antarctic [I OFTHE IIUNITED D1rLr1ii U STATES
December 1981 National Science Foundation Volume XVI—Number4
Palmer Station. This island, 70 kilometers long, is the largest and southernmost of the Palmer Archipelago, an island group ex- tending 250 kilometers along the peninsula. Nathaniel Palmer never saw this archipel- tgo. The first probable landing on Anvers Island was by Captain John Biscoeof Eng- land in February 1832. Biscoe, thinking Anvers Island was part of the mainland, took possession in the name of King Wil- liam IV, and called it Graham Land. Not until 1898 did Lt. Adrien de Gerlache of Belgium in his ship Belgica discover that Anvers Island was indeed an island. Other early explorers who saw Anvers Island were Nordenskjold of Sweden during a 1901-1903 expedition and Charcot of France in 1904 and again in 1908-1910. The British research ships Discovery and William Scoresby did physical and biolog- ical oceanography nearby in the late 1920s. From 1934 to 1937 the British Graham Land Expedition had a base on Wiencke Island, 30 kilometers east of where Palmer Station was to be set up 30 years later; scientific research included geology, gla- NSF photo by Wiliam Curtsinger. ciology, biology, and tidal observations. Palmer Station, as it looked in its early years, lies at the tip of Gamage Point. A/V Hero is docked, while a Coast Guard icebreaker is in Arthur Harbor. The first occupation of Anvers Island began during the 1954-1955 summer, when Britain established Base N and operated it through the 1957-1958 International Geo- physical Year (IGY). Base N occupied a Palmer: an Antarctic Peninsula rocky point at the northwestern corner of Arthur Harbor, near where Palmer Station research station later would be placed. During the ICY Argentina, Britain, and Chile operated approximately 17 stations On 16 and 17 November 1820 a 21- ther voyages of discovery in the Antarctic up and down the coasts of the Antarctic year-old Connecticut sealing captain named Peninsula area. One hundred and forty- Peninsula and on adjacent islands, giving Nathaniel B. Palmer sailed his 14-meter- five years after Nathaniel Palmer made his the area more centers of population than long sloop, the Hero, southward from the sighting, the United States established a any other part of Antarctica. South Shetland Islands. His objective was year-round station next to the Antarctic new sealing grounds, but he found new Peninsula and named it Palmer. U.S. land—the Antarctic Peninsula. Palmer may explorations before the IGY have been the first person to see Antarcti- Early non-U.S. explorations After voyages to the southern ocean by ca, but English, Russian, Australian and Nathaniel Palmer and other sealers, an ex- other American ships were in the area at Halfway between the tip and the base of pedition using the schooner Penguin and about the same time. Reports of these early the peninsula, off its western coast, lies the brig Annawan combined U.S. sealing sealing voyages showed the way for fur- Anvers Island, the site of the modern-day and exploration and reached King George
and Deception Islands in February 1830. but several exploratory flights were made During the 1946-1947 antarctic summer James Eights of Albany, New York, trained from Deception Island over the Antarctic the Navy s Operation Highjump, an ex- as a physician and later a geologist, ac- Peninsula in December 1928. On 19 De- tensive exploration of Antarctica that de- companied this expedition as scientist and cember 1929, an exploratory flight was ployed 13 ships and 4,700 men, included wrote remarkably perceptive reports. In made from the southern end of Neumeyer operations by three ships with airplanes in March 1539 two ships of the United States Channel, which separates Anvers and the Antarctic Peninsula area. Charcot and Exploring Expedition, led by Lt. Charles Wiencke Islands. Alexander Islands were photographed from Wilkes, made oceanographic and biologi- the air, and the ships passed Anvers Island cal investigations near the tip of the Ant- Between 21 November and 5 December and through Bransfield Strait on their way arctic Peninsula. U.S. exploration in the 1935, Lincoln Ellsworth completed a flight to the Weddell Sea for further operations. peninsula area languished for the rest of along the east coast of the peninsula and the transantarctic flight envisioned by Wil- the century, although the American Fred- The final U.S. expedition in the peninsula kins. He began at Dundee Island (at the tip erick A. Cook accompanied the Belgian area before the establishment of Palmer of the Antarctic Peninsula) and ended at expedition in 1898. Station was the Ronne Antarctic Research Little America on the Ross Ice Shelf with Expedition, which reoccupied East Base During the 1928-1929 and 1929-1930 four landings made enroute. The flights on 12 March 1947 and stayed until 20 summers the American Geographical So- provided much new information about the February 1948. Expedition personnel num- ciety sponsored expeditions led by Hubert peninsula and the interior of Antarctica. bered 23 and included two women. Though Wilkins, an Australian, whose objective small by modern standards, this expedi- was to cross Antarctica by airplane. Bad The first U.S. station in the Antarctic tion accomplished much, extending greatly weather and lack of firm sea ice for take- Peninsula area was established in March the area explored by Americans in Palmer offs prevented the transantarctic flight, 1940 as part of the United States Antarctic Service, a government expedition. Named Land (the southern half of the Antarctic East Base, it was located on Stonington Peninsula) and adjacent areas. Photographic Island (68 0 11 S 67 000 W), a 300 by 600 flights ranged as far as the Filchner Ice meter rock connected to the mainland by a Shelf and Ellsworth Land, and surface tra- snow slope. (This location is 410 kilome- verses explored both coasts of the peninsula. ters south of the site at which Palmer Sta- Unique among U.S. expeditions, the party s tion would later be located.) Twenty-six ship, a wood tug 56-meters long, was in- men wintered, performing observations at tentionally frozen in the ice near Stonington the station and at a smaller camp inland. Island for the duration of the stay at East Extensive explorations were made by foot, Base. There were three ski-equipped planes, airplane, and dog sledge, to the east and of which the largest was a twin-engine west and as far south as the base