Advances in Life Sciences

(An International Fortnightly Journal) International Advisory Board Dr. A. Coomans, Ex-Professor, State University of Ghent, Belgium Dr. Mannava V.K. Sivakumar, Acting Director, Climate and Water Department (CLW) World Meteorological Organization, Switzerland Dr. Anand Babu Prakasam, Advisor, Ministry of Economic Planning & Development, United Nations Development Programme, Malawi Dr. Zahoor Ahmad, Professor, Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia Advisory Board Dr. M.K.J. Siddiqui, Director and Secretary, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow Dr. C.L.L. Gowda, Director, Grain Legumes Program, ICRISAT, Hyderabad Dr. Ashok Kumar, Vice Chancellor, C.S.J.M. University, Kanpur Dr. A.M.Shekh, Vice Chancellor, Anand Agricultural University, Anand Prof. Dr. Anoop Swarup, Vice Chancellor, JLU, Bhopal Dr. Ram Rajasekharan, Ex-Director, Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants, Lucknow Dr. S. Soloman, Director, Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow Dr. S. K. Raza, Director, Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurgaon Dr. Mohd. Aslam, Director, Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India, New Delhi Dr. N. Nadarajan, Director, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur Editorial Board Chief Editor – Dr. R. Ahmad, Ex – Principal Scientist, Indian Council of Agricultural Research Dr. Huma Mustafa, Joint Director, Council of Science & Technology, U.P., Lucknow Dr. Farooq A. Zaki, Registrar, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar Dr. Akhtar Haseeb, HOD Plant Protection Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. Dr. S.K. Chaturvedi, Head, Department of Crop Improvement, Indian Institute of Pulses Research Institute, Kanpur, U.P. Dr. Mukesh Srivastava, Associate Professor, Plant Pathology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur Dr. Rashid Pervez, Sr. Scientist, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Khozicod, Kerala Dr. K. K. Gaur, Head, Department of Biotechnology, I.I.L.M.,Greater Noida Dr. Iffat Zareen Ahmad, Department, Department of Biotechnology, Integral University, Lucknow Dr. Mohammad Israil Ansari, Associate Professor, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Lucknow Dr. Md. Sultan Ahmad, Deptt of Zoology, Shibli, National College, Azamgarh Sobia Ali, Project Investigator, Zenetic Asia Pvt. Ltd., New Dehli Dr. Devraj, Sr. Scientist, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur Dr. Shamsa Arif (English Editor), Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P. Managing Director, S. Osaid Ali, Biotechnology Research Foundation, Kanpur Corporate Member : Mr. Iftikharul Ameen, Managing Director, Super Tannery Ltd., Kanpur

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Advances in Life Sciences

Volume 6 Number 1 June, 2017

CONTENTS REVIEW PAPER

1. Marigold : A Crop Having Great Medicinal Importance 1 Kulveer Singh Yadav and Bijendra Kumar Singh

2. Biomass Carbon Sequestration Prospective of Forest ecosystem- A Review 4 N. Kanagaraj, R.K. Kaleeswari and M. Tilak

3. Impact of Packaging Materials on Postharvest Quality of Strawberry 9 (Fragaria × Ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler. Bijendra Kumar Singh and Kulveer Singh Yadav

RESEARCH PAPERS

4. Inheritance Study on Phyllody Resistance in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) 14 S.D. Rajput and K.S. Raghuwanshi

5. Effect of PGR on Morpho-Physiological Traits of Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum L.) 17 Utpal Singh Verma, P N Verma, D K Tripathi, Lallu, O P Singh, S N Singh

6. Bio-Efficacy of Different Insecticides Against Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera, 21 Hubner) on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) S.S. Thorat, S.P. Saxena, J.D. Patel and V.G. Sharma

7. Bio-Efficacy and Economics of Different Insecticides Against Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi 24 (Kaltenbech.) on Cauliflower N. M. Patel and P. H. Godhani

8. Correlation Between Weather Parameters and Growth Characters of Ginger Under Different 31 Growing Situations A.A. Shaikh, K.V. Kulkarni, S.V. Bagade and V.A. Sthool

9. Phyllody Resistance in Wide Hybridization of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) 37 S.D. Rajput and K.S. Raghuwanshi

10. Effect of Water Stress on Photosynthetic Characteristics of Green Gram Genotypes 40 (Vigna radiata L) B. Rambabu, V. Padma, Ramesh Thatikunta and N. Sunil

11. Effect of Field Weathered Insecticide Residues on Mortality of Honeybees, Apis mellifera 43 Linnaeus V. Ratnakar, S.R. Koteswara Rao, D. Sridevi and B. Vidyasagar

12. Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) 47 A. Naveen, M.A. Alam, C.J.Wesley and V. Singh 13. Effect of Chemical and Natural Agents on Physico-chemical Properties of Fruits and 56 Vegetables B. Naveena and Genitha Immanuel

14. Studies on Drying Characteristics of Spinach Leaves 62 M. Karthik Varenya, B. Jithender and K. Lavanya

15. Genetic and Diversity Studies in Late Sown Exotic and Indigenous Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) 68 Germplasm Banoth Vinesh, L.C. Prasad and Ravindra Prasad

16. Response of Aquacrop Model to Different Irrigation Levels and Emitter Discharge Rates 74 for Tomato Prasanna Guda, G. Manoj Kumar, M. Srinivasulu and S.D. Hussian

17. Performance Evaluation of Low Cost Automated Drip Irrigation System on Sweet Corn 79 B. Naveena, M. Vineela, Ch.V. Veena, G.A.V. Lakshmi, G. Ravi Babu

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Instruction to Author Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 01-03, 2017

REVIEW PAPER Marigold : A Crop Having Great Medicinal Importance KULVEER SINGH YADAV AND BIJENDRA KUMAR SINGH Department of Horticulture, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh email: [email protected]

In India, marigold is one of the most commonly grown Medicinal uses such as antibiotic, cancer, cathartic, flowers and used extensively on religious and social diuretic, emetic, expectorant, poultice, tonic, and warts are functions in different forms. It was introduced in India reported by both traditional medical practitioners and during the 16th century and since then it has been naturalized modern medical doctors. It is used in treating joint pains, in different agro-climatic regions of India in such a way burns, scalds, and as a warts remover with leaf juice. Flowers that it now appears to be native of this country. It has are used for mucilaginousness, tonic, burns, and scalds. gained popularity amongst gardeners and flower dealer on The prepared juice has been used for dyeing finger and account of its easy culture and wide acceptability. Further toenails. The seed contains 27% of viscous oil. Most it’s habit of profuse flowering, short duration to produce medicinal herbal tea, especially marigold tea has a certain marketable flowers, wide spectrum of attractive colours, medicinal property which calms the brain wave to normal shape, size and good keeping quality attracted the attention form and repels the negative energy even in a short period of producers and traders most. Therefore, the commercial of time. This means that marigold is effective to some viral cultivation of this crop found its way in the vicinity of diseases, too, just like that of PYRO-ENERGEN machine. different cities and towns. Marigold is native of Central Importance and South America, especially Mexico. From Mexico it spread to different parts of the world during early part of The essential oil from Tagetes erecta flowers has been the 16th century. Marigolds are broadly divided into two used in high class perfumery and also acts as anti- groups, namely, African Marigold and French Marigold. haemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, The farmers generally grow taller and the latter is a dwarf astringent, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. The oil is very type. Both leaves and flower are equally important from valuable in aromatherapy for its powerful skin healing medicinal point of view. Leaf-paste is used externally against effects and also possesses fly repellant properties. Marigold boils and carbuncles. Leaf extract is good remedy for varieties have pesticidal value as they destroy ground pests earache. Flower extract is considered as blood purifier, a particularly nematodes. The genus is also recognized as a cure for bleeding piles and is also a good remedy for eye potential source of very interesting biologically active diseases and ulcers. The essential oil present in different products viz. carotenoids that are currently being used as species of Tagetes can find a use in the perfume industry food colorants, nutritional supplements and poultry feed (Bose, 1999). additives and in ophthalmology for the treatment of age related ocular diseases viz. cataract and dry age related There are many kinds of marigolds, with yellow and macular degeneration (ARMD). Several species of the orange colors and various sizes from an inch to about 3 genus Tagetes find tremendous application as per the feet high. Even the smell varies depending on the type and traditional database for the treatment of various ailments the place of growth. In Japan, marigold is called and diseases. “Howsenka”. Japanese use it for garden decoration, or as an ornamental use or Ikebana. Its flower adds in tea for African marigold (Tagetes erecta) petals are flavor. The seeds and leaves are not only edible, but did commercially valuable as a natural source of lutein (yellow- you know that these are also used for medicinal purposes orange pigment) and are primarily being used by the poultry not only by traditional healers but also by modern medical industries as feed additives to color egg yolks orange and groups and drug companies. In Hong Kong, Korea and poultry skin yellow. The orange egg yolks are generally Japan, used to drink marigold flower tea to soothe considered as healthy by the consumers in comparison to indigestion. Leaves and seeds are used to treat practically the colorless bland products and therefore there arises a everything from insomnia to stomach cramps and cancer considerable need for the inclusion of these pigments as diseases. feed additives in order to attain the desired color since birds lack the ability to synthesize them. Lutein is the According to an ancient Chinese medical book of primary xanthophyll pigment that produces the orange color botanical herbs, marigold was one of the top leading plants in marigold flowers, roughly comprising of 90% of the total which medicinal properties can be extracted. Today, with pigments from the petals. Additionally, marigold has been modern medical science, doctors believe that marigolds most commonly used by the poultry industries to augment have some miracle negligence in it, because marigold tea the xanthophyll present in corn and alfalfa feed to can work on prevention of AIDS, diabetes, cancer and so standardize the feed’s xanthophyll content. Poultry uses on. carotenoids for pigmentation as the color of poultry skin is According to some magazines, farmers plant provided by these pigments and they are also involved in marigolds together with other plants, because it is effective growth metabolism and fertility. Some carotenoids even to repel harmful insects in vegetable gardens. serve as precursors for the synthesis of vitamin-A while 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 some provide protection against damaging reactions in the emmenagogue, diaphoretic and sedative. The decoction of body, acting as physiological antioxidants and thereby the flower heads has been used for treating burns. C. enhancing immune responses. Carotenoids are required by officinalis Linn also it has been traditionally used in the the immune system where they act as detoxifiers neutralizing treatment of inflammations of internal organs, free radicals before they damage DNA, lipids & proteins. gastrointestinal ulcers and dysmenorrhea and as a diuretic Poultry cannot synthesize these compounds and must and diaphoretic in convulsions (Abbasi, 2010). The dried obtain carotenoids from their diets. The amount and flower heads have been used for their antipyretic, antitumor availability of carotenoids in poultry feed ingredients and cicatrizing effects. Topical application of infusion of fluctuate considerably and it has therefore been a common flowers is used as antifungal and antiseptic in wounds, practice by the poultry industries to add carotenoids to the marks, freckles, sprain and conjunctivitis (Ukiya, 2006). feed to assure the necessary amount of pigments in order Calendula tea is used as eyewashes, gargles, diaper rashes to achieve the desired color (Gupta, 2014). and other inflammatory conditions of the skin and mucous Medicinal Impotence membranes. Mother tincture of C. officinalis is used in homoeopathy for the treatment of mental tension and Marigold is chiefly used as a local remedy. Its action insomnia. In traditional and homoeopathic medicine, C. is stimulant and diaphoretic. Given internally, it assists local officinalis has been used for poor eyesight, menstrual action and prevents suppuration. The infusion of 1 ounce irregularities, varicose veins, hemorrhoids and duodenal to a pint of boiling water is given internally, in doses of a ulcers (Kasiram, 2000). In the middle ages, Calendula table spoonful and externally as a local application. It is flowers were used for liver obstructions, snake bites and to useful in chronic ulcer, varicose veins, etc. It has been strengthen the heart. It was used in the 18th century as a asserted that a Marigold flower, rubbed on the affected remedy for headache, jaundice and red eyes. The plant was part, is an admirable remedy for the pain and swelling caused employed in the civil war to treat wounds and as a remedy by the sting of a wasp or bee. A lotion made from the flowers for measles, smallpox and jaundice (Cetkovic, 2004). is most useful for sprains and wounds, and a water distilled from them is good for inflamed and sore eyes. An infusion Alternative and Complementary Medicinal Uses of the freshly gathered flowers is employed in fevers, as it Among the various species of the genus Calendula, gently promotes perspiration and throws out any eruption C. officinalis is the only one, which is extensively used a decoction of the flowers is much in use in country districts clinically throughout the world. The plant is listed in German to bring out smallpox and measles, in the same manner as Commission, European Scientific Cooperative on Saffron. Marigold flowers are in demand for children’s Phytotherapy, British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, World Health ailments. The leaves when chewed at first communicate a Organization monographs for wound healing and anti- viscid sweetness, followed by a strong penetrating taste of inflammatory actions. The essential oil of the plant is used a saline nature. The expressed juice, which contains the for soothing central nervous system and as a wound healer greater part of this pungent matter, has been given in cases (Wynn, 2007). C. officinalis preparations currently in use of costiveness and proved very efficacious. Snuffed up include carophyllenic ointment (containing carotenoids the nose it excites sneezing and a discharge of mucous extracted from the flowers) and pot marigold tincture. It is from the head. The leaves, eaten as a salad, have been one of the constituents of proprietary homoeopathic considered useful in the scrofula of children, and the acrid medicine Traumeel, used for treating the symptoms qualities of the plant have caused it to be recommended as associated with acute musculoskeletal injuries including an extirpator of warts. A yellow dye has also been extracted pain and swelling (Miliauskas, 2004). Otikon otic solution from the flower, by boiling. and naturopathic herbal extract ear drops solution, ear drop Arora et al. (2013) noticed that Calendula species formulations of naturopathic origin containing Calendula having traditional uses and clinical potential. The review is flowers have been reported to be effective for the intended to attract the attention of natural product management of otalgia associated with acute otitis media researchers throughout the world to focus on the unexplored in children (Schneider, 2011). potential of the Calendula species. This genus needs to Internal Uses be investigated systematically so that potential species can  It improves blood circulation and balances female be exploited as therapeutic agents. The review has been reproductive systems with its estrogenic effect for compiled using references from major databases such as example in cases of painful or scanty menstruation. Chemical Abstracts, Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Abstracts, PubMed, King’s American Dispensatory,  Detoxifies the digestive system, helping to heal viral Henriette’s Herbal Homepage, Duke’s Phytochemical and inflammations, candida, gastritis and peptic ulcers Ethnobotany. The available information on Calendula has with its antibacterial and antifungal actions. been divided into six sections, i.e., ethnopharmacology,  It is a safe diuretic that will aid in detoxifying the morphology and microscopy, phytoconstituents, urinary tract and purifies the lymphatic and immune pharmacological reports, clinical studies and toxicology. systems as it builds them up. General Medicinal Use  Helps to treat disfunctions of the liver and gallbladder and will clear, cool, and detoxify the digestive system Field marigold (C. arvensis Linn.) has been used as and relieves colitis. disinfectant, antispasmodic and diuretic. In Spain, the leaves are considered sudorific. Traditionally, it is used as an  It stimulates the cells that protect the body from YADAV and SINGH, Marigold : A Crop Having Great Medicinal Importance 3

infection and soothing for sore throats, toothaches, LITERATURE CITED and cold sores. Abbasi, A.M., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Jahan, S. and Sultana, S. 2010.  It is having antiseptic actions will speed up recovery Ethnopharmacological application of medicinal plants to cure from measles and mumps. skin diseases and in folk cosmetics among the tribal communities of North-West Frontier Province. Pakistan Journal External Uses Ethnopharmacol, 128: 322-335.  Healing wounds, cuts, scrapes, lacerations, small Arora, D., Rani, A. and Sharma, A. 2013. A review on phytochemistry infections of the skin, animal bites, scratches, and and ethnopharmacological aspects of genus Calendula. scars. Pharmacognosy Review, 7(14): 179–187.  Anti-inflammatory, reducing swelling and irritation, Bose, T. K. 1999. Floriculture and landscaping. Naya Prokash, pp. soothing the treated areas also having Antimicrobial 361-362. properties. Cetkovic, G.S., Djilas, S.M., Brunet, J.M. and Tumbas, V.T. 2004 Antioxidant properties of marigold extracts. Food Research,  Calendula ointment applied to varicose veins twice 37: 643-50. daily for about three weeks can improve or clear them genus Calendula. Pharmacognosy Reviews, 7(14): 179–187. completely. Gupta, P (2014) Carotenoids of Therapeutic Significance from  Appling marigold ointment and/or powder to bed/ Marigold. Natural Products Chemistry and Research, 2(6): 1-2. pressure sores regularly can treat and may even Kasiram, K., Sakharkar, P. and Patil, A. 2000. Antifungal activity of prevent them if used before the skin breaks down Calendula officinalis. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical that far. Sciences, 62: 464-466.  Marigold ointment is a safe and effective treatment Miliauskas, G., Venskutonis, P.R. and Van Beek, T.A. 2004. Screening for diaper rash, and used together with fresh air, it is of radical scavenging activity of some medicinal and aromatic a wonderful solution to an age-old problem. Marigold plant extracts. Food Chemistry, 85: 231-237. powder has also been used as a replacement for baby Schneider, C. 2011.Traumeel: An emerging option to nonsteroidal powder, as its healing properties go far beyond anti-inflammatory drugs in the management of acute anything that talc can do. musculoskeletal injuries. International Journal of Medicine, 4: 225-234.  Great for treating bruises, ideal for treating sunburn Ukiya, M., Akihisa, T., Yasukawa, K., Tokuda, H., Suzuki, T. and and other first degree burns and Soothing to insect Kimura, Y. 2006. Antiinflammatory, antitumorpromoting, and bites and stings. cytotoxic activities of constituents of marigold (Calendula officinalis) flowers. J. Nat. Prod., 69:1692-1696. Wynn, S.G. and Fougere, B. 2007. Veterinary Herbal Medicine. Elsevier, pp. 501-503.

Received on 01-05-2017 Accepted on 09-06-2017 Advances4 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 04-08, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

REVIEW PAPER Biomass Carbon Sequestration Prospective of Forest ecosystem- A Review N. KANAGARAJ, R.K. KALEESWARI AND M. TILAK Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam, Tamil Nadu *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Experimental validity showed that carbon is stored for long periods of time in living biomass and soil. Numerous studies Forest cover more than one third of the world’s land area have established the fact about carbon sequestration by and comprise the major terrestrial carbon pool. Forestry trees could provide relatively low cost net emission has been recognized as a means to reduce CO emissions 2 reductions (Dixon et al., 1995). Forest inventory data are as well as enhancing carbon sinks. The purpose of this valuable resources in forest carbon research because they paper is to critically review the role of forest in carbon provide true ground based estimates of carbon stock and sequestration, carbon sequestration potential of Indian fluxes across heterogeneous regions and are statistically forest. This paper presents the various studies on above representative of land use changes and disturbances ground, below ground biomass carbon and allometric (Brown and Schroeder, 1999). Deforestation can contribute models to estimate carbon sequestration potential of forest. to large volume of carbon to atmosphere either by reducing The present study provides important data useful for the amount stored in above ground biomass or increasing carbon stock monitoring program at national as well as the oxidation of soil organic carbon. Currently, global global level. deforestation is 15 x 106 ha annually and releasing 1.6 x 1015 g C annually to the atmosphere (Paladinic et al., 2009). Key words Carbon, Forest, Biomass Forest and carbon sequestration Forests act as carbon reservoirs by storing large Greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere amounts of carbon in trees, under storey vegetation, forest and causing climate change. Scientist, policy makers, and floor and soil (Rotter and Danish, 2002). It has been proved citizens are trying to determine how to decrease and that the land of forest stock is highest and also higher in possibly reverse the emission of greenhouse gases, soil organic carbon of other land use system. The goal of especially carbon dioxide (CO ). Carbon sequestration, a 2 reducing carbon sources and increasing the carbon sink process where CO is pulled from the atmosphere and stored 2 can be achieved efficiently by protecting and conserving for a long period of time, may be one way to slow or reverse the carbon pools in existing forests. Forests in the Northern the accumulation of CO in the earth’s atmosphere. 2 Hemisphere have been estimated to sequester up to 0.7 GT Terrestrial sequestration utilizes natural processes in of carbon annually, which accounts for almost 10 per cent ecosystems to absorb CO from the atmosphere and store 2 of current global fossil fuel carbon emissions (Goodale et it in trees and soil. Carbon storage in forest ecosystems al., 2002). Forests are often called lungs of the earth, involves numerous components including biomass carbon because forest acts as an indicator of environmental quality and soil carbon. As more photosynthesis occurs, more CO 2 and contribute to sustainable development in a stable and is converted into biomass, reducing carbon in the productive environment (Colmore, 2003). It stores about 60 atmosphere and sequestering it in plant tissue above and per cent of all above ground and 40 per cent of all below below ground resulting in growth of different parts (Chavan ground terrestrial organic carbon (IPCC, 2001). and Rasal, 2010). Biomass production in different forms plays important role in carbon sequestration in trees Overall, forest ecosystems store 20-100 times more C (Chavan and Rasal, 2012). Above Ground Biomass, Below per unit area than croplands. Hence, forest play a critical role in reducing ambient CO levels, thereby increasing the Ground Biomass, Dead Wood, Litter, and Soil Organic 2 Matter are the major carbon pools in any ecosystem (IPCC, SOC content (Brown and Pearce, 1994). Several studies 2006). This document will act as carbon inventory databank have indicated that the global potential for enhancing for the carbon sequestration projects. carbon storage in forest and agricultural ecosystems may be as much as 60-90 penta grams of carbon (De Jong et al., Basis of carbon sequestration 2000). The trees themselves can store carbon as they grow Biomass and carbon storage has been considered and forests can transfer carbon from the atmosphere to the equally important parameters, as they indicate health of soil (Clement et al., 2000). forests or plantations and will mitigate climatic change (UN Carbon sequestration potential of Indian forests FAO, 2003). The amounts of carbon stored in a forest contribute for reduction in the global warming pressure. Fast growing short rotation tree species with regular Carbon is the essential building block of all living life and leaf shedding patterns have more capacity for carbon all biological substance is based upon compounds, in which sequestration through litter production which decomposes carbon is the predominant component combined with other more rapidly than species with annual or bimodal leaf elements. The idea of carbon sequestration emerged in shedding patterns (Raizada et al., 2003). Carbon eighties due to the consequences of steadily rising level of management in forest is one of the most important agenda carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Dhruba, 2008). in India on 21st century for a context of green house gases KANAGARAJ et al., Biomass Carbon Sequestration Prospective of Forest Ecosystem- A Review 5 effect and mitigation of global climate changes (Khurana, Harvesting trees and weighing their components is 2012). Melkania (2009) indicated that Indian forests store time-consuming and most local allometric models 1,083.81 Mt C (wood only) in 1994 and 3,907.67 Mt C (above encompassed only a small number of trees, likely not to and belowground material) in 1993. In forest soil, total C reflect the full tree size distribution (Chave et al., 2005). The storage is estimated to be 9,815.95 Mt C as per 1994 forest use of generic models may introduce errors in biomass stock stands in 19 tree species. The current productivity of the estimates (Melson et al., 2011) and site-specific models Indian forest is very poor and ranges between 0.7 – 1.5 m3 showed less bias in biomass estimates than generic ones. ha-1 yr-1, so that the present goal of Indian forestry is to Depending on the model used, individual tree above ground increase the growth for long time carbon storage (Gupta, biomass (AGB) can vary by as much as a factor two (Basuki 2009). et al., 2009), introducing considerable uncertainties in forest Over the last two decades, progressive national biomass stocks computation (Laumonier et al., 2010). forestry legislations and policies in India aimed at Height and diameter relationship (H–DBH) greatly conservation and sustainable management of forests have varies among forest types and regions. Hence, at sites where reversed deforestation and have transformed India’s forests no data were used to calibrate the generic models and with into a significant net sink of CO2 resource. The carbon stocks different H–DBH relationship, only generic models stored in our forests and trees have increased from 6,245 mt accounting for both H and DBH are expected to give reliable to 6,662 mt, registering an annual increment of 38 mt of results. Globally, accounting for tree height resulted in more carbon or 138 mt of CO2 equivalent from1995 to 2005 (MOEF, accurate estimate of biomass at both tree and plot levels

2009). National estimates show that the annual CO2 removals (Feldpausch et al., 2011). by India’s forest and tree cover is enough to neutralize Above ground biomass carbon 11.25 per cent of India’s total green house gas emissions Performance of five year old coppice plants of (CO2 equivalent) at 1994 levels, the carbon stocks in India’s forest and tree cover continue to increase at the historical Dalbergia sissoo was evaluated for biomass carbon rate of the last decade (0.6 per cent per annum). Kaul et al. production and coppice shoots produced a total of 13.52 -1 (2010 ) indicated that the Indian forest sector acted as a Mg ha aboveground biomass carbon with maximum small source of carbon during the period 1982 to 1992 with contribution of stem wood (9.84 Mg ha-1), followed by -1 -1 the annual net carbon flux due to land use changes estimated branch wood (2.92 Mg ha ) and leaf (0.781 Mg ha ) at the -1 as 5.65 Tg Cyr”1 density of 2406 coppice stems ha (Goel and Sing, 2008). Biomass assessment Kumar et al. (2009) has estimated carbon content of various tree species namely, Acacia nilotica (46.6 per cent), On the global scale forest biomass estimation has Acacia leucophloea (44.4 per cent), Prosopis cineraria received more attention in recent years because the change (43.4 per cent), Tectona grandis (41.2 per cent), Cassia of biomass regionally is associated with vital compounds fistula (39.8 per cent), Butea monosperma (38.6 per cent) of climate change. Forest biomass determines the potential and Sterculia urens (37.8 per cent) found in deciduous carbon emission that could be released to the atmosphere forest. However, in plantation, Chauhan et al. (2010) found due to deforestation or conversion to non forest land use that highest tree stem carbon storage was in Arcocarpus (Lu et al., 2002). Therefore, understanding the rates at which fraxinifolius (6.05 t ha-1) and lowest was in Syzguim cumini different forest ecosystems change, grow, and add biomass (0.73 t ha-1). is important in developing more accurate estimates of factors Suhas et al. (2012) found that 3-5 year old plantation contributing to changes in the atmosphere concentration adds about 4000 kg biomass per tree per year, which was of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (Kasischke, equivalent to 1450 kg C ha-1. The carbon content was 1997). fractionated in to leaves, twigs and stem with the carbon Using Allometric model for Biomass estimation value of 800 kg C ha-1, 150 kg C ha-1 and 495 kg C ha-1, Carbon stock includes aboveground biomass respectively. The standing Jatropha rendered ecosystem -1 measurements as an essential aspect (Ketterings et al., service by fixing 5100 to 6100 kg ha C as the aboveground 2001). Forest biomass can be determined either by direct plus belowground biomass. Carbon additions by Jatropha methods or by indirect methods. Direct methods or during 4 years increased C content in the degraded surface -1 destructive methods involve felling of trees to determine soil layer by 19 per cent, resulting in about 2500 kg ha C biomass (Salazar et al., 2010). Destructive techniques for sequestered. Uri et al. (2012) found that among different biomass estimation are time consuming and expensive due tree species leaf biomass was lower in younger stand and to the large dimensions and the amounts of biomass that among the different components of tree, stem stores more have to be processed and also against conservation (Verwijst carbon followed by branches and leaves. They also revealed and Telenius, 1999). Indirect means of estimation of forest that C accumulation was increased with age. Karthick and biomass are based on allometric equations, using tree Pragasan (2014) determined the above-ground biomass inventory data (Brown et al., 1989). Allometric relationship (AGB) of two plantations, eucalyptus plantation and mixed is the most preferred method since it yields a non-destructive species plantation. In the campus of Bharathiar University, and indirect measurement of biomass components and it Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. eucalyptus plantation had greater -1 also consumes less time and less expensive (Nath et al., AGB value 41.78 t ha when compared to the mixed 1 2009). plantation which had 34.47 t ha- . 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Carbon content in below ground biomass Biomass production of horticultural and silvicultural species Estimates of the carbon contents used in past studies was higher in agroforestry plots as compared to respective control plot. P. cineraria showed the highest biomass (14.02 have generally ranged from 45 to 50 per cent of biomass in United States (Houghten et al., 1985). Root biomass is often kg per tree) and Z. mauritiana tree (2.07 kg per tree) lowest estimated from root and shoot ratio (R/S). More than 160 biomass in agroforestry system, whereas biomass was one studies covering tropical, temperate and boreal forests and half time low in sole tree plot (control). Maximum reported that the R/S ratio did not vary significantly with reduction was in A. excelsa tree. Carbon content (per cent) was highest in leaf and lowest in roots. Miria et al., (2015) latitudinal zone such as tropical, temperate and boreal forests or tree type. Greater attention needs to be given to studied that carbon storage in selected multipurpose trees Pondicherry. The resulted that wood stored the higher measure the coarse and butt roots, which accounts 70 per -1 - cent of the root biomass (Cairns et al., 1997). carbon (56.38 mg g ), leaf stored the minimum (53.27 mg g 1) and bark had a medium storage (54.06 mg g-1). Singh et al. (2006) found that total carbon storage of Dendrocalamus strictus plantation to be 96.35 t ha-1. Out of Biomass Estimation of Natural forest this, below ground was 26 per cent and above ground was Ramachandran et al., (2007) reported carbon stock of 74 per cent. Coarse root biomass increased with stand age Kolli hills, the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, using geospatial from 7.9 Mg ha-1 in 6 year old stand to 40.2 Mg ha-1 in 60 technology. The total biomass, both above and below year old stand and the root-shoot ratio decreased in Silver ground, was calculated and the total biomass of Evergreen Birch stands drastically between 6 and 14 years but forest- 307.302 t ha,-1 Deciduous forest-51.621t ha-1, stabilized later. Carbon accumulation in the belowground Secondary deciduous -241.773 t ha-1 and Southern thorn- tree biomass of Silver Birch stands varied between 4.0 Mg 65.960 t ha.-1 Keith et al., (2009) identified that the factors ha-1and 19.8 Mg ha-1 being the highest in the 60 year old which was account for high biomass carbon densities, stand and the C accumulated in below ground biomass including relatively cool temperatures and moderately high accounted to be 3-4 per cent of the total C storage in young precipitation producing rates of fast growth but slow forest ecosystem and 9.5-11.00 per cent in the middle aged decomposition. Pragasan (2014) determined aboveground and mature stands (Arias et al., 2011). biomass of trees in the Pachaimalai forest of the Eastern Cooper (1983) found that proportion of below to above Ghats in India. A sum of 5388 trees representing 131 species ground biomass can vary from 16 to 34 per cent. Vogt et al. were recorded. The total aboveground biomass stock for (1996) reported that the below ground portion of boreal the 12 ha sampled was 608.2 tonnes. The average biomass forest tree biomass varied from 19 to 39 per cent and in the value per transect was 25.3±5.6 t/0.5 ha, and it ranged from cold temperate zone from 13-28 per cent. However, the root 4.2 to 103.5 t/0.5 ha. Among the 131 species, Nothopegia biomass is difficult to measure and time consuming in any heyneana (Anacardiaceae) contributed the maximum (19.1 forest ecosystem and methods are generally not been per cent) to the total forest biomass followed by Canthium standardized (Kurtz et al., 1999). dicoccum var. dicoccum, Albizia amara, Gyrocarpus asiaticus and Schleichera oleosa. Total biomass carbon Chheng et al., (2016) analyzed inventory data from The ability of the plantations to sequester carbon 179 sample plots in semi-evergreen forests of three has assumed greater significance, since carbon provinces in Cambodia. Analysis of relative carbon stocks sequestration projects in developing nations could receive (RCS) suggested that Lagerstroemia calyculata Kurz (14.3 investments from governments wishing to offset their per cent), Syzygium sp. (6.8 per cent), Shorea vulgaris (5.0 emissions of green house gases through the Kyoto per cent), Irvingia malayana (4.8 per cent), Anisoptera Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (Fearnside, costata (4.6 per cent), Vatica astrotricha (4.2 per cent), and 1999). Dehaasia cuneata Blume (3.8 per cent) together accounted Ulman and Avudainayagam (2014) studied that the for 43.6 per cent of the total average carbon stocks of carbon storage potential of Eucalyptus tereticornis 99.8 MgC ha”1. plantations (one to four years old) was estimated. The CONCLUSION carbon concentration in different parts of the tree for all aged plantation was found in decreasing order: stem > root Sustainable forestry is positively contributing to the > branch > leaf. Carbon content of litter showed that the carbon sequestration and is an important management tool lowest return was from the youngest and highest return is combating climate change. International agreements to was from the oldest stand. The carbon content was found regulate carbon emissions such as the Kyoto Protocol to be 38.10 t ha1 (one year plantation) and 115.88 t ha-1 (four recognise the importance of forests as carbon sinks. The year plantation). area of forest this is taken into account when deriving Singh and Singh (2015) compared carbon national targets for allowable emissions. The documents accumulation in tree biomass in a six year old agri-silvi- referenced in this study explain the basis of carbon horti system in Rajasthan. Silvicultural species were sequestration, the amount of carbon being sequestered by Prosopis cineraria, Ailanthus excelsa and forests. This study tool will be useful in optimization of Colophospermum mopane along with Zizyphus carbon sequestration projects to international agencies and mauritiana, Cordia myxa and Emblica officinalis individual countries. horticultural species planted alternate plant to each other. KANAGARAJ et al., Biomass Carbon Sequestration Prospective of Forest Ecosystem- A Review 7

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Received on 29-05-2017 Accepted on 20-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 09-13, 2017

REVIEW PAPER Impact of Packaging Materials on Postharvest Quality of Strawberry (Fragaria × Ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler. BIJENDRA KUMAR SINGH AND KULVEER SINGH YADAV

Department of Horticulture, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT viz. sugars, acids and aromatic compounds. The strawberry Strawberry fruits require appropriate storage technology fruit contains 0.55% total sugar and 0.85% to 0.95% the to maintain post harvest quality. In order to improve the prominent citric acid. Strawberry is a non-climacteric fruit shelf-life and to reduce the decrease of qualitative and and it must be harvested at full maturity to achieve the nutraceutical characteristics the effects of different maximum quality in relation to flavour and colour. The fruits have short shelf life and are highly perishable, with a high packaging conditions were observed comparing bio-based rate of respiration, and suffer relatively high post-harvest and polypropylene perforated films. Field experiment was losses due to fungal development, mechanical injury, conducted during winter season at the Horticulture physiological deterioration and water loss (Cordenunsi et Research Farm, analyzed in the Laboratory, to study in al., 2005). The main characteristics related to the quality of impact of packaging materials on postharvest quality of ripe strawberry fruit are texture, flavour (soluble sugars Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler. and organic acids) and colour (anthocyanin content). The experiment was laid out in Complete Randomized Change in texture is a consequence of the natural process Block Design. Sample units of 2.5 kg strawberries cv. of senescence and also of the atmosphere in which the Chandler flow packed have been stored under two different fruit is stored. Modified atmosphere, which can be produced conditions, in cool room at +2°C for 96 hours (like in an by increasing CO level while reducing O , has yielded good ideal supply chain) and in a cool room at +2°C for 48 hours 2 2 results regarding strawberry preservation. Effective control followed by storage at room temperature (+20°C) up to 96 of fruit decay in fresh strawberry and blueberry has been hours from start. Fruits packed with bio-based film and obtained by cold storage in combination with carbon stored at +2°C showed the better results to preserve the dioxide-enriched atmospheres (10–20% CO ) (Shen and qualitative traits maintaining the best headspace 2 Huang, 2003). Besides the control of O2 and CO2 levels composition for all the storage time. inside the cool rooms also other methods are used to extend the shelf life period and among them the detection of new Key words Impact, Packaging Materials, Postharvest food packaging techniques is gaining many importance, Quality Strawberry, Fragaria × Ananassa following the increasing interest of the large scale retail Duch., cv. Chandler. trade about the fruits and vegetables packaging, useful to preserve products by external contaminations, to facilitate Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) belongs to their handling and overall helpful to retard the senescence the family Rosaceae. The cultivated strawberry (Fragaria processes. Many studies have been aimed to find the best × ananassa Duch.) was originated from the hybridization kind of food packaging optimizing the O2 and CO 2 of two American species viz., Fragaria chilioensis Duch. concentrations inside the packages to maintain fruit and and Fragaria verginiana Duch. All the cultivated varieties vegetable quality for long time (Gomes et al., 2010). of strawberry are octaploid (2n = 8x = 56) yet Indian Moreover actually the trend in the food packaging leads to strawberry (Fragaria × vesca Duch.) is diploid (2n=28) in the development and diffusion of bio-based films to solve nature. It is herbaceous crop with prostate growth habit, the problem of the packaging waste that is causing which behaves as an annual in sub-tropical region and increasing environmental concerns (Davis and Song, 2006). perennial in temperate region. Strawberry is used as fresh Some studies have compared the effect of bio-based fruit being rich in vitamin C and ellagic acid, which has anti laminates and films on the quality of fresh produce (Del cancerous property. It is a valuable food in the diet of millions of people around the globe. It is worthy to note Nobile et al., 2006) but until now very few information’s are that among all the fruits, strawberry gives high returns in available on the effectiveness of bio-based film packaging the short time. The strawberry is a fruit characterized by an on microbial and physico-chemical quality during storage excellent aroma and a sweet taste. Fruits are attractive with of fruits (Koide and Shi, 2007). The objective of our study distinct pleasant aroma and flavour, consumed as dessert was to investigate the effects of film packaging and storage and also have a special demand by the fruit processing temperature on physical and nutritional status of strawberry units for the preparation of jams, ice cream, syrups etc. The fruits cv. chandler harvested at the red ripe stage of maturity taste of fruit mainly depends on three different compounds stored for a short time (96 hours). 1 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 1. Different packages and storage conditions of strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler.

