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Algal Colonization of Young Arctic Sea Ice in Spring

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Algal Colonization of Young Arctic Sea Ice in Spring ORIGINAL RESEARCH published: 06 June 2018 doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00199 Algal Colonization of Young Arctic Sea Ice in Spring Hanna M. Kauko 1,2*, Lasse M. Olsen 1, Pedro Duarte 1, Ilka Peeken 3, Mats A. Granskog 1, Geir Johnsen 4,5, Mar Fernández-Méndez 1, Alexey K. Pavlov 1, Christopher J. Mundy 6 and Philipp Assmy 1 1 Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway, 2 Trondheim Biological Station, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, 3 Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany, 4 Centre for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems, Trondheim Biological Station, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, 5 University Centre in Svalbard, Longyearbyen, Norway, 6 Centre for Earth Observation Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada The importance of newly formed sea ice in spring is likely to increase with formation of leads in a more dynamic Arctic icescape. We followed the ice algal species succession in young ice (≤0.27 m) in spring at high temporal resolution (sampling every second day for 1 month in May–June 2015) in the Arctic Ocean north of Svalbard. We document Edited by: the early development of the ice algal community based on species abundance and Janne-Markus Rintala, chemotaxonomic marker pigments, and relate the young-ice algal community to the University of Helsinki, Finland communities in the under-ice water column and the surrounding older ice. The seeding Reviewed by: Daria Martynova, source seemed to vary between algal groups. Dinoflagellates were concluded to originate Zoological Institute (RAS), Russia from the water column and diatoms from the surrounding older ice, which emphasizes Klaus Martin Meiners, Australian Antarctic Division, Australia the importance of older ice as a seeding source over deep oceanic regions and in *Correspondence: early spring when algal abundance in the water column is low. In total, 120 taxa (80 Hanna M. Kauko identified to species or genus level) were recorded in the young ice. The protist community [email protected]; developed over the study period from a ciliate, flagellate, and dinoflagellate dominated [email protected].fi community to one dominated by pennate diatoms. Environmental variables such as Specialty section: light were not a strong driver for the community composition, based on statistical This article was submitted to analysis and comparison to the surrounding thicker ice with low light transmission. The Marine Ecosystem Ecology, a section of the journal photoprotective carotenoids to Chl a ratio increased over time to levels found in other Frontiers in Marine Science high-light habitats, which shows that the algae were able to acclimate to the light levels Received: 23 March 2018 of the thin ice. The development into a pennate diatom-dominated community, similar Accepted: 18 May 2018 to the older ice, suggests that successional patterns tend toward ice-associated algae Published: 06 June 2018 Citation: fairly independent of environmental conditions like light availability, season or ice type, and Kauko HM, Olsen LM, Duarte P, that biological traits, including morphological and physiological specialization to the sea Peeken I, Granskog MA, Johnsen G, ice habitat, play an important role in colonization of the sea ice environment. However, Fernández-Méndez M, Pavlov AK, Mundy CJ and Assmy P (2018) Algal recruitment of ice-associated algae could be negatively affected by the ongoing loss of Colonization of Young Arctic Sea Ice in older ice, which acts as a seeding repository. Spring. Front. Mar. Sci. 5:199. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00199 Keywords: sea-ice algae, young ice, Arctic, N-ICE2015, pigments, succession Frontiers in Marine Science | www.frontiersin.org 1 June 2018 | Volume 5 | Article 199 Kauko et al. Algal Colonization of Young Sea Ice INTRODUCTION Both ice melting and freezing seem to trigger increased species exchange between the water column and sea ice (Hardge et al., The Arctic icescape is changing rapidly, which affects the whole 2017). Thus the ice algal community apparently can have many marine system (Meier et al., 2014). Primary production or algal origins, but their relative importance for ice algal recruitment is species dynamics and habitats are altered for example by a still not well-known. shorter ice season (Arrigo and van Dijken, 2015) and likely by Community development can be investigated in light the reduction of multi-year ice (Lange et al., 2017; Olsen et al., of characteristics of the species present and environmental 2017b). The sea ice is also more dynamic and vulnerable to conditions affecting the species. Further, the number of observed wind forcing (Itkin et al., 2017), which can alter the habitat species and how evenly abundance is distributed among the of ice algae. In the Arctic, ice algae contribute to the annual species describe communities (Peet, 1974). Succession refers primary production