, James M., The Outdoor Sculpture of Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution, 1974 the one that exists today. Minor changes are regu Olszewski, George J., Lincoln Park, National Park larly carried out by the National Park Service, Service, Division of History, Office of Archeology such as new lighting installed several years ago and Historic Preservation, July 1968 and routine tree replacement. The continual Peterson, Merrill D., Lincoln in American Memory, change and transformation of this landscape over Oxford University Press, March 1994 the last 130 years leave a rich legacy, a layering of Savage, Kirk, Standing Soldier and Kneeling Slaves: history that makes it a key component of the Race, War, and Monument in 19th Century America, Princeton University Press, November 1997 Capitol Hill Historic District. With its national monuments commemo Stephen A. Morris is an outdoor recreation planner with rating the history of the nation's struggle for the National Park Service.
Learning About Lowell Lowell National Historical Park preserves and inter prets the history of the American Industrial Revolution in Lowell, Massachusetts. The park includes historic cotton textile mills, canals, operating gatehouses, and worker housing. Turn-of-the-century trolleys operate, and boat tours trace the city's canals in the summer. While the National Park Service has prepared many fine technical reports on the history of Lowell and its mill workers, much of this material is not easily available to the general public. Anyone interested in learning more about Lowell should visit the park's web site
CRM No 9—1999 15 The Legacy of Mission 66
"Mission 66," the National Park Service construction program initiated in 1956, was responsible for many park facilities—including over 100 visitor centers—which continue to provide vital ser vices throughout the national park system. With new construction funds recently being made available, many national park managers are now looking forward to completing needed rehabilita tion, modernization, or replacement of visitor centers and other Mission 66-era facilities. At the same time, the preservation of monuments of modern design has increasingly concerned preser vationists who believe that the potential historical significance of Mission 66 architecture may be overlooked. The following two articles report on some of the recent efforts of the NPS Park Historic Structures and Cultural Landscapes Program to research and assess the legacy of Mission 66 in the national parks. Ethan Carr Mission 66 and "Rustication"
he goals of national park plan suggested the textures and colors of nearby trees ning and design have remained and rock formations. Elaborately ornamental remarkably constant since the facades, for example, often called attention to earliest days of the National Park themselves, and buildings were conspicuously ServiceT: park buildings and other structures sited as scenic focal points. Rustic buildings har should be kept to a minimum and be designed so monized with the site not just by being unobtru that they "harmonize" with their landscape set sive, but also by being consistent with an aes tings and reduce impacts on natural systems. thetic appreciation of the place. Rustic develop What has changed, over time, is what we mean ment helped preserve nature, in this sense, by "harmonize," and how we perceive and under because nature was conceived largely as scenery. stand natural systems and the extent of impacts But by the 1930s different ideas about both to those systems. If preserving nature has nature and architecture began to be felt at the remained a constant goal for park planning, Park Service. Advances in wildlife biology and nature itself has been a shifting concept. other natural sciences began to yield a more com A first generation of Park Service designers plex, scientific idea of nature. As recently provided a powerful response to this challenge in described by Richard West Sellars, Park Service the form of Park Service "rustic" construction. biologist George M. Wright, in particular, forced Park Service rustic was essentially picturesque at least some park managers to face the fact that architecture that allowed buildings and other the biological degradation of parks could be structures to be perceived as aesthetically harmo invisible, in the sense that it had no effect (or nious elements of larger landscape compositions. even, according to some, a positive effect) on The pseudo-vernacular imagery and rough-hewn park scenery. This more scientific approach began materials of this style conformed with the artistic to define nature in the parks more as biology conventions of landscape genres, and therefore than as scenery. American architecture also began constituted "appropriate" architectural elements to change fundamentally in the 1930s, as archi in the perceived scene. The logs and boulders of tects began to consider new approaches to design rustic facades added to the illusion of vernacular more or less directly inspired by European craft, and reduced visual contrasts between build Modernism. Changes in building technology fol ing and site. But Park Service rustic design did lowing World War II encouraged this trend. not harmonize simply because building materials Advances in steel framing, reinforced concrete,
16 CRM No 9—1999 and prefabricated architectural elements offered development program. His chief of planning and profound practical and economic advantages over design, Thomas C. Vint, had been chief land more craft-oriented construction techniques. By scape architect since 1927 and was one of the the end of World War II, both nature and archi originators of the Park Service rustic style. Other tecture were in the process of conceptual trans Park Service designers active in the 1950s, such as formations in the United States. architect Cecil Doty, had been principal Park Proposed At the same time, the national park system Service designers during the rustic era. But if in "Rustication" was immersed in one of the largest crises it had many ways this group continued the tradition of at Bryce Canyon National Park. ever faced. During the postwar years, more visi park planning that they had created over the pre Current propos tors than ever before overwhelmed many of the vious decades, in other ways, postwar conditions, als call for this most popular national parks, and virtually every changing ideas about nature, and new practices Mission 66 visi tor center one arrived by car. Rustic facilities developed 20 in the construction industry necessitated new (Cannon & or 30 years earlier were overwhelmed in many approaches. Mission 66 designers needed to find MullenAA/ODC, parks, where long lines formed outside comfort new ways for park development to "harmonize" 1958) to be remodeled, as stations and automobiles spilled onto meadows with park settings. shown below. and roadsides. In 1956, Park Service director As the negative effects of larger numbers of Conrad L. Wirth initiated the "Mission 66" con visitors and their vehicles began to be better struction program, a 10-year campaign of new understood, for example, Mission 66 planners park development to address what had become responded by centralizing services and control deplorable conditions. Wirth was trained as a ling visitor "flow" in what were called "visitor landscape architect, and in the 1930s he had centers." In some cases, planners proposed been responsible for the Park Service's state park removing some park facilities and relying on
CRM No 9—1999 17 motels and other businesses springing up in gate existing road corridors within the parks, was way communities to serve visitors. Enlarging therefore proposed as the essential means of pre parking lots and widening roads encouraged this serving nature to the greatest degree possible, trend, since faster roads made access in and out while making sure visitors were not turned away. of parks quicker; but under Mission 66, parking But if Mission 66 continued traditional lots, comfort stations, gas stations, and other visi assumptions, it also exploited the functional tor services were bound to proliferate, in any advantages offered by postwar architectural the case. Conrad Wirth remained firmly committed ory and construction techniques. Mission 66 to the idea that the parks were "for the people." architects (whether in-house or consultants) Mission 66 planning proceeded under the long employed free plans, flat roofs, and other estab standing assumption at the Park Service that lished elements of modern design in order to cre increased numbers of visitors (and their cars) ate spaces in which large numbers of visitors should be accommodated. Modernized and could circulate easily and locate essential services expanded park development, usually restricted to efficiently. The architects also used concrete con struction and prefabricated components for buildings, highways, and other structures. Development was often sited according to new criteria, as well. Visitor centers were located according to functional concerns relating to park circulation, and so were not calculated as compo nents of larger landscape compositions. Although Mission 66 park development was no longer truly part of the landscape, in this sense, in many cases this meant that buildings could be sited less obtrusively, near park entrances or along main roads within the park. Stone veneers, earth-toned colors, and low, horizontal massing also helped continue the tradition of reducing visual con trasts between building and site. Mission 66 New Harmony? architecture was not picturesque or rustic, but it The Visitor Center and Cyclorama Building, Gettysburg National Military Park (above), and the Panther Junction Visitor Center, Big did "harmonize" with its setting (at least in more Bend National Park (below), are important examples of Mission 66 vis successful examples), although in a new way. itor centers. In order to complete the volume of work created by Stripped of the ornamentation and associations Mission 66, the NPS relied on consultants as well as in-house design of rustic design, Mission 66 development could ers. The Cyclorama Building was designed in 1958 by the preeminent be both more understated and more efficient architect Richard J. Neutra with his partner Robert £ Alexander, and houses a 19th-century panoramic painting of the battle. The Panther than rustic buildings. Junction Visitor Center was designed in 1964 by NPS architect Cecil Architectural tastes, however, continue to Doty, with other designers in the NPS Western Office of Design and evolve, as does the idea of nature. The widespread Construction (WODC). Functional and restrained, postwar park archi construction of Mission 66 caused a backlash tecture sought to "harmonize" with park landscapes in new ways. among environmentalists who wanted less devel opment in parks, even if it meant effectively restricting public access. Modern architecture has also been condemned as insensitive, and "neo- rustic" has been espoused as a contemporary style more appropriate for park settings. But it is diffi cult for neo-rustic architecture to do more than recall the meaning and authority of the original. Facades may once again be covered with stone and logs, but this stylistic revival has not included a return to the planning and design theory of the rustic era, which sited development in or near scenic areas in order to create total landscape compositions of structures and site. Park develop-
L8 CRM No 9—1999 ment today is often sited where it will have the own way. But by rusticating exteriors, we may least "environmental impact," even if the chosen lose the chance to restore the original aesthetic areas lack scenic qualities. The preservation of and functional integrity of these buildings (many nature, as it is understood today, demands a plan of which have suffered ad hoc alterations over the ning process that to some degree prevents pic years), and in the worst cases we may end up turesque architecture from "harmonizing" as it with second-rate, modern-neo-rustic hybrids, did in the past. with neither aesthetic nor functional coherence. The taste for neo-rustic design has also The original rustic era was a period of great resulted in numerous proposals to "rusticate" accomplishment at the Park Service. There is less Mission 66-era architecture by adding new sympathy, today, for the Mission 66 planning facades of log, stone, or simulated adobe. techniques and design styles devised by many of Original rustic facades, in fact, typically covered the same Park Service professionals in the 1950s. standard balloon-frames and concrete founda But Mission 66 produced many fine examples of tions, so why not add neo-rustic facades to Park public architecture imbued with a progressive Service modern buildings? At times, this sense of government's role in the management of approach may be very successful. New facades, national parks and historic sites. In terms of both however, will not change the basic planning historic preservation and simple practicality, it assumptions under which the buildings were makes sense to learn more about Mission 66. sited. Neither will they alter structural systems and materials that allowed the use of free floor Ethan Carr is a historical landscape architect with the plans and unorthodox fenestration. Original Park Historic Structures and Cultural Landscapes Program, Washington, DC. Mission 66 designs were often successful, in their
Sarah Allaback The Mission 66 Visitor Center
A change in philosophy.... That's why you started increase from 3,500,000 per year in 1931 to seeing [concrete] block in a lot of things. We almost 30,000,000 by 1948. As an architect for couldn't help but change ...I can't understand how the Western Office of Design and Construction anyone could think otherwise, how it could keep (WODC) in 1954, Doty would find himself accommodating Park Service needs with modern from changing. buildings of steel, glass and concrete block. Cecil Doty, architect, National Park Service, 1986 Doty felt that Mission 66 planners had lit tle choice but the modern style in which to hen Cecil Doty began his clothe their innovative plans for the nation's career with the Park Service parks. The need to supervise and educate increas in the early 1930s, adobe, ing numbers of visitors created an urgent call for Wboulders, and hand-hewn scores of "visitor centers," which would centralize timber were the basic materials for park build activities and services and prevent the public ings. The rustic style not only reflected the cur from venturing thoughtlessly into fragile natural rent philosophy toward park stewardship, but areas. In the postwar era, modern architecture also the contemporary economic situation and not only represented progress, efficiency, and a nationally popular architectural trends, such as scientific approach, but it also came "ready- Craftsman bungalows. With an excess of man made" in mass-produced parts that could be con power and raw materials, the Park Service could structed on site cheaply and efficiently, which was afford extraordinarily well-crafted facilities. After important considering the urgency of the situa World War II, everything changed. The Park tion. Like the other park architects confronting Service experienced an explosion of visitors: an the postwar crisis, Doty designed centralized visi-
CRM No 9—1999 19 tor facilities that provided access to diverse basic niques allowed Anshen and Allen to create this services and introduced visitors to the park envi relationship with the site, and the flexible build ronment. When possible, the new facilities fea ing program resulted in a dynamic experience. tured important views, which could be exploited Siting and spatial planning were an equally with the large windows typical of the period significant part of the visitor center Ehrman architecture. If rustic buildings were designed to Mitchell and Romaldo Giurgola designed for be seen, Mission 66 visitor centers were often Wright Brothers National Memorial in 1958. As designed to see from, whether through a window they entered the lobby, visitors could see through wall or from an integral outdoor terrace. large glass panels to the "first flight" area beyond. The four Mission 66 visitor centers that After proceeding through a dimly lit exhibit have been determined to meet National Register room, they entered a double-height assembly criteria (the Quarry Visitor Center at Dinosaur space with a dome roof and floor-to-ceiling win National Monument, the Wright Brothers dows. Interpretive rangers gave talks here, where National Memorial Visitor Center, the Visitor they could point out the reconstructed hanger Center and Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg and bunker outside, as well as the markers indi National Battlefield, and the Administration cating the distances of four early flights. The Building at Rocky Mountain National Park) memorial erected to honor the Wrights in 1903 illustrate the importance of siting and circulation was clearly visible to the south, high atop Kill to this new building type. The "change in philos Devil Hill. By the time they left the building, ophy" so obvious to Doty involved more than visitors were familiar with most of the significant substituting concrete block for adobe. themes and features of the site. Again, modern When Conrad Wirth approved the design design and construction was used effectively to of Quarry Visitor Center in 1957, curators in the create strong connections between the interpre Museum Department knew that traditional Park tive spaces inside, and the features preserved in Service interpretation was changing. The the park itself. museum staff had asked for a windowless build As at the Wright Brothers site, circulation ing with artificial lighting, conducive to the dis was also used to create a strong sense of com play of interpretive materials and objects. But memoration in the design of the visitor center architects in the WODC favored a radically dif for Gettysburg National Military Park. The pri ferent approach. The San Francisco architectural mary programmatic requirement at Gettysburg firm of Anshen and Allen, as consultants to the was to provide a massive cylindrical space to Salt Pond Visitor Park Service, designed a visitor center with house the historic cyclorama painting. But archi Center, Cape Cod National extensive glazing that they felt would emphasize tects Richard J. Neutra and Robert E. Alexander Seashore. the site's location on a natural stone ridge. used the building program to create a memorable Designed by the Visitors were offered a very different experience procession through the building. As visitors fol NPS Eastern Office of Design than that of the traditional park museum. After lowed the path from the parking lot, they were and walking up a curving concrete ramp to the sec introduced to the enormous drum housing the Construction in ond floor terrace, they could 1964, this visitor center set the view the fossilized dinosaur "architectural bones themselves, in situ. A theme"for devel stairway at the far end of the opment through out the national terrace led to the lower level and seashore, which museum exhibits, including a was the first window into the paleontologists' development working laboratory. Circulation program of its type completed through Quarry Visitor Center by the NPS. gave visitors a unique sense of Photo by Jack the continuous fossil deposit Boucher, c. 1970, courtesy Denver encased in the rock, as well as an Service Center, idea of the paleontologists' daily Technical activities. The use of modern Information Center. materials and building tech
20 CRM No 9—1999 Visitor Center, cyclorama. A mysterious source Rocky Mountain of water above the office wing National Park. Designed by fed a ground level reflecting Taliesin pool. The sense of mystery Associates increased once they entered the (Frank Lloyd Wright's succes building and followed a corri sor firm) dor to the cyclorama entrance. between 1964 A spiraling ramp took them and 1967, this building featured through the semi-darkness and an innovative into the center of the cylindrical Cor-ten steel painting. After viewing the structural frame, painting, visitors then exited expressed as a frieze-like motif onto the second floor and on the building's emerged on the other side of facade. Seen the building, where a ramped here is the rear (administrative) walkway led up to a rooftop elevation of the viewing terrace. From here, the building. Photo panoramic view of the battle by £ Can. field was almost identical to Building lacks its water features, and visitors are that of the painted depiction. The trip from the no longer directed up to the exterior terrace; and parking lot, through the building, and out to the here, as well, the lobby has been cluttered with battlefield was carefully choreographed to orient retail sales items, a common problem with visitor visitors, to interpret the historical significance of centers of this period. At Rocky Mountain, the the site, and to provide a dynamic relationship Administration Building's balcony still exists, but between interpretation and the subsequent expe was rendered useless by a projection booth that rience of the park itself. sealed the auditorium entrance. These alterations Even the Administration Building at Rocky significantly affect our experience of each build Mountain National Park, a facility actually sited ing. In fact, many of the qualities Mission 66 outside the park, incorporated scenic views of architecture is sometimes assumed to lack—rela park features into its circulation plan. The visitor tionship to the park landscape, sensitivity toward center designed by Taliesin Associated Architects the visitor's experience, and concern for the nat in 1964-65 faced the main road into the park; ural environment—were often carefully consid but circulation inside was oriented toward views ered aspects of the original designs, subsequently of the Front Range on the opposite side of the impaired by alterations. building. An exterior balcony around the audi As we begin to assess the National Register torium end of the building framed the highest eligibility of the remaining original Mission 66 mountain in the park—Long's Peak—in a bay of visitor centers, it is important to remember that the balcony. Visitors entered the balcony from decades of change have already influenced the one end of the main lobby and, after walking appearance and use of buildings we now call around three sides of the exterior, re-entered the Mission 66. The philosophy behind the Mission mezzanine of the auditorium. From here, they 66 program was not merely a matter of employ could either walk downstairs to the main audito ing modern architecture, but a strategy to pre rium or return to the lobby. Circulation through serve resources, educate the public, and provide the building depended on this route from the standard services in parks throughout the coun lobby, "to the park," and then back inside. try. Whenever possible, Mission 66 visitor centers Although these buildings have the integrity should be evaluated according to their successful to qualify for the National Register, today none fulfillment of such valuable historical functions. retain the original circulation patterns described here. Quarry Visitor Center is often entered via Sarah Allaback, Ph.D., is an architectural historian and its original exit. The windows that used to reveal author of Mission 66 Visitor Centers: The History of a the "first flight" area at Wright Brothers are now Building Type (draff) Washington, DC: Park Historic Structures and Cultural Landscapes Program, 1999. obscured by a bookshop. The Cyclorama
CRM No 9—1999 21 Douglas C. Comer housed one of the finest archeology, art, and architecture libraries in Southeast Asia, put together under the leadership of Khunying Manmas Chavalit, former Director of the Thai Continuing Education National Library. The Director of SPAFA, Dr. Ruang Charoenchai (now deceased) made the My Fulbright in Thailand resources of not only the library, but also the graphics and publishing department readily avail able to me. The SPAFA Senior Archaeologist, ays in Bangkok began before Ajarn Pisit Charoenwongsa, one of the foremost sunrise. I would rise to work Southeast Asian archeologists and a pioneer in with my laptop computer on a the region for cultural resource management, deck overlooking the street next introduced me to other leading researchers in to ourD apartment. Dimly lit in a bluish hue, I Southeast Asia and led me to the material I must have looked eerie to passers-by. At dawn would need in order to prepare the guidelines. monks would begin to make their daily rounds, The guidelines had been his idea. His staff pro dressed in the saffron robes that were their only vided tours of archeological sites that filled possession except for the metal bowls they car almost every weekend and holiday for my family ried. Housewives, moved by a characteristic Thai and myself. Also, he arranged for me to present generosity and the desire to make the merit nec lectures and conduct review meetings at venues essary for a better life in their next incarnation, in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Cambodia. would come out of their homes to dish plain rice Enveloped by a world where the ideal was a into the bowls, providing each monk a day's sus "cool heart," I began to perceive my determina tenance. tion to achieve my objectives as being perhaps I envied the monks the simplicity of their too heated. On Saturday mornings we would lives as I worked furiously to meet deadlines. The pass Lumpini Park on our way out of town to host institution for my Fulbright Senior whatever archeological site we were visiting that Scholarship in cultural resource management was weekend. Groups of people would be in the park, the Thai Office of the National Culture practicing tai chi, a regimen of rhythmic move Commission, but my workplace was at ments thought to harmonize body and soul with SEAMEO-SPAFA (the Southeast Asian Ministers lines of force in the world. Next weekend I really of Education Center for Archaeology and the should try that, I would think. Fine Arts). My assignment was to write cultural I have been back several times since my resource management guidelines for the departure in April of 1994, but so far, regrettably, Southeast Asian Ministers of Education I have not joined those in Lumpini Park. By the Organization (SEAMEO). SPAFA would then time we bid a reluctant farewell to Bangkok, promulgate the guidelines to the nine member SPAFA had printed a draft version of the guide countries of SEAMEO (Brunei, Cambodia, lines, which were distributed for review to the Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, nine member nations. One year later, in May of Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). 1995, SPAFA held a conference at the National Participants in a cultural site man An office in the new SPAFA building was a University of Singapore at which review com agement course great asset in this endeavor. The five-story facility ments were presented. Informed by the com taught at SPAFA. ments of representatives from the nine countries, and the enlightening discussions that followed, I made revisions to the guidelines, which were then approved as The SPAFA Integrated Cultural Resource Management Guidelines for Southeast Asia, Vol. 1, Material Culture. The printing was in English, which is the lingua franca in all countries in Southeast Asia, with the exception of those in what was once French Indo-China. The guide lines have also, therefore, been translated into Vietnamese.