of the Beechcraft C-45 with trimetrogon cameras peninsula. Accomplishments included sur- for aerial photography. Dog sledges and veys and mapping of most of the area, two Weasels were used for the traverses. biological and geological observations and U.S. operations in Antarctica during the Editor: Winifred Reuning specimen collections, meteorological ob- International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) servations, and tidal and magnetic measure- did not include activities in the Antarctic Antarctic Journal of the United States, ments. The men departed in March 1941. Peninsula area. established in 1966, reports on U.S. activities in Antarctica and related activi- ties elsewhere, and on trëids in the U.S. Antarctic Research Program. It is published quarterly (March, June, Sep- Nomel Point PALMER STATION tember, and December) with a fifth an- 8r. . Island ANTARCTICA, AND VICINITY nual review issue by the Division •OW P.late, station of Polar Programs, National Science Humble Island ,.,,j_ ,...... sea s + Foundation, Washington, D.C. 20550. .- - - Ell LllcStlield ISSir.l was Telephone: 202/357-7817. ARTHUR Anvers Island Lsppu laoin.$.! HARBORgs Point Palmer Subscription rates are $11.00 per five Speci&ly PYONCNd Area Hero MAP Palmer Station No. I?. No ,Mgy or low Island issues, domestic, and $13.75 per five o,rnlgltt wsfStout permit. issues, foreign; single copies are $2.25 Bonaparte Point ($2.85 foreign) except for the annual 5 D.L.ca Island review issue, which is $7.00 ($8.75 split Rock c3mutiat.mi Island 0 foreign). Address changes and sub- Janus scription matters should be sent to the EIcI,orsl Wand Slapping Storms Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Limitroptie Government Printing Office, Washing- cormorant Ctinatine ISIontI ton, D.C. 20402. c.!!(? J Spurn. Island pinnacles The Director of the National Science Hermit Island Foundation has determined that the + publication of this periodical is neces- ^_ Hollsnnsn Rocks
sary in the transaction of the public tin.• <^^Jscobs Island business required by law of this agency. nautical mile Laggard Island 0 Use of funds for printing this periodical OulcastIslands tillomleir has been approved by the director of 0 4 the Office of Management and Budget through 31 March 1984.
Palmer Station (64 046 1S 64 0 3 W) is located on the 70-kilometer-long Anvers Island. This map shows the station and islands surrounding it.
ANTARCTIC JOURNAL
Planning and building Palmer Station Palmer s climate compares with that of Nome, Alaska, a town of about 2,500 people on the Bering Sea. Mean annual temperatures of these locations are about the same, although Pal- The biological richness of the Antarctic mer s summers are cooler, and winters warmer. Peninsula area as documented by pre-IGY and ICY stations and research, together with the possibility for productive work in Palmer Nome other disciplines, led the United States in latitude 64046 S 64030 N 1962 to begin serious consideration of an extreme low temperature —31°C —43°C Antarctic Peninsula station. U.S. biologists mean temperature, coldest month —10°C —16°C working at McMurdo, a U.S. station at mean annual temperature - 3°C 3.50ç mean temperature, warmest month 78 0 S nearly halfway around the continent 2°C 10°C 9°Cextreme high temperature 30°C from the peninsula, perceived great value precipitation, cm water equivalent 61 42 in comparative studies at lower antarctic snow, cm (included in precipitation, above) 360 140 latitudes. Also in 1962, the USNS Eltanin, an ice-strengthened research ship, began l0cm snow = lcmwater its decade of antarctic cruises, which in- cluded occasional work in light pack ice. A station on the peninsula, together with the cliff or by melting ice; there is a varied corded at Palmer every month of the first Eltanin and McMurdo Station, would pro- biological environment; and satellite camps winter. vide a spectrum of opportunities for marine may be placed at biologically interesting biology and other disciplines ranging from places within 50 miles. The next summer the icebreaker EaMwind the Antarctic Convergence to practically spent January and February 1966 perform- the highest southern latitude touched by His specific recommendation was to begin ing biological and oceanographic studies the sea. by establishing a small station and keep- up and down the peninsula between Mar- ing it from getting too large and sophisti- guerite Bay in the south and the South The immediate question was: where cated for the available land and logistics. Shetlands. During that time Eastwind and might a station be put ? Literature on the He cited McMurdo as the kind of a station USNS Wyandot resupplied the station. peninsula area was studied, and nations not to build. Palmer s second winter passed much as with stations in the region were queried. the first, with a station population of eight. The principal requirements for a station He also recommended that the Founda- were established as follows: the site must tion consider building a 30- to 38-meter Meanwhile, plans were being drawn up be biologically rich, there must be access ship fitted for biological work that would for a larger station to provide for an ex- by ship and a potential for access by heavy operate mainly during the "open" or ice- panded scientific staff and for sophisticated aircraft, there must be building areas on free season but also could operate in winter if laboratory spaces. Also, the Foundation ice-free land, and access by boat was need- the ice conditions permitted. was going ahead with plans for the 38-meter ed from a main station to "places of bio- sail-equipped trawler recommended for re- logical interest at a reasonable distance." In January 1964 the icebreaker Eastwind landed a survey team at the Anvers Island After these investigations a team of two site to continue the hydrographic and to- scientists, an engineer, a pilot, and a naval pographic surveys begun by Staten Island Bellingshausen logistics expert used the Coast Guard ice- the previous year and to erect a temporary (USSR) breaker Staten Island to survey 33 pro- Jamesway (a prefabricated canvas and wood spective sites between 18 January and 5 building) on Bonaparte Point to house the lhileorctowski Poland) March 1963. The sites ranged from Ade- shore party. On 12 January 1965 the ice- speranza (Argentina) laide Island in the south to King George breaker Edisto arrived with men, equip- niente Caodolto Island in the South Shetlands and