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Aalborg Universitet Education Policy Reforms in Bhutan Yezer, Yezer Aalborg Universitet Education Policy Reforms in Bhutan Yezer, Yezer DOI (link to publication from Publisher): 10.5278/VBN.PHD.SOCSCI.00053 Publication date: 2016 Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication from Aalborg University Citation for published version (APA): Yezer, Y. (2016). Education Policy Reforms in Bhutan. Aalborg Universitetsforlag. Ph.d.-serien for Det Samfundsvidenskabelige Fakultet, Aalborg Universitet https://doi.org/10.5278/VBN.PHD.SOCSCI.00053 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. ? 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Downloaded from vbn.aau.dk on: September 24, 2021 EDUCATION POLICY REFORMS IN BHUTAN IN REFORMS POLICY EDUCATION EDUCATION POLICY REFORMS IN BHUTAN BY YEZER YEZER DISSERTATION SUBMITTED 2016 YEZER YEZER YEZER EDUCATION POLICY REFORMS IN BHUTAN by Yezer A Dissertation submitted to the Doctoral School of Social Sciences at Aalborg University, Denmark for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Thesis submitted: June 23, 2016 PhD supervisor: Associate Prof. JOHANNES DRAGSBÆK SCHMIDT, Aalborg University PhD committee: Associate Professor Lone Krogh Kjær-Rasmussen (Chairman) Aalborg University, Denmark Associate Professor Norbert Wildermuth Roskilde University, Denmark Adjunct Assistant Professor Caroline Brassard National University of Singapore, Singapore PhD Series: Faculty of Social Sciences, Aalborg University ISSN (online): 2246-1256 ISBN (online): 978-87-7112-731-7 Published by: Aalborg University Press Skjernvej 4A, 2nd floor DK – 9220 Aalborg Ø Phone: +45 99407140 [email protected] forlag.aau.dk © Copyright by author Printed in Denmark by Rosendahls, 2016 CV Yezer is a lecturer in the Department of Geography and Planning, School of Social Sciences, Sherubtse College, Royal University of Bhutan since 2006. He obtained MSc and Post Graduate Diploma in Surveying and Mapping from the Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia in 2006. He also holds a Postgraduate Certificate in Education from the Samtse College of Education, Bhutan and BA Honours in Geography from Sherubtse College affiliated to the University of Delhi, India. He started his career as a teacher at a lower secondary school in 2000. At Sherubtse College he has served in various positions such as the Examination Convenor, Head of School for the Social Sciences and Head of the Department of Geography and Planning. He has also acted as the Director, Dean of Academic Affairs and Dean of Student Affairs. Currently he is serving as a Dean of Student Affairs. In addition, he is a member to the Sherubtse College Management Team, Post Graduate programme, and the College Construction Management Team. He has been involved in research, consultation and research collaboration work besides regular teaching. He has published several papers and attended numerous seminars and conferences at both national and international levels. He has also participated in several workshops both in national and international institutes and also visited many countries as part of study tours. As he is interested in academic and teaching work, he has conducted workshops as a resource person at the college. He has also designed courses for the undergraduate programme especially in geography subjects. III EDUCATION POLICY REFORMS IN BHUTAN ENGLISH SUMMARY This study analyses education policy and its implementation in Bhutan as well as seeks to understand the theoretical, conceptual, analytical and empirical implications. It examines the policy implementation process in the education system by following an abstract funnel approach trying to elaborate various notions of state and nation and end-up choosing the developmental state and link it with concepts explaining top-down and bottom-up policy implementation models. In particular, the thesis uses concepts from conservative developmental state theory that are relevant to education policy formulation and implementation in Bhutan. Education policy formulation and decision-making is influenced by several agents at the central level. Policy dissemination of the Ministry of Education and implementation at various levels of schools in different locations are critically examined to search for explanations of failures, successes and effectiveness. Further, the study critically analyses variations of policy implementation in urban and rural schools. A major part of the analysis focus on vertical and horizontal policy flows from the central government to dzongkhags and to the local vis-à-vis its variation at the different levels. Analytically, the study uses the framework of the conservative developmental state (CDS) theory combined with policy implementation theory in order to analyse how various policies are implemented in schools. The CDS approach might have been applied in the formulation and implementation of education policy in Bhutan because the key actors in policy implementation are bureaucrats who are selected through competitive civil service examinations in order to implement policy successfully. Moreover, the state is embedded in society in order to effectively implement any new policies without any resistance from the external environment. The CDS utilizes intervention in policy formulation and implementation thereby exhibiting a top-down policy approach. This is empirically evident within the education sector where the study shows that policy comes from the top, and the state together with other stakeholders at the central level uses its autonomy during the policy formulation and implementation process. It is believed that DEOs (district education officers), principals and teachers, who are essential parts of the bureaucracy, implement policy as intended by the central government. However, there are variations in the implementation within the different levels of schools as well as at different locations. This happens due to factors like variations in the flow of policy, different interpretations and understandings of policy, lack of effective communication, proximity of schools from dzongkhag headquarters, the location of a school, nature of decentralization and types of teachers. A critical analysis shows that there are minimal gaps in the vertical policy flows from central government to dzongkhags but there exist substantial gaps in the horizontal policy flow, that is, between different levels of schools as well as schools located in urban, rural and IV remote areas. It is also observed that some of the policies are not consistently implemented as intended. Therefore, this may affect the success of policy implementation and achievement of set goals. The main purposes of education in CDS not only focus on enhancing economic growth but also emphasise promotion of values and moral education in order to establish and sustain the state’s political legitimacy and independence. The education policy in CDS also aims to promote nation-building and overall social engineering emphasizing traditional and cultural values which intend to promote national identity and social cohesion. Similar to CDS, Bhutan’s education policy is governed by Gross National Happiness (GNH) principles and values and also inclusion of traditional and cultural values in curricula and extra-curricula activities. The introduction of national language ‘Dzongkha’, Bhutanization of school curricula with values, the Bhutanese etiquette ‘Driglam Namzha’ in schools and the concept of ‘wholesome education’ promote overall development of children and are outcomes of a conscious social engineering process to promote nation-building, identity, integration and social cohesion. In short, the study contributes to social science research and aims to help future policymakers and planners to initiate effective policy implementation in social development activities, particularly in educational policy. Social policy at a reasonable standard and equal access to social services for less than a million populations can be achieved considering the commitment of the government and other agents towards appropriate policy formulation and implementation. V EDUCATION POLICY REFORMS IN BHUTAN DANSK RESUME Afhandlingens overordnede tema er implementeringen af uddannelsespolitik i Bhutan som undersøges ud fra en forståelsesramme, der opstilles teoretisk, begrebsligt, analytisk, og empirisk. Den undersøger implementeringsprocessen i uddannelsessystemet ud fra en abstrakt tilgang baseret på en generel diskussion af forskellige opfattelser af stat og nation, der kobles med forskellige implementerings begreber og metoder, der forbindes med top-down og bottom-up modeller. Begrebet den konservative udviklingsstat benyttes til at analysere politikformulering og implementering af uddannelsespolitik i Bhutan. Både politikformulering og beslutninger er påvirket af flere agenter på centralt niveau. 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