22 CRM No 9—1999 In the summer strate the use of aerial and satellite remote sensing of 1997 my wife and I and geographical information systems in finding returned to SPAFA to and managing archeological and other heritage teach a course on the sites. These sites include not only Angkor Borei, management of cul but also the Plain of Jars in Laos and Vigan, a tural sites. Students colonial era town, in the Philippines. This pro were from not only gram is being conducted with support from the the SPAFA countries, Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. but also Myanmar and (ESRI). My tenure with the Fulbright program Taiwan. In 1998 I pre has also led to research and involvement with cul sented a symposium tural resource management efforts in the mid- about cultural East and Africa. resource management, When we first returned from Thailand, I which featured the would awake very early each morning, still guidelines, at the Indo impelled by the sense that I had only a short time Pacific Prehistory in which to absorb a great deal of material and Association (IPPA) then to produce something useful from that conference in Melaka, material. I still feel that urgency. Sites in Malaysia. With Dr. Southeast Asia are being damaged or destroyed at Richard Englehardt, a truly alarming rate. Destruction brought about Director of the by development may have slackened with the UNESCO Principal economic downturn in the region, but these eco Regional Office for nomic woes provide even greater incentive to A monumental Asia and the Pacific (PROAP), I am co-editing a loot. David Byrne has estimated that 80 percent Buddha image volume about CRM in Southeast Asia to be of the sites in Thailand have been looted, a figure made in the jointly published by UNESCO and the IPPA. I probably equaled in other Southeast Asian coun 14th or 15th century at have become a Research Fellow at SPAFA. At the tries. Illicit trafficking in Cambodian artifacts, for Souvanna- request of the Cambodian Ministry of Culture example, is rampant. Sites in Southeast Asia koumkham in and Fine Arts and the Royal University of Phnom should be very important to all of us. They are Borkeo province, Laos. Penh, and in collaboration with Dr. Miriam Stark often exquisite, and reveal an aesthetic system Note holes in and Dr. Bion Griffin of the University of Hawaii, that is intriguing because it is different from the torso produced I have launched production of a geographical Western one to which most of us are accustomed. by looters information system (GIS) database for the lower searching for Scientifically, the sites inform us about the artifacts that are Mekong delta in Cambodia. The GIS will be the ancient links between East and West, links of often associated basis for a management plan we will write for the trade and the diffusion of religious and political with such mon area. The area, about 60 miles south of Phnom uments. Photo ideas. The antiquity of these links, and the ways by Bounheung Penh, is to be sustainably developed as a destina in which they operated, have yet to be finally Bouasiseng- tion for tourists, encouraging them to spend determined. The need for action draws me back paseuth. more time in the capital and nearby. It includes to Bangkok. An equal attraction, however, is a Angkor Borei, an archeological site that might fascination with a culture that takes a long view, hold the key to understanding the development and which teaches the patience that will be neces of the Khmer civilization that flourished at sary to solve the problem of site destruction in Angkor Wat and other sites in northeast Southeast Asia in a way acceptable to all Thailand, and persists in the modern nation of involved. Cambodia. Over the next two years I will partici pate in two training courses to be held in After 23 years with the National Park Service, for most of Bangkok by the UNESCO Principal Regional that time as Chief of the Applied Archeology Center, Office for Asia and the Pacific (PROAP), and the Douglas C. Comer ([email protected]) is now prin cipal of Cultural Sites Research and Management establishment by PROAP of GIS/cultural (CSRM), a non-profit organization. Over the next two resource management centers in Nanjing, China years he will lead the US/ICOMOS Cultural Sites and Sri Lanka. During that same period, in con Analysis Initiative. In this capacity he will write standards junction with US/ICOMOS, I will be conduct and protocols for the use of aerial and satellite remote sens ing several projects in Southeast Asia that demon ing in the finding and management of archeological and other heritage sites.
CRM No 9—1999 21 Lee Goodwin Retrofitting an Advanced Fire Protection System
n effective cultural resource man contact to the present. This collection is housed agement program must include at the Indian Arts Research Center, an open stor protection of the resource against age facility designed to show the objects in an a variety of hazards. Often, how aesthetically pleasing setting while maintaining ever, protectivAe measures conflict with the inher the highest level of control over environmental Installation of ent conditions of historic or artistic properties. In conditions and security. Unlike a museum, the FM-200 fire sup these circumstances, considerable thought must IARC does not exhibit its own collection, but pression sys be given to finding the best means of protection rather curates it for study by Native Americans tem. Temporary barriers have without compromising the integrity of the and by scholars, and for public education through been con resource. Smoke detection and fire suppression guided tours, publications, and loans of objects to structed around systems in particular pose such conflicts, yet they other institutions for interpretive exhibitions. collection shelv ing. The dis can provide the most important protection Several years ago, as part of its comprehen charge piping is against catastrophic loss. With careful planning, sive security and risk management program, the installed along such systems can be installed with minimal alter School initiated a phased plan to upgrade the existing vigas, ation to the facility's historic fabric and the least IARC facility's environmental and security sys and later enclosed with visible intrusion of its aesthetic design. A recent tems and to re-arrange collection storage to maxi finish carpentry project at the School of American Research, mize the use of space. Since the building's con so the viga Santa Fe, New Mexico, shows how a risk man struction in 1977, the collections have nearly appears wider than it was origi agement program can be implemented in this tripled in size from approximately 4,000 objects nally. Each stor context. to nearly 12,000. Under this project, funding age container The School of American Research is a pri from an anonymous source was used to install an weighs approxi mately 850 vate nonprofit center for advanced studies that early-warning high-sensitivity smoke detection pounds. The contributes to the understanding of the human system and FM-200 fire suppression system. two vaults condition by supporting the study and practice of Although the concept seemed straightforward, required a total of six containers, anthropology and Southwest Indian arts. The the School faced numerous challenges in selecting which were later School holds a preeminent collection of tradi and installing a sophisticated system in a space enclosed in cab tional Southwest Native American art and arti that simply had not been designed for it. inets. facts, covering the 450-year period from Spanish The IARC's two storage vaults accommo date multiple activities of the various programs through which the collection is used. The Native American Heritage Program, which provides out reach to tribal communities and facilitates their use of the collection, serves individuals and groups ranging from elementary school children to elders. Native American artist convocations annually bring groups of artists together to dis cuss their work, the collection, and broader issues in a given medium. Research appointments allow scholars to work closely with the collection for studies ranging from art historical to technical scientific analyses. The Native American artist residency program offers a selected artist studio space and unrestricted access to the collection each summer. Public tours of the collection are
24 CRM No 9—1999 A portion of the conducted weekly, and quarterly main storage vault. The dis membership lectures highlight charge nozzles different collection areas. In are the only visi order to permit instantaneous ble part of the fire detection visual and physical access to and suppression objects during these activities, system. Three the facility was specifically are visible in this photo, at the designed for open storage. base of the cor Conceptually, the design bels. complements the beauty of the collection. Pueblo-style architec ture and decor provide a setting conducive to understanding the works within. The subdued design neither detracts from nor intrudes upon the visual presen FM-200 is a colorless, odorless gas that tation of the objects. Together, the collection and extinguishes fire by removing heat energy so that setting are about aesthetics, and enhance the the combustion reaction cannot be sustained. It activities that take place there. Given these para does not significantly reduce oxygen levels, nor is meters, it was important to select a system that it toxic to humans or the environment. It is could quickly detect and extinguish a fire without rapidly deployed, but does not overpressurize a damage to invaluable, often fragile objects on closed space by displacing room air. It has no par open shelves, while at the same time blending in ticulates or residues. It is, therefore, safe for use in with the building fabric and aesthetic design as occupied areas and where museum objects are inconspicuously as possible. stored. These characteristics enabled FM-200 to After soliciting and reviewing project pro meet the parameters defined by the use of space posals, the School selected E and M International in the IARC facility. (EMI), of Albuquerque, New Mexico, as its con The staff at EMI and Fenwal Protection tractor. EMI understood that the practical reali Systems faced several challenges in the system ties of funding nonprofit operations can make it design in order to minimize potential risk to the difficult to justify major capital expenses for risk collection in the event of a discharge. The two management. They proposed a system designed vaults encompass a variety of spaces, from large, to eliminate false alarms or an accidental dis two-story open expanses to small, partially charge of the suppression agent, to provide the enclosed areas. Since the shape and proportions earliest possible detection of fire, and to rapidly of the space affect air flow, the placement of extinguish any class of fire. This type of system is detectors was crucial to optimize their perfor increasingly being used in museum and archival mance. Equally important was the placement of settings. the FM-200 discharge nozzles. Not only did they The system selected combines a Fenwal need to be strategically configured for fire sup AnaLASER high-sensitivity smoke detector pression, they could not be too close to open (HSSD) system with a Fenwal FM-200 fire sup shelving where fragile kachinas or pottery were pression system. Component functions are con stored. Since FM-200 is released under pressure, trolled by a system monitored by a third-party staff at the School was concerned about the phys service provider. The HSSD system actively sam ical effects of discharge on items close to the noz ples air on a continuous basis. The air is passed zles. Finally, because it had been determined from through a laser beam in the detection chamber, the outset that the system would be concealed by where a photon sensor can distinguish between finish carpentry to blend into the room, it was smoke particles and room dust or other airborne necessary to place all of the piping, conduits and contaminants. The products of combustion can storage canisters in such a way as to accomplish be detected in the incipient stage of a fire, even this. when smoke concentrations are at extremely low Together, all of these requirements necessi levels. The system can also detect precombustion tated months of redesigning and revising the emission from overheated electrical components. engineering of the discharge pipes, the number
CRM No 9—1999 25 and placement of the discharge nozzles, and the plete the project within both the aesthetic and number of FM-200 storage containers. Final technical requirements for the facility. plans were reviewed by the building architect, the The School's experience demonstrates that environmental engineer who designed the auto it is possible to retrofit existing buildings with mated climate control system, and the local fire technical systems that seem incompatible with department. Structural analysis determined that original design elements. The installation of the floor deck in one area would have to be rein bulky storage canisters and large-diameter pipes forced due to the load of the storage containers. in areas that were not planned for such compo Before installation could begin, temporary barri nents can be achieved with careful attention to ers had to be constructed to protect the collection engineering and structural issues, as well as aes against dust or other physical damage. thetics. Preservation of cultural property and the The system was configured so that piping safety of the people who use them are primary and conduits ran along existing vigas (exposed concerns of resource management. Given the beams), and then were enclosed so that the viga potentially catastrophic effects of loss or damage simply appeared as a wider beam. The storage from fire, the labor and expense involved in pro canisters were arranged near walls, and cabinets tecting against this hazard are easily justified. were built around them to match the existing storage furniture. Discharge nozzles were placed Lee Goodwin is IARC Coordinator with the School of at a safe distance from objects on shelves while American Research. still providing maximum protection. Because the School's needs had been articulated from the out Thanks to Gina De Vargas and Ed set, the contractor was able to successfully com Vaillancourt of EMI and to Marv Charney of Kidde-Fenwal for consultation.