even ment, and supplies, and on 16 January the Vicecomodoro arsh Marambio around into the Weddell Sea on the east- USNS Wyandot, a cargo ship, followed. (Argentina) ern side of the peninsula. Staten Island Eight days later the work was finished on a rat spent more time at the Arthur Harbor site 25- by 11-meter prefabricated T-5 build- /pArChile)CGeneral Bernardo Higgins (Chile) on Anvers Island than anywhere else: over 4 ing that was to be Palmer Station. The Primaveral days. Biological and geological collections station, the only U.S. antarctic station north (Argentina) were made, and general reconnaissance in- of the Antarctic Circle, was opened with cluding hydrographic surveys was done. ceremonies on 25 February 1965. The old 65. British hut Base N, just meters away, was Almirante By the spring of 1963 Arthur Harbor, later to be made into a laboratory. Palmer (USA) (Argentina) Anvers Island, had been chosen as the site I/I/I Larsen for the new station. In a memorandum in The first winter s staff consisted of three Faraday)U.K.) April 1963, T. 0. Jones, the head of the glaciologists (who also performed meteo- Ice Shelf Office of Antarctic Programs, wrote to the rological duties), two biologists, and four Director of the National Science Founda- Navy men: a medic, a radioman, a cook, 46 Gia I tion that "The Arthur Harbor area comes and a mechanic. The scientific work was San Martin closest to meeting all critical requirements mostly reconnaissance—snow accumulation, 1, (Argentina) for a main biological station site . . . al- weather recording, biological collections— though . . . no area meets all the require- and included journeys as far as 50 or 60 Rothera (U.K.) ments," And he summed up the site this kilometers from the station. A Jamesway way: the land is rocky and uneven, but was built 13 kilometers inland for glaciol- adequate; the shores are rough and rocky, ogy, but poor weather made visits diffi- but a landing can be prepared easily; the cult. Snow half covered the Jamesway by harbor is sufficient for large ships, with March and completely covered it by April The Antarctic Peninsula is the most populated protection given by the outside islands; 1965, just 2 months after it was built. Above region in Antarctica. Six nations maintain 13 fresh water is available in a pond by the ice freezing temperatures and rain were re- year-round stations in this region.
December 1981 The second major building at Palmer, a two-story steel frame building, has 743 square meters (8,000 square feet) of floor space. It contains a vehicle maintenance facility, storage space, frozen and dry food 4- storage, recreation room, station store, ham II radio room, laboratory spaces for meteo- rology and upper atmosphere physics, sleep- ing quarters for 10, and utilities including the main power plant (two 150-kilowatt generators). Each building is capable of operating independently and could support .- all station personnel in an emergency. Other installations include two 470,000- liter (125,000-gallon) steel tanks for stor- age of diesel fuel marine (DFM), which is used both by the station generators and furnaces and by Hero. Fresh water is piped in summer from a glacial melt pond and is available in quan- tities exceeding the needs of the station and Hero. In winter, sea water is desali- nated using shipboard-type equipment, k/V Hero, launched on 28 March in South Bristol, Maine, arrives in Arthur Harbor for the first time which delivers as much as 1,900 liters (500 on 25 December 1968. gallons) a day; rationing is required infre- quently. Wastewater is discharged into Arthur Harbor, ungrindable kitchen waste is sealed search use in conjunction with Palmer. The December 1968. (An article on pages 65-69 in drums and dumped in the deep sea, and keel for this ship, to be called the Hero, of the May/June 1975 Antarctic Journal trash is burned, compacted, and placed in was laid in October 1966. describes Hero and its work.) The follow- a dump. Accumulated items having scrap ing season 28 Seabees completed construc- value are removed to South America from Although the ship would be used mainly tion of the new station in January, Febru- time to time. in the austral summer, winter operations ary, and March 1970. appeared feasible. Information and photos Rolling stock comprises a Galion mobile crane (8,600 kilograms or 9.5 ton capaci- obtained during winter overflights in Sep- Station facilities tember 1964 and August 1966 indicated ty), Caterpillar 910 and 944 wheeled load- that there were open water areas along the Palmer Station is centrally located for ers, and a rough-terrain forklift. peninsula where a vessel such as Hero could operations up and down the west side of Zodiacs (inflatable rubber boats) trans- operate, and those aboard the 1966 flight the Antarctic Peninsula and in the South port scientists to local islands (within 3 concluded that ship operations could have Shetland Islands. It serves as a primary kilometers or 2 miles) for research. The been conducted in the Bransuield and shore facility and as an operational base Mark 11 (14-foot) and Mark III (16-foot) Cerlache Straits and in the vicinity of Arthur for R/V Hero. Ship and station together models are used; they are powered by 9 Harbor. Further, the people at the station comprise a research system that can sup- and 25 horsepower outboard motors and in August 1965 had concluded that "a small port ship-based and shore-based research can be driven slowly through the brash ice vessel could have eased through the lightly projects throughout the peninsula area. that occurs commonly in and around Arthur frozen surface of Arthur Harbor, although Harbor. the heavy floes at sea probably would have The biolab building is a two- and three- story steel frame building with 888 square Year-round operation of Palmer requires been hazardous." meters (9,559 square feet) of floor space. six people: a station manager, a medic, a Construction of the new station, at Biological laboratories, a storage area for facility engineer, a mechanic, a communi- 64 0 46 S 64 003W on Carnage Point, took laboratory equipment, electronics work- cations coordinator, and a cook. In summer, four seasons. In January, February, and shop, radio room, photo lab, and two offices the increased level of scientific activity, March 1967, 26 Navy Seabees helped by are in one wing of the building. In 1981, boating, resupply, and Hero calls require the crew of the icebreaker Westwind put the