to a varying degree (<1–60%) depending on to changes in species composition and abundance over time. season and region (Gosselin et al., 1997; Rysgaard and Nielsen, Concepts of species succession (reviewed in McCook, 1994) are 2006; Fernández-Méndez et al., 2015). Based on modeling, an derived from work with plant and rocky bottom communities estimated 7.5% of annual Arctic primary production is attributed and aim to explain the mechanisms that lead to a certain type to ice algae (Dupont, 2012). Ice algae also constitute a highly of community after disturbance of a site, such as modification of concentrated food source early in the growth season (e.g., Søreide the site by early-colonizing species. et al., 2010), and thus are a crucial part of Arctic marine foodwebs. Previous sea ice colonization studies of new and young ice Algae are incorporated into sea ice when it forms through, have been conducted in autumn or winter, or in mesocosm for example, sieving by growing (Syvertsen, 1991; Lund-Hansen experiments (see references above). However, with the ongoing et al., 2017) or rising ice crystals (Reimnitz et al., 1990). Waves, changes in the Arctic icescape, new ice formation during the currents, vertical mixing, and other physical factors enhance main algal growth season will possibly increase and offer new the entrainment: encounter rates between particles and ice habitats for the sympagic communities. Contrary to autumn, crystals are increased by mixing of crystals into water and water light intensity increases during spring, and in spring young ice movement through forming ice (Weissenberger and Grossmann, is a high-light environment compared to older ice with thick 1998) and along irregularities in bottom-ice topography(Krembs snow cover (Kauko et al., 2017), or new ice formed in autumn et al., 2002; Lund-Hansen et al., 2017). Frazil ice, which is or winter. Algae in general face an ever-fluctuating light climate, formed under turbulent conditions (Petrich and Eicken, 2010), altered e.g., by changing cloud and snow covers. To balance was observed to have higher foraminifera abundance than incoming irradiance with the capacity of the photosynthetic congelation ice (Dieckmann et al., 1990). Also active migration apparatus, algae need photoacclimation mechanisms such as of motile species, and growth even under low irradiances adjustment of the cellular pigment pool (reviewed in Brunet contribute to inhabiting the ice and may be important under et al., 2011). In response to increasing irradiance, changes in the calm conditions (Melnikov, 1995; Weissenberger, 1998). In fraction of light-harvesting pigments (LHP) and photoprotective field studies, ice formation has been observed to preferentially carotenoids (PPC) occur. The latter do not channel the absorbed retain larger cells (Gradinger and Ikävalko, 1998; Riedel et al., energy to photosynthesis but dissipate it as heat, thus protecting 2007; Rózanska et al., 2008). Further, exopolymeric substances the photosystems from excess light. The ratios of PPCs to LHP produced by the algae make the cell surfaces sticky and may give information on physiology and light history of cells. In enhance their incorporation into the ice (Meiners et al., 2003; addition, many LHP are specific to certain algal groups and can Riedel et al., 2007). serve as a proxy for taxonomic composition (reviewed in Jeffrey The main sources of algal species in newly formed sea ice are et al., 2011), including those of ice algal communities (Alou-Font cells in the water column (pelagic), the sea floor (benthic), or the et al., 2013). surrounding older ice (sympagic). Some studies have compared Increasing light availability due to sea ice retreat has been sea ice and water column communities during autumn freeze- shown to alter phytoplankton dynamics in the Arctic Ocean up and concluded that the communities differ already during using ocean color remote sensing (Arrigo and van Dijken, 2015), the initial phase of ice formation, suggesting that the seeding but similar large-scale studies are not yet possible for the sea community was present in the water column only intermittently ice habitat due to lack of suitable methods. We have made (Tuschling et al., 2000; Werner et al., 2007; Niemi et al., 2011). an effort to understand physical and biological processes in a Differences in sea ice communities were observed based on high-light, young sea ice environment in a refrozen lead during proximity to land i.e., benthic habitats (Ratkova and Wassmann, Arctic spring. In a previous study, we have shown that the 2005). Olsen et al. (2017b) suggested that multi-year ice can biomass in the young ice in the refrozen lead was similar to act as a seed repository, harboring algal cells from a previous the surrounding older and thicker ice while the light climate growing season that can colonize new ice. In a Greenland fjord was very different, and that algae in the young ice had high the bottom ice algal bloom was formed via spring colonization concentrations of ultraviolet (UV)-protecting pigments (Kauko by phytoplankton, facilitated by increased surface roughness et al., 2017).
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