John L Cotter
Dr. John L. Cotter died in Philadelphia on the Archaeology of Great North American on February 5. As Curator Emeritus of the Cities. He was an NPS manager at Tuzigoot University Museum at the University of National Monument (he completed almost Pennsylvania, John had kept working on four decades of service in the NPS). He served numerous projects in his office at the Museum as the state supervisor of the archeological sur until shortly before his death. John Cotter's vey of Kentucky. He taught what was probably contributions to education, scholarship, and the first course in historical archeology at the preservation are impressive indeed. For his University of Pennsylvania and was the young numerous colleagues and friends in the discipline's ardent champion. His interests in National Park Service he is remembered as a cultural history stretched from the "Paleo semi-legendary figure whose achievements Indian to the ever arriving present." His bicen included archeological excavations and research tennial publication Above Ground Archaeology at Jamestown,Virginia, the Natchez Trace proclaimed our most recent past as grist for the Parkway, and Independence National archeological mill. His honors and awards Historical Park. He helped to co-found the include the J.C. Harrington award for contri Society for Historical Archaeology and served butions in the field of historical archeology, as its first president and first editor. He was the presented by the Society for Historical chief of the research team which investigated Archaeology, and the David E. Finley Award the Clovis Type site under the sponsorship of for outstanding achievement in historic preser the Academy of Natural Sciences. His impor vation, presented by the National Trust for tant publications ranged from Jamestown to his Historic Preservation. seminal (with Dan Roberts and Michael David G. Orr Parrington) study of Philadelphia's archeologi Director cal legacy. This latter work has spawned a series Valley Forge Center for Cultural Resources
26 CRM No 9—1999 David Casebolt Foamed Boron Preservative A Wood Treatment Alternative
an Francisco Maritime National Since 1985, we have incorporated a variety Historical Park manages a collection of boron based wood preservatives into our of seven historic ships, more than Integrated Pest Management Program to treat S 100 small craft and thousands of wood decay and insect infestation within our col maritime artifacts. This collection includes lection. numerous wooden industrial artifacts that were Boron is a ubiquitous element, present in exposed to decay fungus or insects during their fresh water, sea water, the soil, and all plants. long years of service. Ongoing decay of historic Water soluble boron preservatives or borates, are artifacts can be difficult to treat utilizing conven effective against a broad spectrum of wood tional methods. This is especially true of struc destroying organisms. Borates are highly toxic to tures such as ships, which often incorporate wood decay fungi yet low in toxicity to mammals numerous voids within their design. We have and fish. Borate applications can also effectively undertaken testing and initial application of control subterranean termites, Formosan ter foamed boron preservatives to specifically treat mites, drywood termites, carpenter ants, and Roller, brush, these spaces. These treatments appear highly suc many wood-boring beetles. Borate preservatives and spray appli cation of borate cessful, providing for the first time, treatment of do not break down or otherwise become ineffec preservative is these vulnerable areas. tive over time; however, borate treated wood can effective when Past preservation treatments, mostly using lose effectiveness due to leaching by water. Care the wood to be treated is acces chemicals in petroleum-based oil and grease carri must be taken to protect treated wood from the sible. Treatment ers were of limited effectiveness. Many were weather. of the hold of highly toxic and presented significant health and Because they are clear, borates do not inter C.A. Thayer was accomplished in environmental risks. Most often these preserva fere with the visual appearance of wood surfaces. less than four tives were applied topically and there was little This is an important consideration when treating hours. The area migration of preservative beyond the surface. historic objects or structures. was accessible for public use These preservatives were fairly effective in small- High wood moisture content contributes the following day. dimensioned lumber but not in large timbers, to an environment that promotes the decay of Photo by Tim because significant portions of the wood were wooden ships. We are now using that high mois Campbell. untreated and remained vulnerable to decay. ture environment to our advantage, and gaining the most thorough preservative treatment to date. Borates are most commonly applied to wood sur faces and allowed to diffuse deep into the wood. Diffusion is enhanced by high wood moisture content. Borate diffusion can be improved by treating and then covering treated material with plastic sheeting to slow the drying process. Treatment of large wooden components of historic ships has presented particularly difficult challenges to the preservation staff of the park. Foremost among these challenges has been the difficulty in effectively treating internal structural components of vessels. Much like the cavities in a wood stud wall, portions of a ship's wooden hull are difficult to access and treat with preservatives. While limited access can be provided, sprays,
CRM No 9—1999 27 mists, and powdered formulations are often Commercial foaming equipment is available unable to reach many of the vessels most vulnera for use with borate products, and is very effective ble components. To achieve complete treatment, for residential-sized structures. Our requirements we have recently incorporated high volume for large ships were far greater. We needed equip water-based foam generators into our treatment ment that could generate several thousand gallons arsenal. These machines permit us to direct of foamed preservative quickly and efficiently. We preservative rich foam into hull cavities, coating investigated foam-generating equipment utilized by surfaces completely and providing the protection other industries and evaluated several designed for they require. use by fire departments to quickly produce dense The use of foam machines permits effective blankets of foam. These proved highly successful. borate application throughout the vessels while The equipment we selected can produce 15,000 creating only minimal inconvenience. Our initial gallons of foam using 250 gallons of 15 percent large scale treatment of the steam schooner borate solution in about 20 minutes. Pre-mixed Wapama in 1988-89 utilized a complex system of borate solution is pumped to the foam generator fixed pipes and spray nozzles which, although where a foaming agent is injected and foam pro effective in the areas treated, was highly intrusive duced. We can quickly fill internal voids with thick, and limited public enjoyment of the vessel. preservative rich foam that flows into every space. Portions of the vessel, including those not In addition to foamed borate application reached by the spray, remain untreated. we continue to utilize a 10-15 percent solution Foamed borate has a number of distinct for application by spray, brush, roller or dipping. advantages over standard liquid treatments. Foam We also use low volume mists, fused boron rods, adheres well to the surfaces it contacts. It can fill and powder applications. Much has been learned voids entirely and may be pumped or poured during the years since 1985, and our experience into spaces where it often remains undisturbed with boron treatments has proven to us that this for many days. This encourages high levels of ini preservative can provide an increased level of protec tial absorption and in components with high tion of the wooden vessels and artifacts in our care. moisture content can permit diffusion to begin immediately. Repeat application can provide suffi David Casebolt is a museum specialist (conservation) at cient boron for protection of even the largest timbers. San Francisco Maritime National Historic Park, CA.
Michael Laws The Aiken-Rhett House Historic Charleston Foundation Looks at its Past and Sees its Future
he docent began her tour by say it. The early 20th-century knob and tube wiring ing, "At Drayton Hall, they is stretched over the gas line, and the old gaslight haven't added anything to the is now electric. It is all still there, frozen in a time building. Here at the Aiken- capsule that spans one-and-a-half centuries and RhettT House, we haven't taken anything away." countless lives. And it's true. Throughout the Aiken-Rhett When acquired by the Charleston Museum House, along with pealing paint and exposed in 1975, the Aiken-Rhett House posed a unique plaster lathe, the visitor clearly sees the efforts to problem. Other historic properties in Charleston, update and add comfort for the residents. For South Carolina were restored to a particular example, in the kitchen area, the oil lamp still period and told a specific story. What era and his hangs from the ceiling, the gas line runs next to toric depiction should be represented by this
28 CRM No 9—1999 1817 urban plantation, complete with dependen stuccoed, changing the architecture from Federal cies, slave quarters, and even original privies? to Greek Revival. The slave quarters, located William Aiken, Jr. extensively renovated the above the detached kitchen, were enlarged, pre house in the 1830s. His family lived there in sumably to house the increased number of opulent luxury. They entertained the highest domestic servants needed to operate the urban members of society. Even the President of the plantation and entertain guests. The block-long Confederate States, Jefferson Davis, was their rear lot also included a two-story stable with guest. Few properties could better depict the additional slave quarters in the upper level, a cow grandeur of the Antebellum South. Aiken was the shed, chicken shed, and two privies. All were largest slave holder in his state. The lives of constructed of brick, and surrounded by a ten- African Americans, upon whose free labor the foot high brick wall. luxurious living of the owners was financed, can Aiken was extremely successful in business. not be forgotten. After the war, the house, along He inherited his father's mercantile business, but with the city, fell into disrepair. Its significance was a successful rice planter in his own right. He was overlooked as Charleston slowly recovered a owned Jehossee Island, a 3,300-acre plantation. century later, and the house was never renovated. He was the largest slaveholder in South Carolina, It remained a dusty mirror, reflecting the and reportedly the wealthiest man in the state. Reconstruction period. All are significant stories; He entered politics in 1838, serving as a legisla however, the question was which should the tor, then a senator in the state government. In Aiken-Rhett house tell. The answer was "all of 1844, he became governor of South Carolina. He them." was elected to the United States Congress in John Robinson, a cotton factor in 1851, and served three terms. During this time, Charleston, constructed the house on the out he and Harriet entertained the highest members skirts of Charleston around 1817. Debts forced of society in their home. him to sell the house in 1826 to one of his credi In 1857, he retired from the political world tors, William Aiken, Sr.. Aiken used it as rental and, with his wife and their daughter, toured property. A carriage accident took the life of Europe. During their grand tour, which lasted for Aiken in 1831, and his business and the house more than a year, they purchased several pieces of passed to his son, William, Jr. art. Arrangements were made with Aiken's William and his newly-wed wife, Harriet, cousin, Joseph Daniel Aiken, to supervise the began an extensive renovation of the house. The construction of an art gallery addition to their sandstone steps were removed and the main house. The gallery was located off the main entrance was relocated to the side. The first floor entrance. was converted to twin drawing rooms. An addi With the coming of the Civil War, life The Aiken-Rhett House. Photo tion was added to the east end, containing a din would drastically change in Charleston. Aiken, courtesy the ing room on the first floor, and a luxurious ball although a unionist before the war, strongly sup author. room on the upper level. The brick exterior was ported the Confederacy. When Confederate President Jefferson Davis visited the city in 1863, he stayed at the Aiken's home. Aiken gave a lavish dinner party for the president, attended by Charleston's finest. Mary Boykin Chesnut recorded in her diary that "Mr. Aiken's perfect old Carolina style of living delighted Jefferson." Even though the war raged, it could not stop another joyous occasion that occurred at the home. Aiken's daughter, Henrietta, married a young Confederate officer, Captain A. B. Rhett and the celebration was one of the grandest ever hosted in the city. Charleston suffered greatly during the war. Union gunboats shelled the city almost daily. In 1863, a fire destroyed a huge area of the down town section. However, the Aiken house escaped
CRM No 9—1999 29 the damage suffered HCF continues the policy of preservation as by residences built much as possible, and uses interpretation in that closer in to the town. effort. If the visitors know the history, the whole After the war, the pall history, and understand its significance, they will of economic depres appreciate the need to save what is left of the sion covered the city. house. Therefore, docents endeavor to give the The South was most complete picture possible. The extravagant defeated, and lifestyle lived by the Aiken family was only possi Charleston was ble because of slavery. Even though the life of the almost dead. Aiken house servants was considerably better than that spent the next two of a field slave, they were still enslaved. The slave decades working to quarters, just a few yards from the main house, restore its prosperity, are stark and cold. The visitors, who moments but it was not to before were marveling at the beauty and splendor come. William Aiken of Aiken's home, can be overwhelmed when they died in 1887. Harriet realize that bits of coral or light blue paint Aiken lived with her remaining on the walls in the slave's home were daughter and son-in- applied by the slaves who lived there one-and-a- law until she died five half centuries before. These are all that remain of years after her hus what would have been considered a luxury by the band. occupants. Docents escort Just as the city withered in the post-war "We are dedicated to preserving the house, ing visitors years, so did the house. Henrietta Aiken Rhett rather than restoring it," says HCF's Executive through the house provide began to close off the parts that were not being Director, Carter Hudgins. Therefore, a three- interpretation as used. No longer needed for lavish parties, the pronged approach based upon preservation, well as insure ballroom became a storage room. The glory that restoration, and archeology has been developed. preservation. was such a part of the house before the war was The goal, Hudgins explains, is to maintain the Photo courtesy Historic forever gone. Over the years, the portion used for interior of the house and the dependencies in Charleston living space continued to decrease as funds dwin their current condition. However, in order to Foundation. dled. Improvements were made to the home's accomplish this, the exterior must be restored to working systems; however, the old plumbing and be completely weather tight. "We have a com wiring were not removed. The property passed to pletely different set of standards for exterior the Rhett's son. His widow, Frances Hinson Dill restoration as compared with interior preserva Rhett, donated the property to the Charleston tion. We must maintain the exterior, or we will Museum in 1975. lose the interior." Work was begun to assess the immediate With visitation numbers increasing yearly needs of the property. More than $1.2 million (20,598 in 1998), protection and carrying capac was spent to stabilize and protect the structure. ity are the critical issues. Hudgins looks to dis In 1982, the house was finally opened for public cover the "best future" for the Aiken-Rhett visitation. The leaking roof, and the piazzas House. Regardless of what that "best future" of which had become unsafe, were replaced in the the Aiken-Rhett house is, the past, not just the 1980s. Then in 1889, Hurricane Hugo struck a glorious heritage of the Antebellum South, but direct hit on Charleston. The chimneys of the the entire legacy, is preserved at the Aiken-Rhett Aiken-Rhett House toppled in the blow, trees House. Like the building itself, it may not be were uprooted, the cow shed and one of the priv pretty, but it is authentic. The management and ies were demolished. Repairs were made to make staff are dedicated to saving all of it, and telling the house weather tight again, and the two unre the complete history. pairable outbuildings were replaced with replicas. However, the visitation fell off drastically. Michael Laws is a National Park Service park ranger at Charleston Museum closed the Aiken-Rhett National Capital Parks-Central in Washington, DC. House to daily visitation in 1993, and transferred ownership to Historic Charleston Foundation (HCF) two years later.
30 CRM No 9—1999 Wade H. Broadhead Cattle, Control, and Conservation
or over 100 years cattle have grazed sites in this upland environment is relatively shal on public lands throughout the low lithic scatters highly susceptible to surface West and their impact to vegetation disruption. Archeologists at the Gunnison Field communities and their role as office have noticed obvious displacement of arti agentsF of erosion have been well documented. * facts at cattle watering holes, and they wanted to While substantial efforts have been conducted to understand how sites frequented by cattle differ understand the interchange between cattle graz from those sites, which are completely ungrazed ing, wildlife, and ecosystems, archeologists have by cattle. A project was begun to develop a better long pondered the effects cattle have on archeo- understanding of livestock grazing along with logical sites. A recent federal court ruling (Comb other natural processes which also shape archeo Wash decision) requiring the BLM to intensify its logical sites. NEPA (National Environmental Protection Act) The first tool utilized in the attempt to analysis regarding the issuance of grazing permits understand the impact of cattle grazing on arche has given us the chance to study cattle grazing on ological sites was an intensive literature review. archeological sites. In 1998, the Gunnison Over 20 years of previous research and inventory Colorado Field Office began a new process to were examined for each allotment currently being evaluate the renewal of grazing permits. The re-evaluated. All previously recorded sites and Bureau of Land management, Gunnison Field projects were transferred onto a GIS generated Office, developed a three-pronged cultural man map, which also included the digitized allotment agement plan utilizing predictive modeling, boundaries. This activity produced a fine GIS archeological inventory, and experimental arche map with the allotment boundaries, and all cul ology to better understand, assess, and react to tural sites located within that area. A separate The lack of plant height and inter cattle grazing on BLM land. The Gunnison sheet was kept which recorded the percentage of spacing indi Office has begun a long-term project to both acres already inventoried and the eligibility of cates the over understand how cattle shape the archeological those sites. To these maps were added the assidu grazed character of the range out landscape, and identify those undiscovered sites ously collected monitoring data by our Range side an exclo- currently being shaped. and Biological staff indicating areas heavily sure in Gunnison The Gunnison field office encompasses grazed (heavily grazed was defined as the removal County, Colorado. Photo over 600,000 acres in a high mountain environ of 60-80 percent of the years current plant pro courtesy the ment in West Central Colorado and is almost duction). The heavy grazing data was then author. blanketed in archeological sites. A majority of the sketched on the "base" cultural map in red. The Field Office now had one base map that could illustrate areas heavily impacted by cattle com pared to the previously identified archeological resources. This map now allowed the staff to know where the cattle are grazing heavily enough to affect the local vegetation, and which of those areas has or has not been inventoried. Target zones, those areas where cattle have removed the vegetation and increased erosion, but have not been examined for archeological resources, read ily revealed themselves after these differing sets of data were brought together on one map. With only one full-time archeologist and one summer seasonal it was apparent that the Resource Area needed to narrow the search corri dor. A plan was devised to use a rough predictive
CRM No 9—1999 31 model to understand where significant archeolog- The site was visited just after grazing ceased ical resources should occur. Data was taken from and re-recorded using the laser transit, which has the largest inventory ever done in the Field Area a 1 cm margin of error. Only 74 percent of the to construct a GIS/Arcview coverage which, artifacts were found on the ungrazed site com when applied to a USGS topographic map, high pared to while only 70 percent recovered on the lighted all areas where important archeological grazed section. The average amount of movement sites should be found. The coverage was gener for the ungrazed site was 2.2cm with no greater ated using the simplest criteria of slope, aspect, than a 7cm move. The cattle site saw an average and distance to water. The Field Office now had of 13.25cm movement with some flakes dis a set of base maps with lightly shaded regions placed more than one meter. The locality offered indicating where we should find sites. These a sandy loam soil and in only two weeks the maps were cross-referenced with the first maps to researchers observed artifacts almost totally identify those regions that are being adversely buried. Surprisingly, lichens were observed effected by cattle and are likely to be the location already established on one flake after only three of archeological sites. weeks. All tools and points were found inside the The third approach to understanding the exclosure while three projectile points were miss impacts of grazing at the BLM was to scientifi ing from the grazed site. Whether the points were cally examine cattle trampling on a typical site for taken or merely sunk into the substrata is the region. The author and Eric Bjornstead, a unknown. No other evidence of looting was research assistant from Western State College of identified. The site was left intact for another Colorado, banded together to create a lithic scat recording at the end of the summer to allow ter site composed of 200 manufactured stone researchers to study the non-grazing effects and flakes. The "site" was placed across a fenced natural site formation processes. exclosure, which has not been grazed in 20 years, The BLM Gunnison Field Office has taken and outside the exclosure into an adjacent heavily a proactive stance concerning cattle grazing and grazed extinct water source. The site was chosen continuation of this project will depend on the for its lack of pre-existing cultural resources, its future availability of funding and manpower. It is ability to represent typical grazing conditions hoped that this experiment will help future across the Field Area, and its location in an area archeologists understand the scope and nature of already heavily grazed in the past. With the cattle disturbance on sites, which have been heav inception of this experiment the archeologists ily grazed. Since the BLM is a multi-use land hoped to understand how one season of cattle management agency, methods are being devised grazing affected a typical site in the representative so that grazing and archeology can coexist. After region. Archeologists wanted to see if they could the goals of this project are realized, identification decant the effects cattle have on sites from those of significant sites and understanding of the of Mother Nature. effects of cattle to those sites, the next step will be The site was seeded in typical lithic scatter to develop methods of appropriate mitigation. pattern with lithic concentrations and scattered Archeologists at the BLM Gunnison Field Office isolated flakes. The site was divided into two sec have begun a long process of effectively managing tions, the grazed section and the ungrazed exclo cattle grazing in relation to cultural resources in sure section. Each flake was numbered and its the hopes of preserving sites of importance for location recorded with a laser transit and placed many generations to come. number side down. All types of material found in the Gunnison Basin were incorporated into the Notes 1 study as well as every size category. Six tools were A. Mendel and S.Trimble." The Cow as a made for both sites including fine unnumbered Geomorphic Agent- a Critical Review." Geomorphology 13 (1995) 233-353. projectile points. Since projectile points are often T. Fleischner. "Ecological Costs of Grazing in Western chronological indicators for archeologists it was North America." Conservation Biology, Vol. 8 No. 3, deemed necessary to add them to the study to see September 1994. how they fared. The site was located on the 43, 486 acre Iola allotment that is grazed for three Wade Broadhead is an archeologist technician working for weeks by 1,200 yearlings. the Bureau of Land Management in Gunnison, Colorado.