station s wet biological laboratory was these additional support personnel: boat- up a construction camp, built the wharf, named in honor of Mary Alice McWhinnie ing coordinator, materials person, mess finished the subfloor of the first building, for her significant contributions to antarc- person, laborer, and craftsperson. All these and completed the fuel tanks and most of tic marine biology. The center (three-story) personnel are employed by the Founda- the salt water intake line. In 3 months section has living quarters for 22 people, a tion s contractor for support in Antarctica— during the 1967-1968 season, 32 Seabees dining room, kitchen, lounge, dispensary, currently ITT Antarctic Services, Inc. The and the Southwind crew finished the first machine/carpenter shop, and utilities for Palmer station manager reports to the con- building, called the biolab building. In the the building including a standby genera- tractor s deputy program director for Hero/ 1968-1969 season, 31 Seabees got the second tor. The other wing has small boat sup- Palmer, who most of the year is at head- building, containing a garage, a warehouse, plies, dry and refrigerated stores, diving quarters in Paramus, New Jersey. During and recreation areas, about two-thirds com- locker, and boatshop. Adjacent to this build- part of the summer season a staff member plete. They also got a Christmas present. ing is a van serving as science library and of the Division of Polar Programs serves at R/V Hero, launched 28 March in South two small prefabricated buildings contain- Palmer as NSF Representative, Antarctic Bristol, Maine, arrived at its new home ing sea-water aquaria for experimentation Peninsula, to oversee operations and co- port of Palmer Station, Antarctica, on 25 with marine organisms, particularly krill. ordinate use of facilities by science parties.
ANTARCTIC JOURNAL The main resupply of Palmer Station for dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity, and ing the water, changes salinity, denudes takes place once a year (usually in Janu- temperature. They observed three distinct the nearshore zone, and limits vertical mi- ary). Currently one of the new U.S. Coast periods in the dissolved oxygen content gration of plants and animals. Guard icebreakers (Polar Star or Polar Sea) and pH—gradual reductions from May to delivers fuel and cargo. Hero delivers ad- August, a sharp increase starting in mid- Oregon State University scientists spent ditional cargo during its trips between September, and a steep decrease starting in several years investigating the macrobenthic Palmer and ports at the southern tip of January. Primary production in summer assemblages of Arthur Harbor and other South America, and it is usually Hero that was intense. Antarctic Peninsula locations. They found "deep-sixes" Palmer s drummed kitchen the density of macrofauna (worms, mol- wastes during crossings of the Drake Florida State University researchers col- lusks, sea spiders, sponges, etc.) in soft- Passage. lected terrestrial and marine samples during bottom areas of Arthur Harbor to be four the 1966-1967 season to study the role of times greater than that of the inner conti- Palmer Station is operated almost com- microorganisms in weathering of rocks, nental shelf off New England. The slow pletely independent of the rest of the land- biochemistry of guano formation, micro- growth of benthic animals possibly due to based part of the United States Antarctic bial content of raw soils, and nutrient con- low temperatures is offset by physical sta- Research Program. McMurdo Station, the tribution of the land to the near-shore sea bility of the environment (except for ice- logistics hub of the majority of the pro- environment. berg groundings). The community makes gram, is 2,000 miles away. The other two rapid and efficient utilization of organic U.S. stations—Siple (in Ellsworth Land) Investigators from the University of Cali- matter. and South Pole—are fully dependent logis- fornia at Davis made more than 1,300 scuba Antarctic krill did not get much atten- tically on McMurdo. U.S. antarctic aircraft dives from 1971 to 1975 to study the dis- when the Uni- operations—a squadron of UH-1N helicop- tribution and ecology of shallow-water ben- tion at Palmer until 1974, versity of California at Davis group col- ters and ski-equipped C-130 airplanes—are thos, with emphasis on foraminifera—tiny, lected 130 individuals kilometers west centered at McMurdo. U.S. aircraft have shelled sea animals. Foraminifera have an 19 of Palmer and used electrophoresis to study never landed at Palmer. The Marr Ice important role in the marine community, genetic variability, which they found to be Piedmont, adjacent to the station, is suit- serving as the main food for some worms low. This finding fit the hypothesis that a able for a skiway but can become soft and and mollusks and a secondary food for varying food supply forces individuals to sticky during Palmer s relatively warm other animals. The work described and be highly flexible; selection thus favors summer. Winter flights to the station have quantified Arthur Harbor s ecosystem and genes that code for generalized functions. never been attempted because of the lack showed it to be typical of much of the season seawater aquaria of operational need and the large expense Antarctic Peninsula area; the scientists iden- In the 1977-1978 were installed at Palmer, and DePaul Uni- involved in sending out a plane from Cali- tified six depth-related zones with repre- versity biologists began a study of krill fornia, the squadron s austral winter head- sentative distributions of species and tro- quarters. Small ski-equipped airplanes— phic relationships. The California group reproduction, food consumption, and rate particularly Twin Otters of Britain and also performed quantitative and taxonomic of growth. Krill populations were kept alive Argentina—and Chilean helicopters visit studies of diatoms, microscopic algae that in the tanks for 2 years, enabling study of several times a year, contributing to the dominate Arthur Harbor s microalgae com- maturation, lifespan, and response to light neighborly atmosphere of the many-sta- munity. Sea ice formation proved of im- and other environmental factors. In one tioned Antarctic Peninsula area. Other visi- mense importance for diatom blooms and experiment adult krill were found to de- tors nearly every summer include ships other life forms: it reduces the light enter- crease