Nature and abstraction in twentieth-century photography In much twentieth-century art, it could be argued that the desire for transcendence finds its voice in abstraction. Vassily Kandinsky, Kasirnir Malevich, Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, and Agnes Martin are only a few of the major twentieth-century abstract painters whose art can be related to an expression of the sublime. Novak's characterizations of baroque versus classical modes of expression can also be extended to the twentieth century. Painters like Kandinsky and Pollock, with their active, organic forms may be seen on the side of the baroque, across from the reductive, often architectonic, classicizing tendencies of Malevich, Rothko, Newman, and Martin. Tendencies towards abstraction are also present in much twentieth­ century photography, including work touching on the spiritual in nature. In an absolute sense, little photography deviates from the representational, being based as it is on an image of the real derived through the optics of the camera. Certainly it is possible to produce a photograph whose subject is unrecognizable. The earliest examples are probably the "Vortographs" of Alvin Langton Coburn from 1916,followed by considerable experimentation with abstraction by numerous "New Vision" photographers of the 1920s and 1930s such as Laszlo Moholy­ Nagy. However, for many photographers a more interesting problem has been a tension or reconciliation between the medium's descriptive and abstract possibilities. We can find subjective and objective approaches to the relationship of representation and abstraction. Although these categories are not mutually exclusive, the subjective (sometimes termed romantic) approach emphasizes the inner state of the artist, while the objective (or realist) approach appears to confine itself to a description of external reality. To some extent the subjective approach seems to align itself with more active baroque forms, while the objective approach is often more classical and reductive. Within twentieth-century photography Alfred Stieglitz, Minor White, Aaron Siskind, Harry Callahan, and Thomas Joshua Cooper all seem to fall within the subjective mode, while Wilson Bentley, Karl Blossfeldt, Walker Evans, Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hiroshi Sugimoto, and Richard Misrach appear more objective. The expression of the descriptive yet abstracted photograph as a subjective metaphor probably has its origins in the work of Alfred Stieglitz (1864-1946), perhaps "the central figure in the development of early twentieth-century photography.w Stieglitz had many important roles, not only as a photographer but as a theorizer, writer, publisher, and gallery director. Through his periodical publications, Camera Notes (1897­ 1902) and Camera Work (1903-1917), he played a major role in the fight for recognition of photography as an art form. Central to his thinking was the modernist conviction that photography needed to be appreciated for its 26 Sarah Greenough and Juan Hamilton, AlfredStieglitz: Plwtographs and Writings (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1983), p. 12. 21 own particular qualities as a medium, and that these qualities could best be illuminated by comparison with the most avant-garde art of the time. Through his gallery, 291, he was the first to introduce modernist art to America, exhibiting from 1908-1916 the work of Europeans such as Matisse, Cezanne, Picasso, Picabia, Brancusi, and Braque, and American abstractionists including John Marin, Marsden Hartley, Arthur Dove, and Georgia O'Keeffe. Stieglitz was first introduced to photography through his studies as an engineering student in Berlin in the 1880s under the scientist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel. His photographs in Europe from this time, and in the early years after his return to America in 1890, were decidedly in the vein of the picturesque: quaint genre studies in the mode of earlier English artistic photographers such as Henry Peach Robinson and Peter Henry Emerson. Influenced by the Symbolist movement to explore the subjective possibilities of photography as an expressive medium, by 1902, he had gathered together a group of similarly minded Pictorialist photographers, including Edward Steichen, Frank Eugene, Gertrude Kasebier, and Clarence White, to form the so-called Photo-Secession. Softening of detail is probably the one technique that unites almost all Pictorialist photography, in a legacy passed down from earlier artistic photographers such as Julia Margaret Cameron. Characteristics associated with objective description, such as sharp focus, seemed in their minds to mitigate against the possibility for the medium to express an inner reality - for them a necessary attribute of legitimate artistic expression. Turning away from the factual character of most nineteenth­ century photography, Pictorialists including the photographers of the Photo-Secession investigated the hand manipulative possibilities of photographic processes including gum bichromate, carbon, and platinum printing, to produce self-consciously subjective images which emulated the paintings which they admired. Richly evocative photographs like those of Edward Steichen used a reductive, tonally moody, soft-focus technique to produce images that look more like drawings or etchings than conventional photographs. Edward Steichen, Trees, Long Island, 1905, gum bichromate print. 