32 CRM No 9—1999 Steven M. Baumann Integrating GIS and Cultural Resources Databases for Archeological Site Monitoring
he National Park Service, can provide accessible and unified cultural Western Archeological and resources information at low cost. Conservation Center (WACC) When at-risk sites are identified, how can has developed a GIS and data resource managers maintain, interpret, and use base systeTm that allows parks to better manage monitoring data? The ICRD system is based on a cultural resources by linking all available descrip geo-referenced databank designed for managing tive data and graphics into a unified desktop Section 106 compliance and site monitoring. computer system. The system is WACC's ICRD links archeological base maps, document Integrated Cultural Resources Databank (ICRD). archives, site maps, images, and collections data The ICRD was developed as a tool for managing with archeological site data recorded in the prehistoric and historic-period archeological ASMIS. Using industry standard, off-the-shelf resources, and it can aid in the protection and database, GIS, and imaging software, NPS-stan- monitoring of those resources. dard archeological databases including the For many national parks with threatened ASMIS, List of Classified Structures, National cultural resources, systematic archeological site Register of Historic Places, and Automated monitoring programs generate necessary informa National Catalog System (ANCS+) are integrated tion that aids resource managers in effectively with state-level site data and archeological project planning and budgeting for site preservation, data. Development of the system was supported protection, and archeological data recovery. The by four Intermountain and Pacific West region purpose of site monitoring programs is grounded parks, Amistad and Lake Mead national recre in the National Park Service's mission to preserve ations areas, the Mojave National Preserve, and and protect those resources. However, many sites Death Valley National Park. Completion of addi on park lands have never been revisited by arche- tional systems is planned for four additional ologists or other resource management profes parks. The evolution and refinement of the sys sionals subsequent to their original discovery and tem benefited from collaboration with NPS documentation. Only 27 percent of the National archeologists and computer specialists in the Register eligible sites in the Archeological Sites Intermountain System Support Office (Santa Fe) Management Information System (ASMIS) data the GIS Field Technical Support Center base for 17 Pacific West and Intermountain (Albuquerque), and GIS specialists at Scientific Region parks have been revisited since they were Technologies Corporation (Tucson). first documented. This is due in part to limita The ICRD originated as a database and tions on staff and funding, but also is in part the GIS project for Amistad National Recreation result of the absence of clear monitoring goals Area (NRA), Texas. It is modeled on the paper and effective, usable monitoring systems. The system of archeological base maps and electronic WACC system is one tool that can partially over databases that have been in use at WACC since come these limitations. Baseline site data includ 1979. The original WACC system linked infor ing professional recommendations can provide mation on archeological projects, sites, collec managers with consolidated information to better tions, archives, and compliance activities. The identify and prioritize monitoring activities for goal of the Amistad NRA project was and is to at-risk sites, so that it may not be necessary to consolidate all descriptive and graphic data into a monitor all sites. However, data must be readily user-friendly system—in essence to automate the accessible. The ICRD system is a useful tool that WACC Archeological Databank and link those
CRM No 9—1999 H data with graphic files. When used at its full The imagery component of the system also potential, the ICRD system provides resource provides both dynamic and static data. It com managers with a tool to manage Section 106 bines photographs with scanned images of origi compliance, track programmatic activities, pro nal site forms, site sketch maps and technical ject budgets, identify potential resource projects, maps, site and project notes, and illustrations. monitor sites and changes in site condition, pro From any site point or polygon plotted on a vide comprehensive information for making eligi USGS quad map, shaded relief map or other bility determinations, and identify preservation, map, users can link to the digital images for a protection, and maintenance priorities. particular site, thereby having most, if not all, site The ICRD is an Arc View-based interface data available from a single desktop computer. for accessing both dynamic and static cultural- From a single site point or polygon on a resources data in a drill-down system of maps, map, ICRD users can drill-down to access a wide databases, and digital archives. Dynamic data are array of archeological data. This is particularly information that can be changed or updated useful when current or historical data are needed (e.g., ASMIS site data, monitoring data, base for compliance or site monitoring purposes. maps). Static data are the archival information Once monitoring data are collected, they can be accessible from the system (e.g., digital site forms, plugged into the system easily and, along with sketch maps, and photographs). Three integrated baseline site data, made directly accessible to components form the core of the system: the geo resource managers. Once a monitoring program graphic, database, and digital imagery compo is in place, maintaining current data in a usable nents. format is both a management and technical chal The geographic component of the system is lenge. The flow of data from the field, to the made up of dynamic data that includes maps and office, to the computer system and back (out of map themes, USGS quad maps, shaded-relief the system) to park managers in a usable form maps, archeological base maps, AutoCAD techni must be standardized and user-friendly. The cal maps, and ARC/INFO coverages. In Arc View, ICRD system is the repository for the informa a map theme is a layer or collection of geographic tion and allows integrated access to it. features and attributes. Accessing maps and Archeologists or cultural-resource specialists must themes in the ICRD's geographic component is develop a protocol for collecting the data, pro accomplished with point and click navigation. cessing the paperwork and associated materials, Users navigate or "drill-down" from a small-scale and inputting the information into the system's (1:250,000) shaded relief map in the system's constituent parts. main view to large-scale USGS map quads For example, baseline site data are collected (1:24,000), shaded relief maps, AutoCAD tech during initial site documentation. State site forms nical maps, ARC/INFO coverages, and other and site sketch maps, artifact inventories, and map themes. photographs are primary information sources. The database component is comprised of Supplemental data, including ASMIS impact and data for map themes, as well as, dynamic external condition assessment data, also can form part of databases with archeological site, project, collec the baseline site record. WACC field archeolo tion, and NAGPRA data. Pre-programmed gists have collected ASMIS data since 1989. A ArcView menu, button, or switchboard selections simple one-page ASMIS Field Form is attached allow ICRD users to plot sites, create site themes to state site forms for fieldwork. The two and legends, query and display site and project together provide baseline site information in the data, and go directly to external site, project, col site database that can be output to required state lections, and NAGPRA databases. The system and NPS paper and electronic formats. draws on external data sources to plot, display, Collecting baseline ASMIS data including and query information. The system design per impact, condition, and research-potential assess mits users to add information in one place and ments with a chronological record of monitoring, one time only and to access or output that infor provides a comparative basis for subsequent mon mation from and to multiple sources. Users need itoring activities. When used for site monitoring, only update or "feed" external databases, such as these same data fields can be plugged back into ASMIS or ANCS+, to bring current data into the the ASMIS database. Additional data fields can system. be added to suit specific needs. Although many
34 CRM No 9—1999 state site forms evaluate site impacts and condi graphics are easily accessible from a point or tion, ASMIS provides the ICRD system with polygon on a USGS map quad or by site query. If NPS-standard assessment values that are linked the databases are updated, information also is to the Government Performance and Results Act updated in the GIS. Digital archives are easily (GPRA) goals. accessible for reference and they can be used, Ease of use and standardization are funda printed, and copied without damage to the origi mental to the ICRD system. Both dynamic and nals. There are few limitations to changing or static baseline monitoring and site data are acces updating slide shows, the digitized site monitor sible from multiple sources linked to the ICRD ing maps, or the site and monitoring databases. system. Static data are the digital archives. Digital Integrating baseline site data, professional images of original site forms, sketch maps, and and management recommendations, with a geo- photographs stored as Adobe Acrobat documents referenced system of maps, archives, and pho are linked to each site in the geographic compo tographs, provides an easy-to-use yet powerful nent. Like paper archives, these documents pro resource management tool. Overall, the design vide access to primary source information and and use of ICRD supports GPRA goals to therefore can not be changed. For monitoring, enhance cultural resources preservation, protec they provide comparative information that is the tion, and interpretation. basis for documenting physical changes at a site over time. Copies of archive documents can be Steven M. Baumann is an archeologist with the Western Archeological and Conservation Center, NPS. printed from ICRD to provide reference in the field for site monitoring. New impacts to sites can be documented on monitoring forms and disturbances plotted on site map and photograph Grand Canyon NP Opens copies. The monitoring data are then entered into the system and the updated map and pho New Curatorial Research tographs are scanned and added to the system. A and Storage Facility separate monitoring map and photographs may be scanned and continually updated through dig Grand Canyon National Park recently itization. Links to the new map file are prede hosted an open house and ribbon cutting cere fined; all the ICRD user must do is make the site mony to celebrate the opening of its new trinomial the name of the scanned map file. Curatorial Research and Storage Facility. The Then from site point or polygon, ICRD users park's Collection Storage Plan, prepared in can display or print the original site map and 1989, recommended a new museum storage documentation, current monitoring data from building to replace the sub-standard building the ASMIS database, and the monitoring site which housed over 250,000 catalogued objects. map. Over a 10-year period, work on the new stor age building was accomplished in stages as The ICRD system includes additional funding became available. The new facility fea monitoring data links. Microsoft PowerPoint tures state-of-the-art environmental systems for users can create monitoring slide shows from dig heating and cooling, dust filtering, humidity ital images of sketch maps, forms, and pho control, fire detection and suppression, and tographs. The slide show may include multiple interior and exterior security. The controlled photographs and maps accessible by mouse click climate storage is designed to help protect and from site points or polygons on USGS map preserve valuable artifacts such as the Thomas quads. The click opens the Site Information Moran paintings, split-twig figurines, archives Switchboard, and the user need only click the documenting tourism development at Grand switchboard button labeled "Site Monitoring" to Canyon since the late 1800s, pioneer artifacts, start the slide show. Links are predefined; the Ancestral Puebloan pottery, 10,000-year-old users identify the slide show by the site trinomial giant sloth bones, and paleontology specimens (temporary numbers may be substituted for tri from various layers of the canyon. nomials) and store it a predefined directory. For further information, contact Sandra There are numerous advantages to the Perl, management assistant, Grand Canyon ICRD system over a paper record system. All National Park. descriptive site and monitoring data, maps, and
CRM No 9—1999 35 Preserving Lighthouses
Candace Clifford Moving Lighthouses
n recent weeks much media coverage has been devoted to the relocation of the Cape Hatteras Light Station away from the eroding shoreline. The 199- foot-talIl brick tower, along with the station's oil Seven Foot Knoll Lighthouse, house and two keepers' dwellings have been Baltimore, moved 2,900 feet to place them 1,600 feet from Maryland. Photo the shoreline. In the new location, they have courtesy JCC/NPS. approximately the same orientation with the sea as when the tower was completed in 1870. Although many lighthouses have been moved, this is the most spectacular lighthouse relocation University of North Carolina in 1997 reviewed ever attempted. various options for saving the lighthouse and The tallest lighthouse in the United States, concluded the most effective option was to move Cape Hatteras has a granite foundation support it. In recent decades, moving heavy structures ing a conical tower made from one-and-a-quarter had become easier with the development of a million bricks. Originally 1,500 feet from the unified jacking system which can push large loads shoreline, the tower stood 300 feet from the uniformly with a 30,000th of an inch accuracy. ocean in 1919; the Bureau of Lighthouses Within the last five years, three lighthouses along installed 900 feet of "interlocking sheetpile the New England coast-Block Island Southeast, groins" in 1930. Because the groins proved inade Cape Cod (Highland), and Nauset Beach, have quate, the Lighthouse Service moved the light in been moved using this technology. In the case of 1935 from the 1870 tower to a 150-foot-tall Cape Hatteras, Joe Jakubik of International skeletal tower located one mile to the northwest. Chimney, one of the contractors for the move, In the late 1930s, erosion control efforts by the stated that the biggest concern of the project was Civilian Conservation Corps and the National the potential of a destructive storm. Many pre Park Service arrested the erosion and the beach cautions were taken to help alleviate this risk. began to accrete. The light was returned to the The move mat (steel beams supporting the 1870 tower in 1950. After a destructive 1955 tracks) was placed below ground level so that in a hurricane, the park built up the beach with sand. storm sand would tend to wash into the site In the 1960s more sand was pumped onto the rather than out, lessening the vulnerability. The beach and sandbags placed in front of the tower. contractors also had the ability to lower and lock Three reinforced concrete groins were con the hydraulic jacks and infill with oak cribbing so structed in 1969. More beach nourishment was that the tower could rest on a solid foundation if conducted in the 1970s. In 1974, the North a bad storm was predicted. Carolina's Coastal Area Management Act discour Before the move, material sampling and aged efforts to further harden or artificially stabi testing allowed them to determine the stresses lize retreating shorelines. The 1980s saw an that the lighthouse could endure; geotechnical experiment with artificial seaweed planted to sta testing was also performed on the ground along bilize the sand just offshore, more sandbags, and the move route. Once the limits of the materials the extension and stabilization of the groin near and ground were known, adequate support brac est the lighthouse. ing and soil improvements were designed and In 1988, a study by the National Academy implemented so as not to approach those limits. of Sciences and a subsequent update by the In addition, it was determined that the move
36 CRM No 9—1999 Drum Point light would not jeopardize the property's listing in the house at the National Register of Historic Places. Calvert Marine Museum, The greatest challenge of moving the 4,800- Solomons, ton Cape Hatteras Lighthouse from the perspec Maryland. NPS tive of Bob Woody, Chief of Planning and photo. Partnership at Cape Hatteras National Seashore, was "overcoming the social, political, and eco nomic issues that surrounded the project—that didn't take but about 18 years! The actual reloca tion effort, though complex, was not difficult from a technical view...." When asked what advice to pass on to others considering a light house relocation, Rob Boiling, a historian for the site offered, Based on sound science, articulate the prob lem and the rationale behind relocation to constituents, and the momentum will build when funding is the issue. Present the issue fairly and professionally, and know what you are saying when doing so. Be respectful of opposing viewpoints, but gently persuasive. Promptly correct any misinformation from move opponents. Previous to these recent moves of masonry towers, most lighthouses that have been moved have been made of either wood or cast-iron plate. In fact, the cast-iron-plate towers were designed with the idea that they might be potentially dis Lighthouse, South Carolina, moved in 1889, the mantled, moved, and reassembled at a new loca 144-foot-tall 1868 Cape Canaveral Light, tion. Examples of cast-iron towers being moved Florida, moved in 1894. The latter two were include the 1852 Matagorda Island Lighthouse, moved to avoid erosion. Texas, moved in 1873; the 1875 Hunting Island The Lighthouse Establishment often moved a lighthouse to serve an entirely different station. Cape Canaveral The 1820 brick tower first constructed on Great Lighthouse and Cumberland Island, Georgia, was relocated in oil house. NPS photo. 1838 to serve Amelia Island at the entrance to St. Mary's River, Florida. The 1824 granite tower on Goat Island in Newport Harbor, Rhode Island, was relocated in 1851 to serve the east side of Sandy Point in Narragansett Bay. An example of a tower moved to better serve its current station, the 1893 cast-iron Chicago Harbor Light on Lake Michigan was moved to a new breakwater in 1919. Although eroding shorelines seem to be the primary motivation for moving a lighthouse, many light stations have been moved to ensure their preservation after their careers as active aids to navigation have ceased. Drum Point Light Station marking the entrance to the Patuxent River on the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, was replaced in 1962 by a nearby modern light on steel piles. To preserve the superstructure, the Calvert Marine Museum moved it ashore in 1975 Continued on p. 40
CRM No 9—1999 37 Moving
Cape
Hatter as
NPS photo. Lighthouse
Left, hydraulic push jacks. Below, beneath the light, Hilman rollers on hydraulic jacks.
38 CRM No 9—1999 Above, the rail and steel mat are con stantly moved forward. Right, the light house about 600 feet from its original site.
View of the move path of the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse.
Photos by Mike Booher, unless otherwise noted.