in length when poorly fed. operated by the other nations with stations in the area, tourist ships, and privately- The three-story portion of the main building at Palmer Station houses living quarters for 22 operated sailboats. people, a dining room, kitchen, lounge, dispensary, machine and carpenter shop, and utilities for the building. The biology laboratories, laboratory equipment storage, an electronics work- Scientific research shop, radio room, photo darkroom, and two offices are in the left wing; small boat supplies, dry and refrigerated stores, a diving locker, and a boatshop are in the right wing. When Hero and the laboratory at the station became available to scientists in late 1968, the research emphasis at Palmer turned to biology. Of particular interest was the marine ecosystem, and in the years that followed nearly every level from mi- crobes to seals was studied to reveal popu- lation characteristics, physiology, and in- terrelationships. Many of these projects— lasting as long as 5 years—relied on Hero for the collection of specimens and for on-board lab work, then performed fur- ther research in the laboratory at Palmer. Others made their collections near the station—in Arthur Harbor and at the num- erous small islands within a few kilome- ters of the station. Following are a few highlights of research performed primarily at Palmer Station since its establishment in 1965. Oregon State investigators collected daily water samples at Arthur Harbor from May 1970 to February 1971 and analyzed them NSF photo by Erick Chiang.
December 1981 The blood of chaenichthyid fishes, or Winter personnel, Palmer Station "icefishes," is cloudy white because it has no hemoglobin—the protein that makes Support Total other animals blood red and transports Science oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish research 1965 5 4 9 at Palmer has centered on this family. 1966 4 4 8 1967 5 4 9 During the early 1970s investigators from 1968 3 6 9 the University of Missouri and Scripps 1969 4 8 12 Institution of Oceanography studied the 1970 1 7 8 physiology of these unusual fishes and 1971 2 9 11 determined how they survive without red 1972 4 9 13 blood cells. The metabolic rate, already 1973 5 10 15 low because of the cold water, is reduced 19742 3 6 9 further in specific adaptation that reduces 1975 4 6 10 demands for oxygen transport. Blood pres- 1976 1 5 6 sure is strikingly lower than that of other 1977 2 5 7 1978 3 6 3 9 fishes, yet volume and flow are higher. 1979.- 4 6 10 The icefish moves slowly: at rest, the energy 1980 1 6 7 cost for cardiac and respiratory function 1981 4 6 10 represents half or more of total oxygen 1982 2 6 8 consumption. 1 First winter in new building on Gamage Point. The numerous moss- and lichen-covered 2 First winter of contractor support, replacing U.S. Navy support. rocky peninsulas and islands around Palmer, Support staff in 1978 and following years includes a U.S. Navy corpsman (medic). coupled with a sea extraordinarily rich in marine life, provide a haven for birds. Twenty-two species have been seen near While biology has been emphasized at Scientific research at Palmer Station has Palmer; of these, several are year-round Palmer, the other disciplines have not gone increased with time as scientists have rec- residents and 11 breed in the neighbor- unstudied. University of California (Davis) ognized the natural advantages of the sta- hood. Research on birds has included ex- investigators made physical and chemical tion s location and have focused on research tensive studies of population, behavior, oceanographic determinations and solar ra- problems identified in earlier work. During ecology, physiology, and presence of pol- diation measurements in Arthur Harbor to the 1981-1982 summer season, research lutants. Institutions involved include the assist the biological work. Ohio State gla- was conducted on metabolism and behav- University of Minnesota, University of Cali- ciologists measured snow accumulation, ior in crustacea including krill, early larval fornia (Bodega Marine Laboratory, Scripps ice movement, strain, and ice thickness on survival of krill, trophodynamics of marine Institution of Oceanography), and Case the Marr Ice Piedmont adjacent to the sta- fauna, reproductive patterns in seals, insect Western Reserve University. tion. Geophysical work has included an resistance to freezing, protein adaptations, Seal studies, centering on leopard and Ohio State gravity survey of Anvers Island, presence of hydrocarbons in birds, very- elephant seals common to the area, have magnetometer observations, and geodetic low-frequency waves in the ionosphere, included behavior and physiology, seal/ studies including operation of a satellite air chemistry, and meteorology. These sci- penguin interactions, and respiration studies observatory by the University of Texas. entific challenges are different from the using a chamber to simulate dives. Institu- Real-time voice and data transmission be- contrary winds, fogs, and icebergs that tions involved include University of Min- tween the United States and Palmer, using challenged Nathaniel Palmer in 1820, and nesota, State University of New York (Syra- the ATS-3 satellite, came in 1977 with a they bring different problems. In late 1981 cuse), and Scripps Institution of Oceano- University of Nevada project to study the 40-odd scientists and support personnel graphy. weather phenomena and air-sea interactions. at Palmer established an informal consor- The following year Stanford University tium to consider their major challenge: not The land ecosystem also has received physicists established a very-low-frequency ice, or cold, or lack of fresh food, but attention. Researchers principally from radio observing program to complement crowding in the station s research labora- Clark University and Ohio State Univer- similar work at Siple Station. The Nevada tories during the busy summer season. sity have studied the photosynthesis, res- group introduced laser profiling of atmo- piration, and physiology of lichens, mosses, spheric constituents in 1979. Ohio State algae, and fungi. Antarctica s only land meteorologists made extensive surface animals—springtails, midges, and mites— weather observations during the station s abound at Palmer and have been studied to first 2 years; standard observations have —Guy C. Guthridge, Division of Polar determine population density, energy flow, continued to the present. Programs, National Science Foundation. and cold survival strategies; the Bishop Museum (Honolulu) and the University of Houston are the major institutions in- volved. Virginia Tech limnologists inves- tigated the ecology of freshwater lakes in the Palmer area and chose for intensive study two lakes 0.6 kilometers apart with strikingly different trophic states. Study of natural eutrophication (oxygen deficien- cy) in these simple antarctic lakes has con- tributed to an understanding of acceler- ated eutrophication caused by pollution of lakes in other parts of the world. til
