RICE UNIVERSITY The Internment of Memory: Forgetting and Remembering the Japanese American World War II Experience by Abbie Lynn Salyers A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: Ira Gruber, Harris Masterson Jr. Professor Chair, History hOv^L Lora Wildenthal, Associate Professor History Richard Stolli Kiofessor Political Science! HOUSTON, TEXAS MAY 2009 UMI Number: 3362399 Copyright 2009 by Salyers, Abbie Lynn INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI® UMI Microform 3362399 Copyright 2009 by ProQuest LLC All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Copyright Abbie Lynn Salyers 2009 ABSTRACT The Internment of Memory: Forgetting and Remembering the Japanese American Experience During World War II by Abbie Salyers During World War II, over 100,000 Japanese American were confined in relocation and internment camps across the country as a result of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066. While many of their families were behind barbed wire, thousands of other Japanese Americans served in the US Army's Military Intelligence Service and the all-Japanese American 100th Infantry and 442nd Regimental Combat Team. These circumstances were largely public knowledge during the war years, but a pervasive silence on the subject became apparent in the decades following the war. Due to widespread racism and recognition of the hypocrisy evident in a democratic country confining its own citizens, many Americans were content to allow the Japanese American experiences to be forgotten. The destruction and scattering of communities through evacuation and resettlement and a sense of shame within the Japanese American community helped perpetuate the silence amongst Japanese Americans as well. Through the Civil Rights Movement, the social protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s, and ultimately through the redress movement in the 1980s, the Japanese American voice gradually entered the public consciousness. Following the discussion of the historical context for the WWII experiences of the Japanese Americans, this research analyzes the period of forgetting and the various factors that combined to allow for eventual change. An analysis of public commemoration through war memorials, museums, historic sites, community events, and the less traditional memorials of novels, artwork, and films reveals how members of the Japanese American community and sympathetic Caucasian Americans overcame racist opposition and demonstrated determination in their efforts to pay tribute to the sacrifices of the soldiers, preserve relevant sites, and provide for the education of current and future generations on the subject of the Japanese American experience. The research also demonstrates the diversity within the Japanese American community, by disproving the common stereotype of homogeneity within the "model minority," and revealing the strength of individualism within the community as a significant contributing factor to memorialization efforts. Acknowledgements The process of researching and writing this dissertation was a long and rewarding experience thanks to an immense amount of assistance, support, and encouragement along the way. Many individuals spent hours relating past experiences, providing me with a wealth of information, and generally welcoming me into their lives and stories. During my travels I often spoke with fellow museum visitors who shared their insights with me, yet sadly did not leave a name. While I cannot thank everyone and will no doubt accidentally forget to mention some names that deserve inclusion, I sincerely appreciate everyone that made this final project possible in some way over the past few years. My research on the Japanese American World War II experience began as an undergraduate at James Madison University when Dr. David Dillard suggested that I study the 100th Infantry and 442nd Regimental Combat Team as part of a research scholarship. It was under his guidance that I not only chose history as a major, but also completed my research and successfully applied to graduate school. Though I am no longer his student, I still seek his advice and appreciate the support he has always offered. One of the most rewarding parts of my research, as both an undergraduate and graduate student, has been the opportunity to interview the Japanese American veterans and former detainees whose lives have shaped the history I am trying to capture. Veterans Joe Ichiuji, Grant Ichikawa, and Norman flcari welcomed me into their homes while I was an undergraduate, and they have continued to provide me with information and encouragement. During the past three years I have also had the privilege of interviewing Fred Hoshiyama, Lawson Sakai, Frank Kitamoto, Masuko and Albert V Oyama, and countless others who have patiently answered my questions and retold their stories so that I might better understand their experiences as well as their hopes for the preservation of their history. Given the importance of the sites and monuments themselves as "resources" for my research, I am indebted to the many volunteers, board members, and employees who offered me their time and expertise. I would particularly like to thank Rosalie Gould of McGehee, Arkansas, and John Ellington of Dermott, Arkansas, who each spent an entire day driving me around McGehee and Jerome Camp respectively, offered me a hot meal, and showed me their personal collections of artifacts and memorabilia related to the camps. I would also like to thank: Jay Cravath at Poston; Jane Beckwith and Steve Koga of Topaz; John Hopper and the Amache Preservation Society at Granada; Alisa Lynch, Tom Leatherman, and Mark Hachtmann of Manzanar; and Emily Momohara, Dr. Robert Sims, and Betty Silfer of Minidoka; Rosalyn Tonai of the National Japanese American Historical Society; Beth Porter of the Eastern California Museum; Rowene Weems of the Homesteader Museum; Jimi Yamaichi of the San Jose Japanese American Museum; Lawson Sakai of the USS HORNET and the Friends and Family of Nisei Veterans; Gerald Yamada of the National Japanese American Memorial Foundation; David Hays of the University of Colorado at Boulder; Jan Johnson of the Seattle Panama Hotel; Reiko Tagami of the Japanese Canadian National Museum; Michelle Kumata and Ken Mochizuki of the Wing Luke Asian Museum; Clarence Moriwaki of the Bainbridge Island Memorial Committee; Amanda Stevens of the 100th Infantry Veterans Club; Pierre Moulin of Bruyeres, France and the Fort DeRussy US Army Museum of Hawaii; Grant Ichikawa, Terry Shima, and Kay Wakatake of the Japanese American Veterans vi Association; Susan Uyemura of the Japanese American Living Legacy Project; Dr. George Hirasaki, Natalie Ong, Sandra Tanamachi, and Donna Cole of the Houston Japanese American Citizens League; Americo Bugliani of Pietrasanta, Italy; and Dr. Arthur Hansen of the Japanese American National Museum and the University of California-Fullerton provided me with information, resources, interviews, and new perspectives on both the history of the Japanese Americans and the development of preservation and education efforts. I am also grateful for archival assistance from Ellen Endo and Gisella Shimabukuro of the Go For Broke National Education Foundation; Sharen Bowen of the University of Wyoming American Heritage Center; Brian Niiya of the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawaii; Matthew Reeder of the University of Hawaii; Dorinda Hartmann of the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research; and Karl Matsushita of the Japanese American National Library. All of the travel and research required a significant amount of financial support, for which I am indebted first and foremost to Rice University, which provided both monetary and academic support during my six years of graduate study. In addition to my standard graduate student financial aid package, the Rice History Department provided me with special travel funds while the Rice Humanities Resource Center provided me with a dissertation writing fellowship. Many thanks are due specifically to Paula Piatt of the Rice History Department, who patiently answered all my questions, filed my receipts and paperwork, and generally took care of all my financial and logistical headaches of the past six years. The Hillcrest Foundation presented me with a generous travel grant that allowed me to visit nine WRA camp sites in seven states, plus sites in Georgia; vii Washington, DC; British Columbia, Canada; France; and Italy. The Center for Military History/National Museum of the US Army also awarded me a fellowship that supported me during my final year of research and writing. In addition, I want to specifically thank Donna Cole of the Houston Japanese American Citizens League and Allyson Nakamoto and Irene Hirano of the Japanese American National Museum who provided me with a scholarship and plane tickets for the Enduring Communities Conference.