CRM No 9—1999 39 Continued from p. 37 created by a DCB-24 installed in 1972; the park is actively searching for a first-order Fresnel lens to its grounds in Solomons, Maryland. As a to replace this modern optic. The Seashore plans moved property, it was initially taken off the to reopen the tower to visitors around Memorial National Register of Historic Places and relisted Day. As part of the overall preservation plan, the after its successful restoration in accordance with light station will be interpreted to its 1890s the Secretary of the Interior's Standards. The sta period. Saving the tower from the eroding shore tion is interpreted and accessible to the public at line was a crucial phase in its preservation. The its new location. Other screwpile structures relo successful move to its new location assures that cated ashore include the 1855 Seven Foot Knoll, millions of visitors will continue to enjoy this Maryland, moved in 1987 to Pier 5 on National Historic Landmark. Baltimore's Inner Harbor; the 1879 Hooper Strait, Maryland, moved in 1967 to the Candace Clifford is a consultant to the National Chesapeake Bay Maritime Museum in St. Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers, work Michaels; Half Moon Reef, Texas, moved in 1980 ing with the National Maritime Initiative of the to the Port Lavaca Community Park; and the National Park Service. Roanoke River, North Carolina, moved in 1955 to Edenton, North Carolina. The latter serves as a private residence. Several other towers were moved after they were purchased by private own For more information on the Cape ers, including Southampton Shoals Light Station, Hatteras Light Station relocation project, visit California, which became a yacht club and
Michelle C. Saxman The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians
he South Dakota State Historical golfing on the property, although it might pro Society/State Historic vide some recognition of the cemetery. Preservation Office (SHPO) was The City of Canton was contacted to contacted by Harold Iron Shield inquire if they would object to the listing of the concerninTg the protection of the Canton Asylum cemetery. The city supported nominating the cemetery. He requested that a National Register cemetery. At the beginning of the research nomination be prepared for the cemetery so it process, the SHPO discovered that there was would have some protection, as it is located on very little information concerning the Canton the Municipal Golf Course. He was concerned Asylum. We had to rely on several secondary that golfers were playing through the cemetery. resources to write the nomination. The SHPO We suggested that Mr. Iron Shield contact the survey form noted that information could be owner of the property, the city of Canton, to found at the South Dakota State Archives. resolve this issue. He informed us that his appeals Reviewing the articles in the archives, we discov to the City of Canton were unheeded. We ered that the cemetery was the only remaining informed him that it is not easy to list a cemetery site associated with the Asylum. A nomination on the National Register of Historic Places unless was prepared, and the cemetery was placed on it was associated with an important historical the National Register of Historic Places in event. We also informed him that listing on February 1998. National Register would not stop people from The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians was established by Congress in 1899 and the Indian
40 CRM No 9—1999 conditions: chronic epileptic dementia, alcoholic dementia, senile dementia, congenital epileptic idiocy, congenital imbecility, acute melancholia, chronic melancholia, and chronic mania. The first death occurred on May 20, 1903. The patient was a 21 -year old Sioux male. He was diagnosed as "dementia, epileptic chronic." He suffered a violent epileptic convulsion that caused his death. Superintendent Gifford notified the agent of the reservation where the dead patient had originally lived. However, after receiving no request to send the body home, the superinten dent made arrangement for an interment on the grounds. A section of land was reserved, and over Appropriation Act of 1900 set aside $3,000 for Main Building, the next 30 years, it received the remains of the land and $42,000 for construction of a building. Hiawatha Indian patients from the asylum. The Bureau of Indian Asylum, Canton, Passage of the Act had met with strong opposition South Dakota. Affairs informed Mr. Gifford that stone markers from the Department of the Interior and the were unwarranted, so the graves were unmarked. Superintendent of the U. S. government's St. On a chart hanging in the office, the superinten Elizabeths Hospital for the Insane in Washington, dent recorded the name and location of each DC. Both felt that adding to the Washington deceased patient. Institution would better serve the interest of the In the history of the institution, the asylum patients and the public.' had only two superintendents. Dr. Harry Because of its central location among the Hummer accepted the position as superintendent, Western states with large Indian populations and when Mr. Gifford resigned. In 1912, under the because of the influence of Representative O.S. direction of Dr. Hummer a two-story hospital was Gifford and Senator R. R. Pettigrew, Canton was constructed, with a separate dining room for chosen as the site for the asylum. One hundred employees, a hydrotherapy unit and solarium. acres were purchased one mile east of Canton on However, the hospital had no medical facilities the hills overlooking the Sioux River. The first beyond a drug room and a simple operating room. building was erected in 1901 at a cost of $55,000, The building was used primarily for housing.' plus $1,000 for improvements. John Charles of In 1929, an investigation of Canton Asylum Wisconsin was the supervising architect. The was conducted. Dr. Silk performed this investiga three-story structure, constructed in the form of a tion. Dr. Hummer ordered this investigation Maltese cross, had 75 rooms. because he wanted an impartial and unbiased Oscar Gifford was appointed the first super report of the conditions at the asylum. Dr. Silk intendent. He assumed responsibility in described the asylum as "a place of padlocks and November 1901, while the building was under chamber pots."8 Attendants used their own discre construction. A year later, his staff consisted of Dr. tion about using restraints and locking patients in John F. Turner, a financial clerk, a matron, a seam their room. Dr. Silk noted the lack of maintaining stress, a cook, a laundress, a night watchman, an patient records. It suggested poor medical care engineer, two attendants, and two laborers. and supervision of the patients. Case summaries The first patient, a Sioux man, age 33, was of patients who died were lacking, only death cer sent to Canton directly from the Santee reserva tificates were found. Hummer failed to keep pre tion in Nebraska on December 31, 1902. The cise essential records of daily treatment and Hiawatha Asylum, as it was known locally, began patient's response. Dr. Silk was shocked to learn formally accepting patients in 1903.5 By the end that 50 percent of the deaths at the asylum were of the year, the asylum housed 16 patients, 10 attributed to tuberculosis and that patients were males and 6 females, with 1 man dying during the not being treated for syphilis. The final report year. "The patients' tribal affiliations were concluded that intolerable conditions existed in Cherokee, Comanche, Ossage, Pawnee, Mission all departments. However, he had one positive Indian of California, Winnebago, Shoshone, comment, the patients diet was wholesome and Chippewa, and Sioux."6 These first patients were adequate. diagnosed with eight different types of mental
CRM No 9—1999 4] In March 1929, Indian Affairs officials in 1970, a complete burial stone with a bronze Washington authorized three major actions: the plaque had been placed in the cemetery there. replacement of Superintendent Hummer, the clos Listed on the plaque were the names of 120 ing of the Canton Asylum, and the transfer of inmates who had died and were buried at Canton patients to state institutions. However, Congress during the 32 years of that institution's tumul approved the request to keep the asylum operating tuous but forgotten existence."10 at full capacity. As a reminder to the citizens of Canton, the It was not until John Collier assumed office Native American Reburial Restoration Committee as commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1932, that organizes annual prayer ceremonies at the ceme the office took notice of the asylum again. Mr. tery. As the last remaining evidence of the Canton Collier reviewed all past reports and was outraged Asylum, the cemetery was listed on the National by the practices at the asylum. The Secretary of Register of Historic Places and is currently being the Interior approved the use of funds from the investigated as a potential National Historic Public Works Administration to enlarge facilities Landmark. at Saint Elizabeths and then set a January 1934 Having the cemetery listed on the National closing date for the Canton Asylum. However, the Register has increased public awareness. After the citizens of Canton urged the Secretary of the nomination process began the City of Canton Interior to re-consider his action. They stated that posted signage to deter golfers from playing closing the asylum would cause a severe financial within the fenced off cemetery boundaries. loss to the city. An injunction was issued. Further research is necessary including archeologi- Dr. Silk conducted another investigation of cal survey to determine the locations of the graves the asylum. He found conditions the same as they as it is possible that some graves rest outside the had been in 1929. Several patients exhibited no protection of the wooden fence. symptoms of mental illness. Dr. Hummer would not release patients without sterilizing them. Notes 1 The History of Lincoln County, SD, Lincoln County However, the asylum did not have the equipment History Committee, 1985. to perform the surgery, so he refused to discharge 2 Ibid, page 37 patients. "Of the estimated 10 discharges per year, * Hoover, Herbert T. Canton Asylum, 1984. 4 nine occurred through the death of the inmate. Putney, Diane T. The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, 1902-1934 South Dakota History 14 Spring Some of those who died at the asylum were buried 1984: 4. at their agencies, others in a cemetery on the asy ' According to Canton Asylum for Insane, 1902-1934. lum grounds."^ The first patient arrived on December 31, 1902. The District Court of the United States dis ° Putney, Diane T. Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, 1902-1934 South Dakota History l4(Spring 1984):4. missed the injunction order for the District of ' Riney, Scott Power and Powerlessness: The People of South Dakota in December of 1933. This deci the Canton Asylum for Insane Indians. South sion opened the way for transferal of patients. Dakota History 2(Spring/'Summer 1997): 44 8 Sixty-nine patients left Canton for St. Elizabeths Ibid, 17. ° Riney, Scott. Power and Powerlessness: The People on December 21, 1933. Two additional patients of the Canton Asylum for the Insane. South Dakota were sent to Washington, when they were well History 2(Spring/Summer 1997): 51. enough to travel. The remaining patients were 10 Putney, Diane T. The Canton Asylum for Insane released back to the reservations. Indians, 1902-1934 South Dakota History l4(Spring 1984): 30. Between 1933 and 1939 the property was used as a state penitentiary. The property of the Bibliography asylum was given to the city of Canton in 1946. Hoover, Herbert T. Canton Asylum, 1984. In 1949, the Canton-Inwood Hospital was Putney, Diane T. "The Canton Asylum for Insane Indians, 1902-1934" South Dakota History opened in the old asylum hospital. However, in l4(Spring 1984): 1-30. the late 1940s the remaining buildings were razed Riney, Scott. "Power and Powerlessness: The People of for a new hospital on the site. A golf course was the Canton Asylum for the Insane." South Dakota opened in 1986 on part of the original site and History 2(Spring/Summer 1997): 41-62. the cemetery is now within the fairway between The History of Lincoln County, SD, Lincoln County History Committee, 1985. the 5th hole and 6th holes. "From 1902 to 1934, approximately 374 Michelle C Saxman is the Northeast Coordinator/Historic Indians from 50 tribes were sent to the asylum. By Preservation Specialist, South Dakota State Historical Society/SHPO.
-(2 CRM No 9—1999 Roger E. Kelly Romancing a Galleon (and Other Lost Ships) at Point Reyes Seashore
s persistent as Shakespearean suit Agustin's wreck have come to light. In 1603, a sec ors pursuing fair damsels unsuc ond ga\\eon-San Diego—was dispatched to the cessfully, since 1982 the Service, same bay to ascertain if any salvage was possible, with partnership agencies and as was the Spanish custom. But San Diego stayed friendsA, has been attempting to locate and iden only a short time and reported no evidence of the tify a 16th-century Spanish galleon and other lost lost galleon. In maps of the late 1770s, the wreck ships along Point Reyes Seashores Pacific coast. location is noted accurately in Spanish maps of The pursuit of these illusive and ghostly fair ves the San Francisco Bay region. sels has been vigorous but as yet to no avail. The October 1982 scientific suitors continue their quest in this long Announced as the first interagency, interdis and dramatic tale of sailors and the sea. ciplinary and scientific search for shipwrecks lost Fall 1595 since 1595 in Point Reyes waters, the National En route from Manila, after making landfall Park Service and NOAA Marine Sanctuary near today's Point St. George, California, San Program fielded a team of archeologists, remote Agustin sailed south, commanded by Captain sensing experts, maritime historians, volunteer Sebastian Rodriguez Cermano, reaching a large divers and others. Using a small Coast Guard open bay and estuary now called Drakes Bay, patrol vessel and later a 1938 wooden hulled fish within the national seashore. After three months ing boat, electronic devices were deployed to at sea, this crescent-shaped bay must have been a record sonar images, magnetometer readings, and welcome sight! Within a few days, Cermano's acoustic profiler penetration into the submerged crew, officers, traveling clergy, and passengers had sands and underlying rock formations of Drakes established a shore camp, interacted with Coast Bay. Mapped lines of each vessel transect carrying Miwok people several times, and completed these instruments were made from transmitted inland scouting trips, as his Royal orders directed. signals sent by shoreline repeaters to a moving San Agustin was likely constructed about 1590, vessel. The Bay was thoroughly covered by these early in the history of Manilas colonial shipyards, instruments and magnetometer readings revealed from Philippine woods and materials, by local several possible locations for sunken vessels. craftsmen, directed by Spanish or Portuguese Divers attempted to see what may be causing masters. As reconstructed from surviving marine anomalous magnetic readings or shadows on side architecture archives, she was probably 80 feet scan sonar records, but little was observed. long, about 45 feet wide, had a 14-foot draft, and Several historic ships were found for which was about 200 ton capacity. But no documents informative photos, plans, or archives existed. exist about San Agustiris construction or voyages Richfieid(1913—1930) was an early oil tanker before Cermano's purchase. She was likely a associated with California's petroleum industry smaller trade vessel-or naa-not a larger armed while Munleon (1919-1931) a freighter, Shasta Royal galleon, outfitted for battle. (1908-1939), a wooden hulled steam schooner San Agustin, shore camp, and entire ship's and Porno (1903-1914), a lumber schooner were company were hit by a fierce late November studied. Several other known wreck losses, such as storm which determined a different historical sig Ayacucho (1841), Nehumkerg (1867) and several nificance to Cermano's voyage. About 70 sur lost single mast schooners were not found. Only a vivors did reach Acapulco seven weeks later, sail cluster of suspected magnetometer readings at the ing in an open launch which had been brought to likely anchorage for San Agustin were found. In the shore camp before the storm. Official 1984, two project reports were published by NPS inquiries were held and testimony made regarding Submerged Cultural Resources Unit which con the loss but only a few documents about San tained available information on the lost galleon,
CRM No 9—1999 43 other vessels, and remote sensing information mined via satellite links resulted in more accurate about Drakes Bay's maritime history. mapping of potential 'hits' for diver investiga Fall 1997-98 tions. A terrestrial shoreline survey of Drakes Fifteen years later, invigorated interest from Estero to study deposition patterns for drifted park superintendent Neubacher and other cir materials and mapping of later beached ships' ele cumstances had developed to plan field work in ments from Porno and Shasta were done to ascer Drakes Bay again. Old and new partners— tain the survivability of buoyant wooden vessel California State Lands Commission, NOAA's pieces over time. Finally, a possible location for Marine Sanctuary program, San Francisco Cermano's shore camp was investigated by the National Maritime Historic Park staff, Drake Drake Navigators Guild under an AAPA permit Navigators Guild, and volunteering individuals which authorized use of magnetometer, metal joined NPS staff at the project table. Significantly, detectors, and auger tests. within the 15-year period, advances in remote These newer approaches and methods have sensing, marine locational systems, diver-topside not located San Agustin—she remains as elusive as communication links, and diver safety (shark ever. But during a short 15-year period, signifi repellent) measures had been made. Thus, more cant improvements in scientific research on sub effective side-scan sonar, magnetometer opera merged cultural resources give us better tools to tions and data analysis, GPS locational and GIS search and locate evidence for human activities mapping techniques, and other improvements and accomplishments. The curtain has not been were employed. Several investigations and salvage closed on this historical drama at Drakes Bay! projects of 16th-century galleons in the Pacific Rim region had been completed which provided References Aker, Raymond 1965 The Cermeno Expedition At published comparative information from such Drakes Bay, 1595- Drakes Navigator Guild, Palo known vessels as San Diego (1600 at Sebu Island, Rito, Ca. Philippines), Concepcion (1638 on Saipan), 'Pilar Murphy, Larry (ed) 1984 Submerged Cultural Resources Wreck'(1690 on Guam) and Batavir (\629 on Survey Portions Of Point Reyes National Seashore And Point Reyes-Farallon Islands National Marine Western Australia). More analysis of Chinese Sanctuary: 1982. NPS Santa Fe. Ming Dynasty porcelain cargos was now available Carrell, Toni 1984 Submerged Cultural Resources and a large collection of porcelain fragments from Inventory; Portions Of Point Reyes National Seashore Seashore beaches and protohistoric native village And Point Reyes-Farallon Islands National Marine sites had been accessioned by NPS staff. Data Sanctuary: 1983. Santa Fe. regarding magnetometer analysis by computer Roger E. Kelly is senior archeologist, Pacific Great Basin programs, coupled with vessel positions deter Cluster, National Park Service.
Archeological Research at the Presidio More than 60 archeologists worked during the Students participating in the Cabrillo summer on research projects to identify and preserve cul Archaeological Technology Program are locating the tural artifacts hidden beneath the surface of the historic foundation of the Spanish-colonial period chapel adja Presidio of San Francisco. Excavation activities are cent to the Presidio's Officers' Club. The Officer's Club, intended to protect the park's cultural resources in antici constructed in 1776, is the oldest Presidio building and pation of rehabilitation efforts soon to be conducted on one of the most significant historical structures on the some Presidio historic structures. Information gathered west coast. The Trust expects rehabilitation at the from the digs will also improve visitor interpretive ser Officer's Club to begin next year. vices at the park. Archeologists under the supervision of the National The Presidio Trust and the University of California Park Service at Crissy Field are identifying historic arti at Berkeley have formed a partnership to conduct archeo facts as part of an effort to rehabilitate the waterfront logical investigations at the park. The first project is area by restoring beaches, wetlands, and a historic grass focusing on the park's Funston Avenue, one of the most airfield. The park improvement is scheduled to be com historically significant regions. Researchers are studying pleted in summer 2000. the area now occupied by Civil War era structures to For more information, contact Lynn Wallace at identify the Presidio's original stone foundation built by 415-561-5300. Spanish settlers in the early-19th century.