01W 11ANTARCTIC JOURNAL Antarctic mineral resources focus of the Eleventh the antarctic environment will be devel- oped and will apply to all mineral resource Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting activities. The area covered by the man- agement regime will include the continent At the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Meet- ing mineral resource activities in Antarcti- and adjacent offshore areas, not including ing in Buenos Aires, Argentina, represen- ca. During the Eleventh Treaty Meeting the deep seabed, although the precise limi- tatives of the 14 Antarctic Treaty consul- representatives recommended that a Spe- tations of the area of application have not tative nations emphasized the need to begin cial Consultative Meeting convene to de- yet been determined. Other provisions in- negotiations for a regime governing min- termine the form that this system should clude arrangements between an antarctic eral resource activities in Antarctica. Other take, to establish a negotiation schedule, mineral regime and other relevant interna- topics discussed at the meeting, held from and to take any necessary steps to facili- tional organizations, consideration of com- 23 June to 7 July 1981, included the Con- tate the conclusion of the regime. The rec- mercial exploration and exploitation, and vention on the Conservation of Antarctic ommended principles guiding the forma- resource management decisions. Special at- Marine Living Resources, improved tele- tion of this management regime are that - tention will continue to be given to the communications for collecting and distribut- requirements identified in the Report of ing meteorological data, oil pollution in • the consultative parties will continue Ecological, Technological, and other Re- antarctic waters, sites of special scientific to take an active and responsible role in lated Experts on Mineral Exploration and interest and specially protected areas, tour- any question relating to antarctic mineral Exploitation in Antarctica and to develop- ism and nongovernmental expeditions, ex- resources; ing new programs to improve predictions change of information, public availability of environmental impacts of activities, of consultative meeting documents, and • the Antarctic Treaty will be maintained; events, and technologies associated with the status and appointment of observers to • the antarctic environment and its eco- mineral resource exploration and exploi- Treaty meetings. systems will be protected; tation. Three recommendations and a special • the consultative parties will not prej- The first Special Consultative meeting, statement commemorating the twentieth udice the rights of all mankind in Antarc- similar to those held to discuss the Con- anniversary of the entry into force of the tica when dealing with mineral resource vention on the Conservation of Antarctic Antarctic Treaty were developed and adopt- questions; Marine Living Resources, will be held in ed by the representatives. These new rec- Wellington, New Zealand, in late May or ommendations increase to 130 the number • the contracting parties of the agree- early June 1982. of Treaty recommendations made since the ment will not prejudice the recognition or first consultative meeting in 1962. nonrecognition of antarctic territorial claims. In a second recommendation, represen- tatives urged their governments to seek Recommendations to the Treaty extend The management system must provide the earliest possible entry into force of the its principles and objectives. The Antarc- for means to assess the possible environ- Convention of the Conservation of Ant- tic Treaty reserves the area south of 600 mental impact of mineral resource activi- arctic Marine Living Resources. The con- South for peaceful purposes, sets aside ties, determine the acceptability of mineral vention was concluded in May 1980. Eight territorial claims, ensures free access resource activities, and govern the ecolog- of the 15 participating nations must ratify throughout the area, permits member na- ical, technological, political, legal and eco- the convention before it enters into force; tions to inspect installations, prohibits mili- nomic aspects of accepted activities. As a as of December 1981, six countries had tary participation except in support of part of this system procedures that protect ratified it. peaceful activities, and encourages scien- tific investigation and international coop- eration. The nations which are signatories Krill are brought aboard a Japanese fishing boat. One of the recommendations at the XIth to the Antarctic Treaty are Argentina, Aus- Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting focuses on the Convention on the Conservation of tralia, Belgium, Chile, France, Federal Re- Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which would limit the number of these creatures that could public of Germany, Japan, New Zealand, be harvested. Norway, Poland, the Republic of South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United King- dom, and the United States. In their commemoration of the twenti- eth anniversary of the Treaty s entry into force, the representatives emphasized that recommendations to the Treaty have a cru- cial role in the continuing evolution of the consultative process. They recognized the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958 as the model for the Treaty s foundation of continued, peaceful cooperation and free dom of scientific investigation. With these principals as its basis, the treaty system has made possible rapid growth of knowl edge about Antarctica and has enabled the consultative nations to develop successful methods to protect the environment and ecosystems of Antarctica. At the Tenth Treaty Meeting in 1979, representatives stressed the need to develop as quickly as possible a system for manag-