Treatment Storage conditions Film packaging O2 at 23°C and Co2 at 23°C and 50% RH 50% RH A +2°C Bio based 2000 44000 (24, 48, 72, 96 h) (from starch corn) B +2°C Perforated - - (24, 48, 72, 96 h) (PP with 6 mm holes) C +2°C Control - - (24, 48, 72, 96 h) (unpackaged) D +2°C (48 h) +20°C (72, 96 h) Bio-based 2000 44000 (from starch corn) E +2°C (48h) +20°C (72, 96 h) Perforated - - (PP with 6 mm holes) F +2°C (48 h) +20°C (72, 96 h) Control - - (unpackaged)

MATERIALS AND METHODS unpackaged samples (control). The initial gas composition in the package headspace was 20.8% O and 0.03% CO . Strawberries cv. chandler were manually harvested at 2 2 the red ripe stage of maturity from a field experiment was The gases analysis and weight losses were performed daily while other quality controls were performed after 72 and 96 conducted during winter season at the Horticulture Research Farm, analyzed in the Laboratory, to study in hours of storage. For each treatment were used three baskets impact of packaging materials on postharvest quality of random (7.5 g fruits). Headspace composition were measured with a portable gas analyzer and expressed as Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler. The experiment was laid out in Complete Randomized Block percentages. The same air volume was maintained in the Design. The fruits were selected for colour and size, packages across the trial period, as the analyzer introduced the same quantity of air that it removed for the analyses. individually picked in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) baskets (2.5 kg) and immediately transferred to the Calibration was done by using air (Aday and Caner, 2011). laboratory under cold conditions. The baskets were Weight loss of each basket was measured as percentage of the initial weight (WL %) using an electronic balance. The randomly packed using two different single layer films (bio- based film and a polypropylene perforated film) of 25 total soluble solids content (TSS) (°Brix) and titratable microns. The different packages (treatment), the film acidity (TA) (%) were measured on juice extracted from a strawberry samples blended at high speed in a tissue permeability property and the fruits storage conditions are reported in Table I. All fruits were compared with homogenizer using respectively a digital hand refractometer

Table 2. Headspace composition of strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler stored with the bio-based film at different temperature and WL (%) with different film.

Gas (%) Treatment Storage Time (hours) 24 48 72 96

O2 A 19.4 13.7 18.3 17.2 D 19.0 13.7 16.8 15.0

Co2 A 1.8 3.9 4.9 4.5 D 1.8 3.9 5.0 7.0 WL (%) A 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 B 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.1 C 2.0 2.6 2.2 1.6 D 2.6 1.1 1.1 1.1 E 2.7 1.1 1.4 1.2 F 2.4 1.5 - -

SINGH and YADAV, Impact of Packaging Materials on Postharvest Quality of Strawberry (Fragaria × Ananassa Duch.) 1 1

Table 3. Changes in total soluble solids, titratable acidity and total carbohydrates of strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler stored in different conditions Hours Treatment TSS TA Fructose Glucose Sucrose (0Brix) (%) (g/100ml) (g/100ml) (g/100ml) 72 A 8.5 1.42 6.92 6.57 3.28 B 9.3 1.39 6.88 6.30 3.71 C 8.7 1.37 6.97 5.67 2.60 D 8.1 1.39 7.01 6.35 3.44 E 8.4 1.31 6.84 5.73 1.86 F - - - - 96 A 9.1 1.36 6.50 5.45 1.60 B 8.8 1.28 6.52 5.75 2.00 C 8.0 1.00 6.00 5.00 1.88 D 8.5 1.41 6.28 5.95 2.61 E 7.2 0.85 5.75 4.85 1.55 F - - - - - and an automatic titration. Organic acids and ascorbic acid colour software. All measurements were done in triplicate. were determined using 2, 6-dichlorophenol-indophenol Three measurements were taken on each treatment for each through visual titration method 10 g sample was taken and qualitative parameter considered. The data obtained were volume was made up to 100 mL with 3% metaphosphoric treated with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and acid and filtered with filter paper. 10 mL of this aliquot extract the means were separated using the “T” test (P d” 0.05). It of the sample was titrated with the standard dye to the pink was possible to perform parametric tests for the percentages end- point which persisted for 15 seconds (Schirra et al., because the sample sizes were identical. 2008 and Chinnici et al. 2005). Peaks of organic acids and RESULTS AND FINDING ascorbic acid were measured at wavelengths of 210 and 245 nm respectively and were identified by comparing retention The headspace gases concentrations of strawberries times with those of standards and quantification was carried stored in the bio-based film (treatment A and D) is showed out using external standards. Total anthocyanins content in Table II. The film is able to create modified atmospheric were determined spectro-photometrically using the pH packaging storage condition maintaining along all the differential method (Rapisarda et al., 2000). Colour storage time gas values different from the normal atmosphere composition (20.8% O and 0.03% CO ). In parameters of juices solution diluted 1/10 with water, were 2 2 measured in glass cells of 10 mm path length using a Varian correspondence of the temperature change (72 hours) Cary 50 spectro-photometer equipped with Cary Win UV

Table 4. Organic acids and anthocyanins of strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) cv. Chandler stored in different conditions

Hours Treatment Citric acid Ascorbic acid Total Anthocyanine (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) 72 A 2.25 123.47 117.16 B 2.09 132.11 119.75 C 2.03 110.83 139.98 D 2.13 126.97 119.60 E 1.93 127.84 139.48 F - - - 96 A 2.04 122.57 130.33 B 1.92 127.13 124.56 C 2.00 115.25 135.45 D 2.22 121.25 126.90 E 1.90 110.26 137.26 F - - -

1 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

differences in O2% and CO2% composition were observed appeared also to be very important, more important among treatments A and D. Particularly the highest CO2 than genotype. Regardless of its environmental or concentration (15.0%) was observed for the treatment D physiological drivers, point source variation in and it was due to the rapid respiration rates of strawberries fruit phytonutrient contents may be a relevant interest in increased by the high temperature (+20°C). The bio-based health-related studies (Cheplick et al., 2010). It may film at low temperature (+2°C) (treatment A) showed best impact the nutritional benefits to consumers and affect the property maintaining the CO2 concentrations under 5%. quality advantages associated with direct-marketed WL% values reported in Table II showed as all treatments fruits. The bio-based film is therefore able to replace didn’t affect this qualitative parameter. All treatments traditional plastic films, because the quality parameters are showed WL% inferior to 2.0%. Strawberry cv. chandler at very similar to each other. About the qualitative fruits harvest showed TSS values of 8.4°Brix, for all treatments characteristics, nutritional, esthetic and organoleptic were observed an increase in the TSS values probably not qualities have been well maintained by the bio-based film. due to conversion of starch to sugars, since strawberries Moreover, the bio-based film allowed achieving modified accumulate very little starch, but due to solubilization of atmospheres in the packed trays with values very similar to cell wall pectin’s as showed by the increases in anthocyanin those suggested by the literature (10% O2 and 10% CO2 (Table IV). The highest TSS values were observed at 72 Vander Steen et al., 2001) to store strawberries in the medium hours for the B treatment (9.3°Brix). The TA was no affected period. Fruits packed with bio-based films showed lower by storage and no differences were observed between weight losses for a lower water vapour transpiration. About treatments, all treatments in fact showed WL% values other qualitative parameters like TSS and the titratable traceable (Table II) and this explain the maintenance of TA acidity results of the sample stored with bio-based films values near to harvest (1.42%). Fructose and glucose were showed good characteristics. These considerations show present in similar concentrations at harvest (7.09 and 6.69 the possibility for the bio-based film of replacing the g/100 ml) while sucrose was present at lower level (3.59 g / traditional packaging plastic films improving the strawberry 100 ml). After 72 hours of storage the highest fructose and shelf life. glucose content were found in strawberries stored with the LITERATURE CITED bio-based film both at +2°C (treatment A) and at +20 °C (treatment D) while for the sucrose the highest value (3.71 Aday, M.S. and Caner, C. 2011. The applications of ‘active packaging and chlorine dioxide’ for extended shelf life of fresh strawberries. g/100 ml ) was found in fruits stored at +2 °C with the Packaging Technology and Science. 24:123–136. perforated film (treatment B). Like sugars, organic acids are Capocasa F., Scalzo, J., Mezzetti, B. and Battino, M. 2008. Combining important flavour components and can affect the formation quality and antioxidant attributes in the strawberry: the role of of off flavour and the gelling properties of pectin. The genotype. Food Chemistry. 111: 872–878. highest acid citric values (2.35 mg/100g) were observed at Cheplick S., Kwon, Y.I., Bhowmik, P. and Shetty, K. 2010. 72 and 96 hours for fruit maintained with the bio-based film Phenolic-linked variation in strawberry cultivars for at +2°C (treatment A) and +20°C (treatment D). potential dietary management of hyperglycemia and related Ascorbic acid has long been considered an complications of hypertension. Bioresource Technology. important nutritional component of strawberry fruit 101:404–413. (Shin et al., 2007). The mean values of fresh fruits Chinnici, F., Spinabell, U., Riponi, C. and Amati, A. 2005. (136.19 mg/100g) decreased in the time storage for all Optimization of the determination of organic acids and sugars samples showing at 72 hours the lowest value for un- in fruit juices by ion–exclusion liquid chromatography. Journal packaged fruits stored at low temperature (treatment C). of Food Composition Analysis. 18: 121–131. Stored fruits showed a total anthocyanins on fresh fruits Cordenunsi, B.R., Genovese, M.I., Nascimento, J.R.O., Hassimotto, (99.82 mg/100 g) increased with the storage time for all N.M.A., Santos, R.J. and Lajolo, F.M. 2005. Effects of treatments and the highest values (139.98 and 139.48 mg/ temperature on the chemical composition and antioxidant 100 g) were observed at 72 hours respectively for the C and activity of three strawberry cultivars. Food Chemistry. 91:113– 121. E treatments. Total anthocyanins increase was lower in fruit stored in modified atmospheric packaging (treatment A and Crespo P., Bordonaba, J.G., Terry, L.A. and Carlen, C. 2010. D) at 72 hours of storage. In our study all stored samples Characterisation of major taste and health-related compounds of four strawberry genotypes grown at different Swiss production showed lower values than fresh fruits according to sites. Food Chemistry. 122: 16–24. Cordenunsi et al. 2005. Davis, G. and Song, J.H. 2006. Biobased packaging based on raw CONCLUSION materials from crops and their impact on waste management. Industrial Crops and Products. 23: 147–161. Strawberry represents one of the most important sources of several genetic and environmental factors Del Nobile, M.A., Baiano, A., Benedetto, A. and were reported to affect the production and accumulation Weightignan, L. 2006. Respiration rate of minimally processed lettuce as affected by packaging. Journal of Food Engineering. of bioactive compounds in strawberry (Olsson et al., 74: 60–69. 2004) and few genotypes were well characterized for Gomes, M.H., Beaudry, R.M., Almeida, D.P.F. and Malcata, F.X. these important features (Tulipani et al., 2008). Moreover, 2010. Modelling respiration of packaged fresh cut ‘Rocha’ pear in this study, storage temperature and packaging as affected by oxygen concentration and temperature. Journal SINGH and YADAV, Impact of Packaging Materials on Postharvest Quality of Strawberry (Fragaria × Ananassa Duch.) 1 3

of Food Engineering. 96: 74–79. Ovale) fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 56: Koide, S. and Shi, J. 2007. Microbial and quality evaluation of green 455–460. peppers stored in bio-based film packaging. Food Control. 18: Shin, Y., Liu, R.H, Nock, J.F., Holliday, D. and Watkins, C.B. 2007. 1121–1125. Temperature and relative humidity effects on quality, total Olsson M.E., Ekvall, J., Gustavsson, K.E., Nilsson, J., Pillai, D., ascorbic acid, phenolics and flavonoid concentrations, and Sjoholm, I., Svensson, U., Akesson, B and Nyman, M.G.L. 2004. antioxidant activity of strawberry. Postharvest Biology and Antioxidants, low molecular weight carbohydrates, and total Technology. 45: 349–357. antioxidant capacity in strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa): Tulipani S., Mezzetti, B., Capocasa, F., Bompadre, S., Beekwilder, J., effects of cultivar, ripening, and storage. Journal of Agricultural de Vos E. Capanoglu., C.H., Bovy, A. and Battino, M. 2008. and Food Chemistry. 52: 2490–2498. Antioxidants, phenolic compounds and nutritional quality in Rapisarda, P., Fanella, F. and Maccarone, E. 2000. Reliability of different strawberry genotypes. Journal of Agricultural and Food analytical methods for determining anthocyanins in blood orange Chemistry. 56: 696–704. juices. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 48: 2249– Vander Steen, C., Jacxsens, L., Devlieghere, F. and Debevere, J. 2252. 2001. Combining high oxygen atmospheres with low oxygen Schirra, M., Palma, A., D’Aquino, S., Angioni, A., Minello, E.V. and modified atmosphere packaging to improve the keeping quality Cabras, P. 2008. Impact of postharvest hot water and hot air of strawberries and raspberries. Postharvest Biology and treatments on storage decay and nutritional and functional Technology. 26: 49–58. properties of kumquat (Fortunella japonica Lour. Swingle, cv Received on 01-05-2017 Accepted on 15-06-2017 Advances1 4 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 14-16, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Inheritance Study on Phyllody Resistance in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)

S.D. RAJPUT AND K.S. RAGHUWANSHI

MPKV, Rahuri email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT phyllody resistance is under the control of two dominant genes with complementary gene action (9:7). The objective of this research was to study the mode of inheritance of resistance to phyllody disease in a specific MATERIALS AND METHODS cross of sesame. An infector row technique was used for The sesame genotype OSC-366 was moderately evaluating the parents with their F1, F2, B1 and B2 resistant to phyllody, whereas AT-183was moderately generations for phyllody resistance. No insecticide was susceptible to phyllody, which identified through field sprayed in order to maintain the natural leaf hopper screen were used in the cross to study the inheritance populations in experimental field. The scoring of the test pattern of phyllody resistance. A cross OSC-366 x AT- materials was done by phyllody disease rating scale. 183(Resistance x Susceptible) was effected by hand

According to the per cent disease incidence (PDI) score, emasculation and pollination for raising F1 generation the sesame breeding lines were categorized into0 to 100 during kharif 2011 to study the inheritance of phyllody per cent under 0 to 4 grades,plants were immune O grade, resistance. The selfing of F1 generation and back crosses with 1 grade (1-10%) and moderately resistance with 2 were effected to obtain enough self seed and back cross generations during summer 2012. The parents with their F , grade (10.1-25%).Allthese were included in resistance 1 F , B and B were evaluated at Post Graduate Research class. While in susceptible group, moderately susceptible 2 1 2 Farm of Department of Botany, Mahatma Phule Agricultural with 3 grade (25.1-50%) and highly susceptible with 4 University, Rahuri during kharif 2012. For higher attack of grade (>50%).However, pooling the families of resistance phyllody sowing was delayed till mid July and screening reactions (immune, resistant and moderately resistant) was done after making an effort to transmit the disease by into one class as resistant and families of susceptible the leafhopper, (Orosiusalbicinctus ) from periwinkle reaction (moderately susceptible and susceptible) into (Catharanthus roses) and sunhem (Crotolariajuncea) another class as susceptible.The F2 and backcross maintained nearby as an alternate host to the healthy sesame segregation analysis in the cross made between moderately plants. Parents, F1s, F2, B1, B2 were screened in field for their resistant and moderately susceptible genotypes to phyllody, reaction against phyllody disease using infector row revealed that in the cross OSC-366 x AT-183 the F2 technique (Paraniet al.,1996.).The moderatly susceptible segregation pattern suggested the involvement of two variety AT-183 was used as infector row. The disease dominant genes (9R:7S) with complementary gene action incidence was measured as disease intensity percentage which segregated independently. by counting the number of plants infected. Based on the intensity of infection the disease reaction were recorded in Key words Sesame, inheritance, resistance, phyllody, 0-4 % grade scale (Shindeet al.,2011.) i.e.The incidence of

gene action. the disease on ten plants each in P1, P2 and F1, 50 plants in

B1, B2 and 400 plants in F2 at weekly interval at 51,58,65,72 Sesame (Sesamumindicum L.) is one of the oldest DAS was recorded. Inheritance of phyllody was tested 2 and traditional oilseed crops grown in India. Major factors byc test to find out ratios of goodness of fit for phyllody that limit its productivity besides narrow genetic base are inheritance study. extreme susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Phyllody, an important disease of sesame is caused by a Phyllody disease is wide spread in the major sesamum pleomorphicmycoplasma-like organism (phytoplasma) and growing areas in India. Resistance to phyllodydisease was transmitted by leaf hopper. The affected plants become determined by visual symptomatology. Symptomless lines stunted and the floral parts get modified into leafy structures were assumed to be resistant. As sesamum lines can be bearing no fruits and seeds causing yield loss up to 100 per infected without showing symptoms, it is possible that cent. Successful breeding of resistant variety depends upon these are not resistant lines. Breeding for cultivars with the availability of dependable resistant source(s) and a clear resistance is a commonly accepted and effective strategy understanding of its genetics. Singhet al. (2007) obtained for controlling the phyllody disease and also prevent the the ratio of 9:7 (resistant:susceptible) for the control of multiplication of mycoplasma. The knowledge of inheritance phyllody resistance. While, Paraniet al. (1996) suggested of resistance gene and role of each gene in the development that the resistance maybe controlled by a single recessive of resistance or susceptibility will be very useful for the gene in wild species. Shinde et al. (2011) revealed that RAJPUT and RAGHUWANSHI, Inheritance Study on Phyllody Resistance in Sesame (Sesamum indicum l.) 1 5

Table 1. Incidence of phyllody in OSC-366 x AT-183 cross of sesamum

Cross Generations Percentage of incidence Reaction 51DAS 58 DAS 65 DAS 72DAS

P1 (OSC-366) Moderately 0.00 0.00 10.00 20.00 OSC-366 Resistance x (0.00) (0.00) (18.41) (26.56) AT-183 P2( AT-183) 0.00 0.00 30.00 90.00 susceptible (0.00) (0.00) (33.18) (72.15)

F1 (OSC-366 x AT-183) 10.00 30.00 50.00 100.00 susceptible (18.41) (33.18) (45.00) (82.33)

F2 (OSC-366 x AT-183) Moderately 2.00 3.25 12.50 39.00 Susceptible (8.12) (10.37) (20.68) (38.62)

BC1 (OSC-366 x AT-183)x 4.00 12.00 26.00 56.00 susceptible OSC-366 (11.52) (20.24) (30.63) (48.47)

BC2 ((OSC-366 x AT-183)x Moderately 6.00 16.00 28.00 46.00 AT-183 Susceptible (14.16) (23.55) (31.92) (42.70)

*Bold italic figures indicate arcsine transformed values

sesamum breeder to breed phyllody resistance from the segregation of two loci with a c2value of 0.72 , varieties. The objective of this study was to determine the while in BC2 out of 50 plants 27 were resistant and 23 inheritance of phyllody resistance in specific cross of were susceptible. These numbers also fit very well sesamum. From the pathological parameters (PDI) evaluated, with the 1:1 i.e.1Rsistance:1Suceptible expected the OSC-366 demonstrated their moderately resistance to from the segregation of two loci with c2 value of 0.32( Table phyllody; while AT-183 was appeared to be moderately 2). susceptible. In F2 generation, the cross OSC-366 x AT-183 was The results are presented in Table 1.The moderately further confirmed by screening 400 randomly selected plants resistant parent OSC-366 when crossed with phyllody to the incidence of phyllody disease. The data revealed susceptible parent AT-183, in the F1 generation 100% that the per cent disease incidence (PDI) against phyllody incidence of phyllody was observed at maturity, indicating ranged from 0 to 100 per cent under 0 to 4 grades.Out of the that susceptibility was dominant over resistance.Similar 400 families, 46 plants were immune with O grade, 100 were results were found by Singhet al. (2007). resistant with 1 grade (1-10%), 98 were moderately resistant

In BC1 generation of the cross OSC-366 x AT-183, with 2 grade (10.1-25). Allthese 244 plants were included in out of 50 plants, 22 plants were resistant and 28 resistance class. While in susceptible class 156 plants were were susceptible. These numbers fit very well with included, out of which 125 plants were moderately the ratio,1Resistance: 1Suceptible expected susceptible with 3 grade (25.1-50) and 31 were highly

Table 2. Chi square test for goodness of fit with standard ratios in the segregating generations Against phyllody.

Combinations Generations Segregation Expected 2 Ratio Observed Expected R :S Total resistant susceptible Total resistant susceptible

OSC-366xAT-183 F2 400 244 156 400 225 175 9:7 3.66

(OSC-366 x AT- BC1 50 22 28 50 25 25 1:1 0.72 183) x OSC-366 (F1 x OSC-366) (OSC-366 x AT- BC2 50 27 23 50 25 25 1:1 0.32 183) x AT-183 (F1 x AT-183)

1 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 susceptible with 4 grade (>50). However, pooling the families LITERATURE CITED of resistance reactions (immune, resistant and moderately Singh, P. K., M. Akram, M. Vajpeyi and R. L. Srivastava resistant) into one class as resistant and families of 2007. Screening and development of resistant sesame susceptible reaction (moderately susceptible and varietiesagainst phytoplasma.Bulletin of Insectology, 60(2) : susceptible) into another class as susceptible, showed 303-304. digenic segregation of families in the ratio 9 Resistance : 7 Shindhe, Gayatree G, R. Lokesha, M. K. Naik and A. G. R. susceptible. The frequency distribution of 400 F2 families Ranganath.2011. 2 into different classes gave total c value of 3.66 at 1 degree Inheritance study on phyllody resistance in Sesamum 2 of freedom,c calculated is less than table value hence data (Sesamumindicum L) Plant ArchivesVol. 11 No. 2, pp. 775- is nonsignificant indicating good agreement between 776. observed and expected frequencies thus confirming the F2 Parani, M., K. N. Singh, S. R. SreeRangaswamy and R. S. ratio (Table2 ).Similar results were reported bySinghet al. Ramalingam 1996. A study on mechanism of phyllodydisease (2007) and Shindeet al. (2011). . resistance in SesamumalatumThonn.Curr. Sci.,70(1) : The parent OSC-366 can be use as potential source 86-89. for resistance to phyllody and it is suggested that they can be used as donor parent in the resistant breeding programme Received on 24-04-2017 Accepted on 02-06-2017 in sesamum. Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 17-20, 2017

Effect of PGR on Morpho-Physiological Traits of Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum L.) UTPAL SINGH VERMA, P N VERMA, D K TRIPATHI, LALLU, O P SINGH, S N SINGH Department of Plant Physiology, CSA University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT stems, and leaves and the shedding of leaves and the development and ripening of fruit. Plant hormones affects Plant growth regulators are one of the most important the shape of plant, seed growth, time of flowering, the sex factors for increasing higher yield in leafy pulses. of flower, senescence of leaves and fruit. They also affected Application of growth regulators has good management those tissues which grow upward and grow down ward. effect on growth and yield of field crops. An experiment The word hormones derived from Greek meaning “Set in was conducted at the experimental field of Student motion”. Plant hormones affect gene expression and instructional Farm (SIF), Nawabganj, C. S. Azad University transcription levels, cellular division, and growth. They are of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur, during the two naturally produced within the plants though every similar consecutive years i.e. 2014-15 and 2015-16. A chick pea chemical are produced by fungi and bacteria that can also variety ‘Uday’ was given foliar spray of GA3, Kinetin, NAA, effect plant growth. CCC and IAA as treatment variables to study the growth MATERIALS AND METHODS parameters of chickpea variety. Plant growth characters like crop growth rate (CGR), Relative Growth rate (RGR), The experiments were conducted under field net assimilation rate, days to flowering and days to maturity conditions during two rabi seasons viz. 2014-15 and 2015- were significantly influenced with different treatment 16 at Student instructional Farm (SIF), Nawabganj, C. S. combinations of growth regulators. The maximum Azad University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur to increase in CGR was observed by application of IAA 40ppm examine the effect of applied growth regulators on growth parameters. District Kanpur is situated between rivers Ganga closely followed by CCC 2000ppm. Maximum RGR and Yamuna in the central Uttar Pradesh. Geographically it observed with application of IAA 20ppm. Maximum is located at 26.280 North latitude, and 80.250 East longitudes assimilation rate was obtained by the treatment of IAA at an elevation of about 127 meters above mean sea level. 20ppm. In the present study, chickpea variety, ‘Uday’ was taken as

experimental materials to find out the response of GA3, Key words Effect, PGR Morpho-Physiological Traits, Cytokinins, NAA, CCC and IAA on growth parameters of Chick Pea, Cicer arietinum L. chickpea. The variety was collected from Seed Farm, Kalyanpur, C.S.A.U.A. & T. Kanpur. The experiment was Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the world’s second laid out in Ramdomised Block Design (RBD) with 3 largest food legume crop in terms of total production (10.9 replications and 11 treatment combinations. million tonnes), which is only next to dry beans (FAO STAT, 2012). The area under pulses is 24.8 million hectares, Treatment Growth regulators and doses combination production 17.38 million tonnes. (Economic Survey of Indian V1T1 T1 : Control (Unsprayed) Agriculture 2014-15). The important pulse growing states V1T2 T2 : GA -20 ppm are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh with together account for 82 V1T3 T3 : GA - 40 ppm % of the production from an area of 74%. Looking at the V1T4 T4 : NAA -20 ppm acreage scenario as of 7th February 2014, the area under V1T5 T5 : NAA -40 ppm which chana has been sown is 102.12 lakh hectares, which V1T6 T6 : Kinetin -5 ppm is higher than the previous year’s figure of 95.07. Also, the V1T7 T7 : Kinetin -10 ppm current year acreage is 124.30% higher than the normal V1T8 T8 : IAA -20 ppm area of 82.18 lakh hectare. Chickpea production has been V1T9 T9 : IAA- 40 ppm rising for the past three years while consumption has been V1T10 T10 : CCC -1000 ppm mostly stable in the range of 11 to 12 million tons, According V1T11 T11 : CCC - 2000 ppm to the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), the chickpea The observations were recorded at successive stages production in 2013-2014 is estimated to be around 8.66 of growth. The following observations were recorded during million tons. both the years of investigation Crop Growth Rate (CGR), Plant hormones are chemical that regulate plant Relative Growth Rate (RGR), Assimilation rate, Days to growth and development. Plant hormones are single flowering and Days to maturity. molecule produced within the plant and occur in extremely low concentration. Hormones regulate cellular process in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION targeted cell locally and when moved to other location of Data indicated that various treatments showed a the plant. Hormones also determine the formation of flower, significant increase in Crop growth Rate (CGR) at all the 1 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 1. Effect of growth regulators on crop growth rate (g/m2/day) between different growth stages (2014-15 & 2015-16).

Treatment Growth Stage (DAS) 45-70 70-95 95-120 120-145 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 Control 7.59 7.81 8.05 8.14 12.34 12.31 31.15 31.31 GA-20 ppm 8.85 9.05 8.43 8.54 13.66 13.76 31.81 32.03 GA-40 ppm 8.89 9.09 8.63 8.75 13.92 14.05 31.81 31.98 NAA-20 ppm 9.05 9.27 9.24 9.30 14.32 14.48 31.68 31.85 NAA-40 ppm 9.22 9.46 10.09 10.09 14.38 14.55 32.53 32.81 Kinetin-5 ppm 8.52 8.77 7.78 7.84 12.27 12.39 32.60 32.89 Kinetin-10 ppm 8.63 8.83 7.91 8.01 12.51 12.65 32.67 32.88 IAA-20 ppm 9.66 9.87 10.52 10.62 17.02 17.22 30.16 30.26 IAA-40 ppm 10.07 10.30 10.95 10.99 18.34 18.53 31.54 31.71 CCC-1000 ppm 9.76 10.00 10.86 10.90 17.02 17.22 30.36 30.51 CCC-2000 ppm 9.87 10.12 10.91 10.96 17.29 17.45 30.49 30.66 SE (d)+ 0.154 0.034 0.163 0.036 0.482 0.041 0.729 0.037 CD at 5% 0.321 0.071 0.339 0.076 1.007 0.086 1.521 0.079

stages of observation. All plant growth regulator treatment value was recorded by the application of kinetin 10ppm considerably influenced the crop growth rate between followed by kinetin 5ppm. Other hand minimum CGR value branching and flowering stage, significantly maximum was recorded with the application of IAA 20ppm during increase in CGR value was recorded by the application of both the years of experimentation (table-1). Similar findings IAA 40ppm closely followed by CCC 2000ppm during both are also reported by Bhosle, S.G. et. al. (2007), and Bisen, the year of experimentation presented (table-1). However, A.L. et. al., (1993). between pod formation and seed development stage A perusal of data presented in table-2 revealed that maximum increase in CGR value was recorded by the the variation was observed significant due to use of various application of IAA 40ppm closely followed by CCC 2000ppm growth regulators at various growth stages. Relative Growth during both the years (table-1). Surprisingly, seed rate (RGR) of gram variety as influence by various growth development and maturity stage, maximum increase in CGR regulators, treatments were work out of different growth

Table 2. Effect of growth regulators on relative growth rate (mg/g/day) between different growth stages (2014-15 & 2015-16).

Treatment Growth Stage (DAS) 45-70 70-95 95-120 120-145 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 2014-15 2015-16 Control 88.83 86.94 26.62 26.16 22.27 21.83 29.24 29.09 GA-20 ppm 91.88 89.48 24.74 24.44 22.32 22.08 27.64 27.47 GA-40 ppm 91.10 89.20 25.05 24.79 22.40 22.20 27.31 27.10 NAA-20 ppm 90.81 89.49 25.98 25.58 22.16 22.04 26.53 26.34 NAA-40 ppm 90.59 89.36 27.20 26.76 21.40 21.30 26.45 26.31 Kinetin-5 ppm 86.48 85.07 23.69 23.21 21.33 21.13 29.63 29.47 Kinetin-10 ppm 86.09 84.51 23.81 23.45 21.37 21.24 29.30 29.11 IAA-20 ppm 92.25 90.46 27.33 27.00 23.53 23.41 23.24 23.03 IAA-40 ppm 91.17 89.23 27.25 26.75 24.11 23.99 23.03 22.88 CCC-1000 ppm 92.20 90.12 27.75 27.22 23.15 23.06 23.14 22.98 CCC-2000 ppm 91.29 89.74 27.58 27.09 23.26 23.12 23.01 22.87 SE (d)+ 0.012 0.019 0.045 0.057 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.039 CD at 5% 0.017 0.040 0.211 0.120 0.196 0.081 0.198 0.082

VERMA et al., Effect of PGR on Morpho-Physiological Traits of Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum L.) 1 9

Table 3. Effect of growth regulators on net assimilation rate (mg/dm2/day) between different growth stages (2014-15 & 2015-16).

