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SALMONID HABITAT LOSS and HATCHERY DEPENDENCE: a CASE STUDY of CHAMBERS CREEK, WASHINGTON by Julian James Close a Thesis Submit

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SALMONID HABITAT LOSS and HATCHERY DEPENDENCE: a CASE STUDY of CHAMBERS CREEK, WASHINGTON by Julian James Close a Thesis Submit SALMONID HABITAT LOSS AND HATCHERY DEPENDENCE: A CASE STUDY OF CHAMBERS CREEK, WASHINGTON by Julian James Close A Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Environmental Studies The Evergreen State College June 2015 ©2015 by Julian James Close. All rights reserved. This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree by Julian James Close has been approved for The Evergreen State College by ________________________ Kathleen Saul, B.A., B.S., M.A., M.E.S. Member of the Faculty ________________________ Date ABSTRACT Salmonid Habitat Loss and Hatchery Dependence: A Case Study of Chambers Creek, Washington Julian James Close Wild Pacific Salmonid (Oncorhynchus spp.) populations are declining, and we have the responsibility to restore and protect remaining stocks. Scientific research has shown habitat loss, over-harvest, hydropower, and hatcheries to be the leading sources of salmonid decline. The research question of this document focuses on the issue of habitat loss and hatchery dependence on a small creek in University Place, WA. Salmonid ecology was explored to better understand fundamental life requirements and key habitat features that salmonids require. Cultural, biological, and physical descriptions of Chambers Creek provided background information on the research area. Habitat loss was approached from a historical perspective analyzing policy that has contributed to anthropogenic changes in watersheds across the western United States. Management strategies of mitigation, focusing on fish passage at dam sites and salmon hatcheries, along with restoration, focusing on reestablishing ecosystem services were examined for their impacts on fish and potential implementation on Chambers Creek. Interviews with local tribal members, biologists, and elected officials rounded out the research. Archival information as well as qualitative data from interviews elucidated the history of salmonids on Chambers Creek, a legacy of industrial resource extraction, and critical habitat areas that require restoration. Table of Contents Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. x Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Methodology ..................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 3: Salmon Ecology ................................................................................................ 7 Key Life History Factors ................................................................................................. 8 Generalized Life History ................................................................................................. 9 Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) ............................................................ 13 Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchu kisutch) ........................................................................... 14 Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchu nerka)......................................................................... 14 Pink Salmon (Oncorhynchu gorbuscha) ....................................................................... 14 Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchu keta) ............................................................................... 15 Steelhead Trout (Oncorhynchu mykiss) ........................................................................ 16 Chapter 4: Chambers Creek .............................................................................................. 17 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 17 Physical Description ...................................................................................................... 19 Biological Description................................................................................................... 24 Cultural Description ...................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 5: Habitat Loss .................................................................................................... 29 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 29 Salmonid Habitat ........................................................................................................... 29 Natural Salmonid Habitat Disturbance ......................................................................... 30 Habitat Loss................................................................................................................... 31 Salmonid Habitat Loss in Washington State ................................................................. 32 Salmonid Habitat Loss in Chambers Creek .................................................................. 35 Key Habitat Features ..................................................................................................... 36 v Loss of Access to Spawning and Rearing Habitat ..................................................... 36 Floodplain Conditions ............................................................................................... 37 Channel and Substrate Conditions ............................................................................. 37 Riparian Conditions ................................................................................................... 37 Estuarine and Near Shore Habitat ............................................................................. 38 Chambers Creek Analysis ............................................................................................. 39 Fish Access and Estuary ............................................................................................ 39 Floodplain Modification ............................................................................................ 39 Riparian Condition .................................................................................................... 40 Water Quality ............................................................................................................ 40 In Stream Flows ......................................................................................................... 40 Lakes .......................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 6: Mitigation ........................................................................................................ 42 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 42 Fishway Technology ..................................................................................................... 43 Upstream .................................................................................................................... 43 Downstream ............................................................................................................... 46 Salmon Hatcheries......................................................................................................... 48 Hatchery Management Practices ................................................................................... 49 Case Studies & Experiments ......................................................................................... 50 Domestication ............................................................................................................ 50 Ecological Risks ........................................................................................................ 52 Decreased Fitness ...................................................................................................... 54 Straying ...................................................................................................................... 55 Genetic Introgression ................................................................................................. 57 Wild Fish Conservancy vs. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife .............. 57 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 7: Restoration ...................................................................................................... 61 Restoring Connectivity .................................................................................................. 61 Re-Establishing Stream Flow Regimes ......................................................................... 62 Managing Erosion ......................................................................................................... 63 vi Promoting Riparian Functions ...................................................................................... 64 In-Stream Modifications ............................................................................................... 65 Chapter 8: Key Informant
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