44 CRM No 9—1999 Preserving the Recent Past
Rustin Quaide Documenting the Cold War Investigating Available Resources
n March 5, 1946, former British archives, gathering memoirs and documenting Prime Minister Winston places and events around the world are time con Churchill, accompanied by suming tasks. Ongoing studies, such as the President Harry S. Truman, Woodrow Wilson International Center for O Scholars Cold War International History Project, delivered a speech at Fulton, Missouri, where he announced: are extremely helpful (especially in light of From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the recently-opened Soviet archives), but the interpre Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across tation of Cold War criteria can be overwhelming the Continent. Behind that line lie all the cap from a cultural resources management point of itals of the ancient states of central and eastern view, when sites, objects and thematic studies Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all associated with the Cold War confront various these famous cities and the populations around federal agencies and historians with issues involv them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, ing interpretation and documentation strategies. and are subject in one form or another, not The Department of Defense (DOD) man only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, ages a wide range of cultural resources on its 25 in many cases, increasing control from million acres of public land. The cultural resources Moscow. within them are protected by The National Joseph Stalin, ruler of the Soviet Union, Historic Preservation Act, the Native American responded in Pravda, claiming that Churchill's Graves Protection and Repatriation Act and the speech was "a dangerous move, calculated to sow Archeological Resources Protection Act. In 1991, the seeds of dissension among the Allied states." the DOD Legacy Resource Management Program Geopolitically, after World War II Europe was was established under the Defense Appropriations divided between the United and the Soviet Union Act of 1991. The Cold War Project emerged from along the lines outlined by Churchill in his this as one of the Legacy's nine task areas. Broad in Fulton, Missouri speech. scope, the Cold War Project seeks to "inventory, After a period of time this division was protect, and conserve the Department of Defense's called the Cold War, a term popularized by Walter physical and literary property and relics" associ Lippman, and was used to describe the state of ated with the Cold War. The history of managing "neither war nor peace" between the Western pow and documenting Cold War resources within the ers and the Communist nations following World DOD falls under the different branches of the War II. This state of affairs lasted until 1990 when Armed Services. These records prove invaluable the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War and research tools. the division of Europe ended. The Air Force Project originated between the The history of the years after 1990 present National Park Service and the United States Air problems for the modern researcher. The rapid Force after the Air Force was taken to court over dissemination of new information pertaining to inadequate handling of their Section 106 responsi the Cold War period and the subsequent military, bilities involving a building at Randolph Air Force cultural and political history of the era are too Base. The Air Force contacted the National Park recent for a definitive summary. The amount of Service, and a cooperative agreement was reached material that must be sorted and evaluated is where the National Park Service designed the immense. Uncovering records, opening state database to handle the historic information gath-
CRM No 9—1999 4S ered at 11 different Air Force installations. GIS significance within the past 50 years; a site or (Geographic Information Survey) software was property of that vintage may be eligible if it is of customized for each location, leaving each base exceptional importance at the national, state, or with a functional database to enter their historic local level. More then a half century has passed data. The Historic Preservation Program for Army since Winston Churchill made his remarks at installations was developed in response to specific Fulton, Missouri and the Cold War's beginnings federal agency tasks and deadlines set forth in have passed the 50-year mark. Some Cold War Executive Order 11593, signed by President sites entered the National Register of Historic Richard Nixon on May 13, 1971. The Navy has Places due to their exceptional importance in individual officers assigned to reserve units who recent history, achieving significance within the gather information for historical purposes. past 50 years. Documenting the recent past will The end of the Cold War itself affected his continue, as new sources are uncovered, thus help toric documentation of Cold War sites within the ing us understand the events which shaped the United States. When the military base closings Cold War era. Below are listed some useful sources began, Section 106 of the National Preservation for those investigating this period. Act required that DOD give the Advisory Council Research Tools on Historic Preservation (an independent federal General agency) a "reasonable opportunity to comment" Chafe, William H. The Unfinished Journey, on actions that involve historic properties and America Since World War II, Oxford University applies to properties that have been listed in the Press, New York, 1999. National Register of Historic Places, properties Chafe, William H. and Harvard Sitkoff, editors A that have been determined to be eligible for inclu History of Our Time, Readings on Postwar America, Oxford University Press, New York sion in the register, and properties that may be eli 1999. gible but have not yet been evaluated. A consensus Cook, Linda with Karen Bretz, Brian Coffey, on what constituted significance to Cold War sites Anna Lee Hewko, and Frank Broderick had to be determined. It was generally agreed by ElmendorfAir Force Base Volume 1 Historic the Air Force and Army in their intermittent Context of World war II Buildings and Structures, guidelines that Cold War base housing was ineligi United States Department of the Interior, ble for listing. Missile related properties, flight- National Park Service, 1999. Excellent analysis lines, hangars, and scientific laboratories con and inventory of Elmendorf AFB, northeast of tribute to a broader understanding of specific his Anchorage, Alaska. The final chapter details toric defense needs and the national defense Elmendorf AFB's Role in the Cold War. history as a whole, even when such sites are con Evans, Graham and Jeffrey Newham The Penguin tributing components of larger districts. Overall, Dictionary of International Relations, Penguin the legacy of the Cold War helped bring about a Putnam Inc, New York, 1998. Milbrooke, Anne with Patrick Andrus, Jody better appreciation for the military's own recent Cook, and David B. Whipple National Register history. Becoming involved in Section 106 work, Bulletin Guidelines for Evaluating and the military began a systematic documentation of Documenting Historic Aviation Properties, U.S. its own history. Most of the historic research done Department of the Interior, National Park for the military has been prepared by consultants Service, National Register of Historic Places, for the various agencies. The National Park 1998. Guideline which takes the researcher from Service's involvement has consisted mainly of the beginning of American aviation through assisting the various agencies on various questions rocket technology, offering advice on defining of historic interpretation, and matters of a more aviation related terms pertinent to the National legalistic nature, developing Section 106. Register of Historic Places Strategies for nominating Cold War sites and Sontag, Shery, Christopher Drew and Annette properties begin with the National Register guide Lawrence Drew. Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage, lines. There are four categories of eligibility for Thorndike Press, 1999. The end of the Cold districts, buildings, structures, sites and objects War produces a daunting task for researchers found in the National Register Bulletin: How to shifting through the historic record. A book Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation. detailing American submarine espionage during The National Register criteria provide for the the Cold War. recognition of historic places that have achieved
46 CRM No 9—1999 Walker, Martin. The Cold War, Henry Holt and Scientific Facilities," CRMVo\ 20, No. 13, Company, New York, 1993. An overview of Stapps article deals with the documentation of Cold War history. the Hanford N-Reactor Complex, and the Ramirez, Constance Werner. "A Summary cooperation and planning between the History of the Army's Preservation Program," Department of Energy and the Washington CRMVol 20, No. 13, 1997. State Historic Preservation Office. For an Cold War International History Project Bulletin approach dealing with technical and scientific Woodrow Wilson International Center for matters, it is a good source. Scholars, 1000 Jefferson Drive, S.W Winkler, David F. Searching the Skies: The Legacy Washington, DC, 20560. With the opening of of the United States Cold War Defense Radar the Russian archives, a useful source for histo Program, prepared for United States Air Force rians and scholars on numerous issues con Combat Command. June 1997. Excellent nected with the Cold War. study of the impact that the construction of Note: Good references for historians include ser- radar stations and command facilities had on vicewide phone books for compiling histories the American landscape, exploring patterns, of the various armed forces agencies. themes, and trends that created, influenced, Specific and formed the backdrop to the Cold War Lonnquest, John C. and David F. Winkler. To defense radar program. Defend and Deter The Legacy of the United Useful Web Sites States Cold War Missile Program. USACERL www.army.mil/cmh-pg Special Report 97/01 November 1996. A study www.history.navy.mil/ sponsored by the Department of Defense www.au.af.mil/au/afhra/hisstud.htm Legacy Resource Management Program Cold www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil War Project: The definitive study on the www.cwihp.si.edu/default.htm. impact of long-range and air defense missiles www.h-net.msu.edu/-war on the American landscape. Cultural resource managers evaluating specific resources will find Rustin Quaide is a historian with the National the bibliography a useful guide. Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers working Stapp, Darby C. "Documenting a Cold War with the National Register of Historic Places. Nuclear Reactor, Attempting Innovation The author thanks Paul Lusignan, Diane Balancing Historic Preservation Needs with Miller, Dr. Harry Butowsky, and Russ Sackett the Operation of Highly Technical or for assistance in writing this article.
Jeane Wharton Interpreting the Cold War
"When I was growing up [in Milbank], we would Minuteman Background always count the missile silos on the way to the More than 1,000 Minuteman ICBM (inter Black Hills." _ , ... __ continental ballistic missile) sites were deployed c n in hardened underground silos across the nation's Dr. Steven Bucklin, USD heartland by 1967. The Minuteman was an mages of the Cold War—etched in inconspicuous, silent sentinel on the nation's our national memory—are images of landscape. the missile silos, bomb shelters and For almost 30 years, Minuteman missiles "duck and cover drills" that once served as part of the nuclear triad of land-based impacteId daily American life. The Minuteman ICBM's, submarine-launched missiles, and Missile was one of the country's most important manned bombers poised to deliver a nuclear war Cold War weapons, and many historic preserva head to a Soviet target within a half hour. Then, tionists are looking to provide future generations in 1991, with the passage of the Strategic Arms with a physical reminder of that time. Reduction Treaty (START), the Air Force began deactivating the Minuteman force.
CRM No 9—1999 47 The operational blizzard) the 80-foot-deep holes that would center of the become the missile silos. It's a story of the Minuteman mis sile system was landowner who told the deactivation crews they the underground wouldn't have to blow up her missile site—she Launch Control wouldn't tell anyone, since we might need it Center (LCC). During their again some day. The sites should be preserved for round-the-clock all Americans as a reminder of this significant duty, the missile period in our history. crews monitored missiles and Management Bill to be Re-Introduced conducted tests In 1998, legislation was introduced in the in the LCC. U. S. Senate that would allow the National Park Service, in conjunction with the U. S. Air Force to acquire, preserve and interpret the Delta One Launch Control Facility and Delta Nine Launch Facility as a national historic site. The site would commemorate the history and significance of the Cold War, the Minuteman missile system, and the Arms Race. Among the deactivated sites were 15 Supporters for the legislation included launch control facilities and 150 missile silos of South Dakota Senators Tim Johnson and Tom the 44th Missile Wing at Ellsworth Air Force Daschle. Both made statements before the Base in South Dakota. Subcommittee on National Parks, Historic Missiles and the Badlands Preservation, and Recreation Subcommittee of Soon after the deactivation began, the the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural National Park Service and the Air Force recog Resources in July. Both senators stated that they nized that Ellsworth's Minuteman facilities might looked forward to working on an effort to "pre be excellent candidates for long-term preserva serve part of the Minuteman II missile system tion. The Ellsworth sites were among the oldest, and an important chapter of our nation's his and they are the least-altered from the original tory." configuration The legislation passed the Senate on March I was fortunate to be included in a discus 25, 1999, and was sent to the House on April sion and short tour of two of the sites near 12, 1999, for further action. Badlands National Park in southwestern South Dakota. As we viewed the crew areas, I noted Jeane Wharton is Historic South Dakota Executive that much of the technology dated back to the Director. Cuban Missile Crisis era. It almost looked as Photos courtesy Tim Pavek, U.S. Air Force. though the crew had gone to dinner and would Like the crews return shortly. who painted Other participants included University of "nose art" on military aircraft South Dakota professors Dr. Steven Bucklin and during World Dr. Robert Hilderbrand, who are interested in War II, the Cold conducting an oral history project; Badlands War's missileers often decorated National Park Superintendent William the blast doors Supernaugh; Badlands Chief of of underground Education/Cultural Resources Marianne Mills; LCCs. State Historic Preservation Office Staff Archaeologist Bruce Penner; SHPO Architectural Historian Steve Rogers and Tim Pavek, Civilian Engineer for the U.S. Air Force at Ellsworth Air Force Base. The Minuteman story must be told, the group agreed. It is an important story, and not just of missile silos. It's the story of the local rancher who helped mine (during a fierce winter
48 CRMNo9—1999 David G. Blick and Renee A. Sciuto Cold War Historic Properties at Aberdeen Proving Ground
n the spring of 1997, the Cultural toric and historic archeology sites, as well as Resource Management Program at extant colonial-era buildings, an early 19th- Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) ini century lighthouse, turn-of-the-century farm I tiated a survey and evaluation of its houses, and World Wars I and II military facili Cold War era (1946-1989) historic properties. ties, all of which are subject to provisions of the After two years of archival and field work, APG NHPA. recently submitted its final evaluations to the With the end of the Cold War (marked by Maryland Historical Trust (MHT) for review and the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989), public approval, per Title 36, Part 800, of the Code of historians within academia and the federal gov Federal Regulations. The installation's cultural ernment initiated studies to examine its impact resource manager developed and oversaw the pro on American society, including the military. ject, and completed it with research participants Through the early 1990s, the Department of from the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Defense's Legacy Resource Management Program Education (ORISE) student fellowship program. provided grants for Cold War related research The study served as a compliance project man projects, and in 1995, the Army produced dated by Section 110 of the National Historic interim guidance to address issues of National Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and Army Register eligibility. This interim guidance evolved Regulation 200-4, "Cultural Resources into a section of the Army's pamphlet on cultural Management." resources and a comprehensive historic context, Established in 1917, APG is the Army's entitled Thematic Study and Guidelines: premier installation for research and develop Identification and Evaluation of U.S. Army Cold ment, testing and evaluation, and soldier train War Era Military-Industrial Historic Properties. Terminal Ballistics ing. Located on the western shore of the upper In 1997-98, APG developed its own installation- Laboratory, Chesapeake Bay, about 25 miles northeast of specific historic context and in the same year c. March 1949. Baltimore, Maryland, APG occupies approxi embarked on a survey of over 800 buildings and Photo courtesy U.S. Army mately 75,000 acres. Aberdeen Proving Ground's structures on the post. Garrison, APG, cultural resources encompass a wide breadth of The ORISE research participants used vari DSHE. the American experience. They include prehis ous CRM tools to complete the survey and evalu ation project. The installation's state-of-the-art geographic information system (GIS) provided detailed maps which enabled the students to locate and photograph the properties in a timely fashion. By applying the Army historic contexts and National Register criteria, the researchers focused on particular property types, specifically those associated with Army production and com bat subsystems. For proving grounds, identified property types consisted primarily of research laboratories and testing facilities. Through consultation with the MHT, APG identified property types considered not excep tionally significant. Between December 1998 and January 1999, APG and the MHT agreed that 698 of the buildings surveyed did not meet
CRM No 9—1999 49 National Register criteria consideration G for approximately $85 per property. A survey and properties less than 50 years old. In June 1999, evaluation project such as APG's, involving over APG submitted the remaining 100-plus proper 800 properties, could have cost the Army ties on MHT-requested National Register eligi $320,000. Instead, with ORISE, the project cost bility forms. The submissions included black and under $70,000, a significant savings for the Army white photographs, site maps, and National and federal government. Register evaluations. Overall, APG inventoried Another important aspect of APG's Cold and evaluated a total of 813 Cold War properties, War identification and evaluation project is that of which only 12 met the National Register eligi it served as a practical training exercise for aspir bility criteria. As of September 1999, APG is ing historic preservationists. It gave three college awaiting concurrence from the MHT students (Tracy Dunne, Sameena Nooruddin, Building 309, the Terminal Ballistics and Renee Sciuto) the experience of working at Laboratory, is an example of an APG Cold War the federal agency level while performing a real, historic property that ORISE participants sur compliance-based cultural resource project. The veyed and evaluated. Constructed in 1947, this skills acquired by these students during the building served as a primary laboratory for the course of the project, such as researching historic Ballistics Research Laboratory complex, focusing properties and applying National Register crite on technological advances in ballistics and high ria, have made them competitive candidates for speed photography. During the survey and evalu graduate school, public agencies, and the private ation project, the building occupant proposed sector. replacing all 86 of the existing metal-framed, Overall, by dealing with issues of preserving multi-paned windows. The ORISE participants the recent past at APG, the Army has demon and MHT concurred that #309 was eligible for strated proactive stewardship of its Cold War era the National Register and agreed that the new historic properties. Not only does APG now have windows would be an "adverse effect." Upon a better handle on its Cold War era properties additional consultation with the MHT and that are eligible for the National Register, but it Advisory Council for Historic Preservation, APG also has streamlined its management responsibili entered into a memorandum of agreement ties for compliance with Section 106 of the (MOA) that required APG to document the NHPA. By completing the identification and building on a Maryland Historic Property evaluation project, APG has significantly reduced Inventory Form. The documentation is now the amount of time and effort needed to review available in the MHT's archives. future mission-related undertakings. As a result, Besides the NHPA compliance aspects of APG has enhanced military readiness at APG and the this project, one of its real successes was the use quality of life for its soldier and civilian communities. of the ORISE program. An interagency agree ment between the Departments of Energy and David G Blick is the Cultural Resource Manager for the Defense allows the Army to transfer funds into a U.S. Army Garrison, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. student fellowship program overseen by ORISE. In turn, ORISE solicits resumes from students, Renee A. Sciuto is a research participant for the Oak competitively screens applicants based on inter Ridge Institute for Science and Education. In 1999, she views and scholastic performance, and places the received her Bachelor of Arts in Historic Preservation from Mary Washington College. successful candidates with a Defense agency. While the students are not ORISE or Defense This research was supported in part by an employees, they serve as program participants, appointment to the Research Participation receive mentoring, and take on specific environ Program at the U.S. Army Garrison, APG, mental or engineering research projects. Directorate of Safety, Health & Environment During the course of the Cold War project, (DSHE) administered by the Oak Ridge APG's use of the ORISE program significantly Institute for Science and Education through an reduced the cost of the compliance-based project. interagency agreement between the U.S. Instead of hiring a private cultural resource firm Department of Energy and DSHE. that could charge as much as $400 to survey and Any opinion expressed in this article does evaluate a single property, APG utilized the not necessarily reflect the view of the ORISE student fellowship program at a cost of Department of the Army.