December 1981 Other recommendations made at the The next meeting of the consultative Recommend to their Governments that: Tenth Treaty meeting were reviewed. The parties will be held in Australia in the latter 1. They take note of the progress made group noted that new telecommunication part of 1983. toward the timely adoption of a regime for stations had been established in Antarctica antarctic mineral resources at the Eleventh and that some countries had improved their The texts of the three recommendations Consultative Meeting and related meetings telecommunications systems and the flow adopted at the meeting follow this article. and the importance of this progress. of their meteorological data to the Global Telecommunications System of the World 2. A regime on antarctic mineral resources Meteorological Organization. Plans have should be concluded as a matter of urgency. also been made by the Working Group on XI-1. Antarctic mineral Logistics of the Scientific Committee on resources 3. A Special Consultative Meeting should Antarctic Research (SCAR) to prepare a he convened in order: telecommunications manual for distribu- The Representatives, (a) to elaborate a regime; tion at the Twelfth Consultative Meeting. Recalling the provisions of the Antarc- (b) to determine the form of the regime In their discussion of oil pollution s effect tic Treaty, which established a regime for including the question as to whether an on the marine environment, the represen- international cooperation in Antarctica, with international instrument such as a conven- tatives agreed that SCAR should be en- the objective of ensuring that Antarctica tion is necessary; couraged to develop guidelines for hydro- should continue forever to be used exclu- carbon baseline measurements and to con- sively for peaceful purposes and should (c) to establish a schedule for negotia- sider operating techniques and other perti- not become the scene or object of interna- tions, using informal meetings and sessions nent information at its 1982 logistics sym- tional discord; of the Special Consultative Meeting as posium in Leningrad. They also discussed appropriate; and whether existing international conventions Convinced that the framework estab- lished by the Antarctic Treaty has proved (d) to take any other steps that may be for the prevention of oil pollution at sea necessary to facilitate the conclusion of were applicable in the Antarctic and con- effective in promoting international har- mony in furtherance of the purposes and the regime, including a decision as to the cluded that these conventions presently procedure for its adoption. are adequate to minimize risks of marine principles of the United Nations Charter, pollution. However, the consulatative parties in prohibiting inter alia any measures of a 4. The Special Consultative Meeting will continue to review preventative and military nature, in ensuring the protection should base its work on this Recommen- remedial measures and procedures for oil of the Antarctic environment, in prevent- dation and the relevant Recommendations spill clean-up used in other areas of the ing any nuclear explosions and the disposal and Reports of the Eighth, Ninth and Tenth world. of any radioactive waste material in Ant- Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings. arctica, and in promoting freedom of sci- The representatives discussed a variety entific research in Antarctica, to the bene- 5. The regime should be based on the of subjects related to tourism and the in- fit of all mankind; following principles: creased number of nongovernmental ex- peditions seeking help from the consulta- Convinced further of the necessity of (a) the Consultative Parties should con- tive parties. To express their sympathy to maintaining the Antarctic Treaty in its tinue to play an active and responsible role those people affected by the November entirety and believing that the early con- in dealing with the question of antarctic 1979 air disaster on Mount Erebus, the clusion of a regime for Antarctic mineral mineral resources; representatives recommended that the crash resources would further strengthen the Ant- (b) the Antarctic Treaty must be main- site on the mountain s northern slopes be arctic Treaty framework; tained in its entirety; designated a tomb and left undisturbed. Desiring without prejudice to Article IV (c) protection of the unique antarctic Work was begun on principles that might of the Antarctic Treaty to negotiate with environment and of its dependent ecosys- be adopted if Areas of Special Tourist In- the full participation of all the Consulta- tems should be a basic consideration; terest were established. Discussions among tive Parties to the Antarctic Treaty an appro- the representatives pointed to a number of priate set of rules for the exploration and (d) the Consultative Parties, in dealing questions about creating these special areas, exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources; with the question of mineral resources in and they decided to study the subject fur- Antarctica, should not prejudice the inter- Noting the unity between the continent ther and discuss it again at the Twelfth ests of all mankind in Antarctica; of Antarctica and its adjacent offshore areas; Treaty Meeting. (e) the provisions of Article IV of the Mindful of the negotiations that are Although all present recognized the im- Antarctic Treaty should not be affected by taking place in the Third United Nations the regime. It should ensure that the prin- portance of a common response to inquir- Conference on the Law of the Sea; ies for assistance by nongovernmental ex- ciples embodied in Article IV are safeguarded peditions, representatives decided to take Reaffirming their commitment to the early in application to the area covered by the this discussion up again at the next consulta- conclusion of a regime for Antarctica min- Antarctic Treaty. tive meeting. eral resources which would take due account 6. Any agreement that may be reached of the respective interests of the Consulta- Various aspects of the Treaty system on a regime for mineral exploration and tive Parties as regards the form and con- exploitation in Antarctica elaborated by were discussed. These topics included the tent of the regime, including decision- need for timely and complete information the Consultative Parties should be accept- making procedures, as well as the special able and be without prejudice to those states exchanges between consultative