Treatment Growth Stage (DAS) 2014-15 2015-16 45-70 70-95 45-70 70-95 Control 97.97 48.73 98.72 47.65 GA-20 ppm 107.20 49.18 106.97 47.85 GA-40 ppm 105.54 49.66 105.71 48.71 NAA-20 ppm 105.11 46.35 104.84 50.97 NAA-40 ppm 106.42 52.31 106.61 54.18 Kinetin-5 ppm 107.58 55.96 107.86 45.05 Kinetin-10 ppm 105.91 46.51 105.60 45.29 IAA-20 ppm 110.45 57.13 109.62 55.45 IAA-40 ppm 106.21 54.48 105.95 53.12 CCC-1000 ppm 109.54 56.27 109.08 54.10 CCC-2000 ppm 106.93 55.42 106.71 41.27 SE (d)+ 0.040 0.701 0.059 0.050 CD at 5% 0.084 1.463 0.124 0.106 stages. The maximum RGR value was recorded under the Minimum data were recorded in CCC 2000ppm. Similar treatment IAA 20ppm only branching and flowering stage findings are also reported by Gainger, T.S. et. al. (2001) and during both the year of experimentation. On overall mean Georgia Ouzounidou et. al. (2010). basis, flowering and pod formation stage, CCC 1000ppm It is evident that the value portrayed in table-3, the proved superior to CCC 2000ppm was recorded during first net assimilation rate was markedly influenced by hormonal and second years, respectively. While low RGR value was treatments. The net assimilation rate was generally higher recorded between all above growth stages during both the in treated series of plants. Data indicated that treatments years, within treatment of kinetin 5ppm. However, pod showed a significant increase in net assimilation rate formation and seed development stage, IAA 40ppm had activity, at all the growth stages of observation over control. higher values among the treatments followed by IAA 20ppm Thus maximum increase in net assimilation rate was obtained during both the years. Minimum RGR had recorded kinetin by the treatment IAA 20ppm closely followed by CCC 5ppm. However, Seed development and maturity stage, 1000ppm, with branching to flowering stage and flowering maximum RGR shows that kinetin 5ppm followed by kinetin to pod formation stage during both the years of 10ppm during both the years data presented in table-2.

Table 4. Effect of growth regulators on days to flowering and days to maturity at different growth stages (2014-15 & 2015-16).

Treatment 2014-15 2015-16 Flowering days Maturity days Flowering days Maturity days Control 69.00 149.66 70.00 150.50 GA-20 ppm 64.33 143.66 66.50 144.93 GA-40 ppm 63.00 143.00 66.45 144.00 NAA-20 ppm 67.33 145.00 69.66 146.30 NAA-40 ppm 66.66 147.66 68.80 148.10 Kinetin-5 ppm 67.66 146.33 69.90 148.80 Kinetin-10 ppm 67.00 145.66 70.10 146.30 IAA-20 ppm 73.66 155.33 75.66 156.00 IAA-40 ppm 73.33 154.00 75.80 155.20 CCC-1000 ppm 74.66 155.66 76.90 156.15 CCC-2000 ppm 74.00 156.66 76.33 156.65 SE (d)+ 1.211 1.410 0.952 0.309 CD at 5% 2.528 2.942 2.001 0.649

2 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 experimentation. The minimum increase in net assimilation influenced by growth regulators. Journal of soils and crops, rate was recorded with control during both the years 17(1): 82-85. respectively. Similar findings are also reported by Hoque, Bisen, A.L., Saraf, R.K. and Joshi, G.C. 1993. Effect of growth MD. M. et. al. (2002). Data regarding on days of flowering regulators on growth and yield of garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) as presented in table-4 revealed that day to flowering C.V.G.C. 322. F.C. Abst. 47(10): 833. Orissa J. Horti., 19(1-2): affected by growth regulator sprayed at 30 and 40 DAS 57- 63. stages of developments were formed with both the conc. of FAO STAT. 2012. Online. Available at http://faostat.fao.org. 2012 CCC 1000ppm and 2000ppm. The effect being more Gainger, T.S.; Patil, B.C. and Chetti, M.B. 2001. Influence of plant pronounced at higher conc. of CCC in both the year of growth regulators on morpho-physiological traits and yield experimentation. The treatment CCC 1000ppm delayed the potential. National Seminar on “Role of plant physiology for sustaining quality of food production in relation to environment” flowering about 5 to 6 days over the control which, 5-7 Dec., 2001. statistically significant during both the years of Georgia Ouzounidou, Ilias Ilias, Anastasia Giannokoula and Parthena experimentation. While, application of GA 40 ppm induced Papado poulou 2010. Comparative study on the effects of various about 4 to 6 days early flowering during both the years of plant growth regulators on growth, quality and physiology of experimentation. The data overlooked on the effect of foliar (Capsicum annum L.) Pak. J. Bot., 42(2): 805-814. spray of growth regulator on gram days to maturity in table- Hoque, MD. M. ; Hoque, MD. and Shahidul 2002. Effect of GA3 and 4. It was noted that CCC 2000ppm delayed days to maturity its mode of application on morphology an yield parameters of 6 to 7 days in comparison to control. Whereas, GA 40ppm mungbean Pakistan J. of Biological Sci., 5 (8) : 281-283. induced early maturity about 5 to 6 days, which being Kadam, S.M. and Pol, K.M. 2008. Influence of foliar application of statistically significant during both the years of plant growth regulators on growth and yield of pigeon pea experimentation. Similar findings are also reported by (Cajanus cajan. Mill. Sp.). Advance in Plant Science, 21(1): Kadam, S.M. et. al. (2008) and Kalyankar, S.V. et. al. (2007). 307-310. LITERATURE CITED Kalyankar, S.V.; Hudge, V.S.; Shete, D.M.; Hudge, B.V. and Deshmikh, J.D. 2007. Effect of plant growth regulators and yield of soyabean. Bhosle, S.G.; Aucharmal, S.M.; Pawar, H.D. and Karanjkar, P.N. Annuals of Plant Physiology, 21(2): 158-160. 2007. Growth and yield of black gram (Vigna mungo) as

Received on 04-05-2017 Accepted on 18-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 21-23, 2017

Bio-Efficacy of Different Insecticides Against Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera, Hubner) on Tomato, (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) S.S. THORAT*, S.P. SAXENA, J.D. PATEL AND V.G. SHARMA Department of Entomology, N. M. College of Agriculture Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat, India *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT significance of crop produce compelled the commercial farmers to advocate insecticidal almost in alternate days, An experiment was conducted in 2014-15 to study the bio- sometimes almost double the recommended doses. Such in efficacy of different insecticides against fruit borer discriminate use of insecticides leads to development of (Helicoverpa armigera, Hubner) on tomato, (L. esculentum resurgence and resistance. So these days, there is a need Mill). It was observed that the overall (irrespective of to search for newer chemicals that are selective and eco- various pickings), all the treatments were found friendly which can replace older spurious chemicals on significantly superior over control, wherein lambda- tomato. The work done on these lines in South Gujarat cyhalothrin 0.003 per cent was found most effective region is scanty. Therefore, keeping the above information indicating significantly lowest fruit damage that was 5.11 in view bio-efficacy of different insecticides against major % followed by indoxacarb 0.005 per cent (5.83 %). Next insect-pests of tomato, L. esculentum under field conditions in the efficacy order was novaluron 0.01 per cent showed was carried out. The data collected were subjected to 7.08 % fruit damage. The treatments of imidacloprid 0.005 analysis of variance (ANOVA) after applying arc sine per cent and dimethoate 0.03 per cent were at par with transformation in per cent fruit damage. each other indicating 8.58 and 9.12 per cent fruit damage, MATERIALS AND METHODS respectively. In pooled studies, azadirachtin 3000 ppm and HaNPV were not found effective compare to other The experiment was carried out under field conditions treatments against fruit borer exhibiting 10.85 and 12.50 during the year Rabi 2014-15 at the Experimental Farm, Navsari Agricultural University Navsari, Gujarat. The per cent fruit damage, respectively. The highest fruit experiment plot was ploughed twice with disc plough to damage was observed in control (15.89 %) which was achieve pulverized and compact transplanting beds and significantly higher than in any treatment assessed in levelled with heavy plank. The farm yard manure (FYM) this investigation. was applied just after the first ploughing in the main field. Half of the recommended dose of nitrogen fertilizer and full Keys words Tomato, Insecticides, Bio-efficacy, Fruit dose of phosphorous and potasic fertilizers were applied borer at the last ploughing and just before transplantation. The rest of nitrogen fertilizer was applied through top dressing Tomato, L. esculentum is one of the most popular after 40 days of transplantation. Seedlings of GT-2 variety and widely grown vegetables in the world, ranking second of tomato were procured from Regional Horticulture in importance next to potato. Tomato is a good source of all Research Station, NAU, Navsari. Transplantation of nutrients especially vitamin C, B and K. Tomato is one of seedlings was done on the 6th December, 2014. Seedlings of the most remunerative vegetable crop grown in tropical one month old were transplanted @ two seedlings per hill and subtropical regions of the world for fresh market and at a spacing of 60 x 40 cm. Gap filling was done 10 days after processing, constituting an important part of our human to ensure uniform plant population in each plot. Four diet. India ranks 4th in production followed by China, U.S.A irrigations were given to the experimental crop at an interval and Turkey (Anonymous, 2008). In India, Andhra Pradesh of 15-20 days. The experiment was laid out in Randomized contributed maximum production (1453.50 metric tons) but Block Design with 8 treatments including control. Required highest productivity was occupied by Maharashtra (28.20 numbers of plots having a size of 3 x 2 m were prepared to t/ha) (National Horticulture Board, 2011). The production accommodate all the eight treatments, each having 4 and quality of tomato fruits are considerably affected by replications. Each plot was separated by a gap of 1 m so array of insect pests infesting at different stages of crop that drifting of chemicals during spraying was minimized. growth. The key insect-pests of tomato include jassids The sprays were given during reproductive stage of the (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla, Ishida), aphid (Aphis gossypi crop when H. armigera appears to be severe causing Glover and Myzus persicae Sulzer), whitefly (Bemisia tabaci economic damage. Gennadius), cutworm (Agrotis sp.), tobacco caterpillar RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (Spodoptera litura Fabr.) and tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera Hubner), which infest and hamper The results based on fruit infestation of H. armigera the growth of plants. Out of these insect-pests the most are presented in Table 1 and depicted in Figure 1. There common and serious insect pest of tomato is fruit borer, was no-significant difference in fruit infestation amongst Helicoverpa armigera Hubner, due to its direct attack on various plots before spraying indicating homogeneity of fruits, high mobility, voracious feeding habit, high fecundity, the damage. multivoltine and overlapping generations. Economic At first picking, all the treatments recorded 2 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 1. Bio-efficacy of various insecticides against fruit damage in tomato

Mean Fruit damage (%) Sr. Treatment Doze Before 1st IInd IIIrd IVth Vth No. Pooled over Spray Picking Picking Picking Picking Picking pickings Dimethoate 30 25.41** 17.58**e 16.78**de 15.90**bcd 18.36**def 20.33**cdef 17.79**de 1. 0.03% EC (18.43) (9.14) (8.48) (7.56) (9.95) (12.10) (9.12) Lambda- 24.73 11.98a 11.13ab 11.60a 13.37a 16.69a 12.95a 2. cyhalothrin 0.003% (17.58) (4.34) (3.73) (4.18) (5.45) (8.34) (5.11) 5 EC 25.23 15.19d 13.84abc 14.39bc 15.60abc 18.21abc 15.45c 3. Novaluron 10 EC 0.01% (18.20) (6.87) (5.82) (6.25) (7.27) (9.96) (7.08) Imidacloprid 25.06 13.65bc 16.60cd 16.24bcde 17.80cd 20.15cde 16.89d 4. 0.005% 17.8 SC (17.98) (5.61) (8.21) (7.94) (9.41) (12.06) (8.58) Indoxacarb 14.5 25.86 12.97ab 11.12a 14.06ab 13.99ab 16.92ab 13.81ab 5. 0.005% SC (19.04) (5.06) (3.72) (5.93) (5.93) (8.52) (5.83) Azadirachtin 25.44 21.45fg 19.34ef 18.40defg 18.19de 19.68abcd 19.41f 6. 0.3% 3000 ppm (18.50) (13.39) (11.07) (9.99) (9.76) (11.51) (10.85) 24.85 20.95f 21.19g 18.00def 20.59efg 23.33fg 20.81g 7. HaNPV 250 LE/ha (17.76) (12.81) (13.09) (9.63) (12.41) (15.74) (12.50) Control (Water 24.68 23.34gh 23.25h 22.11h 23.90h 25.75gh 23.67h 8. - spray) (17.79) (15.71) (15.60) (14.18) (16.55) (18.95) (15.89) SEm + (T) - 1.20 0.39 0.76 0.87 0.74 1.06 0.40 CD at 5 % (T) - NS 1.14 2.25 2.56 2.18 3.10 1.10 SEm + ( P x T) ------0.79 CD at 5 % (P x ------NS T) CV (%) - 9.53 4.51 9.17 10.64 8.38 10.49 9.03

**Data in the parenthesis indicate original values, while outside are ARC Sine values Treatment ranking a, b, ……. as per per DMRT significantly lower fruit damage as compared to control 5 EC > indoxacarb 14.5 SC > novaluron 10 EC > dimethoate where in significantly lowest fruit damage (4.34 %/plant) of 30 EC > imidacloprid 17.8 SL > HaNPV > azadirachtin 3000 H. armigera was recorded in -cyhalothrin 0.003 per cent ppm > control (Table 1). which was at par with indoxacarb 0.005 per cent (5.06 %). The perusal of data of fourth picking revealed that all Least effective insecticidal treatment was HaNPV 250 LE/ the treatments were found significantly superior over ha (12.81 %). Highest fruit damage was observed in control control indicating significant superiority of -cyhalothrin plot (15.71 %). The order of effectiveness of various 0.003 per cent (5.45 %/plant) followed by treatments of treatments at first picking was -cyhalothrin 5 EC > indoxacarb (5.93 %) and novaluron 0.01 per cent (7.27) which indoxacarb 14.5 SC > imidacloprid 17.8 SL > novaluron 10 were at par with each other. Highest fruit damage was found EC > dimethoate 30 EC >HaNPV 250 LE/ha > azadirachtin in HaNPV (12.41 %). The efficacy order of various 3000 ppm (Table 1). treatments was: ë-cyhalothrin 5 EC > indoxacarb 14.5 SC > All the insecticidal treatments at second picking novaluron 10 EC >imidacloprid 17.8 SL > azadirachtin 3000 recorded significantly lower fruit damage as compared to ppm > dimethoate 30 EC > HaNPV > control (Table 1). control indicating lowest fruit damage in indoxacarb 0.005 At fifth and last picking, all the treatments were found per cent (3.72%/plant) which was at par with -cyhalothrin significantly superior over control indicating significant 0.003 per cent (3.73 %) and novaluron 0.01 per cent (5.82 superiority of -cyhalothrin 0.003 per cent (8.34 % fruit %). The treatment of HaNPV 250 LE/ha was found least damage/plant) followed by indoxacarb 0.005 per cent (8.52 effective indicating highest fruit infestation (13.09 %). %), novaluron 0.01 per cent (9.96 %) and azadirachtin 3000 At third picking, all the treatments were found ppm (11.51 %). The treatment of HaNPV was found least significantly superior over control indicating lowest fruit effective indicating 15.74 per cent fruit damage. The efficacy damage in -cyhalothrin 0.003 per cent (4.18 %/plant) order of various treatments was: -cyhalothrin 5 EC > followed by indoxacarb 0.005 per cent (5.93 %) which was indoxacarb 14.5 SC > novaluron 10 EC > azadirachtin 3000 at par with it. Amongst various treatments, highest fruit ppm > imidacloprid > dimethoate 30 EC >HaNPV > control damage was observed in azadirachtin 3000 ppm (9.99 %). (Table 1). The efficacy order of various treatments was: ë-cyhalothrin So, it is evident from the above results that - THORAT et al., Bio-Efficacy of Different Insecticides Against Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera, Hubner) on Tomato 2 3

Fig. 1. Bio-efficacy of various insecticides against fruit damage on tomato cyhalothrin 5 EC at 0.003 per cent was found most effective NPV indicated mean fruit yield of 30.27 and 29.60, 28.17 and treatment against fruit borer which was closely followed by 27.61 and 26.70 and 26.11 q/ha during both the seasons, indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 0.005 per cent. Azadirachtin 3000 ppm respectively. was not found very effective against the pest under LITERATURE CITED discussion whereas use of HaNPV alone was found least effective against the pest damage under consideration. Anonymous 2008. World isaes. Phytoma, 538: 34-36. Saini and Raj (2008) indicated that -cyhalothrin National Horticulture Board 2011. Indian Horticulture database, Government of India. P. 278. (0.004%) was effective in suppressing H. armigera (Hubner) population on tomato during 1st and 2nd year showing Saini, S. and Raj, D. 2008. Efficacy of insecticides against Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on tomato in mid hill zone of Himachal average population of 5.25, 4.00, 3.25 and 5.00, 3.75, 3.00 per Pradesh (India). Journal of the Entomological Research, 32(2): three plants at 1, 7 and 15 days after spraying, respectively. 143-145. Dhaka et al. (2010) showed lowest fruit infestation (2.53 Dhaka, S. S., Singh, G., Ali, N., Yadav, A. and Yadav, A. 2010. Field and 2.83%) and highest yield (39.45 and 38.85 q/ha) in evaluation of insecticides and bio-pesticides against Helicoverpa indoxacarb on tomato during two seasons, respectively. armigera on tomato, Annals of Plant Protection Science, 18(1): Amongst the biopesticides, neemarin followed by Bt and 13­16.

Received on 20-06-2017 Accepted on 22-06-2017 Advances2 4 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 24-30, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Bio-Efficacy and Economics of Different Insecticides Against Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbech.) on Cauliflower N. M. PATEL* AND P. H. GODHANI All India Coordinated Research Project on Biological Control Research Laboratory, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat * email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Details of experiment: The bio-efficacy and economics of different insecticides 1 Date of transplanting : 18-9-2014 against aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbech.), was studied (Rabi season) during Rabi season of the year 2014-15 at Agronomy farm, 2 Crop & variety : Cauliflower, Sneha BACA, AAU, Anand on cauliflower and overall, results of 3 Design : Randomized Block pooled over period and spray revealed that the lowest (2.89) Design aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was treated 4. Treatment : 10 with thiamethoxam (0.01%) and was at par with 5 Design : Randomized Block imidacloprid (0.006%) 4.04/25 cm2 per leaf. The Design treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective 6 Number of : Three and recorded significantly the highest 15.74/25 cm2 per replications leaf, population of aphid, L. erysimi on cauliflower. The 7 Plot size : Gross : 3.0 m x 1.8 m highest (160.13 q/ha) yield was obtained from the plots Net : 2.4 m x 0.9 m treated with thiamethoxam 0.01% and was at par with 8 Spacing : Between rows : 45 cm imidacloprid 0.006% (157.86 q/ha). The highest (1:46.73) Within rows : 30 cm Net Incremental Cost Benefit Ratio (NICBR) was registered from imidacloprid 0.006% treated plots Observations to be recorded: followed by acephate 0.075% (1:36.82) and thiamethoxam 2 0.01% (1:33.30). However, it was observed that the 1. Number of aphids (25 cm /leaf) 3 leaves observed/ treatments thiamethoxam (0.01%) and imidacloprid plant (0.006%) were found to be more effective and economical 2. Yield (q/ha) insecticides against aphid, L. erysimi on cauliflower. Method of application of insecticides: The first spray of respective insecticides was applied Key words Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi, different chemical as per the treatments on appearance of aphid and second insecticides, yields, economics spray was given at 10 days interval using manually operated Knapsack sprayer having duromist nozzle with slight run Cauliflower is one of the oldest cultivated vegetable. off stage. India is the second largest producer of cauliflower in the Method of recording observations: world, next to China. More than 24 insect pests attack on Number of aphid (nymphs + adults) was recorded cauliflower. The important pests of cauliflower are from three leaves (25 cm2/leaf) of randomly selected 5 plants diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella Linnaeus; from each plot before first spray and 3rd, 7th and 10th day(s) webworm Hellua undalis, Fabricius, cabbage butterflies, after first and second spray applications. Pieris brassicae Linnaeus, aphid, Lipaphis erysimi Yield Kaltenbach; and flea beetles Chaetocnema basalis Bally (Chaudhary et al., 2001; Srinivaran and Murthi, 1991). The Picking-wise yield of cauliflower was recorded from infestation of the aphid L. erysimi caused extensive damage each plot replication-wise and converted into quintal per hectare for further statistical analysis. up to 54.2% to cauliflower crop (Srivastava and Gularia, 2003; Muthukumar and Sharma, 2009). Among them, aphid, Per cent increase in yield over control and economics L. erysimi (Kalt.) is the most destructive and predominant Per cent increase in yield over control pest. Thus, management of aphid is one of the important On the basis of cauliflower harvested from various task in order to increase the productivity of cauliflower. treatments under study, the per cent increase in yield over MATERIALS AND METHODS control due to insecticides application was calculated by applying following formula: To study the efficacy of various chemical insecticides, a field experiment was conducted at Agronomy Farm, BACA, Per cent AAU, Anand during Rabi season of year 2014-15. The crop increase in Yield of treatment – = × 100 was raised by adopting recommended agronomical yield over Yield of control practices. control Yield of treatment PATEL and GODHANI, Bio-Efficacy and Economics of Different Insecticides Against Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbech.) 2 5

Table 1. Bio-efficacy of different treatments against aphid, L. erysimi under field conditions on cauliflower

Sr. Name of insecticides Concentration First spray Second spray (%) No No. of aphids (25 cm2/leaf) No. of aphids (25 cm2/leaf) Before Days after spraying Days after spraying spray 3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 3 DAS 7 DAS 10 DAS 1 Imidacloprid 30.5 SC 0.006 6.31 2.03a 2.27ab 2.56a 1.40ab 1.60a 2.92ab (39.32) (3.62) (4.65) (6.05) (1.46) (2.06) (8.03) 2 Thiamethoxam 25 WG 0.01 6.84 1.75a 2.00a 2.36a 0.90a 1.52 a 2.49a (46.29) (2.56) (3.50) (5.07) (0.31) (1.81) (5.70) 3 Clothianidin 50 WDG 0.02 6.71 3.47b 3.65cd 3.90b 2.07cd 2.63bc 3.55bcd (44.52) (11.54) (12.82) (14.71) (3.78) (6.42) (12.10) 4 Thiacloprid 48 SC 0.02 6.02 4.41c 4.79e 4.94c 2.77e 3.29c 3.95d (35.74) (18.95) (22.44) (23.90) (7.17) (10.32) (15.10) 5 Acephate 75 SP 0.075 7.16 3.20b 3.01bc 3.70b 1.72bc 2.07ab 3.08abc (50.77) (9.74) (8.56) (13.19) (2.46) (3.78) (8.99) 6 Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.05 5.83 3.90bc 4.08de 4.93c 2.46de 3.21c 3.82cd (33.49) (14.71) (16.15) (23.80) (5.55) (9.80) (14.09) 7 Cartap hydrocloride 50 0.05 5.88 3.78bc 3.95de 4.35bc 2.34cde 3.05c 3.75cd SP (34.07) (13.79) (15.10) (18.42) (4.98) (8.80) (13.56) 8 Flonicamid 50 WG 0.015 6.91 3.60b 3.70cd 4.14bc 2.11cde 3.03c 3.57bcd (47.25) (12.46) (13.19) (16.64) (3.95) (8.68) (12.24) 9 Triazophos 40 EC 0.08 6.11 3.30b 3.52cd 3.86b 1.91cde 2.21ab 3.37bcd (36.83) (10.39) (11.89) (14.39) (3.15) (4.38) (10.85) 10 Control - 6.89 7.51d 7.67f 8.26d 8.35f 8.49d 8.81e (46.97) (55.90) (58.33) (67.73) (69.22) (71.58) (77.12) S. Em. + 0.38 0.23 0.25 0.30 0.22 0.20 0.23 C. D. at 5% NS 0.69 0.73 0.90 0.65 0.61 0.68 C. V. % 10.22 10.91 11.09 12.22 14.78 11.40 10.03 Note: 1. Figures in parentheses are retransformed values; those outside are x  0.5 value 2. Treatment means with letter in common are not significant at 5 % level of significance within a column 3. DAS: Days after spray

Yield of treatment Method of analysis Incremental Cost Benefit Ratio Data on various aspects were tabulated, analyzed statistically using standard procedure (Steel and Torrie, Incremental Cost Benefit Ratio (I.C.B.R.) from the 1980). experimental data to assess economics of the different insecticidal treatments were also worked out. For the RESULT AND DISCUSSION purpose, total cost of plant protection was worked out on Bio-efficacy of synthetic insecticides against aphid, L. the basis of cost of insecticidal formulations used and erysimi labour charges for their applications. Gross income of cauliflower was worked out on the basis of prevailing market To determine the bio-efficacy of synthetic price for each treatment. Gross realization was worked out insecticides against aphid, L. erysimi, a field experiment for all the insecticidal treatments by deducting the cost of was conducted during 2014-15. Two sprays were given at plant protection from the gross income. Net gain over an interval of ten days. The data obtained after 3, 7 and 10 control was calculated by deducting the realization of days after each sprays were statistically analyzed and control from realization of each treatment. Gross I.C.B.R. summarized. for each treatment was calculated by dividing net gain over First spray control by total cost of plant protection. Finally, net I.C.B.R. 3rd day for each treatment was calculated by deducting one from gross I.C.B.R. The results presented in Table 1 revealed the lowest (2.56) aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was 2 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 2. Bio-efficacy of different insecticides against aphid, L. erysimi on cauliflower (Pooled over periods and sprays)

Treatments No. of aphids (25 cm2/leaf) After spray Pooled over periods and sprays First Second Imidacloprid 30.5 SC, 0.006% 2.29a 1.97ab 2.13ab (4.74) (3.38) (4.04) Thiamethoxam 25 WG, 0.01% 2.04a 1.64a 1.84a (3.66) (2.19) (2.89) Clothianidin 50 WDG, 0.02% 3.67bc 2.75de 3.21cd (12.97) (7.06) (9.80) Thiacloprid 48 SC, 0.02% 4.72e 3.34f 4.03d (21.68) (10.66) (15.74) Acephate 75 SP, 0.075% 3.30b 2.29bc 2.80bc (10.39) (4.74) (7.34) Diafenthiuron 50 WP, 0.05% 4.30de 3.16ef 3.73cd (17.99) (9.49) (13.41) Cartap hydrocloride 50 SP, 0.05% 4.03cd 3.04ef 3.54cd (15.74) (8.74) (12.03) Flonicamid 50 WG, 0.015% 3.81bcd 2.90def 3.36cd (14.02) (7.91) (10.79) Triazophos 40 EC, 0.08% 3.56bc 2.49cd 3.03bc (12.17) (5.70) (8.68) Control 7.81f 8.55g 8.18e (60.50) (72.60) (66.41) ANOVA S. Em. + Treatment (T) 0.16 0.14 0.30 Period (P) 0.08 0.06 0.18 Spray (S) - - 0.48 T x P 0.24 0.20 0.16 T x S - - 0.15 P x S - - 0.07 T x P x S - - 0.22 C. D. at 5% T 0.49 0.40 0.97 P 0.22 0.17 NS S - - 0.14 T x P NS NS NS T x S - - 0.43 P x S - - 0.19 T x P x S - - NS C. V. % 10.79 10.69 10.80 Notes: 1. Figures in parentheses are retransformed values; those outside are √ + 0.5value. 2. Treatment means with letter(s) in common are not significant at 5 % level of significance with in a column.

treated with thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at 13.79 and 14.71/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. The order of par with imidacloprid (0.006%) 3.62/25 cm2 per leaf. The effectiveness was thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > acephate treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap recorded significantly the highest (18.95) population of hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, aphid and it was at par with cartap hydrocloride (0.05%) respectively. and difenthiuron (0.05%) in which aphid population was PATEL and GODHANI, Bio-Efficacy and Economics of Different Insecticides Against Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbech.) 2 7

Table 3. Impact of synthetic insecticides on yield

Treatments Cauliflower yield (q/ha) Increase in yield over control (%) 1 2 3 Imidacloprid 30.5 SC, 0.006% 157.86ab 58.18 Thiamethoxam 25 WG, 0.01% 160.13a 62.52 Clothianidin 50 WDG, 0.02% 129.72bc 49.11 Thiacloprid 48 SC, 0.02% 81.40d 18.89 Acephate 75 SP, 0.075% 152.44ab 56.69 Diafenthiuron 50 WP, 0.05% 135.11abc 51.14 Cartap hydrocloride 50 SP, 0.05% 113.53c 41.85 Flonicamid 50 WG, 0.015% 143.35ab 53.94 Triazophos 40 EC, 0.08% 110.06c 40.01 Control 66.02d ANOVA S. Em. + 8.61 - C. D. at 5% 25.29 - C. V. % 11.94 -

7th day aphid and it was at par with difenthiuron (0.05%) in which 2 Seven day after spray the lowest (3.50) aphid aphid population was 17.99/25 cm per leaf, respectively. population in the cauliflower crop which was treated with The order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam > imidacloprid thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at par with > acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, imidacloprid (0.006%) 4.65/25 cm2 per leaf. The treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and recorded respectively. significantly the highest (22.44) population of aphid and it Second spray was at par with cartap hydrocloride (0.05%) and difenthiuron 3rd day (0.05%) in which aphid population was 15.10 and 16.15/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. The order of effectiveness was The results presented in Table 1 revealed the lowest thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > acephate > triazophos > (0.31) aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap hydrocloride > treated with thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, respectively. par with imidacloprid (0.006%) 1.46/25 cm2 per leaf. The treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and 10th day recorded significantly the highest (7.17) population of aphid Similarly, ten day after spray the lowest (5.07) aphid and it was at par with flonicamid (0.015%), cartap population in the cauliflower crop which was treated with hydrocloride (0.05%) and difenthiuron (0.05%) in which thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at par with aphid population was 3.95, 4.98 and 5.55/25 cm2 per leaf, imidacloprid (0.006%) 6.05/25 cm2 per leaf. The treatment respectively. The order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and recorded > imidacloprid > acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > significantly the highest (23.90) population of aphid and it flonicamid > cartap hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid was at par with flonicamid (0.015%), cartap hydrocloride > control, respectively. (0.05%) and difenthiuron (0.05%) in which aphid population 7th day was 16.64, 18.42 and 23.80/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. The order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam = imidacloprid > Seven day after spray the lowest (1.81) aphid acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap population in the cauliflower crop which was treated with hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at par with respectively. imidacloprid (0.006%), acephate (0.07%), triazophos (0.08%) in which aphid population was 2.06, 3.78 and 4.38/25 cm2 Pooled over period per leaf. The treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least Overall, results of pooled over period and spray effective and recorded significantly the highest (10.32) presented in Table 2 and Fig 1. revealed that the lowest population of aphid and it was at par with clothianidin (3.66) aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was (0.02%), flonicamid (0.015%), cartap hydrocloride (0.05%) treated with thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at and difenthiuron (0.05%) in which aphid population was par with imidacloprid (0.006%) 4.74/25 cm2 per leaf. The 6.42, 8.68, 8.80 and 9.80/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. The treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > recorded significantly the highest (21.68) population of acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap 2 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 4. Economics of different insecticides used for control of aphid, L. erysimi infesting cauliflower

Insecticides Conc. Quantity of Cost of Cost Total cost Yield Gross Net Net ICBR NICBR (%) insecticides insecti- of of plant (q/ha) realiza- realiza- profit for two cide labour protec- tion tion over (Rs/ha) sprays (Rs/L or tion for (Rs/ha) control (L or kg/ha) kg) two (Rs/ha) sprays (Rs/ha) Imidacloprid30.5 SC 0.006 0.20 780 1144 1924 157.86 157860 91840 89916 1:47.73 1:46.73 Thiamethoxam 25 WG 0.01 0.40 1600 1144 2744 160.13 160130 94110 91366 1:34.30 1:33.30 Clothianidin 50 WDG 0.02 0.40 6666 1144 7810 129.72 129720 63700 55890 1:8.16 1:7.16 Thiacloprid 48 SC 0.02 0.40 960 1144 2104 81.40 81400 15380 13276 1:7.31 1:6.31 Acephate75 SP 0.075 1.00 1140 1144 2284 152.40 152400 86380 84096 1:37.82 1:36.82 Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.05 1.00 3900 1144 5044 135.11 135110 69090 64046 1:13.70 1:12.70 Cartaphydrocloride 50 0.05 1.00 1200 1144 2344 113.53 113530 47510 45166 1:20.27 1:19.27 SP Flonicamid 50 WG 0.015 0.30 2940 1144 4084 143.35 143350 77330 73246 1:18.93 1:17.93 Triazophos 40 EC 0.08 2.00 750 1144 1894 110.06 110060 44040 42146 1:23.25 1:22.25 Control - - - - - 66.02 66020 - - - -

Liter spray solution required for one spray per ha Market price of cauliflower: Rs. 1000/quintal Labour charges: For spraying: Rs. 286/labour/day (Two labours per hectare required for each spray)

T1 Imidacloprid 0.006% T6 Difenthiuron 0.05% T2 Thiamethoxam 0.01% T7 Cartap hydrocloride 0.05% T3 Clothianidin 0.02% T8 Flonicamid 0.015% T4 Thiacloprid 0.02% T9 Triazophos 0.08% T5 Acephate 0.075% Control -

Fig. 1. Bio-efficacy of different Insecticides against aphid, L. erysimi on cauliflower PATEL and GODHANI, Bio-Efficacy and Economics of Different Insecticides Against Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbech.) 2 9

T1 Imidacloprid 0.006% T6 Difenthiuron 0.05% T2 Thiamethoxam 0.01% T7 Cartap hydrocloride 0.05% T3 Clothianidin 0.02% T8 Flonicamid 0.015% T4 Thiacloprid 0.02% T9 Triazophos 0.08% T5 Acephate 0.075% Control -

Fig. 2. Impact of insecticides on yield hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, > control, respectively. respectively. Overall Pooled over period and spray th 10 day Overall, results of pooled over period and spray Similarly, ten day after spray the lowest (5.70) aphid presented in Table 2 and Fig 1 revealed that the lowest population in the cauliflower crop which was treated with (2.89) aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at par with treated with thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at imidacloprid (0.006%), acephate (0.07%) in which aphid par with imidacloprid (0.006%) 4.04/25 cm2 per leaf. The population was 8.03 and 8.99/25 cm2 per leaf. The treatment treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and recorded recorded significantly the highest (15.74) population of significantly the highest (15.10) population of aphid and it aphid and it was at par with clothianidin (0.02%), flonicamid was at par with triazophos (0.08%), clothianidin (0.02%), (0.015%), cartap hydrocloride (0.05%) and diafenthiuron flonicamid (0.015%), cartap hydrocloride (0.05%) and (0.05%) in which aphid population was 9.80, 10.79, 12.03 diafenthiuron (0.05%) in which aphid population was 10.85, and 13.41/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. The order of 12.10, 12.24, 13.56 and 14.09/25 cm2 per leaf, respectively. effectiveness was thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > acephate The order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam > imidacloprid > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap > acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > flonicamid > cartap hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid > control, respectively. These findings are in agreement with Sultana respectively. et al. (2009), Vermora et al. (2010) and Khedkar et al. (2012). Pooled over period Impact of synthetic insecticides on yield Overall, results of pooled over period and spray The data on yield of cauliflower (Table 3 and Fig. 2) presented in Table 2 and Fig 1 revealed that the lowest clearly indicated that the efficacy of various insecticides (2.19) aphid population in the cauliflower crop which was against aphid L. erysimi was also reflected on cauliflower treated with thiamethoxam (0.01%), which was remain at yield. The chronological order of various insecticidal par with imidacloprid (0.006%) 3.38/25 cm2 per leaf. The treatments in comparison to control based on yield of treatment thiacloprid (0.02%) was found least effective and cauliflower (q/ha) given in bracket was: thiamethoxam 0.01% recorded significantly the highest (10.66) population of (160.13) > imidacloprid 0.006% (157.86) > acephate 0.075% aphid and it was at par with flonicamid (0.015%), cartap (152.44) > flonicamid 0.015% (143.35) > difenthiuron 0.05% hydrocloride (0.05%) and diafenthiuron (0.05%) in which (135.11) > clothianidin 0.02% (129.72) > cartap hydrocloride aphid population was 7.91, 8.74 and 9.49/25 cm2 per leaf, 0.05% (113.53) > triazophos 0.08% (110.06) > thiacloprid respectively. The order of effectiveness was thiamethoxam 0.02% (81.40) > control (66.02). Plots treated with different > imidacloprid > acephate > triazophos > clothianidin > chemicals yielded significantly higher cauliflower (160.12 flonicamid > cartap hydrocloride > difenthiuron > thiacloprid to 81.40 q/ha) than control (66.02). The highest (160.13 q/ 3 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 ha) yield was obtained from the plots treated with treated plots followed by acephate 0.075% (1:36.82) and thiamethoxam 0.01% and it was at par with imidacloprid thiamethoxam 0.01% (1:33.30). Thiaocloprid 0.02% recorded 0.006% (157.86 q/ha). The cauliflower plots treated with the lowest (1:6.31) NICBR and proved to be the least thiacloprid 0.02% harvested significantly lower (81.40 q/ economical insecticides. These findings are more or less ha) yield and proved to be less effective insecticidal similar with Sangekar (2012). treatments and was at par with control. These findings are LITERATURE CITED in agreement with Vermora et al. (2010). Chaudhari, N., Ghosh, S., Ghosh, J and Senapati, S. K. 2001. Incidence Per cent increased over yield of insect pests of cabbage in relation to prevailing climatic The per cent increased in yield of cauliflower over conditions of Terai region. Indian J. Ent., 63: 421-428. control was also worked out and presented in Table 3 Khedkar, A. A., Bharpoda, T. M., Patel, M. G. and Patel, C. K. 2012. (Column 3 and Fig. 2).The chronological order of various Efficacy of different chemical insecticides against mustard aphid, treatments based on the per cent increased in yield over Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) infesting mustard. AGRES - An International e-Journal, 1 (1): 53-64. control (given in bracket) was: thiamethoxam 0.01% (62.52) > imidacloprid 0.006% (58.18) > acephate 0.075% (56.69) > Muthukumar, M. and Sharma, R. K. 2009. Eco-friendly management of insect pests of cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis) with flonicamid 0.015% (53.94) > difenthiuron 0.05% (51.14) > intercropping and botanicals. Indian J. Agril. Sci., 79 (2): 135- clothianidin 0.02% (49.11) > cartap hydrocloride 0.05% 137. (41.85) > triazophos 0.08% (40.01) > thiacloprid 0.02% (18.89). Sangekar, N. R. 2012. Bionomics and management of aphid on More than 50 per cent yield losses can be avoided by the cabbage. M.Sc. thesis submitted to Anand Agricultural University, spray application of thiamethoxam 0.01%, imidacloprid Anand. 0.006%, acephate 0.075%, flonicamid 0.015% and Srinivasan, K. and Murthy, P. N. K. 1991. Mustard plant trap major difenthiuron 0.05%. Thiacloprid 0.02% proved to be least cabbage pests. Indian Farming, 40: 11-12. effective chemical as there was minimum yield of cauliflower Srivastava, A. and Guleria, S. 2003. Evaluation of botanicals for increased over control followed by triazophos 0.08%, cartap Mustard aphid Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) control in Brassica. hydrocloride 0.05% and clothianidin 0.02%. Himachal J. Agril. Res., 29: 116-118. Economics Steel, R. G. D. and Torrie, J. H. 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics. Publ. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. pp. The economics of various synthetic insecticides 137. (Table 4) revealed that the highest (91,366 Rs/ha) net Sultana, N. A., Khan, M. A. H., Islam, M. N. and Mirza, H. 2009. realization was obtained from the cauliflower plots treated Integrated management of aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) in with thiamethoxam 0.01% followed by imidacloprid 0.006% mustard. World J. Zoology, 4 (2): 105-108. (89,916), acephate 0.075% (86,380) and triazophos 0.08% Vermora, J. M., Raghvani, K. L., Joshi, M. D., Makadia, R. R., (77,330). The highest (1:46.73) Net Incremental Cost Benefit Boricha, H. V. and Dalwadi, N. G. 2010. Chemical control of Ratio (NICBR) was registered from imidacloprid 0.006% aphid, L. erysimi on cabbage. Int. J. Plant Prot., 3 (1): 101-103.