50 CRM No 9—1999 Bob Chenoweth Clearwater Battle Artifacts Returned
round noon, July 11, 1877, 400 each thing was taken from him as he looked after U.S. Army soldiers under the his troops but concludes, "I saved a few and sent command of General O.O. them to Ft. Lapwai by pack train ... a very few Howard began an attack on the are now in the Allen County, Ohio, Memorial encampmenAt of non-treaty Nez Perce Indians by Building of Lima, Ohio." (McWhorter 1986: the South Fork of the Clearwater River near pre 322) sent-day Kamiah, Idaho. The Nez Perce included NPS historian Jerome Greene found out about 550 women and children and about 200 about the artifacts during a research visit to Lima. warriors, plus 2,000 to 3,000 horses. After ini He was writing a Historic Resource Study on the tially surprising the Nez Perce the soldiers found 1877 War for Nez Perce NHP and called the arti themselves surrounded and unable to advance. facts to my attention in 1995. The collection By about 2:30 p.m. on July 12th, the soldiers consisted of an unadorned child's deer hide dress, renewed their attack after the arrival of reinforce a beaded sheath and five brass trade bells. ments. The Nez Perce evacuated their families In July, I called Raymond Schuck the and horses around this time amid disagreement Director of the Museum in Lima to discuss among the warriors as to whether to continue the whether the ACHS would consider allowing fight. these artifacts to be returned to their homeland, either to the National Park Service or the Nez Perce Tribe. I explained that they had been taken "We were not whipped! We held all soldiers off the from people who had not wanted war and whose the first day and, having better rifle pits, we could descendants felt a very strong connection to still have held them back. Not until the last of us them. Mr. Schuck agreed to bring the question leaped away did the soldiers make their charge. Some before the board of directors. At the time of this tepees, robes, clothing and food were left. The warriors contact, I was deeply involved in the efforts to were disagreeing, quitting the fight, had no time to pack return the Spalding-Allen Collection, then owned the camp." by the Ohio Historical Society, to Nez Perce Yellow Wolf* Country. No agreement had been made at that time between the Nez Perce and OHS and so the General Howard failed to follow-up his discussion with the Allen County Historical pursuit, instead allowing his soldiers to swarm Society took on a sensitive aspect that could only through the tipis and help themselves to the per be resolved by the passage of time. sonal possessions the Nez Perce were compelled After discussions with Mr. Schuck it to leave in their haste to escape. became clear that the board of directors of the A young Lieutenant, Harry L. Bailey of B ACHS would look favorably on a request to Company, 21st Infantry was one of those who return the artifacts to Idaho regardless of whether took possessions from the village. Bailey retired it came from the NPS or the tribe. This was so, in Allen County, Ohio at the end of his military because the collection was clearly documented in service and donated papers, photos, and artifacts collection records and in the written and oral to the Allen County Historical Society (ACHS) record of the 1877 war. The ACHS believed that in Lima. The artifacts and Bailey's actions were under the circumstances it was simply the right documented by L.V. McWhorter in his books thing to do. Yellow Wolf, His Own Story and Hear Me, My After making this known to the Nez Perce Chiefs! Bailey described the plunder by civilian Tribe, we decided in the fall of 1997 that the Nez volunteers and soldiers and his own efforts to get Perce Tribe would make a formal request asking "a few things as souvenirs." He describes how for the return of the collection, and that the NPS would write in support of that request. ACHS ' McWhorter 1983:100. was concerned for the professional care of the
CRM No 9—1999 51 artifacts once they were returned to Idaho. Our We stood looking at the dress and other letter described the collection storage facilities at artifacts and could not help being moved by their the Spalding Visitor Center and our staff situa presence. How could one look at these things and tion. We explained that Nez Perce Park has not wonder what untold story they held. What housed and cared for an important collection of had become of the young girl to whom this dress artifacts owned by the tribe for many years belonged? Had she survived the 1,300-mile flight through a cooperative agreement. This was a logi to escape the Army? What about the owner of the cal arrangement stemming from the park's beaded sheath? Was it an awl case or had it been enabling legislation and from years of coopera used to hold medicine? What had the owner of tion and trust built up between park staff, tribal the trade bells intended to use them for and what members and tribal government. The Nez Perce had happened to cause them to be left behind? Tribe does not have a facility to house its collec These are touch stones to one of the most tragic tion and so it was agreed some time ago that events in Nez Perce and American history. They given the importance of this collection, the park speak of the lives and hopes and dreams of a peo would store, curate, and display it. ple who had prided themselves on their good It was not until March 2, 1998, that the relations with the white intruders to their land. formal request from the tribe was sent to the They speak of a creative, strong and intelligent ACHS. Our letter of support followed shortly people who, when forced to fight, gave an after. In July, Josiah Pinkham, the tribe's ethnog account of themselves which is now legendary. rapher called me with the news that ACHS was Almost three years had elapsed between first returning the artifacts to the tribe. learning of these artifacts and their return to Nez On August 12, Nez Perce Tribal Executive Perce country. Many other things had occurred Committee Chair, Samuel Penney and Josiah during that time. Foremost was the successful Pinkham were in the Allen County Museum with fundraising effort that allowed the Nez Perce peo museum staff and Board members. A solemn and ple to purchase the Spalding-Allen Collection simple ceremony marked the return of the arti and return it to Idaho. This was a sweet success facts to the Nez Perce tribe. "It was good that because of the overwhelming support of the these people knew the proper place for these arti American public who contributed to this cause. facts and I am thankful that they were willing to The return of the Clearwater Battlefield follow their heart.The artifacts carried this same sweet feeling for me, toughest thing to look but for different reasons. The staff and leadership Restoration® & Renovation® at was the dress; to of the Allen County Museum simply made a pro think that a child that fessional decision based on understanding, an Charleston, South Carolina will small would be appreciation of the importance of local history, host the Restoration® & Renovation® involved in a and the need to have the artifacts returned to the Conference and Trade Show on November 7-9, 1999. The show will war."(Josiah Pinkham) people and place where their story resides. This highlight over 130 exhibitors and more Two days later, Josiah may seem like a small thing, an easy thing. But in than 40 conference seminars. Pinkham and Nakia this time where many institutions choose to "cap Workshops will cover such topics as Williamson, also from italize" on a situation to their advantage, Walter wood window restoration, antique the tribe's Cultural White, Raymond Schuck and the others at the conservation, cemetery preservation, Resources Department, Allen County Museum chose simply to give back and disaster planning and recovery. brought the artifacts to what had been taken so many years before. Regular conference sessions cover a the Nez Perce National variety of subjects, including period Historical Park's References interior decoration, seismic retrofit, Cultural Resources McWhorter, L.V. Yellow Wolf, His Own Story, Caxton stucco conservation, and historic land office. Within a short Press, Caldwell, Idaho, 1983 Revised and Enlarged scapes. For more information on the Edition. time the loan agree show, including registration, visit the McWhorter, L.V. Hear Me, My Chiefi!, Caxton Press, R&R web site:
^1 CRM No 9—1999 Deborah Sheiman Shprentz Greenbelt, Maryland Preservation of a Historic Planned Community
GREENBELT: 2 BR, 1 BA townhouse in historic New Deal of the Roosevelt Administration. area. Walk to shopping, movies, fitness center, Rexford Guy Tugwell, director of the indoor and outdoor pools, library, and community Resettlement Administration, spearheaded the project, as part of the New Deal Communities center. $39,900. Program. Other federal green towns were built in Greendale, Wisconsin, and Greenhills, Ohio. classified ad highlights the The Greenbelt project had several goals: to charms of Greenbelt, provide useful employment; to demonstrate a Maryland,—a historic planned new type of community; and to provide afford community built by the federal A able housing in suburban areas.' government in the 1930s during the administra Tugwell was inspired by the Garden City tion of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Movement popularized by an English planner, Sir Homes in old Greenbelt, a suburb of Ebenezer Howard, and by the 1927 development Washington, DC, are available at reasonable of Radburn, New Jersey, designed by Clarence prices, yet offer access to incredible community Stein and Henry Wright. A number of Radburn's amenities. revolutionary features were incorporated into the What is remarkable about the historic cen plan for Greenbelt: the superblock of housing ter of Greenbelt is the extent to which the origi and open space where vehicular traffic is nal planned community of residences in a park excluded; extensive use of walkways and under like setting adjacent to a town center, remains passes to facilitate pedestrian movement; placing intact. There have been some modern structures the service entrance of residences at the street side built, and some modifications to the exterior of of the house, and the main entrance in the rear homes, but for the most part, the core historic facing parkland; and establishing the elementary area has been remarkably preserved. school as a focal point for the community. Development pressures are ever present but have Additional original features in Greenbelt a Community been largely resisted due to an extraordinary sen Building/Elemen commercial town center, a gas station, a police sitivity to the town's historic values. tary School in and fire station, a manmade lake, a swimming Greenbelt, Greenbelt in Brief pool, athletic fields, numerous playgrounds, com Maryland. Photo Greenbelt, Maryland, is one of three courtesy munity gardens and an extensive "green belt" of planned communities built by the federal govern Elizabeth Jo open space and woodlands. Some of the original Lampl. ment along garden city principles during the green belt has been preserved, but much of the land was condemned for the construction of the Baltimore-Washington Parkway and the Capital Beltway, while other lands were sold off for com mercial and residential development. The original development of 800 residential townhouse and apartment units built in 1937 was supplemented by 1,000 units of defense housing built by the Farm Security Administration in 1941-1942.3 Later new town developments such as Reston, Virginia, and Columbia, Maryland, were based on many of the design principles pioneered in Greenbelt.4
CRM No 9—1999 53 Greenbelt is also significant for its develop local television; liaison with local and county ment of cooperative forms of enterprise, includ preservation groups such as the Prince George's ing a housing cooperative, a coop grocery store County Cultural and Historical Trust and the and pharmacy, a community newspaper, and a Historic Preservation Commission; and enlisting cooperative nursery school, all of which continue the support of a long list of prominent scholars to operate today.' and elected officials.11 Historic Preservation Efforts In order to protect the Greenbelt Center On November 25, 1980, the Greenbelt School from further threats, the Art Deco Society Historic District was officially entered on the of Washington and the City of Greenbelt filed a National Register of Historic Places." The listing successful application with the Prince George's proved to be a significant factor motivating County Historic Preservation Commission to preservation efforts when in 1983, the Prince designate the school as a "county historic site" George's County Board of Education proposed to and to include it in the county's Historic Sites demolish the Center School, one of the most archi and Districts Plan.12 The Prince George's County tecturally significant structures in the community. Historic Preservation Ordinance establishes In 1983, a tip from a reporter alerted restrictions against alterations or demolition of Richard Striner, president of the newly formed designated "historic sites." The application Art Deco Society of Washington, to a small bud received final approval from the Prince George's get item in the Washington Post. The article sig County Council in 1984.13 naled the intention of the Prince George's The school was threatened again in 1988, County Board of Education to replace the when the Prince George's County Board of Greenbelt Center School with a new structure. Education proposed a school expansion plan that The impending destruction of the Greenbelt would preserve only the facade of the building. Center School, the cultural and architectural cen Ultimately, the City of Greenbelt engineered a terpiece of the historic Greenbelt community, land swap with the County, which enabled a new propelled Striner into action7 Earlier in 1983, elementary school to be built outside the historic the Art Deco Societies of America recognized the district, and the original school to be converted school as among the 10 finest examples of art to a community center. deco architecture in the country. Today, the community center has been sen The Greenbelt Center School was designed sitively renovated and houses a museum exhibit in 1936 by Douglas Ellington and Reginald D. room, nursery school, senior center, cafe, active Wadsworth, the architects for Greenbelt. But sports and arts programs, studio space for artists, unlike the residential buildings designed in the and provides space for other community activi International Style, the school is a streamlined ties. A permanent exhibit of historic photographs Art Deco masterpiece with fluted struts adorning documenting the planning, construction, and the sides and front of the building. Sculptured early years of Greenbelt lines the corridors of the bas-relief panels appear below the bank of five community center. large windows that admit light to the combined The Greenbelt Museum auditorium and gymnasium. The panels use The Greenbelt Museum was established in images of workers to depict the preamble to the 1987, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Constitution: "We the people...to form a more Greenbelt, to educate the public about the history of perfect union.. .establish justice.. .insure domes Greenbelt and the value of planned communities. tic tranquility.. .provide for the common The City of Greenbelt purchased the house defense.. .promote the general welfare." The pan at 10-B Crescent Road for use as a museum in els were sculpted on-site by Lenore Thomas. The 1986.l4 The purchase price of $53,400 was design is reminiscent of architect Paul P. Cret's authorized by a bond issue that was approved in a Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington DC.^ voter referendum.1' The local PTA strongly supported razing The building was one of the units con the building to erect a larger, more modern structed in the first wave of federal construction 10 school for Greenbelt's children. Faced with in the 1930s in Greenbelt. It is a concrete block, local opposition, the Art Deco Society used a flat-roofed, two story duplex. It features a small three-pronged strategy to save the building: kitchen, combined living/dining room, upstairs extensive publicity in local newspapers and on bathroom, master bedroom, and a small chil-
54 CRM No 9—1999 dren's bedroom. It over nity was designated a National Historic looks a large, open com Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior. This mon area. recognition of the historical significance of Most of the Greenbelt is a major honor for the community. museum's artifacts were The documentation of the historic resources of donated by Greenbelt Greenbelt contained in the nomination was thor residents, who used them oughly researched by consultant Elizabeth Jo during the 1930s and Lampl, and edited by Carolyn Pitts of the 1940s. Of special interest National Park Service. ° The nomination form is the government com contains a detailed chronology of major land missioned furniture transfers and development, and an extensive bib designed to fit the small liography of published and unpublished sources. rooms of the Greenbelt Possible Designation as Historic District homes. One could fully Since 1992, Greenbelt citizens have consid furnish a home with ered additional means to provide protection for Danish modern furniture their historic community. The Greenbelt Historic for $240, paid in regular District Study, published in February 1994, sum installments of $5 per marized a series of potential strategies, including month.1" historic district designation for old Greenbelt Mother and The beautifully restored unit stands in stark under the Prince George's County ordinance.1" Child statue in contrast to the neighboring half of the duplex Subtitle 29 of the Prince George's County Greenbelt, Maryland, com which has a rear addition, has been covered with Code contains the regulations governing the mercial center, vinyl siding and has new vinyl windows and preservation of historic resources in the County. by Lenore shutters. The regulations lay out requirements for Historic Thomas, Works Progress The museum mounts various special Area Work Permit applications to be reviewed by Administration. exhibits in the house from time to time on topics the Historic Preservation Commission prior to such as textiles, Art Deco timepieces, and any construction, exterior modification, reloca "Women at Work." In 1998, Friends of the tion, grading, demolition, or placement of signs Greenbelt Museum received grants from the in historic areas. These permit provisions require Maryland Historical Trust and the Maryland adherence to design guidelines and are the teeth Humanities Council to mount an exhibit in the of the county historic preservation ordinance. community center: "Fashionable, Functional, and The permit process provides an orderly mecha Frugal: Modern Style Comes Home, 1930- nism for consideration of historic preservation 1946."'' The exhibit features modern-style objectives in managing change within the historic depression glass, streamlined chrome appliances, district. Bakelite knick-knacks, furniture, and other styl To illustrate how the permit process would ish objects. impact Greenbelt, extremely specific design The Greenbelt Museum maintains an active guidelines have been proposed by the Maryland- partnership with the University of Maryland's National Capital Park and Planning American Studies Program. The University sends Commission, in consultation with the Greenbelt students in its Material Culture classes to the City Planning Department and Greenbelt museum to "curate" individual objects in the col Homes, Inc., the housing coop. The draft lection. Dozens of the students' research papers guidelines are based upon the design require and photographs of the objects are posted on the ments laid out in the Greenbelt Homes, Inc. University's "Virtual Greenbelt" web page. This member handbook, but are stricter in defining web site contains a slide show on the history, how additions and modifications can be made in planning, and construction of Greenbelt, com a manner compatible with the original design. plete with historic photos from the Library of Pre-existing alterations would be grandfathered. Congress. The internet address is A county historic designation would make
CRM No 9—1999 ^ Maryland state income tax deduction is already ' Knepper, Cathy D. "Greenbelt: A New Deal Remnant available for rehabilitation of historic sites listed in Our Midst," Maryland Humanities, November 1998. on the National Register of Historic Places. " Attachment to Letter from Ronald L. Andrews, National Register Coordinator, Maryland Historical Trust, to Mr. In spring 1999, residents of Greenbelt Dennis E. Piendak, Assistant City Manager, City of Homes, Inc. voted to designate the original town Greenbelt, re "Greenbelt Historic District, Prince as a historic district. The Greenbelt City Council Georges County, Maryland," December 30, 1980. must now decide whether or not to apply for his ' Lecture by Richard Striner, Founder and former presi toric district designation from Prince George's dent of the Art Deco Society of Washington, "Saving County. If the Greenbelt City Council gives a Our Art Deco Heritage: Preservation War Stories," January 21,1999. green light, the next step is for the Prince Georges 8 Sporkin, Elizabeth. "Honoring Art Deco's 10 Best." USA County Council to consider the designation. Today January 11,1983. The historic area of Greenbelt faces contin ° Gebhard, David, The National Trust Guide to Art Deco in ual challenges. Roosevelt Plaza, the commercial America. New York John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996, p. 37. 10 center, is currently undergoing renovation, and Wynter, Leon, "Rallying 'Round a Symbol of Greenbelt," Washington Post, August 17, 1983. while the city has a facade easement, individual 1' Striner, Richard. "The Saving of Greenbelt School," property owners previously secured zoning Trans-Lux, Volume I, Issue 4, November 1983. approval from the County to increase the height 12 Striner, Richard, president, Art Deco Society of of their buildings. Parking shortages sometimes Washington, letter to mayor Gil Weidenfeld and mem result in suggestions to widen roads. The con bers of the City Council, City of Greenbelt, November tinued operation of the historic movie theatre was 2, 1983. " Striner, Richard. "Greenbelt School Update." Trans-Lux, threatened, but citizens and the city government Vol. 11, No. 1, March 1984; and Maryland National have banded together to promote the theatre. Capitol Park and Planning Commission, Greenbelt Conclusion Historic District Study February 1994. Greenbelt today is a community remarkably " Testimony of Mary Lindstrom, November 5, 1986. 1 attune to its historic roots. It is a community ^ Regular Meeting of Greenbelt City Council, Agenda Comments, Item 13, "Ordinance to Appropriate Funds whose citizens and city government have been in the Amount of $53,400 for Acquisition of a inspired to put resources into historic preserva Museum," November 10, 1986. tion. The Greenbelt Museum does an excellent 16 Likowski, Barbara and McCarl, Jay, "Social job of educating residents and visitors about Construction" in Greenbelt: History of a New Town- Greenbelt's history and contributions. The citi 1937-1987, edited by Mary Lou Williamson, Virginia Beach: The Downing Company, 1997, p. 82. zens have realized the benefits of a vibrant com 17 FOGMNewsletterVol. 7, No. 2, November 1998, and munity center, a beautiful system of parks, path "Maryland's Best Kept Humanities Secrets—The ways, and open space, and architecturally intact Greenbelt Museum," Maryland Humanities, November residential, civic, and commercial buildings. The 1998. recent referendum on historic district designation 18 Lampl, Elizabeth Jo. National Historic Landmark was an important validation of residents' willing Nomination: Greenbelt, Maryland Historic District, March 22,1996. ness to retain the integrity of their community " Berger, Howard S. and Rivers, Robert D., Maryland- and to protect it from future development. National Capital Park and Planning Commission, Greenbelt Historic District Study February 1994. Notes 20 The Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning 1 Capitman, Barbara, Kinerk, Michael D., and Wilhelm, Commission, Potential Greenbelt Historic District Dennis W Rediscovering Art Deco USA.: A Nationwide Guidelines, Draft, July 1997. Tour of Architectural Delights, New York: Viking Studio 21 Geiger, Al, "Parking Solutions Cause Neighbors to Books, 1994. Disagree," Greenbelt News Review, Volume 62, Number 2 Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning 12, February 11,1999. Commission, Greenbelt: Historic District Study, February, 1994. Deborah Sheiman Shprentz is an environmentalist living in * National Historic Landmark Nomination, Greenbelt Reston, Virginia. She prepared this paper as part of her course Maryland, Historic District, designated February 18, requirement for History 181, the History and Theory of 1997. Historic Preservation, at the Loudoun Campus of the Northern 4 Klaus, Susan L. "Links in the Chain: Greenbelt, Virginia Community College. Maryland, and the New Town Movement in America: An Annotated Bibliography on the Occasion of the The author thanks Katie Scott-Childress Fiftieth Anniversary of Greenbelt, Maryland" Center for Washington Area Studies, George Washington of the Greenbelt Museum for reviewing and University, GW Washington Studies No. 13., 1987. commenting on an earlier version of this article.