parties, characteristics of the Antarctic area; publication, dissemination and availabil- which have previously asserted rights of ity of consultative meeting documents, and Recalling Recommendations VII-o, VIII- or claims to territorial sovereignty in Ant- observers at consultative meetings. All of 14, IX-1, and X-i; arctica as well as to those States which these topics will be studied in greater detail neither recognize such rights of or claims and discussed again at the Twelfth Con- Recalling further Recommendations VI-4, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica nor, sultative Meeting. VII-1, VII-11, VII-13, IX-5, IX-6 and X-7; under the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty, assert such rights or claims. ANTARCTIC JOURNAL 7. The regime should inter cilia the effective operation of the regime taking servation of Antarctic Marine Living Re- into account, inter alia, the relevant parts sources; and I. Include means for: of the Report of Ecological, Technological and Other Related Experts on Mineral 2. They take all possible steps to facili- (a) assessing the possible impact of min- tate the early operation of the bodies to be eral resource activities on the antarctic envi- Exploration and Exploitation in Antarctica (Washington, June 1979), attached as an established by the Convention on the Con- ronment in order to provide for informed servation of Antarctic Marine Living Re- decision-making; annex to the Report of the Tenth Consul- tative Meeting. sources upon entry into force. (h) determining whether mineral resource activities will be acceptable; 9. With a view to improving predictions of the environmental impacts of activities, X1-3 Air disaster on Mount (c) governing the ecological, technolog- events and technologies associated with ical, political, legal and economic aspects mineral resource exploration and exploita- Erebus of those activities in cases where they would tion should such occur, they continue with be determined acceptable, including: the assistance of the Scientific Committee The Representatives, —the establishment, as an important part on Antarctic Research, to define programs with the objectives of: Recalling with respect that in the years of the regime, of rules relating to the pro- of exploration and research many have tection of the Antarctic environment; and (a) Retrieving and analyzing relevant travelled to and worked in Antarctica and —the requirement that mineral resource information from past observations and not returned; research programs; activities undertaken pursuant to the regime Noting that on November 28, 1979, two be undertaken in compliance with such (b) Ensuring in relation to the needs for hundred and fifty-seven people of several rules. information identified by the Experts Re- nationalities lost their lives when the air- II. Include procedures for adherence by port, that effective use is made of existing craft in which they were travelling crashed programs; States other than the Consultative Parties, into the slopes of Mount Erebus, Ross either through the Antarctic Treaty or (c) Identifying and developing new Island, Antarctica; otherwise, which would: programs that should have priority, taking Aware that in spite of the determined account of the length of time required for (a) ensure that the adhering State is and courageous action of members of the results to become available. bound by the basic provisions of the Ant- New Zealand and United States Antarctic expeditions the bodies of some of those arctic Treaty, in particular Articles I, IV, V 10. In elaborating the regime, they take who died could not be recovered; and VI, and by the relevant Recommenda- account of the provisions of Recommen- tions adopted by the Consultative Parties; dations IX-1, paragraph 8. Aware, too, that no permanent memo- and rial may be placed on the ice slopes at the (b) make entities of that State eligible to X1-2 Antarctic marine living site of the tragedy; participate in mineral resource activities Express, their deep sympathy with the under the regime. resources relatives of those who died and with the III. Include provisions for cooperative Government and people of New Zealand; arrangements between the regime and other The Representatives, and relevant international organizations. Recalling the responsibilities of the Con- Recommend to their Governments that IV. Apply to all mineral resource activi- sultative Parties regarding the conservation the site on the northern slopes of Mount ties taking place on the Antarctic Conti- of Antarctic marine living resources; Erebus where the accident took place be nent and its adjacent offshore areas but declared a tomb and that they ensure that Recalling further the history of actions without encroachment on the deep seabed. the area is left in peace. taken by Consultative Parties concerning The precise limits of the area of applica- protection of the Antarctic ecosystem, tion would be determined in the elabora- including in particular, Recommendations tion of the regime. III-VIII, VIII-10, VIII-13, IX-2, IX-5 and V. Include provisions to ensure that the X-2, special responsibilities of the Consultative Parties in respect of the environment in Welcoming the conclusion of the Con- the Antarctic Treaty area are protected, vention on the Conservation of Antarctic taking into account responsibilities which Marine Living Resources at a diplomatic may be exercised in the area by other interna- conference held in Canberra, Australia in tional organizations. May 1980 and the signature of that con- vention, also in Canberra, Australia in Sep- VI. Cover commercial exploration (activi- tember, 1980; ties related to minerals involving, in gen- eral, retention of proprietary data and/or Noting that a meeting is to be held later non-scientific exploratory drilling) and this year in Hobart, Tasmania to consider exploitation (commercial development and steps to facilitate the early operation of the protection). Commission, the Scientific Committee and the Executive Secretariat to be established VII. Promote the conduct of research under the Convention on the Conserva- necessary to make environmental and tion of Antarctic Marine Living Resources; resource management decisions which would be required. Recommend to their Governments that: 8. They promote and cooperate in scien- 1. They seek the earliest possible entry tific investigations which would facilitate into force of the Convention on the Con-
December 1981 o