Received on 21-06-2017 Accepted on 24-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 31-36, 2017

Correlation Between Weather Parameters and Growth Characters of Ginger Under Different Growing Situations A.A. SHAIKH, K.V. KULKARNI, S.V. BAGADE AND V.A. STHOOL Department of Agricultural Meteorology, College of Agriculture, Pune. Maharashtra. email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT of Maharasthra. The per hectare productivity of ginger in Maharasthra accounts about 2000 kg ha-1 (Anonymous, Growing of ginger under shadenet condition found more 2012). beneficial than polyhouse and open field situation as ginger is a shade loving crop. The green and dry matter yield of Now a day’s people are becoming health conscious ginger was favourably influenced by growing ginger with and started avoiding consumption of food, which contain 40% cocopeat + 30% red soil + 20% vermicompost chemical residues, and using organically produced food. Looking at the importance of organic manures, biofertilizers +10% sand (T ). The correlation studies revealed that 10 and inorganic fertilizers and their integrated effect on crop maximum temperature, minimum temperature and production both qualitatively and quantitatively. Ginger is morning relative humidity was positively correlated with such a crop which responds to organic manures. Organic plant height, number of tillers, number of functional leaves, manures improve the quality of ginger and develop ginger leaf area, fresh and dry weight of rhizome under shadenet rhizome which will in turn increased rhizome yield. Inspite and polyhouse situation while negative correlation with of that ginger is shade loving crop too. The study presented evening relative humidity. Whereas, minimum here describes a new research topic that has not been temperature and morning and evening relative humidity previously reported. This experiment is accepted with a was positively correlated with plant height, number of scope that ginger can be grown in city area. In the system, tillers, number of functional leaves, leaf area, fresh and the rhizomes can be grown in different growth media under dry weight of rhizome under open situation while negative growing situations viz., polyhouse, shadenet and open correlation with maximum temperature, environment. Correlation study helps to growers to distinguish between best growing situation for ginger crop Key words Weather parameters, Correlations, Ginger, and suitable growth media for optimum production Growing medias, Growing situations, particularly with weather factors. Polyhouse, Shadenet, Open field, MATERIALS AND METHODS An experiment was laid out during summer, 2015-2016 Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is known in India in Polyhouse No. 7, Shadenet No. 7 and the open field at from ancient times. Ginger was one of the oriental spices to Hi-Tech Floriculture and Vegetable Project, College of reach South Eastern Europe in the ancient spice trade. It Agriculture, Pune. belongs to the family Zingiberaceae under the natural order The exact location of Pune is at North latitude of 18.22’ scitaminae. Ginger is one among the five important major and 73.51’. East longitude in the plain zone having altitude spices of India, which plays an important role in national of 557.7 m above the mean sea level (MSL). Middle of June economy. India is the largest producer and exporter of dry to middle of October (south west monsoon) is the monsoon ginger to more than 50 countries accounting for more than months during which the maximum annual rainfall is 70 per cent of world production. India ranks fourth in received. An average 714 mm rainfall usually received in exporting of dry ginger. As compared to other countries this area, out of which 75% is received during the months 28,340 tonnes valued at Rs. 57.23 crores of dried ginger from June to September mainly due to South-West was exported (Anonymous, 2012). China is one of the major monsoon and the remaining from North-East monsoon competitors in the world. In India, ginger is mainly grown during October and November. in the states of Kerala, Meghalaya, Orissa, Maharasthra, West Bengal and little extended Karnataka. In India, ginger Table1 Treatment details with their symbols is grown over an area of 77.6 hectares with an annual production of 1,86,000 tones however, the productivity of 1) Growing situations: Shadenet, polyhouse and open India accounting about 2.94 t/ha. Kerala, Meghalaya and field situations Orissah states account for more area under ginger though it is almost all states in India (Anonymous, 2012). 2) Experimental Details In Maharasthra the area under ginger was 3,360 1. Name of crop : Ginger hectares (Anonymous, 2012). Cultivation of ginger in a 2. Variety : Mahim specialized way is carried out in Satara district of Maharastra 3. Season : Summer, 2015 which contributes the maximum to the total ginger 4. Design : Factorial Completely production as compared to other places in the state. The Randomized Block Design largest area under ginger was 2500 hectares with a 5. No. of replications : 3 production of 50000 tonnes was recorded in Satara district 3 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 2. Correlation between weather parameters and plant height (cm) of ginger at 210 DAT

Treat- Shadenet Polyhouse Open field ment Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.458 0.842* 0.981** -0.492 0.399 0.892* 0.893* -0.373 -0.869* 0.855* 0.495 0.869*

T2 0.442 0.872* 0.479 -0.494 0.399 0.866* 0.867* -0.846* -0.655 0.655 0.495 0.655

T3 0.442 0.872* 0.588 -0.514 0.204 0.875* 0.874* -0.084 -0.868* 0.866* 0.726 0.862*

T4 0.442 0.872* 0.495 -0.5 0.399 0.869* 0.868* -0.897* -0.872* 0.857* 0.905** 0.867*

T5 0.655 0.975** 0.975** -0.972** 0.399 0.655 0.655 -0.868* -0.868* 0.866* 0.613 0.862*

T6 0.862* 0.987** 0.987** -0.975** 0.218 0.868* 0.866* -0.866* -0.866* 0.662 0.612 0.866*

T7 0.867* 0.05 0.05 -0.152 0.482 0.872* 0.857* -0.866* -0.867* 0.865* 0.482 0.867*

T8 0.862* 0.733 0.733 -0.412 0.396 0.868* 0.866* -0.702 -0.204 0.278 0.866* 0.442

T9 0.866* 0.808* 0.808* -0.821* 0.334 0.866* 0.662 -0.866* -0.399 0.068 0.895* 0.458

T10 0.867* 0.221 0.221 -0.224 0.418 0.867* 0.865* -0.866* -0.399 0.282 0.871* 0.452

T11 0.867* 0.926** 0.926** -0.926** 0.304 0.865* 0.865* -0.866* -0.218 0.902** 0.895* 0.458

6. Treatments : 11 filled according to the treatments. Nine pots were used for 8. Place of research work : Hi-Tech Floriculture and each treatment. As the experiment contains three Vegetable Project, College replications, hence three pots per each growing situations of Agriculture, Pune. is used (shadenet, polyhouse and open). The pots were filled up according to different proportion mentioned in 9. Commencement of : Summer -2015 treatments detail (Table1) with the help of a container research work comprised constant volume. After filling up the pots were th 10. Date of transplanting : 8 May, 2015 kept according to replication in different growing situations. 11. Date of harvesting : 7th Feb, 2016 Then transplanting was done. Light irrigation was given 3) Cultural operations after transplanting. 1. Seed material, pot filling and planting 2. Seed rate Healthy rhizome of ‘Mahim’ cultivar with well One healthy rhizome pot-1 was utilized for conducting developed buds was used for planting. Transplanting was this experiment. done on 8th May, 2015. Before transplanting the pots were

Table 3. Correlation between weather parameters and number of functional leaves of ginger at 210 DAT

Treat- Shadenet Polyhouse Open field ment Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.102 0.893* 0.975** -0.871* 0.452 0.840* 0.373 -0.248 -0.787* 0.843* 0.5 0.496

T2 0.462 0.866* 0.987** -0.895* 0.458 0.842* 0.846* -0.796* -0.472 0.229 0.320 0.869*

T3 0.498 0.871* 0.05 -0.866* 0.442 0.872* 0.084 -0.072 -0.472 0.970** 0.755* 0.655

T4 0.731* 0.869* 0.733* -0.866* 0.442 0.872* 0.897* -0.798* -0.198 0.981** 0.492 0.862*

T5 0.992** 0.655 0.808* -0.866* 0.442 0.872* 0.868* -0.803* -0.5 0.479 0.494 0.867*

T6 0.620 0.862* 0.221 -0.866* 0.442 0.872* 0.866* -0.802* -0.5 0.588 0.514 0.862*

T7 0.882* 0.867* 0.895* -0.886* 0.462 0.843* 0.866* -0.803* -0.5 0.495 0.5 0.866*

T8 0.282 0.862* 0.479 -0.912* 0.281 0.868* 0.702 -0.782* -0.5 0.551 0.496 0.867*

T9 0.501 0.866* 0.588 -0.968* 0.234 0.863* 0.866* -0.803* -0.498 0.871* 0.945** 0.186

T10 0.501 0.867* 0.835* -0.835* 0.399 0.5 0.866* -0.812* -0.5 0.869* 0.003 0.869*

T11 0.522 0.867* 0.05 -0.05 0.204 0.5 0.866* -0.802* -0.5 0.655 0.975 0.655

* Significant at 5% level , ** Significant at 1% level SHAIKH et al., Correlation Between Weather Parameters and Growth Characters of Ginger Under Different Growing Situations 3 3

Table 4. Correlation between weather parameters and number of tillers (shoots) of ginger at 210 DAT

Treat- Shadenet Polyhouse Open field ment Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.878* 0.5 0.399 -0.449 0.893* 0.835* 0.835* -0.866* -0.05 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T2 0.863* 0.5 0.399 -0.5 0.866* 0.05 0.05 -0.869* -0.733 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T3 0.866* 0.25 0.204 -0.489 0.871* 0.945** 0.945** -0.877* -0.808* 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T4 0.895* 0.5 0.399 -0.320 0.869* 0.003 0.013 -0.863* -0.221 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T5 0.895* 0.803* 0.590 -0.5 0.866* 0.803* 0.866* -0.442 -0.926** 0.886* 0.462 0.843*

T6 0.851* 0.812* 0.571 -0.496 0.867* 0.812* 0.866* -0.442 -0.848* 0.807* 0.106 0.102

T7 0.852* 0.802* 0.998** -0.496 0.867* 0.802* 0.886* -0.462 -0.847* 0.530 0.468 0.462

T8 0.866* 0.396 0.396 -0.514 0.862* 0.733 0.412 -0.869* -0.842* 1 0.502 0.498

T9 0.866* 0.334 0.334 -0.5 0.866* 0.808* 0.821* -0.866* -0.840* 0.954** 0.735* 0.731*

T10 0.866* 0.418 0.418 -0.496 0.867* 0.221 0.224 -0.866* -0.842* 0.954** 0.998** 0.992**

T11 0.886* 0.691 0.304 -0.496 0.867* 0.926** 0.926** -0.862* -0.872* 0.458 0.626 0.620

3. Seed treatment 7. Harvesting Before planting, the rhizomes were treated with 50% The crop was harvested on 7th Feb, 2016 after drying Bavistin @ 25 g in 10 liters of water to the rhizome for 10 up of the leaves and falling down of plants. The rhizome minutes. was digged out from each pot. The harvested rhizomes 4. Manure applications were cleaned by removing the adhered soil and roots. As the experiment was conducted in organic 4) Biometric observations environment, so only vermicompost was applied 4 times in 1. Germination count the form of slurry to each pot. The application was done on The initial plant count was recorded on 42 DAT by 26th July, 25th August, 28th September and 26th December, counting plant from each pot. 2015. Chemical composition of vermicompost was 1.87% N, 2. Plant height 0.8% P O , and 7% K O. 2 5 2 The plant height was recorded from ground level up 5. Irrigation and cultivation to the base of the upper most fully opened leaf on the One light irrigation was given immediately after tallest (main) shoot of the plant. Height of the plant was planting. Subsequent irrigations were given at an interval expressed in centimeters. of 3 days as evaporation rate was high from the pot. 3. Number of shoots/tillers 6. Plant protection measures Number of the green shoots produced by the plant Malathion @ 1 ml/lit was applied on 25th July, 2015 which planted on each pot was counted by excluding main with the help of hand sprayer to control thrips. shoot and their average value was worked out.

Table 5. Correlation between weather parameters and leaf area (dm2) of ginger at 210 DAT

Treat- Shadenet Polyhouse Open field ment Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.453 0.852* 0.875* -0.874* 0.084 0.5 0.399 -0.835* -0.5 0.866* 0.418 1**

T2 0.441 0.848* 0.869* -0.868* 0.897* 0.5 0.399 -0.05 -0.5 0.862* 0.304 1**

T3 0.442 0.847* 0.655 -0.655 0.868* 0.25 0.204 -0.945** -0.975** 0.871* 0.452 0.840*

T4 0.458 0.842* 0.868* -0.866* 0.866* 0.5 0.399 -0.013 -0.987** 0.895* 0.458 0.842*

T5 0.452 0.840* 0.872* -0.857* 0.866* 0.35 0.399 -0.972** -0.05 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T6 0.458 0.842* 0.868* -0.866* 0.702* 0.672 0.218 -0.975** -0.733* 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T7 0.442 0.872* 0.866* -0.662 0.866* 0.482 0.482 -0.152 -0.808* 0.866* 0.442 0.872*

T8 0.442 0.872* 0.867* -0.865* 0.866* 0.396 0.396 -0.412 -0.835* 0.5 0.399 0.196

T9 0.442 0.872* 0.865* -0.865* 0.866* 0.334 0.334 -0.821* -0.05 0.5 0.399 0.211

T10 0.442 0.872* 0.35 -0.399 0.189 0.418 0.418 -0.224 -0.945** 0.25 0.204 0.184

T11 0.462 0.843 0.672 -0.218 0.189 0.691 0.304 -0.926** -0.003 0.5 0.399 0.188 3 4 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 6. Correlation between weather parameters and fresh weight of ginger rhizome pot-1(g) at harvest

Treatment Shadenet Polyhouse Open field

Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.5 0.399 0.453 -0.852* 0.229 0.225 0.219 -0.068 -0.897* 0.798* 0.869* 0.198

T2 0.5 0.399 0.441 -0.848* 0.970** 0.968** 0.962** -0.282 -0.868* 0.803* 0.655 0.5

T3 0.25 0.204 0.442 -0.847* 0.981** 0.981** 0.974** -0.902** -0.866* 0.802* 0.862* 0.5

T4 0.5 0.399 0.458 -0.842* 0.479 0.479 0.912** -0.281 -0.868* 0.803* 0.867* 0.5

T5 0.35 0.399 0.452 -0.840* 0.588 0.588 0.968** -0.234 -0.863* 0.782* 0.862* 0.5

T6 0.672 0.218 0.458 -0.842* 0.495 0.588 0.902** -0.234 -0.869* 0.803* 0.866* 0.498

T7 0.482 0.482 0.442 -0.872* 0.551 0.551 0.504 -0.502 -0.871* 0.812* 0.867* 0.5

T8 0.396 0.396 0.442 -0.872* 0.869* 0.868* 0.003 -0.5 -0.399 0.188 0.868* 0.970**

T9 0.334 0.334 0.442 -0.872* 0.655 0.655 0.975** -0.35 -0.399 0.189 0.866* 0.981**

T10 0.418 0.418 0.442 -0.872* 0.868* 0.866* 0.987** -0.672 -0.218 0.189 0.868* 0.479

T11 0.691 0.304 0.462 -0.843* 0.872* 0.857* 0.05 -0.482 -0.482 0.195 0.863* 0.588

4. Green or fresh weight of rhizome plant-1 observed that minimum range of minimum temperature was At the time of harvesting, plant was uprooted from more or less same in all the three growing situations. each pot and cleans separately. The yield of plant was However, it was ranged less under polyhouse due to green reported as green rhizome yield (g) plant-1. house effect as compared to shadenet and open situation. 5. Dry matter weight of rhizome per plant The morning relative humidity ranged between 57 to 93, 57 to 95 and 60 to 95% under shadenet, polyhouse and Dry weight of rhizome was usually recorded by using open situations, respectively. It was clearly observed that the rhizome used for determining the fresh or green weight. there was no much variation in morning relative humidity These rhizomes were sun dried and then oven dried at 65±°C amongst all the three growing situations. However, minimum till a constant weight was obtained. The rhizomes were then range of morning relative humidity was more under open weighed for their dry matter after harvest. situation due to direct relevance with the weather. RESULTS AND DISSCUSION The evening relative humidity ranged between 20 to Meteorological studies 78, 25 to 79 and 22 to 78 % under shadenet, polyhouse and open situations, respectively. It was clearly observed that The different growing situations viz., shadenet, there was no much variation in evening relative humidity polyhouse and open taken under consideration during amongst all the three growing situations. However, minimum conducting this experiment affect significantly on growth range of morning relative humidity was more under and yield of ginger. The maximum and minimum temperatures polyhouse situation due to green house effect. were slightly lower under shadenet situation, moderate under open and more in polyhouse condition due to green Rainfall was favourable during whole experimental house effect which has affected growth of ginger. Morning period resulted in better growth and development of ginger. relative humidity was somewhat higher in open field situation In all, shady and cool environment is maintained under due to direct contact with the atmosphere and it was slightly shadenet situation as compared to polyhouse and open lower under shadenet and polyhouse situation. Evening situation throughout the growing period. Hence, all the relative humidity was more in polyhouse due accumulation growth and yield contributing characters were favourably of more humidity stored during night hours. It was slightly influenced under shadenet situation thereby rhizome yield lower under shadenet and open situation. Rainfall was under shadenet situation. It clearly indicated that ginger is received right from start of the experiment (18th MW) to 48th a shade loving crop and suggested to grow under shadenet MW. situation. The maximum temperature ranged between 24.9 to 4.5 Correlation studies 39.1oC, 27.5 to 42.8oC and 28.3 to 39.1oC under shadenet, 4.5.1 Correlation between weather parameters and plant polyhouse and open field situations, respectively. It was height (cm) of ginger clearly observed that maximum temperature was ranged less The correlation between weather parameters and under shadenet as compared to polyhouse and open plant height (cm) of ginger revealed significant positive situation favouring the better growth and development of correlation with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH I, whereas, ginger. negative correlation was observed with RH-II with all the The minimum temperature ranged between 11.5 to treatments under shadenet situation. It indicated that as 31.8oC, 11.4 to 22.2oC and 11.0 to 39.1oC under shadenet, Tmax., Tmin. and RH I increased, plant height was increased polyhouse and open situations, respectively. It was clearly correspondingly. However, RH II had negative correlation indicating that as RH II increased, plant height getting SHAIKH et al., Correlation Between Weather Parameters and Growth Characters of Ginger Under Different Growing Situations 3 5

Table 7. Correlation between weather parameters and dry weight of ginger rhizome pot-1(g) at harvest

Treat- Shadenet Polyhouse Open field ment Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II Tmax Tmin RH I RH II

T1 0.981** 0.999** 0.867* -0.5 0.866* 0.05 0.893* -0.787* -0.003 0.869* 0.453 0.852*

T2 0.972** 0.565 0.874* -0.489 0.871* 0.945** 0.866* -0.472 -0.975** 0.655 0.441 0.848*

T3 0.988** 0.862* 0.868* -0.320 0.869* 0.003 0.871* -0.472 -0.987** 0.868* 0.442 0.847*

T4 1** 1** 0.655 -0.755* 0.655 0.975** 0.869* -0.198 -0.934** 0.932** 0.458 0.842*

T5 1** 1** 0.866* -0.492 0.862* 0.987** 0.655 -0.5 -0.624 0.835* 0.452 0.840*

T6 1** 1** 0.857* -0.494 0.867* 0.05 0.862* -0.5 -0.102 0.05 0.458 0.842*

T7 0.980** 0.865* 0.866* -0.514 0.862* 0.733 0.867* -0.5 -0.462 0.945** 0.442 0.872*

T8 0.866* 0.866* 0.866* -0.662 0.612 0.5 0.862* -0.5 -0.498 0.013 0.442 0.872*

T9 0.857* 0.866* 0.867* -0.865* 0.482 0.496 0.866* -0.498 -0.731 0.972** 0.442 0.872*

T10 0.866* 0.702 0.204 -0.278 0.866* 0.974** 0.867* -0.5 -0.992** 0.975** 0.442 0.872*

T11 0.662 0.866* 0.399 -0.068 0.895* 0.733 0.867* -0.5 -0.620 0.152 0.462 0.843*

* Significant at 5% level , ** Significant at 1% level decreased because it was increased after noon and most of and plant architecture. Results show same trends with the the moisture in the air was already utilized before that time. results of Rajasekar et.al.( 2013) Kandiannan et.al.(2013). Same trend was observed under polyhouse and open field 4.5.4 Correlation between weather parameters and leaf situation also. This was due to important role of temperature area (dm2) of ginger in radiant energy utilization within crop canopy and plant The correlation between weather parameters and leaf architecture. Results show same trends with the results of area (dm2) of ginger revealed significant positive correlation Akpenpuun et.al. (2013), Kandiannan et.al.(2013). with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH-I, whereas, negative 4.5.2 Correlation between weather parameters and correlation was observed with RH-II with all the treatments number of functional leaves of ginger under shadenet situation. It indicated that as Tmax., Tmin. The correlation between weather parameters and and RH I increased, leaf area (dm 2) was increased number of functional leaves of ginger revealed significant correspondingly. However, RH II had negative correlation positive correlation with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH-I, indicating that as RH II increased, leaf area (dm2) getting whereas, negative correlation was observed with RH-II with decreased because it was increased after noon and most of all the treatments under shadenet situation. It indicated the moisture in the air was already utilized before that time. that as Tmax., Tmin. and RH I increased, plant height was Same trend was observed under polyhouse also. This was increased correspondingly. However, RH II had negative due to important role of temperature in radiant energy correlation indicating that as RH II increased, plant height utilization within crop canopy and plant architecture. getting decreased because it was increased afternoon and In open situation the correlation between weather most of the moisture in the air was already utilized before parameters and leaf area (dm2) of ginger revealed significant that time. Same trend was observed under polyhouse and positive correlation with respect to Tmin. , RH-I, and RH II, open situation also. This was due to important role of whereas, negative correlation was observed with Tmax.with temperature in radiant energy utilization within crop canopy all the treatments. It was observed that the leaf area and plant architecture. Results show same trends with the decreased with increased Tmax.with all the treatments as results of Nangare et.al. (2015) Kandiannan et.al.(2013). RH II has direct bearing with leaf area under open situation. 4.5.3 Correlation between weather parameters and Results show same trends with the results of Rajasekar number of tillers (shoots) of ginger et.al (2013), Kandiannan et.al.(2013). The correlation between weather parameters and 4.5.5 Correlation between weather parameters and fresh number of tillers (shoots of ginger revealed significant weight of rhizome in ginger positive correlation with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH-I, The correlation between weather parameters and whereas, negative correlation was observed with RH-II with fresh weight of rhizome in ginger revealed significant all the treatments under shadenet situation. It indicated positive correlation with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH-I, that as Tmax., Tmin. and RH I increased, plant height was whereas, negative correlation was observed with RH-II with increased correspondingly. However, RH II had negative all the treatments under shadenet situation. It indicated correlation indicating that as RH II increased, plant height that as Tmax., Tmin. and RH I increased, fresh weight of getting decreased because it was increased afternoon and rhizome in ginger was increased correspondingly. However, most of the moisture in the air was already utilized before RH II had negative correlation indicating that as RH II that time. Same trend was observed under polyhouse and increased, fresh weight of rhizome in ginger getting open situation also. This was due to important role of decreased because it was increased afternoon and most of temperature in radiant energy utilization within crop canopy the moisture in the air was already utilized before that time. 3 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Same trend was observed under polyhouse situation also. In open situation the correlation between weather This was due to important role of temperature in radiant parameters and dry weight of rhizome in ginger revealed energy utilization within crop canopy and plant architecture. significant positive correlation with respect to Tmin., RH-I In open situation the correlation between weather and RH II ,whereas, negative correlation was observed parameters and fresh weight of rhizome in ginger revealed with Tmin. with all the treatments as RH II has direct bearing significant positive correlation with respect to Tmin., RH-I with dry weight of rhizome in ginger under open field and RH II, whereas, negative correlation was observed situation. Results show same trends with the results of with Tmin. with all the treatments as RH II has direct bearing Vastrad et.al (2002), Kandiannan et.al.(2013). with fresh weight of rhizome in ginger under open situation. LITERATURE CITED Results show same trends with the results of Vastrad et.al Anonymous 2012. Annual report of national Horticulture Board, (2002), Kandiannan et.al.(2013). New Delhi. 4.5.6 Correlation between weather parameters and dry Akpenpuun, Denen and Busari, Amao. 2013. Impact of Climate on weight of rhizome in ginger Tuber Crops Yield in Kwara State, Nigeria. Internat.J.Contemp. The correlation between weather parameters and dry Res. 3 (10) :10-13. weight of rhizome in ginger revealed significant positive Kandiannan, K., Parthasarathy, U., Krishnamurthy, K.S. and correlation with respect to Tmax., Tmin. and RH-I, whereas, Srinivasn, V. 2013. Ginger phenology and growing degree days- negative correlation was observed with RH-II with all the a tool to schedule cultural operations. Ind. Inst. spices Res. treatments under shadenet situation. It indicated that as (ICAR) [email protected]. Tmax., Tmin. and RH I increased, dry weight of rhizome in Nangare, D.D. , Jitendra Singh, Meena, V. S., Bharat Bhushan, and ginger was increased correspondingly. However, RH II had Bhatnagar,P.R. 2015. Effect of green shade nets on yield and quality of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) in semi-arid negative correlation indicating that as RH II increased, dry region of Punjab. Asian J. Advances in Basic and Applied Sci. weight of rhizome in ginger getting decreased because it 1:1-8. was increased afternoon and most of the moisture in the air Vastrad, N. V., Sulikeri, G.S. and Hedge, R. V. 2002. Effects of light was already utilized before that time. Same trend was intensity and vermicompost on the yield of ginger . (Zingiber observed under polyhouse also. This was due to important officinale Rosc. ). J. Applied Hort. 4(1): 25-26. role of temperature in radiant energy utilization within crop Rajasekar, M. ,Arumugam, T. and Ramesh Kumar, S.2013. Influence canopy and plant architecture. This was due to important of weather and growing environment on vegetable growth and role of temperature in radiant energy utilization within crop yield. J. Hort. and Foresty. 5(10): 160- 167. canopy and plant architecture.