% CRM No 9—1999 Jill Cowley Sisters Across the Ocean Observations on Women in Cultural Heritage in Australia
omen in Australia and the Women in Australian Cultural Heritage United States share experi As in the U.S., women in Australia have ences, feelings, and hopes, been involved in the range of cultural life and in Wand our histories have activities that responded to and modified the much in common. Women's experiences in landscape. Recent ethnographic research is show Australia have a different texture, due to a combi ing that aboriginal women play a major role in nation of factors including Australia's close rela spiritual life—both ceremony and land manage tionship to Asia, membership in the British ment—contrary to years of research where only Commonwealth, and interactions with Australia's aboriginal men were interviewed and where it unique natural environment. Aboriginal women was assumed that women did not play an active struggled with their European invaders; and role (Brock 1989). Thought for many years to be European women struggled with settling in a new prostitutes only, women shipped to Australia as country under harsh conditions. In Australia convicts both contributed to the labor force in there are many on-going efforts to have women's early colonial days and, as ex-convict, free voices heard in political and cultural arenas, women, played active and independent roles in including work toward equal and accurate repre farming, community development, and industry sentation of women's history and experience in (Robinson 1994). Many women, like Annie heritage conservation (historic preservation). Bryce of Wonnangatta Station in the Australian In this paper, I offer a sampling of Alps, ran pastoral stations for years after their Australian approaches and activities relevant to husbands died (Domicelj & Marshall 1994). women's heritage. This sampling is neither com Women immigrating to Australia from China prehensive nor representative; rather, it is based and other Asian countries provided community on research completed during my stay as a visit services in Sydney and other urban areas while Pioneer ing lecturer at Charles Sturt University. While I enduring discrimination from white Australians Women's Hut, mention the experiences and issues of aboriginal (Yen 1994). Tumbarumba, New South women, I refer readers to aboriginal women writ For a number of years, writers, academics Wales. Photo ers for first hand accounts of their experiences and institution builders in Australia have been courtesy the and views (e.g., D. Deacon, S. Morgan, L. concerned with correcting the underrepresenta- author. Thompson). tion and misrepresentation of women's role in Australian history, and with adding the women's perspective at existing historic sites and protected areas. Some are also concerned with finding out what places are significant to women and why, and being able to articulate women's experiences and places through women's eyes and using women's voices. Individual women in Australia have had sig nificant impacts on the environment, and their contributions and their places have been the sub ject of recent research and some preservation attention. For instance, Elizabeth MacQuarie, whose husband was governor of the new colony,
CRM No 9—1999 S7 landscaped the grounds of Sydney Government product to process. In Australian European his House and the Female Orphan School (Bickford tory, men have more often been in a position of 1992). Quoting from Sagazio, Edna Walling, control over landscape modification and place- "one of Australia's most influential garden design making. Because traditional European heritage ers and conservationists... (was) one of the first conservation efforts focus on material evidence Australian gardeners to appreciate the aesthetic (tools, structures, engineered features, and large- and practical qualities of native plants" (Sagazio scale land modifications), these efforts tend to 1989). Distinctly women's places include the focus on the actions and products of men. The Cascades Female Factory in Tasmania—the need to shift focus from large to small scale and women's equivalent of Port Arthur men's convict from product to process is discussed by those prison—which was entered in the Register of the concerned with including and accurately repre National Estate in 1978 (Australian Heritage senting women's contributions. Given that Commission n.d.), and which is now open to the European women, overall, have been more public with interpretive programs in place (du involved in the processes of making families and Cros 1997). communities rather than making large-scale Individual names and accurate histories are places (Johnston 1991), putting more emphasis being added to the stories of women who histori on non-material culture and cultural processes, cally have been remembered only generically, as and blending knowledge of social relationships the capable "bush mum" or self-sacrificing wives with knowledge of tangible resources, can bring (Anderson 1993). Significant women researchers, women's contributions to light. such as anthropologist Olive Pink, are being Perspectives on Historic Themes brought out of obscurity and their reputations Historic themes in both countries have changed from women of quaint eccentricity to recently undergone revision, and in both cases, women who have made valid and significant con previous emphasis on politics, economics, and tributions (Marcus 1991). Women anthropolo technology and on individuals have given way to gists working with Aboriginal communities have a more holistic approach, where social history, started to correct research gender biases by bring vernacular trends, and areas in which women ing to light Aboriginal women's integral roles in have traditionally been more involved (domestic Aboriginal ceremonial culture and land manage life, unpaid work, volunteer organizations) are ment (Brock 1989). In deconstructions of the now formally recognized. Interestingly, while the interpretation of archeological research, Chabot, U.S. national park system places family, commu- Jones and Pay and others have exposed how con nity.and life cycle topics within the "Peopling temporary gender biases can be imposed on Places" theme (U.S.D.I. NPS 1996), where they interpretations of the past (Chabot 1991; Jones can be overshadowed by discussions of popula & Pay 1990). For example, because 19th- and tion migrations, the Australian system has a sepa 20th-century assumptions about gender put rate category for "Marking phases of life" women in domestic and more passive roles, some (Australian Heritage Commission 1995). interpretations of archeological research have not Studies addressing women's heritage also considered the possibility of women as hunters include discussions on historic themes, for exam and warriors, even though there was no evidence ple, Miranda Morris' Placing Women: A to the contrary (Chabot 1991). The Pioneer Methodology for the Identification, Interpretation Women's Hut in Tumbarumba, New South and Promotion of the Heritage of Women in Wales, was established in the mid-1980s specifi Tasmania (Morris 1997), funded by the cally to develop and house a collection of artifacts Australian Commonwealth National Estates and documents which make visible the lives of Grants Programme. In her section on themes, European settler women. And the Fourth Morris offers an alternative framework which Women in Archaeology Conference, held in focuses on "women's life enhancing contributions northern Queensland in 1997, focused on mov in the free economy ... divided ... into 14 cate ing beyond the identification of the problem to gories: giving birth, producing food, providing development of an action plan (Comber 1996). shelter, clothing, keeping well, raising children, Correcting under representation and mis sharing knowledge, expressing imagination, representation is not only a matter of making forming relationships, creating communities, women visible, but also of shifting focus from keeping in touch, exchanging, dealing with
S8 CRM No 9—1999 death, nourishing the spirit" (Morris 1997). This influences behavior. Her deconstruction chal framework recognizes unpaid work, and empha lenges the transference of this projection onto sizes the sustainability of human activity. real women and their role in Australia's history. Deconstructing Language Patterns Additionally, Schaffer's deconstruction allows the In her 1989 book, Women and the Bush: space and clarity of vision for women's history to Forces of Desire in the Australian Cultural be viewed more accurately. Tradition, Kay Schaffer takes a detailed look at Future Directions the Aussie bushman character, how this character While the bushman-as-hero has been, and has been embedded in networks of meaning, how still is to a large degree, the accepted Australian this character has developed in opposition to the ideal character (Hollywood's Crocodile Dundee is land which is characterized as female, and how a recent if somewhat modified version), this asso these characterizations have influenced attitudes ciation is being challenged on many fronts. toward the land and land management. All Writers like Schaffer, those involved in civil rights quotes in this section are from Schaffer 1989. movements, womens' and mens' movements, Schaffer shows us how "... the Australian Aboriginal speakers and writers, and those tradition involves a struggle for a national iden researching the contributions of immigrants are tity against the otherness of the bush" (136). all gradually replacing the traditional characteri "Bush" refers to rural, outback, and wild places. zation with a more pluralistic, inclusive and envi The tough, anti-authoritarian, white, male bush- ronmentally sustainable one. Australian indige man battling for survival against the bush has nous relationships with country and traditional long been equated with Australian national iden land management practices are increasingly being tity in folklore, literature, politics, and daily life. researched and used as models for the manage The bushman is the "native son" who struggles to ment of government land (D.E.S.T. 1996). These develop an identity separate from the English efforts may change the land from being charac parent culture. Sometimes merged into the native terized as "the body of an unloved woman" to son identity along with the bushman are the "dig being a place that is cared for by both women ger" (gold-seekers in the 1850s goldrush) and and men. Women and men in Australia and the Australian soldiers. Rich landholders or urban U.S. can work together in the cultural heritage men have often been excluded, and women, field to make research and interpretation more Aboriginal women and men, and Chinese and accurate and inclusive, not just with respect to other immigrants have almost always been women, but with respect to all communities who excluded. have been marginalized in traditional approaches. Quoting Schaffer, "The landscape provides a feminine other against which the bushman-as- References hero is constructed." (52). The native son estab Anderson, Margaret. "In Search of Women's Public lishes his identity in opposition to the land, History: Heritage and Gender." Public History Review 2(1993): pp. 1-19. which is characterized as female. "She" is alter Australian Heritage Commission. "Cascades Female nately experienced by the native son as seductive Factory." Two-page brochure. Canberra, n.d. (through her natural beauty) and threatening Australian Heritage Commission. Proposed Revised (with her fires, floods, and expanses of isolated Framework for Historic Themes (Draft). Canberra, spaces), and ultimately as the "cruel mother" 1995. when she is perceived to deny nurturance and Bickford, Anne. "Women's Historic Sites." In Women present obstacles to man's efforts to control the in Archaeology: A Feminist Critique, edited by H. du land and natural forces. Schaffer quotes Miriam Cros and L. Smith. Albury, New South Wales: Charles Sturt University, 1992. Dixson, "Australia is like the body of an unloved Brock, Peggy, ed. Women Rites and Sites. Sydney: Allen woman." (51). So, the bush is both "No Place for andUnwin, 1989. a Woman" and is characterized as female (62). Chabot, Nancy Jo. "A Man Called Lucy: Self- These language patterns have influenced attitudes Reflection in a Museum Display." In Writing the toward the Australian environment and its man Past for the Present, edited by J. Thomas and F. agement to a large degree. Baker. Lampeter: Saint David's University College, Schaflfer's deconstruction shows the native- 1991. son-against-cruel-mother-land tradition as a Comber, Jillian, Personal Communication. 1996. Deacon, Destiny. "Koori Women: Racism and European projection that has become imbedded Politics." In Australia for Women, edited by S. in discourses on national identity and which
CRM No 9—1999 59 Hawthorne and R. Klein. North Melbourne: Morris, Miranda. Placing Women: A Methodology for the Spinifex Press, 1994. Identification, Interpretation and Promotion of the Department of Environment, Sport and Territories Heritage of Women in Tasmania. Canberra: (D.E.S.T.). Renomination ofUluru - Kata Tjuta Australian Heritage Commission, 1997. National Park to the World Heritage List. Canberra: Robinson, Portia. "Women Convicts". In Australia for Australian Department of Environment, Sport and Women, edited by S. Hawthorne and R. Klein. Territories, 1996. North Melbourne: Spinifex Press, 1994. Domicelj, Joan, and Duncan Marshall. Diversity, Place Sagazio, Celestina. "Women in the Historic and the Ethics of Conservation: A Discussion Paper. Environment." Trust News, June 1989:10-14. Prepared for the Australian Heritage Commission, Schaffer, Kay. Women and the Bush: Forces of Desire in on behalf of Australia ICOMOS. Canberra: the Australian Tradition. Melbourne: Cambridge Australian Heritage Commission, 1994. University Press, 1989. Du Cros, Hilary. Personal communication. 1997. Thompson, Liz, ed. Aboriginal Voices: Contemporary Jones, Sian, and Sharon Pay. "The Legacy of Eve." In Aboriginal Artists, Writers and Performers. Sydney: The Politics of the Past, edited by P. Gathercole and Simon and Schuster, 1990. D. Lowenthal. London: Unwin Hyman, 1990. U.S.D.I. National Park Service. Revision of the Johnston, Chris. "Gaps in the Record: Finding National Park Service's Thematic Framework. Women's Places." Paper prepared for the Women in Washington, DC: U.S.D.I National Park Service, Archaeology Conference, Charles Sturt University, 1996. Albury, New South Wales, February 1991. Yen, Mavis. "Memories of Sydney's Chinatown." In Longino, Helen E. "Subjects, Power and Knowledge: Australia for Women, edited by S. Hawthorne and R. Description and Prescription in Feminist Klein. North Melbourne: Spinifex Press, 1994. Philosophies of Science." In Feminism and Science, edited by E.E Keller, and H. Longino. New York: Jill Cowley is presently the Cultural Landscapes Program Oxford University Press, 1996. Manager in the Santa Fe Office of the National Park Marcus, Julie. Yours Truly Olive M. Pink. Canberra: Service. She completed research for this article in 1996 The Olive Pink Society, 1991. while a visiting lecturer at Charles Sturt University, New Morgan, Sally. My Place. New York: Arcade Publishing, South Wales, Australia. 1989.
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