22 Although Stieglitz actively promoted the work of the Photo-Secessionists in Camera Notes and Camera Work, perhaps due to his exposure to modernist art, his own photographs largely turned away from the Pictorialist approach. While the abstract art of the early twentieth century which Stieglitz exhibited at 291 deviated from the representational in what was termed the "anti-photographic", Stieglitz, in both his writings and his own photography, increasingly came to reject the painterly approach of the Pictorialists. Instead he embraced the formal values of abs tract art within a search for the purely photographic, while still retaining the subjective aspirations of Symbolist art. Recounting the making of his celebrated 1907 image The Steerage, years later,Stieglitz stressed both the formal geometry of the picture and its metaphysical yearnings: 1:7 "A round straw hat, the funnel leaning left, the stairway leaning right, the white draw-bridge with its railings made of circular chains below, round shapes of iron machinery, a mast cutting into the sky, making a triangular shape. I stood spellbound for awhile, looking and looking. Could I photograph what I felt, looking and looking and still looking? I saw shapes related to each other. I saw a picture of shapes and underlying that the feeling I had about life." Alfred Stieglitz, The Steerage, photogravure, 32.0 x 26.7 em. By the twenties Stieglitz also began to see possibilities for photography in the series rather than the individual picture, most notably in his extended composite portrait of Georgia O'Keeffe taken over several decades. While many nineteenth-century photographers published their images as series, each photograph was seen as individual. The Pictorialists also emphasized the individual image. The O'Keeffe portraits stem from Stieglitz's conviction that the human personality was far too complex to be described in a single photograph taken in one instant, and a more fruitful approach to representing this complexity was to build an extended portrait through a series of photographs capturing many moments and aspects of the person over a long period of time. 27 Alfred Stieglitz, "Four Happenings" (1942), reprinted in Nathon Lyons, ed., Photographers on Pltotography (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1966), p. 129. 23 This serial approach is also evident in the various groups of cloud photographs Stieglitz made in the twenties. Stieglitz titled the first series of 1922 "Music: A Sequence of Ten Cloud Photographs", and the 1924 series "Songs of the Sky". Rather than being factual meteorological records, the cloud photographs, like much early abstract painting, take music as their model of an ideal abstract art. "1 wanted a series of cloud photographs which when seen by Ernest Bloch (the great composer) he would exclaim: Music! music! Man, why that is music!"28 Most of these earlier sky pictures still retain a link to traditional landscape photography though, with the horizon often retained within the view and sometimes as much as one third of the picture area showing the earth. With the 1927-29 "Equivalents", however, the horizon has generally been completely eliminated from the images, leaving the viewer floating in a space which has no sense of time, place, direction, gravity, or means of orientation. Detached from any obvious point of reference, the clouds function as abstracted forms. The "musical" mood of the images is set by their generally dark tones and compositional reliance on rhythmic formal patterns. Alfred Stieglitz, Equivalent, 1931, gelatin silver photograph, 11.8 x 9.2 em. While the "Equivalents" were always grouped as series when he exhibited them, they in no way reflect the passage of real time, but rather the changing nuances of Stieglitz's subjective inner state. The "Equivalents" are perhaps Stieglitz's most eloquent expression of the possibility of photography being simultaneously abstract and descriptive, and reflecting both the inner and outer manifestations of reality. 28 Alfred Stieglitz, "How I Came to Photograph Clouds" (1923),reprinted in Photographers on Photography , p. 112. 24 While in no way altering the objective reality