Received on 22-06-2017 Accepted on 26-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 37-39, 2017

Phyllody Resistance in Wide Hybridization of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) S.D. RAJPUT AND K.S. RAGHUWANSHI MPKV, Rahuri email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT 9:7 (resistant:susceptible) for the control of phyllody resistance. While, Parani et al. (1996) suggested that the The research work was carried out to study the mode of resistance maybe controlled by a single recessive gene in inheritance of resistance to phyllody disease in a cross of wild species. Shinde et al. (2011) revealed that phyllody sesame derived from wide hybridization. An infector row resistance is under the control of two dominant genes with technique was used for evaluatingthe parents with their complementary gene action (9:7). F1, F2, B1 and B2plants for phyllody resistance. No insecticide was sprayed in order to maintain the natural MATERIALS AND METHODS leaf hopperpopulations in experimental field. The scoring The source of resistance to phyllody are very rare in of the test materials was done by phyllody disease rating the germplasm of sesamum, whereas a high proportion scale. According to the per cent disease incidence (PDI) ofresistance to phyllody disease are available in wild score, the sesame breeding lines were categorized into0 species viz. sesamum malbaricum, sesamummulyanum, to 100 per cent under 0 to 4 grades,plants were immune O sesamumprostratum Srinivasalu (1991). et.al reported that. grade, with 1 grade (1-10%) and moderately resistance Sesamum mulyanucum contains desirable genes for with 2 grade (10.1-25%).Allthese were included in phyllody resistance. Therefore back cross method was used resistance class. While in susceptible group, moderately for the development of introgressed breeding line viz., JLW- susceptible with 3 grade (25.1-50%) and highly 620.The inter specific cross was made between genotype JLT-7 of sesamum indicum species and wild relative of susceptible with 4 grade (>50%).However, pooling the sesamum mulyanum species. The resulted F again back families of resistance reactions (immune, resistant and 1 crossed with sesamum mulyanum till BC generations. The moderately resistant) into one class as resistant and 7 resulted introgressed breeding line JLW620 was identified families of susceptible reaction (moderately susceptible through field screen to phyllody resistant.This moderately and susceptible) into another class as susceptible.The resistant lines to phyllody were used in the cross to study F populations and backcross segregation analysis in 2 the inheritance pattern of phyllody resistance. Another thecross made between moderatelyresistantand moderately breedingline JLS-116 was indentified for moderately susceptible genotypes to phyllody,revealed that a single susceptible to phyllody through field screening. A cross recessive gene governed phyllody resistance in cross viz.,JLW-620 x JLS-116 (Resistance-introgressed material x JLW-620 x JLS-116which segregated independently.In the Susceptible) were effected by hand emasculation and cross JLW-620 x JLS-116, monogenic resistance (1R:3S) pollination for raising F1 generation during kharif 2011 to segregation pattern was observed.The F2populations study the inheritance of phyllody resistance. The selfing showed that the dominance of susceptibility over the of F1 generation and back crosses were effected to obtain resistance. enough self seed and back cross generations during

summer 2012. The parents with their F1, F2, B1 and B2 were Key words Sesame, inheritance, resistance, phyllody, evaluated at Post Graduate Research Farm of Department gene action. of Botany, Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, Rahuri during kharif 2012. For higher attack of phyllody sowing was delayed tillmid July and screening was done after Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is one of the oldest making an effort to transmit the disease by the leafhopper, and traditional oilseed crops grown in India. Major factors (Orosiusalbicinctus ) from periwinkle (Catharanthus roses) that limit its productivity besides narrow genetic base are and sunhem (Crotolariajuncea) maintained nearby as an extreme susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. alternate host to the healthy sesame plants. Parents, F s, Phyllody, an important disease of sesame is caused by a 1 F B , B were screened in field for their reaction against pleomorphic mycoplasma-like organism (phytoplasma) and 2, 1 2 phyllody disease using infector row technique (Paraniet transmitted by leaf hopper. The affected plants become al.,1996.).The moderatly susceptible variety AT-183 was stunted and the floral parts get modified into leafy structures used as infector row. The disease incidence was measured bearing no fruits and seeds causing yield loss up to 100 per as disease intensity percentage by counting the number of cent.Phyllody control is often based on limiting the vector plants infected. Based on the intensity of infection the population with insecticides, which are ineffective under disease reaction were recorded in 0-4 % grade scale severe leaf hopper infestations. The use of resistance (Shindeet al.,2011.) i.e.The incidence of the disease on ten verities is the most desirable strategy to manage the disease plants each in P , P and F , 50 plants in B , B and 400 in an economical and environmentally friendly way. 1 2 1 1 2 plants in F at weekly interval at 51,58,65,72 DAS was Successful breeding of resistant variety depends upon the 2 recorded. The chi-square test was performed to determine availability of dependable resistant source(s) and a clear the goodness of fit of observed segregation for phyllody understanding of its genetics.Information on inheritance disease reaction in B , B and F generations. of resistance to phyllody disease is useful in breeding for 1 2 2 resistant cultivars.Singhet al. (2007) obtained the ratio of 3 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table1. Incidence of phyllody in JLW-620 x JLS-116 cross of sesamum

Generations Percentage of incidence Reaction 51DAS 58 DAS 65 DAS 72DAS

P1(JLW-620) 0.00 0.00 10.00 20.50 Moderately Resistance (0.00) (0.00) (18.41) (26.91)

P2(JLS-116) 0.00 0.00 20.00 90.00 susceptible (0.00) (0.00) (26.54) (71.92)

F1 (JLW-620 x JLS-116) 0.00 0.00 30.00 90.00 susceptible (0.00) (0.00) (33.18) (72.44)

F2 JLW-620 x JLS-116 5.50 11.00 23.75 77.00 susceptible (13.55) (19.35) (29.17) (61.41)

BC1 (JLW-620 x JLS-116) x JLW- Moderately 10.00 16.00 30.00 44.00 620 Susceptible (18.41) (23.55) (33.18) (41.55)

BC2 (JLW-620 x JLS-116) x JLS- 12.00 22.00 36.00 54.00 susceptible 116 (20.24) (27.94) (36.87) (47.31)

* Bold italic figures indicate arcsine transformed values

maturity indicating that susceptibility was dominant over RESULTS AND DISCUSSION resistance.Similar results werereported by Singhet al. (2007). Phyllody disease is wide spread in the major sesamum In BC1 generation of the cross JLW-620 x JLS-116out growing areas in India. Resistance to phyllodydisease was of 50 plants, 28 were resistant and 22 were susceptible. determined by visual symptomatology. Symptomless lines These numbers fit very well with the ratio 1 Resistant: were assumed to be resistant. As sesamum lines can be 1Suceptible expected from the segregation of two loci with infected without showing symptoms, it is possible that these 2 a c value of 0.72.While in BC2, out of 50 plants 23 were are not resistant lines. Breeding for cultivars with resistance resistant and 27 were susceptible. These numbers also fit is a commonly accepted and effective strategy for very well with the 1:1 i.e.1Rsistant:1Suceptible expected controlling the phyllody disease and also prevent the from the segregation of two loci with c2 value 0.32.(Table 2) multiplication of mycoplasma. The knowledge of inheritance In F generation of the cross, JLW-620 xJLS-116itwas of resistance gene and role of each gene in the development 2 of resistance or susceptibility will be very useful for the further confirmed by screening 400 randomly selected plants sesamum breeder to breed phyllody resistance varieties. to the incidence of phyllody disease. The data revealed The objective of this study was to determine the inheritance that, the per cent disease incidence (PDI) against phyllody of phyllody resistance in specific cross of sesamum. From ranged from 0 to 100 per cent under 0 to 4 grades.Out of the the pathological parameters (PDI) evaluated, the breeding 400 families, 32 plants were immune with O grade, 30 were line JLW-620 demonstrated their moderately resistance to resistant with 1 grade (1-10%) and 30 were moderately phyllody; while AT-183 and JLS-116 were appeared to be resistance with 2 grade (10.1-25%).Allthese 92 plants were moderately susceptible.The results are presented in Table included in resistance class. While in susceptible group, 1.In JLW-620 x JLS-116cross moderately resistance 308 plants were included, out of which 249 were moderately introgressed breeding line JLW-620 was crossed with susceptible with 3 grade (25.1-50%) and 59 were highly susceptible with 4 grade (>50%). However, pooling the phyllody susceptible parent JLS-116. In F1 of the cross JLW- 620 x JLS-116, 72.44% phyllody incidence was observed at families of resistance reactions (immune, resistant and

Table 2. Chi square test for goodness of fit with standard ratios in the segregating generations Against phyllody.

Combinations Generations Segregation Expected 2 Observed Expected Ratio R :S Total resistant susceptible Total resistant susceptible

JLW-620 x JLS-116 F2 400 92 308 400 100 300 1:3 0.85

(JLW-620 x JLS-116) BC1 (F1 x JLW- 50 28 22 50 25 25 1:1 0.72 x JLW-620 620)

(JLW-620 x JLS-116) BC2 (F1 x JLS- 50 23 27 50 25 25 1:1 0.32 x JLS-116 116)

RAJPUT and RAGHUWANSHI, Phyllody Resistance in Wide Hybridization of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) 3 9 moderately resistant) into one class as resistant and families lineJLW-620can be used as potential source for resistance of susceptible reaction (moderately susceptible and to phyllody and it is suggested that they can be use as susceptible) into another class as susceptible, showed the donor parent in the resistant breeding programme in monogenic segregation of 3 Susceptible: 1 Resistance which sesamum. gave total c2 value of 0.85 at 1 degree of freedomc2 calculated LITERATURE CITED is less than table value hence data is nonsignificant whichindicated good agreement between observed and Singh, P. K., M. Akram, M. Vajpeyi and R. L. Srivastava 2007. Screening and development of resistant sesame varietiesagainst expected frequencies, thus confirming the F2 ratio(Table 2).Similar results were reported by Paraniet al. (1996),Singhet phytoplasma.Bulletin of Insectology, 60(2) : 303-304. al. (2007) and Shinde et al. (2011). Shindhe, Gayatree G, R. Lokesha, M. K. Naik and A. G. R. Ranganath. 2011. The weather parameters in relation of vector activities Inheritance study on phyllody resistance in Sesamum are other important factors responsible for the differences (Sesamumindicum L)Plant Archives 11 (2) : 775-776 . in the inheritance. However the present study will be useful Srinivasalu 1991. Studies on sesame phyllody disease with special for developing DNA markers linked with phyllody resistance reference to disease resistance. gene. In addition we suggest that to improve the phyllody Parani, M., K. N. Singh, S. R. SreeRangaswamy and R. S.Ramalingam resistance in sesamum mycoplasma stain based 1996. A study on mechanism of phyllodydisease resistance in investigations will be needed in future. The breeding Sesamumalatum Thonn.Curr. Sci., 70(1) : 86-89.

Received on 24-04-2017 Accepted on 05-06-2017 Advances4 0 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 40-42, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Effect of Water Stress on Photosynthetic Characteristics of Green Gram Genotypes (Vigna radiata L) B. RAMBABU1, V. PADMA2, RAMESH THATIKUNTA1 AND N. SUNIL3 1Department of Crop Physiology, College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Telanagana, Hyderabad 2ANGRAU, Bapatla, Andra Pradesh 3Winter Nursery Center, Indian Institute of Maize Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT stage), stage 2 (5 days after irrigation at flowering) and Stage 3 (5 days after irrigation at pod filling stage). Water stress is considered the single most devastating environmental stress, which decreases crop productivity Photosynthetic rate (PN), Transpiration rate (E) and Stomatal conductance (g ) were recorded by using PP more than any other environmental stress. In order to s study the effect of water stress on green gram (Vigna system (Model, TPS1). radiata L.) Wilczek, an experiment was conducted at RESULTS AND DISCUSSION College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. In the Photosynthetic rate (µmoles CO m-2 s-1) present study all the studied physiological characteristics 2 viz., photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and stomatal The data recorded on photosynthetic rate (PN) conductance significantly effected by water stress, which increased from maximum vegetative stage (3.56 µmoles of CO m-2 s-1) to pod filling stage (14.35 µmoles of CO m-2 s-1) ultimately the reduced grain yield in all green genotypes. 2 2 Among genotype studied, genotype WGG 37 effected less as shown in Table 1. The data on photosynthetic rate revealed significant differences between the irrigated in term of yield as compare to other genotypes. treatments at maximum vegetative stage. During vegetative stage the photosynthetic rate was maximum in irrigated Key words Green gram, photosynthetic rate, -2 -1 control (4.93 µmoles of CO2 m s ) compared to T2 (2.88 transpiration rate and stomatal -2 -1 -2 -1 µmoles of CO2 m s ) and T3 (2.87 µmoles of CO2 m s ). conductance The T2 and T3 treatments are on par during this stage. Among the genotypes studied in this experiment, Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) is major legume crop maximum and minimum photosynthetic rate was recorded of Asia and in the world India is the largest producer of by WGG 37 and MGG 347 at all the three stages i.e., stage 1 pulses. Pulses play an important role in meeting our dietary -2 -1 (3.69 and 3.42 µmoles of CO2 m s ), stage 2 (7.65 and 6.66 requirement of protein and also cheap source of vegetable -2 -1 µmoles of CO2 m s ) and stage 3 (15.18 and 13.57 µmoles protein (20-25%) (Khattak et al. 2001). Pods and sprouts of -2 -1 of CO2 m s ) respectively. The interaction between mungbean are consumed as a vegetable and are a rich source genotypes and irrigated treatments was statistically non of vitamins and minerals (Somta et al. 2008). significant. Kuhad et al. (1990) reported that water stress Water stress is the lack of ample moisture required especially during flowering stage reduced the for normal plant growth and development to complete the photosynthetic rates. But in the present experiment the T2 life cycle (Manivannan et al. 2008). Drought severely affects and T3 treatments faced water stress during vegetative plant growth and development with substantial reductions stage and hence significant differences were observed in crop growth rate and biomass accumulation. The main during that stage, while stage 2 and 3 are recovery periods consequences of water stress in crop plants are reduced and hence was not effected. The results are in agreement rate of cell division and expansion, leaf size and stem with the finding of Hirota et al. (2002), who reported elongation, disturbed stomatal oscillations and plant water increased photosynthetic rate with increased water supply relations with diminished crop productivity (Li et al. 2009). in mungbean cultivars. Photosynthetic rate was correlated Mungbean when cultivated in post rainy season faces water with seed yield only at maximum vegetative stage and this stress at various stages of crop growth and mainly effected correlation was positive and significant. the physiological parameters like photosynthetic rate, Transpiration rate (mmoles H O m-2 s-1) transpiration rate and stomatal conductance leads to 2 reduction in yield. Data on transpiration rate has been presented in Table 2. At all the three stages, transpiration rate decreased with MATERIALS AND METHODS water stress and the decrease was significant only during The present study was carried out in split plot -2 -1 vegetative stage (2.54 and 2.55 mmoles of H2O m s ) in T2 design with three main treatments (irrigation levels-T1, T2 and T3, respectively, compared to irrigated control (3.47 and T3) and five sub treatments (genotypes). Among -2 -1 mmoles of H2O m s ). Water stress effected the treatments, T1 was irrigated control, irrigated throughout photosynthetic and transpiration rates and reduction was the growth period, while T2 and T3 were water stress directly associated with the stomatal movement (Rao and treatments, where T2 was irrigated at flowering stage and Bhatt, 1988) T3 was irrigated at flowering and pod filling stages. The Among the genotypes, significant differences were experiment was replicated thrice and observations were observed with respect to transpiration rate and WGG 37 recorded at three stages viz., stage 1 (maximum vegetative recorded highest transpiration rate of 3.11, 4.76 and 5.90 RAMBABU et al., Effect of Water Stress on Photosynthetic Characteristics of Green Gram Genotypes (Vigna radiata L) 4 1

-2 -1 Table 1. Photosynthetic rate (µmoles CO2 m s ) of Green gram genotypes at different irrigation treatments.

30 DAS 47 DAS 65 DAS Genotypes T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean MGG 295 4.99 2.90 2.87 3.59 7.04 6.87 6.84 6.91 14.59 14.00 14.10 14.23 MGG 347 4.62 2.81 2.82 3.42 6.84 6.60 6.56 6.66 13.80 13.30 13.61 13.57 MGG348 4.85 2.83 2.82 3.50 6.91 6.74 6.77 6.80 14.75 13.97 14.05 14.25 WGG 37 5.15 2.95 2.97 3.69 7.81 7.55 7.60 7.65 15.40 14.95 15.20 15.18 WGG 42 5.04 2.89 2.89 3.61 7.23 7.18 6.93 7.11 14.95 14.10 14.55 14.53 Mean 4.93 2.88 2.87 3.56 7.17 6.99 6.94 7.03 14.70 14.06 14.30 14.35 C.D (T) 0.342 NS NS C.D (G) NS NS NS TXG NS NS NS

-2 -1 mmoles of H2O m s at stages 1, 2 and 3 respectively. This of mungbean (Moradi et al. 2008). genotype is followed by WGG 42 and least was recorded in Variation in stomatal conductance between the MGG 347 at all the 3 growth stages. Correlation between genotypes was non significant during maximum vegetative seed yield and transpiration rate was positive and significant stage, while the differences were significant during stage 2 at stage 1 (30 DAS), while at stage 2 and 3, non significantly and stage 3. Among five genotypes studied, WGG 37 correlation was observed. recorded highest stomatal conductance of 79.08, 234.54 and -2 -1 350.54 moles of H O m-2 s-1, while least was recorded in Stomatal conductance (moles H2O m s ) 2 MGG 347 (71.29, 180.24 and 301.66 moles of H O m-2 s-1) at The data on stomatal conductance at different growth 2 30, 47 and 65 DAS, respectively. Stomatal conductance was stages has been presented in the Table 3 indicated that correlated with seed yield and the correlation was positive stomatal conductance was increasing continuously till the and significant only at 30 DAS. pod filling stage in all treatments. Significant differences were observed between the CONCLUSION water stress treatments and irrigated control during the The conclusion drawn from this study was, the maximum vegetative stage, while it was non significant physiological parameters studied have been drastically during stage 2 and 3. Data collected at maximum vegetative effected by the water stress at different growth stages. stage indicated that the stomatal conductance in T2 (66.30 However, plant recovered from damage caused due to water -2 -1 -2 -1 moles of H2O m s ) and T3 (67.25 moles of H2O m s ) stress, when it was irrigated. In this study, it was observed treatments was significantly less than irrigated control (91.84 that low values of all studied parameters noted down during -2 -1 moles of H2O m s ), while at 47 DAS and 65 DAS (recovery water stress conditions, especially at flowering and pod stages) there was no significant difference between the filling stages indicating that these stages are moisture treatments. Water stress reduced the stomatal conductance sensitive stages in green gram. In contrast to it, high values in two phenotypically different mungbean genotypes recorded when plants recovered (water supplied) from water (Kuhad et al. 1990), and decline in stomatal conductance stress conditions. Among genotype studied, genotype with water stress was observed at different growth stages

-2 -1 Table 2. Transpiration rate (mmoles H2O m s ) of Green gram genotypes at different irrigation treatments

30 DAS 47 DAS 65 DAS Genotypes T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean MGG 295 3.45 2.56 2.58 2.86 4.32 4.23 4.20 4.25 5.42 5.30 5.36 5.36 MGG 347 3.04 2.36 2.40 2.60 3.91 3.52 3.44 3.62 4.85 4.77 4.81 4.81 MGG348 3.25 2.45 2.43 2.71 4.19 3.95 3.92 4.02 5.01 4.84 4.96 4.94 WGG 37 3.89 2.70 2.73 3.11 4.90 4.71 4.68 4.76 5.95 5.85 5.91 5.90 WGG 42 3.70 2.65 2.63 2.99 4.63 4.53 4.49 4.55 5.64 5.46 5.60 5.56 Mean 3.47 2.54 2.55 2.85 4.39 4.19 4.15 4.24 5.37 5.24 5.33 5.31 C.D (T) 0.443 NS NS C.D (G) 0.333 0.605 0.643 TXG NS NS NS

4 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

-2 -1 Table 3. Stomatal conductance (moles H2O m s ) of Green gram genotypes at different irrigation treatments

30 DAS 47 DAS 65 DAS Genotypes T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean T1 T2 T3 Mean MGG 295 91.10 65.60 66.72 74.47 223.49 201.00 205.05 209.84 334.19 310.15 320.23 321.53 MGG 347 85.14 63.79 64.96 71.29 195.30 174.72 170.70 180.24 310.90 292.29 301.79 301.66 MGG348 90.04 64.84 65.24 73.37 201.60 180.12 184.23 188.65 323.25 301.16 310.14 311.52 WGG 37 97.50 69.50 70.25 79.08 240.50 233.98 229.16 234.54 360.49 340.99 350.14 350.54 WGG 42 95.40 67.75 69.10 77.41 234.00 225.49 218.14 225.87 345.10 333.09 339.99 339.39 Mean 91.84 66.30 67.25 75.12 218.98 203.06 201.46 207.83 334.79 315.54 324.46 324.92 C.D (T) 8.03 NS NS C.D (G) NS 21.04 23.34 TXG NS NS NS

WGG 37 effected less in term of yield, indicating that it was Li, Y.P., Ye, W., Wang, M and Yan, X.D. 2009. Climate change and overcome well to moisture stress as compare to other drought: a risk assessment of crop-yield impacts. Climate genotypes. So, it was suggested that avoid drought Research. 39: 31-46. conditions during moisture sensitive stages viz., flowering Manivannan, P., Jaleel, C.A., Somasundaram, R and Panneerselvam, and pod filling stages in green gram crop for high yield. R. 2008. Osmoregulation and antioxidant metabolism in drought- stressed Helianthus annuus under triadimefon drenching. LITERATURE CITED Comptes Rendus Biologies. 331: 418-425. Hirota, O and Nguyen, T. 2002. Response of growth characteristics Moradi, A., Ahmadi, A and Hosseinzadeh, A. 2008. Agro-physiological and yield in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) to irrigation water response of mungbean (cv. Partov) to severe and moderate volume. Bulletin of the Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Kyushu drought stress applied at vegetative and reproductive growth University. 25: 77-84. stages. Journal of Science and Technology of Agriculture and Khattak, G.S.S., Haq, M.A., Ashraf, M., Tahir, G.R and Marwat, U.K. Natural Resources. 12(45(B)): 659-672. 2001. Detection of epistasis and estimation of additive and Rao, N.K.S and Bhatt, R.M. 1988. Photosynthesis, transpiration, dominance components of genetic variation for synchrony in stomatal diffusive resistance, and relative water content of pod maturity in mungbean (Vigna radiata L.). Field Crops Capsicum (Bell pepper) grown under water stress. Research. 72: 211-219. Photosynthetica. 22: 377-382. Kuhad, M.S., Sheoran, I.S., Kundu, B.S and Nandwal, A.S. 1990. Somta, C., Somta, P., Tomooka, N., Ooi, P.A.C., Vaughan, D.A and Relative performance of pentafoliate and trifoliate mungbean Srinivas, P. 2008. Characterization of new sources of Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) under water stress. Indian Journal of Plant (Vigna radiata L.) resistance to bruchids, Callosobruchus spp. Physiology. 33(2): 168-171. Journal of Stored Products Research. 44(4): 316-321.

Received on 11-01-2017 Accepted on 15-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 43-46, 2017

Effect of Field Weathered Insecticide Residues on Mortality of Honeybees, Apis mellifera Linnaeus

V. RATNAKAR*, S.R. KOTESWARA RAO2, D. SRIDEVI AND B. VIDYASAGAR1

Department of Entomology and 1Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 2Department of Entomology, S. V. Agricultural College, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Tirupati * email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT bee mortality. Some time it exceeds 90 per cent in some apiaries (Wedberg and Erickson, 1986). Protection of Evaluation of field weathered insecticide residues in honeybees from pesticidal hazards has been a challenging cucumber on A. mellifera was done during rabi 2014-15. task. Conservation of honeybees for crop pollination is Treated foliage samples were taken from each replication vital to agricultural production (Kremen et al. 2002). While of all the treatments at 2, 8 and 24 hours after spraying. taking managerial decisions for sustaining crop productivity Residual tests were conducted by caging 25 foraging by employing insecticides against pests, bees’ safety must worker honeybees. For each replicate, the number of dead be ensured. Pest management must take into account individuals were recorded after 24 hours exposure in judicious management of pollinators. Although poorly cages. Among different insecticides treated viz., studied, a harmonious compromise between pest acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, management and honeybee pollination of crops in India is acephate, chlorantraniliprole, dichlorvos and fipronil. clearly important. Information on safety of different clothianidin recorded highest mortality of 87.74 per cent insecticides to honeybees is scanty hence, there is a need after 2 hours of treatment followed by acephate (79.78%) to evaluate the toxicity of conventional and newer pesticides and imidacloprid (78.14%). Clothianidin also registered that entered recently in the market. It has been established high mortality of 75.16 per cent after 8 hours of treatment that laboratory studies are specific and can be used in followed by thiamethoxam (70.36%). Clothianidin and deciding the hazards of field application of insecticides thiamethoxam registered almost equal per cent mortality (Atkins et al. 1973). of 68.74 and 68.69, respectively after 24 hours of treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS Chlorantraniliprole exhibited least mortality among all A field experiment was carried out to evaluate the treatments i.e. 30.96, 14.06 and 1.82 per cent mortality effect of field weathered insecticide residues in cucumber after 2, 8 and 24 hours, respectively. (DW Green) on Apis mellifera during rabi 2014 at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. Key words Field Weathered, Insecticide, Residues, Laboratory studies were carried out in the Department of Mortality, Honeybees, Apis mellifera, Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Linnaeus Hyderabad. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Among control methods, chemicals are the most Design (RBD) with 9 treatments including untreated control widely employed due to their ease of application and replicated thrice with individual plot size of 20 m2 (4m x 5m) effectiveness (Santos 1999). However, careless use of this with bunds all round and irrigation channels in the form of control results in adverse effects on non-target replications organisms, including humans, domestic animals, pollinators, The following insecticides as given in Table 1. were natural enemies and other wild organisms, in addition to applied as foliar sprays once during flowering. The test contaminating soil and water. These side effects need to be insecticides were applied utilizing a knapsack compression eliminated or minimized in order to avoid problems such as sprayer. Treated foliage samples were taken from each pest reinfestations, secondary pest outbreaks, and evolution replication of all the treatments at 2, 8 and 24 hours after of pest resistance (Metcalf 1982; Nakano 1986). Among the spraying. Samples consisted of about 500 cm2 of foliage beneficial pollinator insects, honey bees Apis mellifera L., taken from the upper parts of plants were placed in cages. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), is prominent. In addition to its Residual tests were conducted by caging 25 foraging worker ecological importance as a pollinator, this insect has its honeybees (Mayer et al., 1997). The honeybees were own economic importance as a producer of honey, beeswax maintained at 26 -29° C, about 50% RH and a cotton pad and royal jelly. soaked in sugar solution (20%) was placed in cage. For Crops requiring cross pollination is an area of prime each replicate, the number of dead individuals were recorded concern as insecticide use in such crops results in high after 24 hours of exposure in cages. 4 4 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 1. Details of insecticides

S.No Common Trade name Insecticide Source of supply name group 1 Acephate Starthene 75 SP Organo- Swal Corporation Ltd Hyderabad. phosphates 2 Acetamiprid Rapid 20 SP Neonicotinoids Crystal Crop Protection Hyderabad. 3 Chlorantra- Coragen 18.5 SC Diamide DuPont India Pvt. Ltd. Gurgoan. niliprole group

4 Clothianidin Dontotsu 50 WDG Neonicotinoids Sumitomo chemical India Pvt Ltd. Mumbai Dichlorvos Nuvan 76 EC Organo- Insecticides (India) Limited, Delhi. 5 phosphates 6 Fipronil Biltop 5 SC Phenyl Bharat Insecticides Ltd Delhi. pyrazoles 7 Imidacloprid Confidor 17.8 SL Neonicotinoids Bayers Crop Science Thane, Maharashtra. 8 Thiamethoxam Actara 25 WG Neonicotinoids Biostadt India Ltd, Mumbai

Abbott’s (1925) formula was used to correct for the Mortality of honeybees after 24 hours natural mortality for all the above experiments. All the data After 24 hours of treatment, highest mortality were analyzed using completely randomized design, one- was observed in thiamethoxam (68.74%) and way analysis procedure with angular transformations to clothianidin (68.69%) treatments which were on par with test for significant differences between means. each other. Acephate, fipronil and imidacloprid RESULTS AND DISCUSSION recorded 56.18, 40.65 and 27.99 per cent mortality, respectively which were significantly different from each Mortality of honeybees after 2 hours other and also from other treatments. Acetamiprid and Highest mortality of honeybees was observed in dichlorvos caused 18.74 and 12.39 per cent mortality, clothianidin (87.74%) followed by acephate (79.78%) and respectively which were on par with each other. imidacloprid (78.14%) and all the three were on par with Chlorantraniliprole continued to record lowest mortality each other. Thiamethoxam recorded 76.63 per cent mortality which caused only 1.82 per cent mortality after 24 hours which was on par with acephate and imidacloprid. Fipronil after spray. Therefore, it was found to be more safe to and acetamiprid recorded 64.60 and 56.53 per cent mortality, honeybees compared to other treatments. respectively and they were on par with each other. Clothianidin recorded highest mortality of 87.74 per Dichlorvos recorded 53.18 per cent mortality which was on cent after 2 hours of treatment followed by acephate par with acetamiprid. Lowest mortality was observed in (79.78%) and imidacloprid (78.14%). Clothianidin also chlorantraniliprole (30.96%) ( Table. 2) recorded high mortality of 75.16 per cent after 8 hours of The order of toxicity after two hours: clothianidin > treatment followed by thiamethoxam (70.36%). After 24 hours acephate > imidacloprid > thiamethoxam > fipronil > clothianidin and thiamethoxam recorded almost equal acetamiprid > dichlorvos > chlorantraniliprole. mortality of 68.74 and 68.69 per cent, respectively. Mortality of honeybees after 8 hours Chlorantraniliprole recorded lowest mortality among all treatments i.e. 30.96, 14.06 and 1.82 per cent mortality after Clothianidin continued to be toxic to bees 2, 8 and 24 hours, respectively. It was found that contact even after 8 hours of spray and caused 75.16 per cent with leaves contaminated with thiamethoxam resulted in a mortality of bees in cages. Thiamethoxam recorded similar effect when compared to the insecticides applied 70.36 per cent mortality which was on par with directly on bees. Results in the present study regarding the clothianidin. Acephate recorded 67.14 per cent mortality effect of leaves treated with thiamethoxam on honeybees which was on par with thiamethoxam. Imidacloprid and were similar to those obtained by Iwasa et al. (2004) and fipronil recorded 60.88 and 53.08 per cent mortality, Thomazoni et al. (2009) who assessed the residual effect of respectively, while dichlorvos and acetamiprid with 32.69 thiamethoxam using alfalfa and cotton, respectively and and 28.12 per cent mortality, respectively which were on confirmed the high contact toxicity of residues of par with each other. Chlorantraniliprole recorded lowest thiamethoxam to honeybees. mortality (14.06%). RATNAKAR et al., Effect of Field Weathered Insecticide Residues on Mortality of Honeybees, Apis mellifera Linnaeus 4 5

Table 2. Effect of field weathered insecticide residues on mortality of European honeybee, Apis mellifera L.

Dose Mean per cent corrected mortality of honeybees caged with Treatments (ml or g / l) treated foliage (After 24 hours) 2 h 8 h 24 h

T1 Acetamiprid 0.2 g 56.53cd 28.12e 18.74e (48.76) (32.02) (25.65)

T2 Clothianidin 0.1 g 87.74a 75.16a 68.74a (69.51) (60.11) (56.01)

T3 Imidacloprid 0.3 ml 78.14ab 60.88c 27.99d (62.12) (51.28) (31.94)

T4 Thiamethoxam 0.25 g 76.63b 70.36ab 68.69a (61.09) (57.01) (55.97)

T5 Acephate 1.5 g 79.78ab 67.14b 56.18b (63.28) (55.03) (48.55)

T6 Chlorantraniliprole 0.3 ml 30.96e 14.06f 1.82f (33.81) (22.02) (7.76)

T7 Dichlorvos 1 ml 53.18d 32.69e 12.39e (46.82) (34.87) (20.61)

T8 Fipronil 2 ml 64.60c 53.08d 40.65c (53.49) (46.76) (39.61) S.Em ± 3.24 1.78 2.69 C.D (0.05) 9.81 5.38 8.12 Figures in parentheses are angular transformed values Mean followed by same alphabet do not differ significantly by DMRT (P = 0.05%)

Danielle et al. (2009), Pohorecka et al. (2012), Costa Dinter et al. (2009) also reported the effects of et al. (2013) and Stanley (2015) also reported that regardless chlorantraniliprole showing low risk for honeybees, of how the bees were exposed to insecticides, thiamethoxam A.mellifera which was similar to the present findings where was extremely toxic to A.mellifera. chlorantraniliprole recorded lowest mortality of honeybees. Suchail et al. (2004) and Brunet et al. (2005) reported LITERATURE CITED that Cyano group of neonicotinoid (acetamiprid) was less Abbot, W.S. 1925. A method of computing the effectiveness of toxic to A.mellifera than nitro group(imidacloprid, insecticides. Journal ofEconomic Entomology , 18: 265-267. clothianidin and thiamethoxam) due to rapid Atkins, E.L.; Grewood, E.A and Macdonald, R.L. 1973. Toxicity of biotransformation of acetamiprid and this is in accordance pesticides and otheragricultural chemicals to honeybees.. Division with the present findings. report of Agricultural Sciences. University of California, California. In the present findings, imidacloprid was found to be 2287. more toxic to bees and similar findings were reported by Brunet, J.L.; Badiou, A and Belzuces L.P. 2005. In vivo metabolic Choudary et al. (2009) who revealed that field weathered fate of acetamiprid in sixbiological compartments of honeybees, imidacloprid was more toxic than when applied as foliar Apis mellifera L. Pest Management Science. 61: 742-748. application. This is also in accordance with the findings of Choudary, A, Sharma, D.C and Badiyala., A.D. 2009. Relative Mayer et al. (1997) who suggested that imidacloprid treated safety of some pesticides against honeybee Apis cerana Fab and alfalfa foliage was significantly less toxic to bees after 8 Apis mellifera on mustard Braccica juncea L. Pesticide Research hours compared to 2 hours of treatment. Jeyalakshmi et al. Journal. 21(1): 67- 70. (2011) also reported that clothianidin and thiamethoxam were Costa, E. M.; Araujo, E. L.; Maia, A. V. P.; Silva, F E. L.; Bezerra , more toxic than imidacloprid. C. E. S and Silva, J.G. 2013. Toxicity of insecticides used in the Brazilian melon crop to the honey bee Apis mellifera under The present findings with regard to fipronil are in laboratory conditions. Apidologie. 45(1) :34-44. agreement with Marwan et al. (2013) who reported that Danielle, T., Miguel, F. Soria, C. K., Vladson, C., Roni, P. F., Paulo, fipronil was highly toxic to bees via direct spray contact, E.D and Valter, V.A.2009. Selectivity of insecticides for adult ingestion and contact residues on leaves and also toxic to workers of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Revista young adult bee and larva. Colombiana de Entomología. 35(2):173-176. 4 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Dinter, A.; Brugger, K. E.; Frost, N.M and Woodward, M.D. 2009. pest management. John WileyNew York 2nd ed. 217-277. Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr): A novel insecticide with low Nakano, O. 1986. Avanços na prática do controle de pragas. Informe toxicity and low risk for honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumble Agropecuário 12: 55-59. bees (Bombus terrestris) providing excellent tools for uses in Santos, W. J. 1999. Associação Brasileira para pesquisa da potassa e integrated pest management. Julius-Kühn-Archiv . 423: 84-96. do fosfato. Piracicaba SP 133-179. Iwasa, T.; Motoyama, N.; Ambrose, J.T and Roe, R.M. 2004. Stanley, J.; Sah, K., Jain, S.K.; Bhatt, J.C and Sushil, S.N. 2015. Mechanism for the differentialtoxicity of neonicotinoid Evaluation of pesticidetoxicity at their field recommended doses insecticides in the honey bee, Apis mellifera. CropProtection. to honeybees, Apis cerana and Apis mellifera through laboratory, 23(5): 371-378. semi-field and field studies. Chemosphere. 119: 668- 674. Jeyalakshmi,T.; Shanmugasundaram, R.; Saravanan, M.; Geetha, S.; Suchail, S.; Sousa, G-de.; Rahmani, R and Belzunces, L. P. 2004. In Sweatha,S.; Mohan, S., Goparaju, A and Balakrishna, M.P. 2011. vivo distribution and metabolisation of 14C-imidacloprid in Comparative toxicity of certain insecticides against Apis cerana different compartments of Apis mellifera L. Pest Management indica under semi field and laboratory conditions. Pestology. Science. 60(11): 1056-1062. 35(2): 23 -28. Thomazoni, D., Soria, M.F., Kodama, C., Carbonari, V and Fortunato, Kremen, C.; Williams, N.M and Tharp, R.W. 2002. Crop pollination R.P. 2009. Selectively of insecticides for adults workers of A. from native bees at risk from agricultural diversification. mellifera. Revista Colombiana de Entomología . 35(2): 173- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 99(26): 176. 16812-16816. Wedberg, J.L and Erickson, E.H. 1986. Protecting Honeybees in Mayer, D.F and Lunden, J.D. 1997. Effect of imidacloprid insecticide Wisconsin from Pesticides and other toxic chemicals. University on tree bee pollinators. Horticultural Sciences. 29(1): 93-97. of Wisconsin Extension,Wisconsin. USA. 16. 308. Metcalf, R. L. and Luckman, W. H. 1982. Introduction to insect

Received on 24-03-2017 Accepted on 15-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 47-55, 2017

Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) A. NAVEEN*, M.A. ALAM, C.J.WESLEY AND V. SINGH Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT being laid for a planned and optimal utilization of water resources mainly in scared water condition. Earlier we have The requirement of water is going on increasing with time an ample amount of water resource with reasonable good to meet the requirement of increasing demand of food and quality, but haphazard exploitation and exploration of industries. With the continuous growth in human groundwater has caused the considerable depletion in the population, urbanization and industrialization the demand groundwater level along with the groundwater quality. for land and water is increasing day by day, resulting in Kaushambhi district is situated at east of U.P. state. It overexploitation of groundwater. This over-exploitation of covers an area of 1780 sq. km and comprises 8 blocks. The groundwater causes the progressive lowering of water Ganga and the Yamuna river passes through Kaushambhi. table and consequent decline in well yield. Therefore, it is The Ganga is longest (125 km) as compared to Yamuna (80 necessary to take immediate steps to stop the declining km) and flows in the east. The average rainfall in water table. For which we have to find causes of declining Kaushambhi is 864 mm. Depth of water level in phreatic of water table and prediction of water table behavior have zone varies from 3 to 15m b.g.l. during monsoon and non become an urgent need for harnessing the available water monsoon season. It varies from 2.42- 10.75 m b.g.l. in Trans resources by proper implementation, and optimal Ganga area and 2.00- 10.00 m in Trans Yamuna area. To utilization of water development projects. Keeping it in improve and sustain agricultural production of this area, it view, the present study was taken up to study the ground is necessary to prevent further deterioration of water water behaviour of Kaushambi district of Uttar Pradesh. resources. To integrate development and operation of Study showed that over exploitation of groundwater surface water and ground water resources, it requires continuously in major part of the Kaushambi district. The systematic basin wise management studies. Kaushambhi increase in number of minor irrigation structures, district has been selected to the ground water studies growing more water requiring crops without considering because in this area the industrialization and agricultural land suitability and irrigability criteria, and increasing practices have been intensified causing the increased demand of groundwater for human and industrial withdrawal of ground water which resulted in over consumption were the main causes of over exploitation. exploitation of water resources and imbalance of water table. Therefore, there is an urgent need for artificial recharge General Description of the Study Area planning so that the water table can be arrested at the The study was conducted in the Kaushambi district desired level. of Uttar Pradesh as shown in Fig.1. Kaushambi district lies between 25Ú15’30" and 25Ú47’45" N latitude and 80Ú09' Key words Water table fluctuation, groundwater trend, 00"and 81Ú49’00"E longitude. The Kishanpur canal system groundwater over exploitation. is one of the major irrigation projects of Kaushambi district. The eight blocks of the district i.e. Kara, Sirathu, Sarsawan, It is well known that water is a basic need of our Manjhanpur, Kaushambi, Muratganj, Chail and Newada society, which is becoming a scarce commodity in the having 1780 km2 area. The strong networks of canals as present day world, due to rapid urbanization and intensive well as groundwater are the main sources of irrigation in irrigation. Globally, and especially in developing countries, this area. The Kishanpur pump canal is the major source of people are facing acute shortage of arable and potable water. water for irrigation, human consumption and industrial India, being an agricultural driven nation where farmers purposes in the study area. community is relying on monsoon, they stand handicapped Collection of data if the rains are not on time. Data of daily rainfall were collected from Bamrauli air The success and failure is closely associated with port, and IMD Pune. Whereas the latitude and longitude of the prevailing weather conditions. The Uncertainty of the observation wells and well wise pre and post-monsoon rainfall during the monsoon and non monsoon seasons, ground water level data (below ground surface) from 1995 groundwater and surface waters play an important role in to 2015 were obtained from Central Groundwater Board irrigation requirement. Allahabad Centre. Data on number of minor irrigation In many parts of India, farmers have to be dependent structures were collected from Minor Irrigation Department on groundwater for irrigation which leads the groundwater of Kausambhi, as well as from Statistical Department of availability on alarming situation. A greater emphasis is Kaushambhi. 4 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig. 1. Index map of the study area

MATERIALS AND METHODS Uttar Pradesh and suggested by Groundwater Resource Estimation Committee. Groundwater Behaviour in the study area. Water table trend The study of groundwater behaviour in the study area was conducted, using relevant data obtained from The water table trend, in study area area during pre- various sources and applying the following procedure. monsoon and post-monsoon seasons for the period 1995- 2015, was predicted using the equation of the least square Groundwater Development Stage method as given by Ground Water Department of Uttar The objective of any quantitative hydrologic Pradesh. It was suggested that if the percent regression estimation is to determine recharge and discharge of water coefficient (  ) of depth to water table was less than -5% from the groundwater reservoir or aquifers of the area under Zr investigation and to determined groundwater development then water table was on rising trend and if it is more than stage. The net recharge and the net discharge was estimated +5% then the water table was on falling trend, if it was in as 85% of gross recharge and 70% of gross discharge between this range (-5 to +5), this water table would be respectively. For the study area, the difference between net neither rising nor falling trend. annual recharge and net annual discharge was expressed Z ( N  x y   x  y ) / ( N  x2  (  x ) 2 ) as the groundwater balance and the ratio of net annual r i i. i i i discharge and net annual groundwater recharge was defined Where = regression coefficient as the stage of development of groundwater utilization. th xi = n years The groundwater development stage was categorized on y = depth to water table of nth year. the basis of the norms given by Groundwater Department, i NAVEEN et al., Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) 4 9

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS and 22.80 m , 5.00 m and 22.80 m and 5.00 m and 22.80 m in pre-monsoon season in Chakbad, Ajuha, kanwar, shahjada Groundwater Behaviour Sarsawan, Manjhanpur, Kaushambhi, Muratganj, Chail and Newada blocks, respectively, whereas, in post-monsoon Depth to water table season it varied from 2.0 m to 7.8 m, 2.05 m to 11.90 m, 2.13 Twenty one years’ (1995 to 2015) data of depth to m to 14.65 m, and 2.1 m to 21.85 m in Chakbad, Ajuha,kanwar, water table for pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period shahjada Sarsawan, Manjhanpur, Koshambhi, Muratganj, (given in Table.1) for the Kaushambi District, were studied. Chail and Newada blocks, respectively. The minimum depth The pre-monsoon and the post-monsoon depth to water to water table in the year was observed as1.1 m Arai table contour maps of the study area for the years 1995, Sumerpur in Muratgunj block in post-monsoon as well .The 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015 are shown in Figs. 2 to 6. minimum depth to water table in the year 2015, was observed The pre-monsoon depth to water table, with in the as 1.7 m at patti parwejaba hydrograph station in Muratgunj study period, varied from 1.70 m to 27.30 m, whereas in block and the maximum depth to water table in pre-monsoon post-monsoon season it varied from 1.1 m to 26 m. Depth to season was found as 27.3 m at Kumhiyawan Chak water table, in different blocks of the study area, was found hydrograph station in sarsawan block in the year 2011. The between 15.9 m and 23.89 m, 8.05 m and 13.7 m, 4.7 m and post-monsoon depth to water table was found from 25.4m 18.75 m, and 5.00 m and 22.80 m, 5.00 m and 22.80 m . 5.00 m at Chakbad in Chail in the year 2011.

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon

Fig. 2. contour maps of depth to water table during the year 1995

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon Fig. 3. contour maps of depth to water table during the year 2000 5 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon

Fig. 4. contour maps of depth to water table during the year 2005

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon

Fig. 5. contour maps of depth to water table during the year 2010

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon

Fig. 6. contour maps of depth to water table during the year 2015 NAVEEN et al., Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) 5 1

Trend of groundwater level The block wise trend in Kara block showed that at 67% places it had falling trend and at 22% places it had neither Trend of depth of water table during pre-monsoon rising nor falling trend where as 11% places had raising and post-monsoon seasons in the study area as shown in trend. In Kaushambhi block at 80% places it head falling table.1 trend and 20% places were having rising trend. In Pre-monsoon trend Manjhanpur block 80% places it had falling trend and 20% In pre-monsoon season at Chakbad in Chail block; places neither rising nor falling trend. In muratganj block at Ajuha Lehadari, Narsinghapur, kachuva, Shahjadapur, 50% places it had falling trend and at 50% it had places Shitalpur and Sewrai Bujurg in kara block; Garhwa, Jugrapur, neither falling nor rising trend. In newada block at 100% Mahila and Rakaswara in Kaushambhi block; Jajauli, Karari, places it had falling trend. In Saraswan block at 77.77% kotari paschim and Manjhapur in Manjhapur block; Arai places it had falling trend and 22.22% places it had rising Sumerpur and Sayyad Sarawan, in Moorat Gunj block; trend in Sirathu block at 75% places it had falling trend, at Durgapur, Pipri, Sarai Akil, 12.5% places it has rising trend and at 12.5% places it had neither falling nor rising trend. Total study area, at about Sarai Yusuf and Pr.school Kataini in Nevada block; 76.08% places the water table had falling trend, at 13.04% Baksipur, Bhagat Ka purwa Hinauta, Jafarpur Mahewa, Katri places it had neither rising nor falling trend, and at 10.86% Khurd, Poorab Sharira and Wakar Ganj in Saraswan block; places it had rising trend. The study indicated that in major and Gazi Ka Pura, Kakorha, Korai, Lachhipur and portion of the Study area the water table, during pre Brahamroli-1 in Sirathu the water table had falling trend. monsoon period was continuously going down. Whereas at Alipur Jeta-2 and Sewrai Burj in Kara block; Yusufpur in Manjhapur block; Patti Parwejabad and Post-monsoon trend Umarchaa in Mooratganj block; and at Sirathu in Sirathu In post-monsoon season, at Ajuha, Alipur Jeta-2, block the water table was neither having falling trend nor Lehdari, Narsinghapur kachuwa, Shahjadapur, Shitalpur and rising trend. kanwar in Kara block; Myohar in Kaushambhi Sewrai Bujurg in kara block; Garhwa, and Jugrapur in block; Kumhiyawan and Pabhausa in Saraswan block; and Kaushambhi block; Jajauli, kotari paschim and Manjhapur Paharpur in sirathu block the water table had rising trend.

Table 1. Trend of depth to water table during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons in the study area in study period (1995-2015)

Depth to water table (m) Water table trend Z* during interval Year  Hyd_name Block Pre- Post- XY XY'

X monsoon X^2 onsoon Pre- Post- post- (Y) (? Y') mon- mon- pre-monsoon mon- soon soon soon Nodeno. CHAK 1 CHAIL 253 439.16 458.52 3795 5392.22 5178.05 38.61 -10.72 Falling Rising BADSHAHPUR KANWAR 2 (JORAWARPU KARA 253 163.46 150.70 3795 1824.14 1617.88 -6.28 -13.01 Rising Rising R) 3 LEHDARI KARA 253 321.50 310.65 3795 4067.71 3583.50 41.84 1.25 Falling Falling 4 MAHILA KAUSHAMBI 253 252.27 249.06 3795 3157.41 2793.66 28.94 -7.96 Falling Rising 5 MYOHAR KAUSHAMBI 253 405.70 396.62 3795 4495.45 4202.11 -19.21 -40.54 Rising Rising MANJHANPUR 6 MANJHANPUR 253 295.88 287.00 3795 3578.85 3419.40 19.90 13.43 Falling Falling BLOCK Neither rising 7 YUSUFPUR MANJHANPUR 253 256.37 223.30 3795 2983.55 2693.75 3.99 14.21 Falling nor falling SAYYAD 8 MURATGANJ 253 343.97 282.81 3795 4311.33 3354.50 40.17 11.54 Falling Falling SARAWAN Neither rising 9 UMARCHHA MURATGANJ 253 359.77 339.33 3795 4122.53 3749.54 -1.67 -17.25 Rising nor falling 10 PIPRI NEWADA 253 350.49 343.32 3795 4075.93 3776.37 5.12 -19.40 Falling Rising 11 SARAI AKIL NEWADA 253 237.27 251.90 3795 3019.10 2945.22 32.81 5.46 Falling Falling 12 HINAUTA SARASAWAN 253 151.47 101.55 3795 1899.94 1030.15 17.85 -15.55 Falling Rising JAFARPUR 13 SARASAWAN 253 198.55 134.05 3795 2445.75 1445.95 18.34 -10.80 Falling Rising MAHEWA 14 KAKORHA SIRATHU 253 217.42 193.67 3795 2566.01 2133.76 7.42 -10.55 Falling Rising 15 KORAI SIRATHU 253 361.55 343.18 3795 4269.24 3900.31 12.58 -5.22 Falling Rising 5 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 in Manjhapur block; Arai Sumerpur and Sayyad Sarawan, of the command area were prepared for the period of 21 in Moorat Gunj block; Sarai Akil and Sarai Yusuf in Nevada years (1995 to 2015). The groundwater inventories for the block; Baksipur, Katri Khurd, Poorab Sharira and Wakar years 1995 and 2015are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Ganj in Saraswan block; and Gazi Ka Pura and Brahamroli- During the year 1995, Sirathu and Muratganj block was 1 in Sirathu the water table had falling trend. Whereas at under semi-critical category, exploiting more than 81.80% Karari in Manjhapur block; Patti Parwejabad in Muratganj and 73.24% of net recharge respectively; Kara, Sarsawan, block; Durgapur in Nevada; Bhagat Ka purwa in Saraswan; Manjhanpur, Kaushambhi and Newada blocks were under and Kokhraj Thana and Lachhipur in Sirathu block the safe category. whereas Chail is over exploited. The water table was neither having falling trend nor rising trend. groundwater utilization development stage for Chail block Chakbad in Chail block; kanwar in Kara block; Myohar was found to be 117.64% as the maximum where as it was and Raksawara in Kaushambhi block; Umarcha in the minimum as 39.16% in Kaushambhi block. The overall Muratganj; Pipri, Pr.School kataini in Nevada; Hinuata, stage of development of groundwater utilization in the study Jafrrapur mahewa, Kumhiyawan and Pabhausa in Saraswan area was found as 69.76%. The study revealed that, the block; and Kakorha, korai, Paharpur and Sirathu in sirathu study area as a whole i.e. entire Study area was found under block the water table had rising trend. The block wise trend safe category during the year 1995. During the year 2015, in Kara block showed that at 88.88% places it had falling Sirathu block was under semi-critical category, exploiting trend and at 11.11% places it had rising trend. In more than 75.89% of net recharge; Kara, Sarsawan, Kaushambhi block at 40% places it had falling trend and Manjhanpur, Kaushambhi and Chail blocks were under safe 60% places were having rising trend. In Manjhanpur block category. whereas Muratganj and Newada is over exploited. 80% places it had falling trend and 20% places neither The groundwater utilization development stage for Newada rising nor falling trend. In Muratganj block at 50% places it block was found to be 117.27% as the maximum where as it had falling trend and at 25% it had rising trend and at 25% was the minimum as 42.37% in Kaushambhi block. The places it had places neither falling nor rising trend. In overall stage of development of groundwater utilization in newada block at 40% places it had falling trend, at 40% the study area was found as 69.81%. The study revealed places it had rising trend and at 20% places it had neither that, the study area as a whole i.e. entire Study area was rising nor falling trend.In Saraswan block at 44.44% places found under safe category during the year 2015 it had falling trend, 44.44% places it had rising trend and at Causes of Water Table Decline 11.11% places it had neither rising nor falling trend. In Survey of the study area, analysis of soil Sirathu block at 25% places it had falling trend ,at 50% characteristics and groundwater behaviour showed some places it has rising trend and at 25% places it had neither of the possible causes of water table decline in the Study falling nor rising trend.. The Study Area showed that at area, as follows: about 52.17% places the water table had falling trend, at about 34.78%places it had rising trend and at 13.04%% 1. Soil texture, places it had neither rising nor falling trend. Thus, the study 2. Increase in number of minor irrigation structures, revealed that the major area of the Canal Command was 3. Cropping pattern, and facing the problem of water table decline due to over Increasing demand of groundwater for human and exploitation of ground water in post-monsoon period also. industrial consumption. For the sustainable development of the area to the water table is to be arrested at the desired level. Cropping pattern Groundwater Inventory The major crops grown in the study area were rice, wheat, barley, millet and arhar. Other crops like maize, alsi, Development Stage of Groundwater Utilization til, sugarcane, onion, potato and gram were also grown as The groundwater inventories of all the eight blocks minor crops. The yearly variation in the area occupied by Table 2. Groundwater inventory of Study area for the year 1995.

Net Net Net Draft Stage of Year Block Recharge Storage Categorization (ha-m) Development (%) (ha-m) (ha-m)

1995 Kara 7535.98 4884.94 2651.04 64.82 Safe 1995 Sirathu 7718.61 6313.72 1404.88 81.80 Semi Critical 1995 Sarsawan 6664.75 3839.90 2824.85 57.62 Safe 1995 Manjhanpur 6320.85 4258.92 2061.93 67.38 Safe 1995 Koshambhi 6081.85 2381.66 3700.19 39.16 Safe 1995 Muratganj 5816.86 4260.49 1556.37 73.24 Semi Critical 1995 Chail 3571.36 4201.48 -630.12 117.64 Overexploited 1995 Newada 6244.48 3524.52 2719.96 56.44 Safe Overall stage of development of study area 69.76 Safe

NAVEEN et al., Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) 5 3

Fig. 7. Groundwater development stage in Kara block Fig. 8. Groundwater development stage in Manjhapur during the study period. block during study period.

Fig. 9. Groundwater development stage in Muratganj Fig. 10. Groundwater development stage in Newada block during study period. block during study period. these major and minor crops is shown in Fig.11 and 12, 47830 ha to 72478 ha indicating 34.00% increase during the respectively. It may be observed from Fig.11 that rice and study period. and for minor crops the cultivated area under wheat crops occupied largest agricultural land as compared gram crop increased from 10277 ha to 21560 ha indicating to other crops which were generally being grown. 52.33% increase during the study period . Cultivation of rice in sand dominated soils required more Increase in number of minor irrigation structures number of irrigation and more pumpage of ground water. Year wise variation in number of minor irrigation The cultivated area under wheat crop increased from

Table 3. Groundwater. inventory of Study area for the year 2015.

Net Net Recharge Net Draft Stage of Year Block Storage Categorization (ha-m) (ha-m) Development (%) (ha-m) 2015 Kara 8174.36 4592.20 3582.16 56.18 Safe 2015 Sira thu 7736.56 5871.35 1865.21 75.89 Semi Critical 2015 Sarsawan 6816.12 3076.80 3739.33 45.14 Safe 2015 manjhanpur 6802.12 4226.98 2575.14 62.14 Safe 2015 koshambhi 6209.42 2631.14 3578.28 42.37 Safe 2015 Muratganj 3718.33 4100.47 -382.14 110.28 Overexploited 2015 Chail 6067.34 2984.84 3082.50 49.20 Safe 2015 Newada 2937.75 3445.20 -507.46 117.27 Overexploited Overall stage of development of study area 69.81 Safe

5 4 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig. 11. Variation in area occupied by major crops during the study period.

Fig. 12. Variation in area occupied by minor crops during the study period. structures is shown in Fig. 13. Due to non availability of excessive pumping of ground water, and ultimately lowering canal water in the desired quantity and at desired time, the water table. Study indicated that there was about 87.81% groundwater pumpage was required for irrigation which increase in number of private tube wells and 57.15% in was increasing every year. For this purpose number of minor number of pumping sets during the study period of 21 years. irrigation structures was also increasing, resulting in NAVEEN et al., Study of Ground Water Behaviour in Kaushambhi District of Uttar Pradesh (U.P) 5 5

Fig. 13. Variation in number of minor irrigation structures in the study area.

LITERATURE CITED Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 1 (2): 74-80. Agarwal, C.K., Bhargava, A.N., Singh, P.R. and Chhabra, S.S. 1990. Naik, P.K. and Keerthiseelan, K. 2007. Groundwater utilization in Estimation of recharge to groundwater due to return flow of River taluka, district Jalgaon, Maharashtra. Gondwana irrigation in Eastern Yamuna Canal Study Area using nuclear Geological Magazine. 11:1-12. technique – A case study. In: Proceedings of All India Seminar Njamnsi, Y.N. and Mbue, I.N. 2009. Estimation for groundwater on Groundwater Investigation, Management and Geophysical balance based on recharge and discharge: a tool for sustainable Techniques, Lucknow, December 11-12, 1990. pp. T-IV/44-48. groundwater management, Zhongmu County alluvial plain Ambrish, K. 2004. Groundwater recharge planning of Ganga- aquifer, Henan Province, China. Journal of American Science. Ramganga Inter-basin using GIS. Thesis, Ph. D. Agricultural 5(2): 83-90. Engineering (Irrigation and Drainage Engineering) G.B. Pant Rao, V.V. and Chakraborti, A. K. 2010. Water balance study and University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, 220 p. conjunctive water use planning in an irrigation canal study area: ALAM, M.A., Kumar,Y. and Sharma, H.C. 2017 Study of groundwater a remote sensing perspective. International Journal of remote behaviour in the Bellan canal command in Allahabad district of sensing. 21(17): 3227–3238. Uttar Pradesh. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences Sidhpuria, M.S., Sharma, H.C. and Shukla, K.N. 1998. Problem of ISSN 2167-0447 Vol. 7 (10) depleting groundwater in sugar cane growing area of Ganga- Kumar, C.P. and Seethapathi, P.V. 2002. Assessment of natural RamgangaInterbasin. In: Proceedings of the National Seminar groundwater recharge in upper Ganga canal study area. Journal on Irrigation Water Management for Sugarcane V.S.I., Pune, of Applied Hydrology, Association of Hydrologists of India, XV June 5-6, 1998, pp. I-21 – I-32. (4) pp. 13-20. Singh, R.K. 2011. Artificial groundwater recharge planning for Jamuna Kumar, P. and Srinivas, P. 2011. Evaluation of groundwater resources canal study using G.I.S. Unpublished Thesis, Ph.D. G.B. Pant and estimation of stage of groundwater development in a basin- University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India. a case study. Irrigation and Drainage. 61(1):129-139. 293p. Lee, C. H., Chen, Wei- P. and Lee, Ru- H. 2006. Estimation of Sishodiaa, R.P., Shuklaa, S., Grahamb.W.D., Wanic, S.P., Gargc, K.K. groundwater recharge using water balance coupled with base- 2016. Bi-decadal groundwater level trends in a semi-arid south flow-record estimation and stable-base-flow analysis. Environ Indian region: Declines, causes and management. Journal of Geol. 51: 73–82. Hydrology: Regional Studies 8 : 43–58 Mane, M.S., Singh, D.K., Bhattacharya, A.K. and Singh, A.K. 2008. Thushyanthy, M. and Silva, C.S.D. 2012. Assessment of groundwater Assessment of groundwater potential for irrigation. International resources in Jaffna limestone aquifer. Tropical Agricultural Research. 23 (2):177-185.

Received on 02-06-2017 Accepted on 25-06-2017 Advances5 6 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 56-61, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Effect of Chemical and Natural Agents on Physico-chemical Properties of Fruits and Vegetables B. NAVEENA* AND GENITHA IMMANUEL Department of Agricultural Process & Food Engineering, SHUATS, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT noted that increase in the concentration of Calcium Chloride increases the firmness of the fruit (Hong and Lee 1999). There is an interest in the development of Chemical and Post-harvest treatment of pineapples with Calcium Chloride Natural agents to reduce the post harvest losses of retards their decay rate (Goncalves et al., 2000). Calcium Perishables. Bananas and Tomatoes were treated with Chloride, Sodium Chloride and Lime juice were selected in Calcium Chloride, Sodium Chloride and Lime juice with this study to treat Banana, Tomato and Cucumber. The aim different steeping time. The effects of these agents on pre- of present work was to determine the effects of these agents treated fruits and vegetables were evaluated by analyzing on physico-chemical properties and to increase the shelf the pH, TSS, Weight loss and Shelf life. The results life of treated fruits and vegetables. indicated that due to pre-treatment increase in pH, TSS MATERIALS AND METHODS and Weight loss was low in fruits treated with Calcium Chloride and Sodium Chloride as compared to Control, Selection of Fruits and Vegetables there was no significant difference between fruits and Fresh Bananas and Tomatoes were procured from a vegetables treated with Lime juice and control. Shelf life local wholesaler in Allahabad. All the fruits were cleaned of Bananas treated with Calcium Chloride with a steeping and sorted. The good ones were washed thoroughly with time of 10 min was increased from 7 days to 9 days, shelf water. life of Tomatoes was increased from 10 days to 13 days. Preparation of solutions and pre-treatment

Key words pH, TSS, Perishables, Calcium Chloride, CaCl2, NaCl & Lime juice each 3% solutions were made Sodium Chloride, Lime juice from distilled water. The Selected fruits and vegetables were dipped in all the solutions for 5 minutes and 10 minutes as per the experimental plan. After that they were air dried Fruits and vegetables are a major source of essential under fan and kept in baskets at room temperature. dietary nutrients such as vitamins and minerals (Sagar and Suresh Kumar, 2010). Post harvest losses of fruits and Determination of pH vegetables are serious problem because of rapid To determine the pH, distilled water was taken in a deterioration during handling, transport and storage in beaker and the electrode of the pH meter was dipped in the tropical regions (Yahia, 1998). The changes occurred during distilled water and reading of pH meter was set manually ripening are in physical, mechanical and chemical properties by knob to 7 i.e. the neutral value. Then samples were taken of banana fruits down after they are picked. Extending post- in beaker and pH was measured by dipping electrodes of harvest life of horticultural products requires knowledge digital pH meter. of all factors that can cause loss of quality so as to develop affordable technologies that Post-harvest losses of fresh Determination of TSS fruits and vegetables minimize rate of deterioration. Length TSS was measured using Hand Refractometer. A drop of storage, respiration, transpiration, chemical composition, of juice sample was dropped on the face of the external appearance, anatomical structures, delay Refractometer. TSS was noted through the eye piece and is harvesting, taste qualities and other post harvest behaviors expressed as °Brix. have significant impact on fruit quality. These controllable Determination of Weight Loss and uncontrollable factors affect the attainment of maximum quality of fruits (Babalola et al., 2010). Dipping treatments For determination of weight loss, before storage three favour the dispersion of the solution on the surface of the fruits in each replication were separately marked and vegetable (Soliva-Fortuny et al., 2003). Pre and post-harvest weighed on digital balance at the start of the experiment Calcium applications have been used to delay aging and thereafter the same fruits were consistently weighed or ripening, to reduce post-harvest decay and to control during the storage period. Weight was calculated by using the development of many physiological disorders in fruits the following formula: and vegetables (Conway et al., 1994). Weight Loss % = (fruit initial weight-fruit weight at From the study of the effects of Calcium Chloride dip each sampling date/fruit initial weight) ×100 on the weight loss and texture of the carrot shreds, it is Determination of Shelf life noted that the treatment substantially maintained their quality during the storage period. (Izumi and Watada 1994). The data recorded during the course of investigation As ripening progressed in tomatoes, bound calcium content were statistically analyzed by the ‘Analysis of variance- of control fruit decreased, in contrast fruits treated with 8% one way classification’. The significant effect of treatment was judged with the help of ‘F’ (variance ratio). If calculated CaCl2 had increase in the bound calcium content. It is also NAVEENA and IMMANUEL, Effect of Chemical and Natural Agents on Physico-chemical Properties of Fruits and Vegetables 5 7 value exceeded the table value the effect was considered to in Fig 1. The measured pH of Bananas before treatment was the significant. The significance of the study was tested 4.6. On 7th day, pH of Calcium Chloride treated Bananas 5% level to study the differences in the processing with steeping time of 5 min (4.93) and 10 min (4.83) was less parameter and premix in composition. followed by Sodium Chloride treated Bananas with steeping Statistical Analysis time of 5 min (5.1) and 10 min (4.91), compared to Control (5.12) and Lime juice treated Bananas with steeping time of After pre-treatment, the fruits and vegetables were 5 min (5.13) and 10 min (5.1). On 8th day, control, Sodium drained, then the treated and control fruits and vegetables Chloride treated fruits with a steeping time of 5min and were stored at room temperature. Shelf life was calculated Lime juice treated Bananas were spoiled. On 8th day, Sodium by counting number of days the fruits and vegetables were Chloride treated Bananas with a steeping time of 10 min acceptable for usage by visual observation. were spoiled, Calcium Chloride treated Bananas with a RESULTS AND DISCUSSION steeping time of 10 min were recorded with a pH of 5.14, after 9th day they were spoiled. Effect of Chemical & Natural agents on physico- chemical properties TSS of Banana The results regarding to the TSS of Bananas is plotted pH of Banana in Fig 2. The measured TSS of Bananas before treatment The results regarding to the pH of Bananas is shown was 15.6 oBrix. On 7th day, TSS of Calcium Chloride treated

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated bananas, T2 = NaCl treated bananas, T3 = Lime juice treated bananas Fig 1. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on pH of Banana

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated bananas, T2 = NaCl treated bananas, T3 = Lime juice treated bananas Fig. 2. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on TSS of Banana 5 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (20.4 oBrix) and 10 min and 10 min (4.03%) was less, followed by Sodium Chloride (18.4oBrix) was less followed by Sodium Chloride treated treated Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (6.22%) and 10 Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (21.2 oBrix) and 10 min min (6.12%) compared to Control (6.74%) and Lime juice (20 oBrix) compared to Control (21.8oBrix) and Lime juice treated Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (6.77%) and 10 treated Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (21.4 oBrix) and min (6.75%). On 8th day, Control, Sodium Chloride treated 10 min (21.6 oBrix). On 8th day, Control, Sodium Chloride fruits with steeping time of 5 min and Lime juice treated treated Bananas with steeping time of 5min and Lime juice Bananas with steeping time of 5 min and 10 min were spoiled. treated Bananas were spoiled. On 9th day, Sodium Chloride On 9th day, Sodium Chloride treated Bananas with steeping treated Bananas with steeping time of 10 min were spoiled, time of 10 min were degraded, Calcium Chloride treated Calcium Chloride treated Bananas with steeping time of 10 Bananas with steeping time of 10 min were recorded with a min were recorded with a TSS of (22.2 oBrix), after 9th day weight loss of 8.14%, after 9th day they were spoiled. The they were spoiled. Starch content decreased gradually as reduction in weight of fruits treated with Calcium chloride the bananas ripened, which was due to the breakdown of was less, there was no significant difference between starch into sugars. Control and Lime juice treated Bananas. Weight loss Shelf life The results regarding to the Weight loss of Bananas The results regarding to the shelf life of Bananas is is shown in Fig 3. On 7th day, the weight loss of Calcium shown in Fig 4. The shelf life of Control, Lime juice treated Chloride treated Bananas with steeping time of 5 min (4.48%)

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated bananas, T2 = NaCl treated bananas, T3 = Lime juice treated bananas Fig. 3. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on Weight loss of Banana

Fig 4. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on Shelf life of Banana NAVEENA and IMMANUEL, Effect of Chemical and Natural Agents on Physico-chemical Properties of Fruits and Vegetables 5 9

Bananas and Sodium Chloride treated Bananas with treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 10 min were recorded steeping time of 5 min was 7 days which is less compared to with a pH of 4.59, after 13th day these tomatoes were spoiled. Calcium Chloride treated Bananas with steeping time of 5 TSS of Tomato min (8 days) and with steeping time of 10 min (9 days), Sodium Chloride treated Bananas with steeping time of 10 The results regarding to the TSS of Tomatoes is shown min (8 days). in Fig 6. The measured TSS of Tomatoes before treatment was 3.7 (oBrix). On 10th day the TSS of Calcium Chloride pH of Tomato treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.4 oBrix) and The results regarding to the pH of Tomatoes is shown 10 min (4.3 oBrix) was less followed by Sodium Chloride in Fig 5. The measured pH of Tomatoes before treatment treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.7 0Brix) and was 4.02. On 10th day, the pH of Calcium Chloride treated 10 min (4.5 oBrix) compared to Control (4.8 oBrix) and Lime Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.41) and 10 min juice treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.7 oBrix) (4.34) was less followed by Sodium Chloride treated and 10 min (4.8 oBrix). On 11th day Control, Sodium Chloride Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.52) and 10 min treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min and Lime juice (4.46) compared to Control (4.58) and Lime juice treated treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min and 10 min Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (4.58) and 10 min were observed to be degraded. On 13th day Sodium Chloride (4.56). On 11th day Control, Sodium Chloride treated treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 10 min were Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min and Lime juice treated degraded, Calcium Chloride treated Tomatoes with steeping Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min 10 min were spoiled. time of 10 min were recorded with a TSS of 5.0 (oBrix), after On 13th day, Sodium Chloride treated Tomatoes with 13th day they were observed to be degraded. steeping time of 10 min were spoiled, Calcium Chloride

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated Tomatoes, T2 = NaCl treated Tomatoes, T3 = Lime juice treated Tomatoes Fig. 5. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on pH of Tomatoes

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated Tomatoes, T2 = NaCl treated Tomatoes, T3 = Lime juice treated Tomatoes Fig. 6. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on TSS of Tomato 6 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Weight loss of Tomato (13 days) was more followed by Sodium Chloride treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (10 days) and 10 min The results regarding to the Weight loss of Tomatoes th (11 days). The shelf life of Control (10 days) and Lime juice is shown in Fig 7. On 10 day, the weight loss of CaCl2 treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (7.93%) and treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (10 days) and 10 min (10 days) was less compared to Calcium Chloride 10 min (7.12%) was less followed by NaCl treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (9.31%) and 10 min (7.91%) and Sodium Chloride treated Tomatoes. compared to Control (9.39%) and Lime juice treated Fruit and vegetable tissues are still alive after harvest, Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (9.4%) and 10 min and continue their physiological activity. Physiological (9.42%). On 11th day, Control, NaCl treated Tomatoes with disorders occur as a result of mineral deficiency, low or steeping time of 5 min and Lime juice treated Tomatoes with high temperature injury, or undesirable environmental steeping time of 5 min and 10 min were degraded. On 13th conditions, such as high humidity. Physiological day, NaCl treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 10 min deterioration can also occur spontaneously owing to enzymatic activity, leading to over ripeness and senescence, were degraded, CaCl2 treated Tomatoes with steeping time of 10 min were recorded with a weight loss of 10.92%, after a simple aging phenomenon. Post-harvest application of th 13 day they were spoiled. There is no significant difference CaCl2 by increasing Ca2+ concentration in apple tissue, between Control and Lime juice treated Tomatoes. can inhibit fruit ripening and decay (Ferguson, 1984). Shelf life This investigation confirmed that, Calcium Chloride maintained the quality of treated Bananas and Tomatoes The results regarding to the shelf life of Tomatoes is under storage conditions. Pre and post-harvest calcium shown in Fig 8. The Shelf life of Calcium Chloride treated applications have been used to delay aging or ripening, to Tomatoes with steeping time of 5 min (11 days) and 10 min

T0 = Control, T1 = CaCl2 treated Tomatoes, T2 = NaCl treated Tomatoes, T3 = Lime juice treated Tomatoes Fig. 7. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on Weight loss of Tomato

Fig. 8. Effect of Calcium chloride, Sodium chloride and Lime juice on Shelf life of Tomato NAVEENA and IMMANUEL, Effect of Chemical and Natural Agents on Physico-chemical Properties of Fruits and Vegetables 6 1 reduce post-harvest decay, and to control the development of Ogun state. Journalof Life and Physical Sciences, acta of many physiological disorders in fruits and vegetables SATECH, 3(2), 14-18. (Conway et al., 1994). In our study it was observed that, Bhattarai, D. R. and Gautam, D. M. 2006. Effect of harvesting during storage pH of fruits and vegetables was increased, method and calcium onpostharvest physiology of tomato.Nepal because acidity was reduced during storage growth on Agricultural Resource Journal. 7, 23-26. attainment of maturity and ripening (Upadhyay et al., 1994). Conway, W.S., C.E. Sams, C.Y. Wang, and J.A. Abbott, 1994.”Additive Increase in pH of Calcium Chloride treated fruits and of effects of postharvest calcium and heat treatments on reducing vegetables weas less compared to Control and other decay and maintaining quality in apples”, J. Am. Soc. Hortic.Sci., 119 : 49-53. treatments. The results were comparative with (Ferguson, 1984). The increase in pH might be due to the breakup of Demarty, M., C. Morvan and M. Thellier. 1984. Ca and the cell acids with respiration during storage. The results are in wall. Plant Cell Environ.,7 : 441- 448. agreement with the findings of (Sabir et al., 2004). The Goncalves, N.B., V.D. de Carvalhoand J.R. de A. Goncalves, increase in TSS of fruits and vegetables treated with Calcium 2000.”Effect of calcium chloride and hot water treatment on enzyme activity and content oh phenolic compounds in chloride was less, as the presence of Ca2+ ions increases pineapples”, PesquisaAgropecuariaBrasileira, 35 (10): 2075- the cohesion of cell-walls and delay fruit ripening (Demarty 2081 (Portuguese/ English Abstract). et al., 1984), CaCl delayed fruit ripening, improved resistance 2 Hong, J. H., and S. K. Lee, 1999.”Effect of calcium treatment on to fungal attack and maintained structural integrity of cell tomato fruit ripening”, J. Korean Society of Horticultural walls (Lara et al., 2004). The reduction in weight of fruits Sciences, 40 (6): 638-642. treated with Calcium chloride was less but there was no Izumi, H. and A.E. Watada, 1994.Calcium treatments affect storage significant difference between Control and Lime juice treated quality of shredded carrots.Journal of Food Science, 59(1) : Bananas. Calcium applications have known to be effective 106-109. in terms of membrane functionality and integrity Lara, I., García, P., and Vendrell, M., 2004.Modifications in cell wall maintenance which may be the reason for the lower weight composition after cold storage of calcium-treated strawberry loss found in Calcium treated fruits (Lester & Grusak 1999). (Fragaria × ananassaDuch.) fruit. Postharvest Biology and It is also noteworthy that there was increase in shelf Technology, 34(3) l 331-339. life of fruits and vegetables treated with Calcium chloride, Lester, G.E., Grusak, M.A., 1999.Postharvest application of calcium as calcium might have delayed senescence and reduced and magnesium to honeydew and netted muskmelons: Effects on tissue ion concentrations, quality, and senescence. J. Amer. the rate of respiration and transpiration thus increased the Soc. Hort. Sci. 124 : 545–552. shelf life (Mahajan & Dhatt 2004). Mahajan, B.V.C. and A.S. Dhatt. 2004. Studies on postharvest calcium CONCLUSION chloride application on storage behaviour and quality of Asian This research reveals variations in physico-chemical pear during cold storage. Intl. J. Food Agri. and Environment, 2(3-4): 157-159 properties of Bananas and Tomatoes during storage. In terms of pH, TSS and Shelf life, this work shows that the Sabir, MS, Shah SZA &Afzal A 2004. Effect of chemical treatment, wax coating, oil dipping and different wrapping materials on effect of Calcium Chloride and Sodium Chloride on pre- physio-chemical characteristics and storage behavior of apple treated fruits and vegetables is quite beneficial. The data (Malusdomestica Borkh). Pak J Nutrition 3(2): 122-127. also suggest that the decrease in weight was less in fruits Sagar, V. R., & Suresh Kumar, P. 2010. Recent advances in drying and vegetables treated with Calcium Chloride and Sodium and dehydration of fruits and vegetables: A review. Journal of Chloride. Overall, the results presented in this study show Food Science and Technology, 47:15-26. that Calcium Chloride with steeping time of 5 min, 10 min Soliva-Fortuny, R. C., & Martin-Belloso, O. 2003. New advance in and Sodium Chloride with steeping time of 10 min was extending the shelf life of fresh-cut fruits: a review. Trends in effective in increasing shelf life of fruits and vegetables. Food Science and Technology, 14: 341-353. The results also suggest that there was no effect of Lime Upadhyay, I.P., A. Noomhorm, and S. G. Ilangantileke, 1994. “Effects juice on treated fruits and vegetables. of gamma irradiation and hot water treatment on the shelf life LITERATURE CITED and quality of Thai mango cv Red,” The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, pp. 348–351, 1994. Babalola, D. A.,Makinde, Y. O., Omonona, B. T., and Oyekanmi, M. Yahia A, Kevers C, Gaspar T, CheÂnieux JC, Rideau M, CreÁche J. O., 2010.Determinants of post harvest losses in tomato 1998. Cytokinins and ethylene stimulate indole alkaloid production: a case study of Imeko – Afon local government area accumulation in cell suspension cultures of Catharanthusroseus by two distinct mechanisms. Plant Science 133: 9±15.

Received on 02-06-2017 Accepted on 27-06-2017 Advances6 2 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 62-67, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Studies on Drying Characteristics of Spinach Leaves M. KARTHIK VARENYA1, B. JITHENDER2 AND K. LAVANYA3 1&3College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla. 2Department of Processing and Food Engineering, CAET, Junagadh email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT contents may be stored for long duration at normal environmental conditions (Jarayaman and Das Gupta, 1995). Fresh spinach leaves were procured from local market Drying is one of the preservation methods that have the and subjected to tray drying at different temperatures i.e., capability of extending the consumption period of spinach 50­0C, 600C and 700C with blanching treatment and without (Ozkan et al. 2007). Mathematical modelling of hot air drying treatment. The leafy vegetables are highly perishable in of spinach leaves in universal hot air oven. Drying nature and therefore have very short life. As blanching is experiment were conducted using a constant air velocity a prerequisite for preserving green leafy vegetables, it is 2.2 m/s and three drying air temperature of 55, 65, and 750C very much essential to establish the conditions of blanching with two pre-treatment conditions and load densities that to enhance the utility of this nutritional economic source. are given respectively condition (Blanched and The shelf life of leafy vegetables like spinach, methi, Unblanched) load density (3 kg/m2, 3.5 kg/m2). The drying coriander, curry leaves etc. The drying time was found to rate increased with increased in temperature and decrease be 330 min, 270 min and 210 min for 500C, 600C and 700C with increase in time. Pre-treatment and load densities had respectively for control samples and 270 min, 180 min an insignificant role on drying rate. The experimental drying and 150 min for 500C, 600C and 700C respectively for data of spinach applied to four moisture ratio models, blanched samples. The average drying rate was found to namely, page, modified page, generalized exponential, and be 0.04078, 0.04479, 0.06661 g/g-min at 50-0C, 600C and two term models. Nonlinear regression analysis performed 700C respectively for control and 0.05250, 0.05285 and to relate the parameters of the model with the drying 0.03906 g/g-min 50-0C, 600C and 700C for pre-treatment conditions. The performance of these models evaluated 2 samples. by comparing the coefficient of determination, R , and reduced chi-square, ÷2, between the observed and predicted moisture ratio. Among all these model page model was found Key words Spinach leaves, Drying temperature, Drying to be best describe the drying behavior of spinach leaves rate. (A. K. Upadhyaya et al., 2012) .

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is an important green MATERIALS AND METHODS leafy vegetable plant in the family of Amaranthaceae and Experiments were conducted in Agricultural Process locally known as Palak. It is native to Central and South and Food Engineering Laboratory at College of Agricultural western Asia. In India it is cultivated in almost all the states. Engineering, Bapatla, Guntur district. Fresh spinach leaves Spinach has a high nutritional value and is extremely rich in were procured from local market everyday prior to the antioxidants, especially when fresh, steamed or quickly experiment. They were washed with tap water; the moisture boiled. It is a rich source of vitamins particularly riboflavin, on the wet sample surface was removed with filter paper. niacin, folic acid, vitamin B6, A, E & K and minerals as iron, The initial value of moisture content 93.41% (w.b.). The calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, protein, zinc and dietary tray dryer was used for drying of spinach leaves at different fiber. Spinach is low in calories and is a good source of temperatures of 500C, 600C and 700 C. ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) & b-carotene. Ascorbic acid is an Experimental procedure important nutrient in vegetables. Spinach is a vegetable which rapidly perishes after harvest and which is consumed The spinach leaves were destalked so as to separate only in the product season. The composition of spinach the leaves from the stalks. Damaged and premature leaves leaves is given in the Table 1.Important process to preserve were also separated and further processing was done. The agricultural products because it has a great effect on the destalked leaves were washed under tap water to remove quality of dried products. The objective in drying foods is dust, dirt and foreign matter present in it. the reduction of moisture content to a level that allows safe Determination of Moisture Content storage over an extended period. Hot air drying is the most common mode of thermal dehydration. Moisture content of the spinach leaves while drying on tray dryer is measured (AOAC, 1965). Hot-air drying is one of the most widely used The samples are taken in moisture boxes from each methods for preservation of food in commercial processing. lot to determine the moisture content. The boxes were Drying is done to decrease the water activity of the kept in hot air oven at 105 + 30C for 24 hours and the weights products, inhibiting development of microorganisms and are measured on electronic digital weighing balance having decreasing spoilage reactions to prolong the shelf life. an accuracy of 0.01 g. From the initial and final moisture Added advantages of dehydrated products include box weights, the moisture content of sample is determined reduction in costs of packaging, storage and transportation and expressed in percentage (%) by using the following due to reduced bulk and mass of the dried product (Okos et formula: al., 1992). Further-more, products with low moisture VARENYA et al., Studies on Drying Characteristics of Spinach Leaves 6 3

Table 1. Composition of Spinach (quantity present per 100 g)

Iron 38.5 mg Vitamin K 483 mg Calcium 350-400 mg -carotene 5626 g Energy 97 kJ Thiamine 0.078 mg Carbohydrates 3.6 g Riboflavin 0.189 mg Sugar 0.4 g Niacin 0.724 mg Dietary fiber 2.2 g Magnesium 79 mg Fat 0.4 g Manganese 0.897 mg Protein 2.9 g Phosphorous 49 mg Vitamin A 469 g Potassium 558 mg Vitamin B6 0.195 mg Sodium 79 mg Vitamin C 28 mg Zinc 0.53 mg Vitamin E 2 mg Water 91.4 g

Source: USDA, Nutrient Database

Tray dryer Moisture Content (w.b.) = For drying of spinach leaves, the humid dry Tray where, Dryer (TD-12-S-E), Electric heating model having 6 KW power and temperature 2000C was used. The tray drier, W = Weight of the empty box, g 1 essentially a cabinet in to which material to be dried is placed

W2 = Weight of the moist sample + box, g on perforated stainless steel trays. It mainly consist of a thermostat, fan and temperature controller. The tray drier W3 = Weight of dried sample + box, g The drying of spinach leaves was continued until the having 12 trays placed one above the other. The drying spinach leaves are completely dried and attains safe conditions are simply controlled and readily changed. The moisture level of about 6 to 9%. air velocity in the tray drier is 0.3 to 2.3 m/s. Blanching Calculation of Drying Rate (references) Blanching is one of the pre-treatment given to Drying rate is defined as the ratio of moisture removed vegetable before drying to minimize the microbial load and per kg of dry weight of material in unit time. The amount of deactivate the enzymatic activity to prevent the browning moisture removed on each of experimentation is initially reaction. The spinach leaves were subjected to blanching determined and then the drying rate is calculated. It is treatment at 98°C for 1 min in distilled water and then dried computed for different temperatures of drying during at different temperatures viz., 500C, 600C and 700C. experiment for each day using the following formula:

Table 2. Variation of moisture content of spinach leaves against drying time in tray dryer at different temperatures without blanching

Drying time Moisture content w.b. Moisture content w.b. Moisture content w.b. (min) (%) at 500C (%) 600C (%) 700C 0 90.2 93.8 92.23 30 89.98 88.8 91.34 60 87.0 82.8 86 90 82.4 79.6 79.4 120 79.4 73.4 77.4 150 63.4 56.8 33.2 180 61.4 38.8 16 210 37.6 16.0 7.4 240 20.4 7.8 7.4 270 14.8 7.8

300 12.8

330 7.56

360 7.56

6 4 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig. 1. Variation of moisture content of spinach leaves against drying time in tray dryer at different temperatures without blanching treatment

temperatures. The samples dried at 700C took minimum time to achieve the desired final moisture content. The variation in moisture content with drying time at The overall drying rate of each temperature is also different drying temperatures i.e. 50, 60 and 700C. It was calculated by considering initial and final moisture content observed that the moisture content of spinach samples of of the spinach leaves. different temperatures decreases with increase in drying RESULTS AND DISCUSSION time. Tray drying at 50, 60 and 700C without pre-treatment Fig. 1 shows that the variation in moisture content of spinach leaves against drying time. It was observed that The samples of spinach were dried in tray drier at the moisture content of samples decreases with the increase different temperatures and moisture content was calculated in drying time. At 500C drying temperature, the moisture at different drying time intervals and data were analyzed. content decreased from 90.2 to 7.56% in total drying period The relationship between moisture content and drying time of 330 min. Similarly, at 600C and 700C drying temperatures, was non-linear, moisture decreasing with increase in drying the moisture content decreased from 93.8 to 7.8% and 92.23 time, and total drying time varying with drying air to 7.4% respectively.

Table 3. Variation of moisture content against drying time of spinach leaves in tray dryer at different temperatures with blanching treatment

Drying time Moisture content w.b. Moisture content w.b. (%) Moisture content w.b. (min) (%) at 500C at 600C (%) at 700C 0 92.8 90.8 90.8 30 90.8 87.4 85.8 60 88 84.6 66.4 90 80.8 79 23 120 77.4 51.2 14.8 150 54.6 16.2 7.4 180 40.4 7.6 7.4 210 33 7.6

240 16.4

270 7.8

300 7.8

VARENYA et al., Studies on Drying Characteristics of Spinach Leaves 6 5

Fig. 2. Variation of moisture content of spinach leaves against drying time in tray dryer at different temperatures with blanching treatment

Tray drying at 50, 60 and 700C with blanching decreased from 92.8 to 7.8% in total drying period of 240 treatment min. Similarly, drying was carried out at 600C and 700C with blanching pre-treatment. The moisture content decreased The variation in moisture content with drying time at from 90.8 to 7.6% and 90.8 to 7.4% respectively. different drying temperatures i.e. 50, 60 and 700C. It was observed that the moisture content of spinach samples Drying Rate decreases with increase in drying time. Tray drying at 50, 60 and 700C Fig. 2 shows that the variation in moisture content against drying time for samples. It was observed that the The variations of drying rate with drying time and drying temperatures are shown in Fig. 3. The graphs indicate moisture content of samples decreases with the increase in drying time. The drying was carried out at the temperature that, drying is taking place in falling rate regime irrespective of drying method. The absence of initial constant rate of of 500C with blanching pre-treatment. The moisture content drying suggests that drying may have occurred both by Table 4. Variation of drying rate of spinach leaves against drying time in tray dryer at different temperatures without pre-treatment

Time Drying rate at 500C Drying rate at 600C Drying rate at 700C (min) (g/g-min) (g/g-min) (g/g-min) 0 - - - 30 0.2693 0.2345 0.3210 60 0.0970 0.0663 0.0880 90 0.0428 0.0344 0.0340 120 0.0255 0.0168 0.0221 150 0.0073 0.0049 0.0010 180 0.0054 0.0013 0.00016 210 0.0010 0.00014 0.00002 240 0.0002 0.00002 - 270 0.00009 - - 300 0.00006 - - 330 0.00001 - - Mean 0.04078 0.04479 0.06661

6 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig. 3. Variation of drying rate with drying time in Tray dryer at different temperatures without pretreatment diffusion and capillary action as observed in most spinach leaves during the experiment at drying temperature agricultural materials (Chakravarthy., 1987). 60 0C and 50 0C were 0.05285 and 0.05250 g/g-min From the figure it is clear that the drying rate is more respectively. at drying temperature 700C followed by 600C and 500C. Also CONCLUSION observed that drying rate increases with increase in The results were analyzed and comparisons were temperature. The average drying rate of spinach leaves made to arrive the most effective drying condition. Based during the experiment at drying temperature 700C is 0.06661 on experimental data and results, the following conclusions g/g-min whereas the average drying rate of spinach leaves were drawn from studies. The time taken for complete drying during the experiment at drying temperature 600C and 500C of spinach leaves without pre-treatment at 700C was 210 were 0.04479 and 0.04078 g/g-min respectively. min whereas the time taken for drying at 600C was 270 min Tray drying at 50, 60 and 700C with blanching and 500C was 330 min. The time taken for drying of spinach treatment leaves at 700C (150 min) was less as compared to 600C (180 0 The variations of drying rate with drying time and min) and 50 C (270 min) when subjected to blanching drying temperatures are shown in Fig. 4. From the figure it treatment.The average drying rate was found 0.06661 g/g- 0 0 is clear that the drying rate is more at drying temperature min at 70 C, 0.04479 g/g-min at 60 C and 0.04078 g/g-min at 0 700C followed by 600C and 500C. The average drying rate of 50 C without pre-treatment. The average drying rate was 0 spinach leaves during the experiment at drying temperature found to be 0.03906 g/g-min at 70 C, 0.05285 g/g-min at 0 0 700C is 0.03906 g/g-min whereas the average drying rate of 60 C and 0.05250 g/g-min at 50 C with pre-treatment.

Table 5. Variation of drying rate of spinach leaves against drying time in tray dryer at different temperatures with blanching pretreatment

Time Drying rate at 500C Drying rate at 600C Drying rate at 700C (min) (g/g-min) (g/g-min) (g/g-min) 0 - - - 30 0.2986 0.202 0.1727 60 0.1075 0.0774 0.0218 90 0.0377 0.033 0.00076 120 0.022 0.0044 0.000021 150 0.0043 0.0003 0.00003 180 0.0015 0.00002 - 210 0.00077 - - 240 0.00013 - - 270 0.00002 - - Average drying 0.05250 0.05285 0.03906 rate

VARENYA et al., Studies on Drying Characteristics of Spinach Leaves 6 7

Fig. 4. Variation of drying rate with drying time in Tray dryer at different temperatures with blanching pre-treatment

LITERATURE CITED “Food Dehydration”, In Handbook of Food Engineering, Heldman, D.R. and Lund D.B. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, Association of Official Analytical Chemista (AOAC), 1965. Official pp. 437-562.7. Method of Analysis, 5th ed., The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Virginia. Ozkan Alibas, I., Akbudak.B., Akbudak. N. 2005. “Microwave drying characteristics of spinach” Journal of Food Engineering 78: Chakravarthy A. 1987. Post Harvest Technology of cereals, Pulses 577–583. and oilseed. Oxford and IBH publishing Co.Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Upadhyaya, A.K., Bhupendra Gupta, Mohan Singh, Mukesh Pandey, Jayaraman, K.S. and Gupta, D.K. 1995. “Drying of Fruits and Sanjeev Garg. 2012. “Mathematical Modelling of Hot Air Drying Vegetables”, In Handbook of Industrial Drying, Mujumdar, A.S. of Spinach Leaves in Universal Hot Air Oven”. International (Ed.), 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 643-68. Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Okos, M.R., Narsimhan, G., Singh, R.K. and Weitnauer, A.C. 1992. Technology 1 (4): 153-157. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard.

Received on 10-06-2017 Accepted on 13-06-2017 Advances6 8 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 68-73, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Genetic and Diversity Studies in Late Sown Exotic and Indigenous Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Germplasm BANOTH VINESH*, L.C. PRASAD AND RAVINDRA PRASAD

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Archaeological The present investigation comprising of 101 barley evidence suggests that in the past, barley known as Indra genotypes was conducted at Genetics and Plant Breeding, Jau and it was more popular in every religious ceremony as Banaras Hindu University, during rabi of 2016-17. sacred grain. Barley flourishes well in low resources of Variability and diversity analysis was carried out based on fertilizer and irrigation. Barley is a mosaic crop, developed data collected on 14 various quantitative traits. Analysis from several populations in at least in five regions: of variance revealed that there was a significant difference Mesopotamia, the northern and southern Levant, the Syrian among the sixty four genotypes for all the characters desert and, 1,500-3,000 kilometers (900-1,800 miles) to the studied. The phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) east in the vast Tibetan Plateau. values were higher than genotypic coefficients of variation Barley is a rich source of tocols, including (GCV) values for all the traits studied. Medium phenotypic tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are known to reduce coefficients of variation (PCV) and genotypic coefficients serum lethal density level cholesterol through their of variation (GCV) were recorded for days to 50% antioxidant action. Whole barley grain consists of about flowering, effective tillers per plant, spike length with awn, 65-68% starch, 10-17% protein, 4-9% ²-glucan, 2-3% free spike length without awn and plant height. Medium lipids and 1.5- 2.5% minerals. Hulless or de-hulled barley phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCV) and low grain contains 11-20% total dietary fiber, 11-14% insoluble genotypic coefficients of variation (GCV) values were dietary fiber and 3-10% soluble dietary fiber. Due to alternate displayed for SPAD value and leaf rolling. Low phenotypic use of barley in field of brewing industry and medicine, it is coefficients of variation (PCV) and genotypic coefficients considered as highly needed crop of present era. Thus of variation (GCV) values were recorded for days to barley has potential to alleviate food shortage and maturity which suggests the limitation of selection for malnutrition as well. these traits. High heritability values were observed in all Barley has been introduced in India soon after the characters studied except leaf rolling. The expected invasion of the Aryans. Indians utilize about 80% of the genetic advance as a percent of mean ranged from 3.45 produce as staple food, 10% as animals feed and rest 10% (Leaf rolling) to grain yield per plant (77.14). Characters as raw material for industrial products. In our country barley with a high genetic advance as a percent of mean allow the cultivation starts from north- western district of Bihar and improvement of this character through selection Genetic extends upto Mathura with highest concentration in eastern. diversity was assessed in 101 genotypes of barley by using All the cultivated forms of barley are thought to have D2 analysis. The genotypes were grouped into 11 clusters. originated from a wild specie Hordeum spontaneutn, a Cluster II comprised 40 genotypes which was followed by species very similar to present day two rowed barley. clusterI. Cluster with small statistical distances Archeologist also supports the two-row species as progenitor of six-rowed barley. considered less diverse than those with large distances. The intra cluster value was maximum in cluster X and Barley is an annual cereal grain crop that is consumed minimum in cluster I. Cluster V showed the highest mean as a major feed for the animals. The rest is used as malt in values for days to maturity, effective tillers per plant, whiskey or sugar as well as health food. Overall India’s stomatal conductivity, grain per ear, yield per plant while barley production was estimated to be 1781.4 MT spread over an area of 6.93 lakh ha for the year 2016-17. The average cluster V revealed the lowest mean value for leaf rolling. productivity was estimated to be 25.80 q/ha (Anonymous, The characters responsible for genetic divergence days 2017). to maturity, effective tillers per plant, stomatal conductivity, grain per ear, yield per plant. The use of a high existing variability in the germplasm that considering the existence of a high genetic variability. The nature and amount of genetic variability available in Key words Barley, PCV, GCV, heritability and D2 the germplasm indicates the scope of improvement of the analysis character by exploiting the genetic variability selecting superior genotypes for specific environments. The Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), a member of the grass techniques of multivariate analysis are often used in genetic family, belong to is a major cereal grain grown in temperate improvement programs to predict the genetic diversity climates globally. The diploid chromosome number 2n= 14 VINESH et al., Genetic and Diversity Studies in Late Sown Exotic and Indigenous Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Germplasm 6 9 among the accesses. And the dissimilarity measurements Genetic advance as per cent of mean was calculated previously estimated and, among these averages, the as per the formula. 2 Mahalanobis’ generalized distance (D ) has been evidenced GA GA as per cent of mean = × 100 as a successful tool when studying the barley genetic divergence. The Mahalanobis’ D2 statistic also provides a useful statistical tool for measuring the genetic diversity in Where, GA = Genetic advance; = Grand mean of germplasm collections with respect to the characters the character considered together The range of genetic advance as per cent of mean MATERIAL AND METHODS was classified as Low: Less than 10%; Medium: 10-20%; High: More than 20% as suggested by Johnson et al. (1955). The present study was carried out at Genetics and Genetic diversity between genotypes was estimated Plant Breeding, Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural by using D2 analysis given by Mahalanobis’s (1936). Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (U.P.) during 2 th th rabi of 2016-17. Geographically, Banaras Hindu University The D value between i and j genotypes for P is situated between 25º18' N latitude, 83º 03´E longitudes characters was calculated as and at an altitude of 128.93 meters above the mean sea level 2 in the North Gangetic plain of eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. Dij = P Σt=1 (it - jt) The experimental materials incorporated 101 exotic and th indigenous genotypes which were well-kept by BHU under Where, it = uncorrected mean value of i genotype All India Co-ordinated Wheat and Barley Improvement for t character; = Uncorrected mean value of jth genotype Project. Randomized Block Design with three replications jt for t character; D 2 = D2 value between ith and jth genotype. was adopted for laying out the genotypes for the ij investigation. Each treatment (genotype) was sown in line Grouping of the genotypes into various clusters was having 2.75 m length with row to row and plant to plant done by using Tocher’s method as described by Rao (1952). distance of 25 cm and 10 cm, respectively. The sowing date RESULTS AND DISCUSSION was delayed by 25 days as against the recommended one. Analysis of variability All the recommended agronomic practices for respective experimental conditions were followed to raise a healthy In the present study, ANOVA of traits revealed crop. Five competitive plants, in each plot were randomly significant variability for various traits studied in the selected and tagged well in advance for recording the germplasm. Mean squares of the 14 characters from analysis observations. Data was recorded on various yield and yield of variance (ANOVA) are presented in (Table 1). Highly attributing traits viz.,days to 50 per cent flowering, days to significant differences among genotypes (P<0.01) were maturity, flag leaf length (cm), number of effective tillers/ observed for seven characters (days to 50 % flowering, plant, number of grains/ear, spike length with awns (cm), number of productive tillers per plant, spike length, spike spike length without awns (cm),stomatal conductivity (m without awn, 1000 kernel weight, grain yield plant, days to Mol M-2 S-1), SPAD values, leaf rolling, proline concentration maturity, flag leaf length, proline concentration and plant (µ mol g-1),plant height (cm), 1000-grain weight (gm) and height), significant at (p<0.05) for the rest one characters; grain yield/plant (gm). namely leaf rolling. This result indicating that there is Genotypic, phenotypic and environmental variability among the genotypes studied and would respond components of variance and their coefficient of variances positively to selection. Several researchers reported (Phenotypic: PCV and Genotypic: GCV) were estimated as significant differences among wheat genotypes studied. methods suggested by Lush (1940) and Burton (1952) Shashikala (2006). Similar findings were in consonance with respectively. The PCV and GCV values were classified as earlier reports made by Kumar et al. (2009) and Monpara Low: Less than 10%; Moderate: 10 – 20%; High: More than (2011) showed that significant differences among 30 20% as suggested by Sivasubramanian and genotypes of bread wheat and among 21 genotypes of bread 2 wheat respectively. Madhavamenon (1973). Heritability in broad sense [h (b)] was calculated according to the formulae given by Lush The values of GCV and PCV were very close which (1940) and categorized as Low: Less than 30%; Medium: strengthens the greater contribution of genotype rather 30-60%; High: More than 60% as suggested by Johnson et than environment. So the selection can be operated very al. (1955). well based on the phenotypic values for trait interest. The From the heritability estimates, the genetic advance PCV was higher than the corresponding GCV for all the was estimated by the following formula given by Johnson traits which might be due to the interaction of the genotypes et al. (1955). with the environment to some degree or other denoting environmental factors influencing the expression of these GA = (K) () h2 (b) characters. Where, GA = Genetic advance under selection High Phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and (expected); = Phenotypic standard deviation; h2 = (b) genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was observed for Heritability (broad sense); K = Selection differential at 5% grain yield per plant followed by grains per ear and proline selection intensity (2.06) 7 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for 14 quantitative traits in 101 barley genotypes (Late sown condition) Source of Df Mean Sum of Squares variation DF DM FL ET SPAD SC PC SL SLW/O PH LR G/E GW GY Replication 2 5.79 4.44 1.02 0.89 4.23 126.82 87.30 7.68 0.14 15.84 0.04 8.8 0.76 1.28 Treatment 100 194.33* 91.50 20.73* 3.72 ** 48.27 6204.75* 234.63* 22.46 3.04** 378.03* 0.10 87.56 140.7 10.11 * ** * ** * * ** * ** ** ** Error 200 2.14 2.43 3.54 0.53 12.96 180.37 88.29 3.266 0.17 5.78 0.07 5.66 13.47 0.35

**Significant at p< 0.01. DF=Days to 50% flowering, FL=flag leaf length, ET=effective tillers/plant, SPAD, SC=stomatal conductivity, PC=proline concentration, SL=splike length with awn, SLW/O=spike length without awn, PH=plant height,G/E=grain per ear, GW=1000 grain yield, LR=Leaf rolling DM= days to maturity, GY =grain yield concentration (Table 2). Similar result obtained by wold et obtained for all the fourteen quantitative traits studied al. (2011). Jalal et al. (2011) while working with the 36 barley (Table 2). Broad sense heritability estimate was highest for genotype also reported that PCV is higher than GCV for days to 50% flowering, plant height, days to grain maturity, traits grain yield per plant, grains per ear and proline stomatal conductivity and SPAD value. These findings were concentration. This finding similar with Birhanu et al. (2016) in accordance with the finding of Akanksha et al. (2012). while working with 64 wheat genotype. However, heritability values alone may not provide Heritability (h2) and Genetic Advance (GA) clear predictability of the breeding value. Heritability in conjugation with genetic advance over mean is more Heritability is the heritable portion of phenotypic effective and reliable in predicting the effectiveness of variance. It is a good index of the transmission of characters selection. In the present experiment, all the characters from parents to off-spring. The estimates of heritability help studied had exhibited high heritability coupled with high the plant breeder in selection of elite genotypes from diverse genetic advance as percentage of mean. Estimates of high genetic populations. With the help of GCV alone, it is not heritability and high genetic advance together may be possible to determine the amount of variation that is ascribed to the conditioning of the characters by additive heritable. The GCV together with heritability estimates would effect of the polygenes which could be improved upon by give reliable indication of the expected progress in a adopting selection without progeny testing. selection programme (Raikwar et al, 2014). High heritability percentage coupled with high genetic variability particularly High heritability coupled with high genetic advance grain yield per plant under normal situation and emerged as was observed for days to 50% flowering, flag leaf length, an ideal traits for improvement through simple selection in effective tillers per plant, stomatal conductivity, spike length upcoming generations. with awn, spike length without awn, plant height, grains per ear and grain yield. These findings were in corroboration In the current study, high heritability estimates were

Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for 14 quantitative traits in 101 barley genotypes

Trait DF DM FL ET SPAD SC PC SL SLW/O PH G/E GW GY Range Min. 62.33 97 6.39 5.96 37.40 313.97 8.61 17.44 5.03 63.11 9.00 25.53 3.53 Max. 97.00 119.33 25.59 13.78 54.33 662.93 27.61 23.16 10.26 117.56 61.00 58.70 24.41 Grand Mean 78.25 113.30 14.75 9.59 45.82 485.35 14.71 20.13 7.35 93.53 39.02 40.24 12.93 SE (±) 0.83 1.03 0.49 0.61 1.84 12.57 0.91 0.83 0.31 1.72 1.80 1.63 0.55 PCV (%) 8.79 4.38 20.71 17.92 10.03 18.78 32.27 8.99 15.90 13.14 30.25 19.49 32.31 GCV (%) 8.60 4.09 19.88 14.12 7.23 18.24 30.43 5.41 14.15 12.75 29.18 18.17 31.45 h2 % (broad 96 87 92 62 52 94 89 36 79 94 93 87 95 sense) GA as % of 17.32 7.87 39.31 22.93 10.73 36.48 59.11 6.70 25.94 25.48 57.99 34.92 63.05 mean (5%) GA as % of 22.20 10.08 50.38 29.38 13.75 46.75 75.75 8.59 33.24 32.65 74.32 44.75 80.80 mean (1%)

DF=Days to 50% flowering, FL=flag leaf length, ET=effective tillers/plant, SPAD, SC=stomatal conductivity, PC=proline concentration, SL=splike length with awn, SLW/O=spike length without awn, PH=plant height/E=grain per ear, GW=1000 grain yielded= days to maturity, GY =grain yield VINESH et al., Genetic and Diversity Studies in Late Sown Exotic and Indigenous Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Germplasm 7 1

Table 3. Cluster pattern of 101 barley genotypes under late sown condition

Clusters Germplasm lines/Genotypes Number I CIHO-3510, IBRWAGP-04-66, CIHO-7603, CIHO-8355, 26th IBYT-11-1, CIHO-5924, NBPGR-07- 30 08,VIJAY,MARRIA, 11th EMBSN-54, AMBEER, HIMANI, 11th EMBSN-21, HUB-180, SONU, PL- 825, CIHO-5923, 29th IBON-6, WfBCB-88, 13th EMBSN-46, RD-2552, RATNA, RD-2715, HUB-113, BH-976, ISBCB-02-9, K-603, GEETANJALI, V-MORALES, 25th IBON-03-6. II 22nd IBYT-7, 22nd IBYT-9-2, 22nd IBYT-99-11, BCB-W-03-91, 12th EMBSN-2, BCB-73, CANUT, 40 IBSCGP-05-16, 24th IBON-1, 14th HBSN-05-6, 26th IBYT-16, 22nd IBYT-5-1, 22nd IBYT-04-86, 22nd IBYT-7-2, CIHO-6260, 14th HBSN-05-8, HANLEY,BEECHER, ATHOULPA,11th HBSN-175, ISBCB- 02-10, BCB-W-03-92, IBGP-03-65,25th IBYT-10-3, 22nd IBYT-99-14-1, 25th IBON-11, INBON-05-72, INBON-07-08-71, 11th EMBSN-37-1, 22nd IBYT-04-85, INBON-05-50, WfBCB-91, ISBCB-02-13, 22nd IBYT-01-2-2-4, 11th HBSN-127, HUB-113, 11th EMBSN-40, INBON-07-08-8, LAKHAN, MOROC-9- 75 III JYOTI 1 IV K-551, 1 V 13th EMBSN-71 1 VI JAGRATI 1 VII 11th EMBSN-26 1 VIII KARAN-16 1 IX 25th IBON-45-1 1 X 7th HMBSN-15-2, PL-751, 11th EMBSN-34,11th HBSN-1, INBON-05-79, YARDU, 11th EMBSN-22, 11th 23 EMBSN-20, 26th IBYT-49, 7th HMBSN-1-2-1-1, 26th IBON-54-1, HARMAL,11th HBSN-91, AZAD, 11th EMBSN-47-03, HORMAL, 12th HBSN-7, 25th IBON-39-1, ALFA-93, 25th IBON-03-11, 11th EMBSN- 23, 24th IBON-40-1, 25th IBON-45 XI IBGP-03-49 1

DF=Days to 50% flowering, FL=flag leaf length, ET=effective tillers/plant, SPAD, SC=stomatal conductivity, PC=proline concentration, SL=splike length with awn, SLW/O=spike length without awn, PH=plant height/E=grain per ear, GW=1000 grain yielded= days to maturity, GY =grain yield with earlier findings of Sunil et al. (2015) , Lodhi et al. (2015) percentage of mean was found for grain yield per plant and Kumar and Shekhawat (2013) . followed by grain per ear (Table 2). Moderate heritability coupled with moderate genetic Analysis of genetic diversity advance observed for SPAD value and proline The multivariate analysis using Mahalanobis D2 concentration and leaf rolling. This findings were in statistics is a valuable tool for obtaining quantitative consonance with earlier reports made Sunil et al. (2015). estimates of divergence between biological populations. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance as For an effective and informative breeding programme, Table 4. Average Inter & Intra D2 value among 11 Cluster Distances: Tocher Method

Cluster I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI I 28.850 67.424 111.666 58.178 49.737 108.325 43.792 129.006 37.064 72.517 121.783 II 44.312 75.636 72.253 136.670 87.713 87.140 93.363 71.586 119.848 87.639 III 0.000 50.342 188.928 9.290 71.960 12.527 127.595 115.974 128.684 IV 0.000 111.341 35.006 26.475 49.071 36.791 74.166 83.737 V 0.000 185.730 83.549 205.528 75.649 96.200 211.960 VI 0.000 55.403 12.768 112.090 103.491 128.826 VII 0.000 74.023 45.082 51.006 132.319 VIII 0.000 128.381 124.464 138.102 IX 0.000 83.716 87.337 X 70.643 174.497 XI 0.000

DF=Days to 50% flowering, FL=flag leaf length, ET=effective tillers/plant, SPAD, SC=stomatal conductivity, PC=proline concentration, SL=splike length with awn, SLW/O=spike length without awn, PH=plant height/E=grain per ear, GW=1000 grain yielded= days to maturity, GY =grain yield 7 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Table 5. Cluster Means for various characters: Tocher Method

Clusters DF DM FL ET SPAD SC PC SL SL W/o PH LR G/E GW GY I 70.222 101.100 11.513 6.604 48.136 191.773 38.161 18.654 7.172 79.015 1.754 18.978 37.902 5.548 II 77.533 103.308 12.135 6.106 49.252 138.512 40.495 18.211 7.097 66.179 1.824 14.533 32.822 3.729 III 67.000 95.667 6.390 5.890 46.700 124.500 27.647 16.200 6.337 45.337 1.603 7.333 31.967 2.273 IV 65.000 97.333 8.367 4.333 46.433 133.633 33.130 21.723 8.443 69.557 1.590 7.333 38.600 2.780 V 65.000 104.333 9.443 8.557 42.900 266.867 36.390 21.000 8.277 83.223 1.273 22.667 37.267 9.157 VI 63.000 94.667 7.690 6.333 52.800 110.933 30.833 16.000 6.943 50.443 1.990 6.333 38.500 2.130 VII 61.667 94.333 13.667 5.223 48.500 172.000 46.593 17.387 6.500 73.443 1.990 14.333 31.667 3.407 VIII 64.000 96.000 8.733 4.890 50.833 98.133 59.463 16.557 7.500 45.890 1.713 8.000 24.920 2.490 IX 70.000 103.333 9.543 5.557 49.500 145.320 41.427 20.913 8.610 86.443 1.713 18.333 31.033 3.257 X 62.667 95.609 11.373 6.715 46.874 169.298 39.532 17.930 6.646 72.873 1.763 18.768 37.334 5.189 XI 79.667 103.333 11.433 7.220 54.867 101.967 43.890 40.000 7.700 70.667 1.990 10.000 33.633 1.833

DF=Days to 50% flowering, FL=flag leaf length, ET=effective tillers/plant, SPAD, SC=stomatal conductivity, PC=proline concentration, SL=splike length with awn, SLW/O=spike length without awn, PH=plant height/E=grain per ear, GW=1000 grain yielded= days to maturity, GY =grain yield information concerning the extent and nature of genetic maximum mean value for proline concentration and leaf diversity within a crop species is essential to researchers. rolling; cluster VII had high mean value for flag leaf length Assessment of genetic diversity was made based on the and leaf rolling and cluster I had high mean value for 1000 data recorded for thirteen traits on hundred and one barley grain weight. The result indicates that selection of genotype using Tocher’s D2 analysis. Using this method a genotypes having high values for particular trait could be set of 101 barley genotypes were grouped into 11 clusters made and used in the hybridization programme for based on relative magnitude of the D2 value. Cluster I had improvement of that character. The trait days to 50% 30, cluster II 40 and cluster X 23 genotypes. Other clusters flowering followed by plant height and stomatal i.e. cluster III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX, XI and XII consists of one conductivity had highest relative contribution towards germplasm each (Table 3).Singh and Singh et al. (1980) divergence. stated that the genetic diversity may not be straightway LITERATURE CITED related to geographical diversity and the similar trend was observed in barley. Wolde, T., Firdisa, E., Sentayehu, A., Ermias, A.D. 2016. Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance for yield and yield Inter and Intra cluster D2 values related traits in Durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) accessions. The intra cluster distance was found maximum for Sky Journal of Agricultural Research,5(3): 042 - 047. cluster X and minimum distance in cluster I while it was Jalal A. Al-Tabbal 2012. Genetic Variation, Heritability, Phenotypic zero for cluster III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, XI as these cluster and Genotypic Correlation Studies for Yield and Yield Components in Promising Barley Genotypes. Journal of consisted of only single genotype (Table 4). The inter cluster Agricultural Science, 4 (3). distance was maximum between cluster V and XI clusters Birhanu M., Sentayehu, A., Alemayehu, A., Ermias, A. and Dargicho, followed by clusters V and VIII and cluster II and X. it D. 2016. Genetic Variability, Heritability and Genetic Advance signifying highest genetic divergence existing between the for Yield and Yield Related Traits in Bread Wheat (Triticum genotypes of these clusters. The minimum inter cluster aestivum L.) Genotypes. Global Journal of Science Frontier distance was recorded between cluster XI clusters followed Research, 16 (7). by clusters V indicating close relationship and similarity Raikwar, R. S., Upadhyay, A. K., and Tyagi, P. K. 2014. Heritability for most of the characters of barley genotypes come in and genetic variability for yield components under two regimes these cluster. of soil in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The bioscan, 9 (4): 1613-1617. Cluster means of various characters studied Akanska, S., A., Kumar, S., Kant, Sukram Pal, K., Kumar, A., Singh, The cluster mean values for different characters M. 2012. Genetic improvement through variability, heritability indicated differences between the clusters for all the traits and genetic advance in barley crop (Hordeum vulgare L.). studied (Table 5). The highest mean value for days to Environment and Ecology, 30 (4): 1343-1345. maturity, effective tillers per plant, stomatal conductivity, Sunil, K.Y., Ashok, K.S., Praveen Pandey. and Smita Singh. 2015. grain per ear, yield per plant in cluster V. Cluster XI had high Genetic Variability and Direct Selection Criterion for Seed Yield mean value for days to 50% flowering, SPAD value, spike in Segregating Generations of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). length with awn; highest mean values for spike length American Journal of Plant Sciences, 6: 1543-1549. without awn, plant height and leaf rolling. Cluster VIII had Lodhi1, R., Prasad, L. C., Madakemohekar, A.H., Bornare S., Prasad, VINESH et al., Genetic and Diversity Studies in Late Sown Exotic and Indigenous Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Germplasm 7 3

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Received on 05-06-2017 Accepted on 15-06-2017 Advances7 4 in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849,Advances 74-78, in Life 2017 Sciences 6(1), 2017

Response of Aquacrop Model to Different Irrigation Levels and Emitter Discharge Rates for Tomato

PRASANNA GUDA1, G. MANOJ KUMAR1, M. SRINIVASULU1 AND S.D. HUSSIAN2

1Department of Agricultural Engineering, CAE, Kandi, PJTSAU 2Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, PJTSAU email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT designed in order to make it applicable across diverse locations, climate and seasons. AquaCrop is user-friendly The AquaCrop was used to simulate the yield and water and maintains a balance between simplicity, accuracy, and productivity of tomato using the data collected from the robustness (Raes et al. 2009). experiment carried out during rabi 2016-2017 at College farm, College of Agriculture, Professor Jayashankar The model focuses most on plant water availability as the limiting factor of crop growth, especially in arid and Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU), semiarid regions where water stress varies in intensity, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The experiment was laid out duration, and time of occurrence. in split plot design consists of two irrigation levels (0.8 ETc and 1.0 ETc) as main treatments and four dripper Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), native of Peru- Ecuador-Bolivian area of South-America. It is most widely discharge rates as sub plot treatments with three grown vegetable crop in the world as well as in India. It is replications. The AquaCrop model was simulated for yield one of the most popular and widely grown vegetable in the and water productivity with coefficient of determination world ranking second in importance. Tomato is herbaceous (R2) of 0.90 with an RMSE of 0.13 and 0.08 respectively sprawling plant growing to 1-3 m in height with weak woody with an overall model efficiency of 95 %. The marketable stem. The flowers are yellow in colour and the fruits of yield simulated by AquaCrop model ranged from 20.569 t cultivated varieties vary in size from cherry tomatoes, about -1 -1 ha to 14.884 t ha under 0.8 ETc with 1.6 lph and 1.0 ETc 1-2 cm diameter in size to beefsteak tomatoes, about 10 cm with 4.0 lph respectively. The lowest prediction error for or more in diameter. As it is a relatively short duration crop yield was observed in 0.8 ETc with 4 lph treatment of 0.3% and gives a high yield, it is economically attractive and the followed by 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph treatment of 0.5%. area under cultivation is increasing day by day. The objective is to analyse the performance of Key words Response, Aquacrop Model, Irrigation AquaCrop under different irrigation levels and emitter Levels, Emitter Discharge Rates, Tomato discharge rate affecting the plant water status during the crop and the final productivity. Simulation models are used basically as tools for MATERIALS AND METHODS research to analyse and organize knowledge gained in field experimentation. However, there is an urgent need to make Experimental site use of models also as tools for decision-making and The field experiment was carried out during rabi technology-transfer. The complex relationship between the season 2016-2017 at the college farm, College of Agriculture, soil-plant-atmosphere systems makes it difficult for one to PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The field is know how much water is needed for growing crops. geographically located in the Southern part of Telangana However, simulation models can be of great help in making State at 17°50' N latitude and 80°00' E longitude at an altitude us understand the interrelationship of factors in this system. of 542.6 m above Mean Sea Level. Models mimic the processes in the real system and predict variables at every stage in the simulation. In recent years, Land preparation simulation models have been widely used to explore Twenty eight days well grown seedlings were solutions to water management problems. transplanted manually, in paired row planting on either side AquaCrop is a crop water productivity simulation of the lateral pipe in all the treatments. Single seedling was model developed by the Food and Agricultural Organization planted as per the treatment combinations. The crop (FAO) of the United Nations. It is exclusively based on the geometry of 40 cm x 40 cm was adopted with lateral spacing water-driven growth module, in which transpiration is of 1.2 m apart. Well decomposed FYM @ 25 t ha-1 was converted into biomass through water productivity applied in each plots and mixed thoroughly. Fertilizers such parameter. The FAO AquaCrop is a physically-based water- as nitrogen 125 kg ha 1, phosphorus 60 kg ha-1 and potassium -1 driven model that has evolved from the concepts of yield 60 kg ha were applied in the tomato field. The entire P2O5 response to water to the concept of normalized water in the form of single super phosphate and K2O in the form productivity (Steduto et al. 2009). The model has been of murite of potash were applied as basal dose at the time GUDA et al., Response of Aquacrop Model to Different Irrigation Levels and Emitter Discharge Rates for Tomato 7 5

Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of soil in experimental field Texture Moisture content (%) Electrical Soil Bulk Field Permanent conductivity depth Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Satura- density pH -1 capacity (- wilting point [ dS m ] (cm) tion (g cm-3) 0.15 bar) (-15 bar) 22.04 56.00 21.96 44 19.25 10.9 1.43 0.182 0-30 7.76

of sowing whereas nitrogen was applied as basal in three Meteorological data uniform splits at 30, 55 and 70 days after transplanting Meteorological data i.e. rainfall (mm), minimum and (DAT). maximum temperature (°C) and relative humidity (%), wind Soil data speed (kmph) and average sunshine hours (h) in daily and To characterize the soil at the experimental plot soil weekly basis was taken from the Agro-Meteorological profile study was conducted in random from 0 to 30 cm soil Division, Agricultural Research Institute, Rajendranagar. depth and was analyzed for their physico-chemical Performance assessment of AquaCrop model properties and presented in Table 1. The data revealed that Aquacrop model requires minimum input data and the soil was sandy clay loam in texture, moderately alkaline the inputs are stored in climate, crop, soil and management in reaction, non-saline, low in organic carbon content and files and can be easily changed through the user interface. bulk density was ideal. Simulation performance was evaluated by calculating Experimental design and treatments statistical co-efficient of determination (R2), prediction error The experiment was laid out in split-plot design with (Pe), model efficiency (E), root mean square error (RMSE) two main treatments (Irrigation levels) and four sub- and mean absolute error (MAE). The computed values of treatments (Discharge rates) and three replications as RMSE determined the degree of agreement between the follows. simulated values with their respective observed values, and a low RMSE value that approaches one was desirable. The Main treatments (Irrigation levels) co-efficient of determination (R2), prediction error (Pe), model efficiency (E), root mean square Error (RMSE) and I1 - 0.8 ETC mean absolute error (MAE) were calculated by the following I2 - 1.0 ETC equations. Sub-treatments (Discharge rates) D - 1.6 lph 1 2 R (∑( −O) (S −S) D - 2.2 lph i 2 = ∑(−O) ∑(−S) D3- 3.0 lph D - 4.0 lph (Si– Oi) 4 Pe = X 100 Irrigation Oi The regular common irrigation practice was followed i=N 2 till 10 days after transplanting for proper establishment and E ∑i=1 (Oi −Si) = 1 - i=N 2 the quantity of irrigation water applied to the crop was ∑i=1 (Oi−O) determined by Pan Evaporation method and the irrigation schedules were adopted as per the treatment details. RMSE 1 Crop data = ∑n (O − S )2 n i=1 i i AquaCrop model require the crop-specific parameters such as plant density, biomass, yield, effective rooting MAE (S– Oi) depth, harvest index (HI), crop growth stages and green = ∑ =1 N canopy cover (CC), while user-specific parameters required are crop cultivar, timing of crop cycle, water management, and agronomic practices. where, N, O , Si, Ô and S are no. of observations, The required data such as was obtained from a field i experiment conducted in the college farm, College of observed value, simulated value, observed mean and Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during simulated mean respectively. rabi 2016-2017. 7 6 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig.1. Observed and simulated tomato yield under different irrigation regimes with AquaCrop model

The model is said to perform better when values of E presented in Table 4. The results of simulated yield and and R2 approaches one and when Pe and RMSE approaches water productivity are discussed in succeeding paragraphs. zero. Yield (t ha-1) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results of simulated and observed field values The AquaCrop model was used to simulate tomato for yield with their prediction errors were presented in Table marketable yield compared to those of observed in field 2 and depicted in Fig.2.The marketable yield simulated by experiment using data collected during rabi 2016-17 with a AquaCrop model varies from 20.809 t ha-1 to 14.804 t ha-1 view to assess the performance of the model under drip under 0.8 ETc with 1.6 lph and 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph irrigation levels. The model predicted and observed respectively. The prediction error observed was highest in experimental data difference were minimized by trial and 0.8 ETc with 3.0 lph of 7.7 % followed by 1.0 ETc with 3.0 lph error approach in which one specific input variable was of 5.4 %. The lowest prediction error was observed in 1.0 chosen as reference variable at a time and adjusted only ETc with 1.6 lph and 4.0 lph treatment of 0.5 %. The those parameters that were known to influence the reference correlation coefficient (R2 =0.90) between observed and variable the most. The procedure was repeated to arrive at simulated yield by AquaCrop was significant. The RMSE the closest match combination. The crop parameters and and MAE for yield was found to be 0.13 and 0.44 respectively their coefficient obtained during model evaluation were with an overall model efficiency of 95 %. So the model

Fig.2. Observed and simulated water productivity of tomato under different irrigation levels with AquaCrop model GUDA et al., Response of Aquacrop Model to Different Irrigation Levels and Emitter Discharge Rates for Tomato 7 7

Table 2. Observed and predicted marketable yield and water productivity under AquaCrop model evaluation Yield ( t ha-1) WP ( Kg m-3) TREATMENTS Obs Sim Pe (±%) Obs Sim Pe ( ±%) 0.8 ETc , 1.6 lph 20.809 20.569 1.2 9.75 8.26 15.3 0.8 ETc , 2.2 lph 18.959 18.359 3.2 8.88 7.58 14.6 0.8 ETc , 3.0 lph 17.039 18.349 7.7 7.98 6.17 22.7 0.8 ETc , 4.0 lph 15.769 15.729 0.3 7.39 6.44 12.8 1.0 ETc , 1.6 lph 20.154 20.054 0.5 8.23 7.33 10.9 1.0 ETc , 2.2 lph 18.104 17.974 0.7 7.39 6.63 10.3 1.0 ETc , 3.0 lph 16.534 15.634 5.4 6.75 5.95 11.8 1.0 ETc , 4.0 lph 14.804 14.884 0.5 6.04 5.82 3.7

Obs: Observed; Sim: Simulated; Pe: prediction error

Table 3. Performance statistics of AquaCrop model under different irrigation levels during calibration

Mean Model output parameters RMSE E MAE R2 Observed Simulated Yield (t ha-1 ) 17.71 17.694 0.13 0.95 0.44 0.90 Water Productivity (kg m-3) 7.80 6.77 0.08 0.86 0.63 0.86 prediction was good with similar results given by Raphael Water Productivity et al. (2016) for tomato. The result showed that the The results of prediction error between observed and marketable yield simulated by AquaCrop tend to follow simulated water productivity by AquaCrop model were closely the trend in the observed data, but with slight under presented in Table 2 and depicted in Fig.2. The results of and over estimations with acceptable range of prediction simulated water productivity by AquaCrop were in error. agreement with observed data with a higher error values as In treatment at 0.8 ETc with 3.0 lph discharge rate the compared to yield. The observed water productivity values model over estimated the yield where as in all other varied from 9.75 kg m-3 to 7.35 kg m-3 in 0.8 ETc with 1.6 lph treatments the model under estimated than the observed to 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph respectively. The simulated water yield The results obtained are in line with Raphael et al. productivity varied from 8.26 kg m-3 to 5.82 kg m-3 in 0.8 ETc (2016) for tomato under deficit irrigation. with 1.6 lph and 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph respectively, with The model evaluation revealed that the crop prediction error ranging from 15.3 % to 3.7 % in 0.8 ETc with coefficients such as, canopy growth coefficient, canopy 1.6 lph and 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph respectively. decline coefficients and stomatal stress coefficient would Similar results were obtained by Raphael et al. (2016) influence yield and water productivity compared to other for tomato in deficit irrigation and Wellens et al. (2013) in parameters. semi-arid regions. Table 4. Crop parameters and their coefficient found during model evaluation

Parameters Values Units Base temperature 10 0C Cut off temperature 30 0C Canopy growth coefficient (CGC) 11.9 % Canopy decline coefficient at senescence (CDC) 10.1 %

Maximum basal crop coefficient (Kcb) 1.40 Unit less Time from transplanting to recovery 10 Days Time from sowing to start of sencence 87 Days Time from sowing to maturity 108 Days Length of flowering stage 33 Days

7 8 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

CONCLUSIONS Managements. Water Resource Management 29:2837– 2853. The water-driven AquaCrop model adequately Battilani, A., Letterio, T and Chiari, G. 2015. AquaCrop model simulated the tomato yield and water productivity with calibration and validation for processing tomato crop in a sub- humid climate. Acta Hort.1081. ISHS. coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.90 with an RMSE of 0.13 and 0.08 respectively with an overall model efficiency Raes, D., Steduto, P., Hsiao, T. C and Fereres, E. 2009. AquaCrop- the FAO model to simulate yield response to water II. of 95 %. The marketable yield simulated by AquaCrop model Main algorithms and soft ware description. Agron. J. 101: 438- ranged from 20.569 t ha-1 to 14.884 t ha-1 under 0.8 ETc with 447. 1.6 lph and 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph respectively. The lowest Raphael, L., Ioslovicha, I., Georgios, S., Plauborgc, F and Battilanid, prediction error was for yield was observed in 0.8 ETc with A.2016. Optimal model-based deficit irrigation scheduling using 4.0 lph treatment of 0.3% followed by 1.0 ETc with 4.0 lph Aquacrop simulation study with cotton, potato and tomato. treatment of 0.5%. AquaCrop model is feasible in stimulating Agricultural Water Management.163:236–243. yield of tomato with a model efficiency of 95%. By using Steduto, P., T.C. Hsiao, D. Raes, and Fereres. 2009. AquaCrop-The the AquaCrop model in particular, it is easy to evaluate FAO crop model to simulate yield response to water: I Concepts water management techniques and therefore, give better and underlying principles. Agronomy Journal. 101 (3): 426- recommendations for efficient water use. 437. LITERATURE CITED Wellens, J., Raes, D., Traore, F., Denis, A., Djaby, B and Tychon, B. 2013. Performance assessment of the FAO Ahmadi, S.H., Mosallaeepour, E., Kamgar-Haghighi, A.A and AquaCrop model for irrigated cabbage on farmer plots in a semi- Sepaskhah, A.R. 2015. Modelling Maize Yield and Soil Water arid environment. Agricultural Water Management. 127: Content with AquaCrop under Full and Deficit Irrigation 40-47.

Received on 08-06-2017 Accepted on 26-06-2017 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), Print : ISSN 2278-3849, 79-82, 2017

Performance Evaluation of Low Cost Automated Drip Irrigation System on Sweet Corn B. NAVEENA1, M. VINEELA2, CH.V. VEENA3, G.A.V.LAKSHMI4, G. RAVI BABU5 College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT frequent than with other methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants Drip irrigation, one of the micro irrigation methods, is can flourish. There are lots of benefits of automation in the process which involves dripping water into the soil at drip irrigation- the real time useful controlling system for very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small monitoring and controlling all activities of drip irrigation diameter plastic pipes fitted with emitters or drippers. A more efficiently. Drip irrigation by automation helps the few low cost automation systems were developed and farmers to apply the right amount of water at right time, evaluated their performance with drip irrigation on regardless of availability of labour. This reduces the wastage different crops. It was observed that 332 mm of water of water and improves the crop performance and help saving applied in drip instead of 520 mm in flood method for sweet time in all aspects. Greater water amounts were applied, corn and 64 % water saved in drip method. With less frequently with flood irrigation events compared to comparison of different irrigation systems, the height of the subsurface drip field (Hunsaker and Elshikha, 2014, the plant is more in single row and also the number of 2016). kernel rows per cob in single row drip method is more Since the availability of automation systems in the followed by flood irrigation and then paired row drip method. drip irrigation method is very costly, the farmers are reluctant to use the drip system with automation in the developing Key words Automation system, Drip irrigation, Micro countries like India. Keeping this in view, the studies on irrigation, Flood irrigation developing the low cost automation systems for operating the drip irrigation method are attending in the field Irrigation Water is life because plants and animals cannot live Laboratory of College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla. without water. Water is needed to ensure food security, A few low cost automation systems were developed and feed live stock, maintain organic life, and take up industrial evaluated their performance with drip irrigation on different production and to conserve the bio-diversity and crops (Apparao, 2014). In continuation, developed low cost environment. Hence, there is no life without water. Although automation was modified for getting better performance. India is not a water poor country, due to growing human The aim of present work was to develop the low cost population severe neglect and over exploitation of this automation systems for operating the drip irrigation method. resource, water is becoming a scarce commodity. METHODS AND MATERIALS Major consumption of water is for agriculture, Experimental Setup industrial production and domestic purposes, apart from being used for fishery, hydro power generation, The experiment was conducted in the field irrigation transportation and maintaining bio-diversity and ecological laboratory, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, balance. The proportion of water is used for agriculture College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla. and an industry varies from country to country depending Geographically the experimental site for sweet corn crop is on the lifestyle. While the per capita water use in India will located between 150 54.8331 N and 150 54.840l N latitude increase from the current level of 99 litres per day to 167 and between 800 29.394l E and 80029.397l E longitude with an litres per day in 2050 then India will be the highest water altitude of 6 m above mean sea level. The experimental site demanding country, needing 2413 billion litres per day (Boaz lies in humid sub tropical area. The summers are dry and 2015). hot, where as winter is cool. The experimental site consists Agriculture marks the beginning of ‘civilized’ or of sandy soil with well drained conditions. ‘sedentary’ society. India had a stagnant performance of Preparation of the field for the experiment Agriculture in during the colonial period which turned into The field was prepared by cultivator and rotavator a sustained growth then with a stronger performance in for loosening the soil and for removal of weeds prior to India especially in terms of per capita food production the sowing the sweet corn seeds. After one week of applying Indian Agricultural Industry grew. about 100 kg of farm yard manure throughout the field Micro irrigation technology is now widely accepted having an area of 1330 m2 for sweet corn plot, once again by most of the farmers in the world. In this system water is the plot was tilled with rotavator to mix the dried farm yard applied close to the root of the plants which provides right manure thoroughly in the soil. amount of water required for the growth of the plant and Water source avoids excessive wastage of water, unlike surface and flood irrigation, which wets the whole soil profile and sometime An existing open well near the experimental site was causes soil erosion and soil nutrient loss. utilized for the water supply. The quality of water was With drip irrigation water applications are more assessed to know the suitability of water for irrigation and 8 0 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017 found that EC and pH of water is 4 dS/m and 7.2 respectively. purpose of removal of entrapped air when filling pipe Irrigation accessories lines with water and remove air pockets at high points in the system.  Main pipe: A PVC pipe of 63 mm diameter (Class 2, 4 kgf/cm2) was used to convey water from source to RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the experimental site through sub mains. Crop water requirement and crop growth  Sub main: - A PVC pipe of 50 mm diameter (Class 3, 6 characteristics kgf/cm2) was used as sub main pipe to convey water Actual water applied in different irrigation systems from main lines to laterals. It was found that water applied for sweet corn crop in  Lateral pipe: A LLDPE pipe was used to supply water directly to the plant root zone from sub main pipes. alternative days in both methods of drip system at the initial The laterals are of inline type with the following stage and daily from the development stage to one week specifications. before harvesting. The amount of water applied measured regularly with the help of time-discharge relation and total Pump water applied in different irrigation systems was presented A centrifugal mono block pump of 1 hp capacity is in Table 1. It was observed that 332 mm of water applied in used for pumping water. drip instead of 520 mm in flood method for sweet corn and 64 % water saved in drip method. Screen filter The screen filter normally consists of stainless steel Table 1. Actual water applied for sweet corn screen of 120 mesh (0.13mm) size, which is enclosed in a crop in different irrigation systems mild steel body. Filtration is achieved by the movement of water through the stainless steel mesh. S.No Irrigation Water Water Total % of Treatment applied applied water water Sand filter during during applied saving Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sowing crop (mm) sand, of selected sizes (usually 1.5 – 4 mm in diameter) free (mm) growth (mm) of calcium carbonate placed in a cylindrical tank. These filters are effective in removing light suspended materials, 1 Flood 50 470 520 - such as algae and other organic materials, fine sand and silt 2 Single row 50 282 332 64 particles. This type of filtration is essential for primary drip filtration of irrigation water from open water reservoirs, canals 3 Paired row 50 282 332 64 or reservoirs in which algae may develop. drip

Other accessories on the main line Plant height of sweet corn crop in different irrigation  Ball valve: It was located at the upstream end of main line, to provide on- off service to the downstream treatments sub main pipe. The height of sweet corn plant is measured by using 2  Flush-out: It was connected at the end of main and scale from the selected 1m for an interval of 14 days in all sub main pipes for flushing out sediment and debris three treatments and average value from each plot is taken. from them. The height of the plant in relation to the irrigation method is indicated in Fig 1.  End caps: These were kept at the end of all lateral lines which were connected to stop the flow of water It was observed that the plant height of sweet corn further. was varies in different treatments of irrigation. The plant height of single row drip system is 2.514 m gives good  Plugs: These were kept to holes made to laterals by result than paired row 2.046 m and flood 2.222 m. The height squirrels, rats etc for controlling wastage of water. of the plant is more in single row because of efficient  Start connector: These were used to connect the application of water to the plant at correct time based on lateral to the sub main. soil moisture sensor.  Jointer: These were used to connect the two lateral Cob characteristics pipes when the lateral pipe was end in the middle of the crop row. Number of kernel rows per cob  Rubber grommet: These were placed in holes made It was observed that the cob characteristics for sweet to the sub main for connecting lateral lines. corn was vary in different treatments of irrigation. The  Pressure regulator: For regulating pressure when number of kernel rows per cob in single row drip method the water passing through the irrigation system. shows 16.8 followed by flood irrigation and then paired row drip method. The graphical representation between no.  Pressure gauge: For measuring pressure in the system, a pressure gauge is used. of kernel rows per cob and different irrigation treatments is shown in Fig. 2.  Air release valve: Air release valve is fitted for the NAVEENA et al., Performance Evaluation of Low Cost Automated Drip Irrigation System on Sweet Corn 8 1

Fig 1. Relationship between plant height and irrigation treatment

Fig. 2. Relationship between no. of kernel rows per cob and Irrigation treatment

Fig 3. Relationship between cob length and irrigation treatment 8 2 Advances in Life Sciences 6(1), 2017

Fig. 4. Relationship between cob diameter and Irrigation treatment

Cob length to be best in soil moisture sensor based irrigation with single The cob length for sweet corn was varying in different row spacing. treatment of irrigation. The cob length is more in single row LITERATURE CITED drip method compared to flood irrigation and paired row drip method. The relation between cob length and irrigation Apparao,Ch. 2014. Field evaluation of automated drip irrigation treatment was shown in Fig. 3. system. An unpublished M.Tech. thesis submitted to Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University. Cob diameter Boaz, A. 2015. Water scarcity a threat for Agriculture. Journal of The cob diameter for sweet corn was varying in Agriculture and Rural Development .42(5): 42-44. different treatment of irrigation. The cob diameter is more in Hunsaker, Douglas, Mohamed Elshikha, Diaa Eldin, 2014. Yield and single row drip method compared to flood irrigation and water use of guayule grown in Arizona Society of Agricultural paired row drip method. and Biological Engineers, ASABE and CSBE/SCGAB Annual International Meeting, Montreal, Quebec Canada: American CONCLUSION Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. The sensor with washed sand as porous medium was Hunsaker, Douglas, Mohamed Elshikha, Diaa Eldin, 2014. Guayule found to be the most efficient one and a low cost, biomass and rubber yield under variable water inputs using surface commercially available button type thermistor was used as irrigation. In: American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, ASABE and CSBE/SCGAB Annual International the leaf and air temperature sensors for the study area. The Meeting, Orlando, Florida, USA: American Society of Agricultural amount of water applied per day, leaf-air temperature and and Biological Engineers. soil moisture content were monitored (Noble et al., 2000). Noble, A., Hema, P.S., Saritha, E.K. and Subramannian, S. 2000. The Plant height and the number of kernel rows per cob Irrigation automation based on soil electrical conductivity and was observed to be more in single row as compared to leaf temperature.Agricultural Water Management. 45: 145-157. other treatments. Overall, the yield response was observed

Received on 08-06-2017 Accepted on 20-06-2017 AUTHOR INDEX

AUTHOR INDEX

Alam, M.A. 47 Ratnakar, V. 43

Babu, G. Ravi 79 Saxena, S.P. 21

Bagade, S.V. 31 Shaikh, A.A. 31

Godhani, P. H. 24 Sharma, V.G. 21 Guda, Prasanna 74 Singh, Bijendra Kumar 1, 9 Hussian, S.D. 74 Singh, O P 17 Immanuel, Genitha 56 Singh, S N 17 Jithender, B. 62 Singh, V. 47 Kaleeswari, R.K. 4 Sridevi, D. 43 Kanagaraj, N. 4 Srinivasulu, M. 74 Kulkarni, K.V. 31 Sthool, V.A. 31 Kumar, G. Manoj 74 Sunil, N. 40 Lakshmi, G.A.V. 79 Thatikunta, Ramesh 40 Lallu 17 Thorat, S.S. 21 Lavanya, K. 62 Tilak, M. 4 Naveen, A. 47 Tripathi, D K 17 Naveena, B. 56, 79

Padma, V. 40 Varenya, M. Karthik 62

Patel, J.D. 21 Veena, Ch.V. 79

Patel, N. M. 24 Verma, P N 17

Prasad, L.C. 68 Verma, Utpal Singh 17

Prasad, Ravindra 68 Vidyasagar, B. 43

Raghuwanshi, K.S. 14, 37 Vineela, M. 79

Rajput, S.D. 14, 37 Vinesh, Banoth 68

Rambabu, B. 40 Wesley, C.J. 47

Rao, S.R. Koteswara 43 Yadav, Kulveer Singh 1, 9 Instruction to the Authors www.advancesinlifesciencesjournal.com

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Individual Institutional Single article Version INDIAN FOREIGN INDIAN FOREIGN INDIAN FOREIGN in Rs./issue in US$/issue in Rs. in US$ in Rs. in US$ Print 1000 50 2000 200 50 50 **Online/Number 800* 50 2000 200 50 50

I herewith enclosed the DD/Cheque No...... Dated : ...... for an amount of Rs...... Drawn on : ...... Bank. Terms and Conditions: 1. Online subscription includes online access 2. Print subscription is volume based where as online subscription is Calendar year based 3. Online subscription includes current subscription + Back Files (for last two years) 4. Please add Rs. 50 for non-Delhi cheque and non-Kanpur cheque Rs. 50

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